AFTES Slurry For Slurry Shield

AFTES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING
SLURRY FOR USE IN SLURRY SHIELD TBM
Text prepared by
P. LONGCHAMP (Bouygues Travaux Publics)
with the close collaboration of:
Antony BESQ (LEA) - Fabrice BONIN (JF Tech) - Bruno DEMAY (Vinci) - Michel GUERIN (Calypso)
Alexandre GUILLAUME (MS) - Anne PANTET (ESIP-Poitiers) - Jean-Marie ROGEZ (RATP)
Andr SCHWENZFEIER (CETU)
Other members of Working Group GT 4 (Mechanized Excavation) also contributed to these Recommendations:
Alain AMELOT (SPIE) - Daniel ANDRE (SNCF) - Franois BERTRAND (Chantiers Modernes)
Laurent CHANTRON (CETU) - Didier CUELLAR (SNCF) - Jean-Marc FREDET (Pergolese)
Jean-Luis GIAFFERI (EDF) - Christian MOLINES (Eiffage) - Philippe MONNET (ESIP Poitiers) Laurent NICOLAS (JF Tech) - Paul RENAULT (Razel) and Jean-Franois ROUBINET (Vinci).
The Working Group acknowledges the help of
J. GUILLAUME (Razel) - B. GODINOT ( GTM Construction) - G. PIQUEREAU (CAP)
of the Technical Committee for reviewing and validating the text.
Grateful to D.P. Richards (Parsons Brinckerhoff International) for his translation review
CONTENTS
Pages
Pages
1 FOREWORD PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS - 2 BASIC ROLES AND FUNCTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1 - General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2 Primary functions of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.3 Secondary functions and qualities of slurry - - - - - - - - - - 3 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1 Confinement function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1.1 General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1.2 Filtration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1.3 Stiffening of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1.4 Types of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1.5 Speed of cake formation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2 Transport function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.3 Separation function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.4 Changes to slurry during excavation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.4.1 Physical contamination of slurry by solid load - - - - - 3.4.2 Chemical contamination of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF SLURRY AND THEIR MEASUREMENT
4.1 Rehological properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1.1 - Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1.2 Apparent viscosity (AV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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4.1.3 Plastic viscosity (PV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1.4 Yield point - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1.5 Thixotropy and gels - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.2 Physical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.2.1 Density of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.2.3 - Filterability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.2.4 Quality of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.3 Chemical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.3.1 - Presence of electrolytes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.3.2 pH variation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 - MATERIELS AND PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING SLURRY
QUALITY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.1 Test equipment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.2 - Procedures - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 CHOICE OF MAIN SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS - - - - - - - - 6.1 - Properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.2 Guiding the choice of slurry type - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 COMPONENTS OF SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.1 Composition - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.2 Choice of components - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

SOMMAIRE
Pages
Pages
8 TREATMENT OF EXCESS SLURRY (see Appendix 6) - - - - - 9 SLURRY SCHEDULE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1 - Objectives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2 - Preparation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2.1 Regulatory considerations: environment / health
and safety - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2.2 Site conditions: project geometry, geology,
geotechnics, and landtake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2.3 - Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2.4 Quality of components (water, additives) - - - - - - - - - - 9.2.5 Consumption estimate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.3 Testing implementation and follow-up - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.3.1 Documentary system and checks - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.3.2 Personnel - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.1 Reception of basic products - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.2 Manufacture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - APPENDIX 2: POLYMERS AND BENTONITES FOR
TUNNELLING SLURRIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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2 - Types of polymers used in tunnelling slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1 Starches and amylase derivatives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5 - Polyacrylamides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.6 - Polyacrylates- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 - Bentonite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1 - Structure of bentonite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2 - Bentonite properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.3 - Bentonite for underground works - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - APPENDIX 3: PRINCIPLE FOR EVALUATION OF THE
REHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELLING SLURRIES
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APPENDIX 4: SLURRY PARAMETER TABLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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APPENDIX 5: SLURRY RHEOLOGY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - Definition of rheology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 Rheology of tunnelling slurries - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 - Definitions and terminology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Components models- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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APPENDIX 6: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SLUDGE

TREATMENT PLANT- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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APPENDIX 7: PERMEAMETER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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APPENDIX 8 STANDARD SLURRY-MONITORING

DOCUMENTATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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1 - FOREWORD PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS
lurry is an indispensable aspect in the use of closed face slurry-shield tunnel boring machines (TBMs), for tunnel support and for slurry removal. The AFTES Recommendations on the choice of mechanized tunnelling techniques (TOS No. 157, January/February 2000, paragraphs
4.3.4, 6.3.3, 7.3.3, and 8.5) provide more information on this.
AFTES Working Group GT 4 dealing with mechanized excavation considered it important to publish recommendations on slurry.
The science of slurry for this kind of application is indeed relatively complex. It consists of a combination of experience and theory, as the slurry
itself combines rehological, physical, and chemical phenomena. It also has to take account of another range of complex sciences, the earth
sciences.
Use of slurry for tunnelling can undoubtedly trace its origins back to drilling fluid (mud) for vertical holes. Because of their immense resources and
the economic issues involved, oil companies played a leading role in the development of the technology. Civil engineering thus benefited from a
wealth of prior knowledge, first in respect of deep foundations and drill holes for ground improvement, and then, some years later, for excavation
of tunnels in loose water bearing granular soils.
While the composition of tunnelling slurry is essentially the same as that of the drilling mud used in the oil industry, it does have its own special
requirements. Some examples are given below:
For vertical drilling:

The volume and sectional area of the borehole are relatively small, and any ground instability is localized.
The mud pressure is governed directly by its
density and the hydrostatic head.
Cuttings from the cutterhead are carried up
the hole by laminar flow to prevent erosion of

the borehole walls. This calls for low flow velocities and a mud whose viscosity enables it to
carry the cuttings at that speed.
The borehole generally goes through a series
of sub-horizontal geological strata, but generally crosses them at nearly perpendicular
angles.
For tunnelling:
Support conditions are generally more difficult , with a high risk of instability.
Slurry pressure is produced and controlled
mechanically.
Spoil is carried by a turbulent flow regime
which requires high flow velocity; the suspen-

ded solids (cuttings) carrying capacity is
governed by the dynamics of the turbulence .
Since the geological strata encountered are
sub-horizontal and sub-parallel to the axis of
excavation, ground at the face is often stratified and heterogeneous.
The excavation volumes involved and the
sectional face areas of the excavation are
large with
The basic solids mixing component for
mud/slurry is bentonite, a type of clay with
very special physical and components properties.
Other products such as polymers or deflocculants are being used increasingly. They
complement and improve the basic properties of the slurry. They are therefore addressed
in these Recommendations.
Geological and hydro-geological conditions
and dimensions can vary widely from one
project to another and therefore entail projectspecific problems.
The purpose of these Recommendations is
to provide help for preparing, managing,
and checking the slurries used in conjunction
with closed face slurry-shield TBMs.
2 BASIC ROLES AND

FUNCTIONS
2.1 - GENERAL
Tunnelling slurry fulfils several roles. These
are principally groundwater control and support of the excavated surfaces. Other secondary roles must also be taken into account.
They are dealt with in Section 2.3.
is to impart to the tunnel walls and excavation face the qualities that will hold up the
excavation. To achieve this, its components
and physical properties must:
create an impermeable membrane at the
ground interface (at the face and around the
shield, in the case of overcutting). The
ground interface must be made impermeable so that the slurry can develop adequate confinement pressure, or, more precisely, extra confinement pressure above the
hydrostatic ground water pressure.
create and maintain confinement pressure
gradient at the ground interface sufficient to
ensure stability (see Appendix 3).
It as sometimes been claimed that the use of
slurry and the associated development of
confinement pressure improve the mechanical characteristics of the ground around the
tunnel by adding extra cohesion and/or an
specific state of stress. However, with current
knowledge of the phenomena involved, such
improvement cannot be quantified because
it is so complex, and accordingly it is not taken
into account in tunnel stability calculations.
It is important to remember that these fundamental functions must be maintained in
order to provide excavation face stability
during man access to the cutterhead chamber for hyperbaric maintenance operations.
The conditions ensuring face stability by
confinement are represented on the following Mohr diagram:
In the simplest cases, only the function of

slurry removal is required (hydraulic mucking). Plain water (with no additives) can fulfil
this purpose effectively.
Excavation of the tunnel produces a change

in the state of initial stress around the opening. v is assumed to be constant whereas
h tends to 0. The initial Mohr circle ()
expands until it reaches the critical circle
beyond which stability is no longer guaranteed.
This diagram has been simplified. It corresponds to the stability of an infinitely large
tunnel face with a two dimensional stress
state. In practice, stability calculations involve
three-dimensional stress mechanisms.
2.3 SECONDARY FUNCTIONS AND QUALITIES OF

SLURRY
Although referred to as secondary here,
these functions and qualities are very important and can be decisive in some cases.
Such cases include:
Mucking: the viscosity of the moving slurry
must enable it to be pumped at high velocity
in the pipes of the slurry circuit.
Lubrication: the slurry must limit wear of
plant (cutting tools, pipes, valves, pumps,
etc.) by reducing plant/slurry friction.
Encapsulation of muck: The slurry must
reduce hydration of the muck in order to limit
its propensity to stick and to flocculate (this is
particularly important when excavating in
silty-clayed materials with a water content
below the plastic limit).
Inertness at treatment plant: the slurry
must be designed to facilitate its treatment,
i.e. separation of slurry from the muck it
conveys.
Environmental inertness: water, muck, and
residual slurry must be acceptable in terms of
environmental regulations.
In the majority of cases, however, the conditions under which slurries are used are less
favourable and are associated with a combination of:
the presence of unstable ground
Initial state
moderate to high in-situ permeability
Characteristic curve of ground (C, )

Case of excavation without confinement (unstable)
Critical circle corresponding to minimum confinement pressure ensuring stability (without
safety margin and without water pressure)
Shear stress
Normal stress
h Horizontal normal stress
v Vertical normal stress
c Stress resulting from confinement pressure (without hydrostatic pressure)
high ground water pressure, which aggravates the above two difficulties.
A slurry consisting of water, bentonite, and
possibly some special additives must then be
designed to overcome these difficulties.
2.2 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

OF SLURRY
The fundamental function of tunnelling slurry

3 - BASIC PRINCIPLES
FOR USING SLURRY
3.1 CONFINEMENT
FUNCTION
3.1.1 General
Slurry penetrates the ground at the face and
along the tunnel walls (especially in the case
of overcutting).
In accordance with the permeability of the
ground and its intrinsic properties, the
slurrys penetration into the ground will gradually slow down, then stop, as a result of
two interdependent, simultaneous processes: filtration (pressure filtration) and an
increase in the stiffness of the slurry.
3.1.2 Filtration
The pressure in the cutterhead chamber
forces the slurry through the soil at the tunnel
face and walls and into the ground. As it permeates the ground, the liquid and solid components of the slurry are separated, gradually leaving the solids at or near the
surface,
The filtered solids themselves enhance the
filtering process until the barrier is impermeable. When the face is excavated, the
filter is partially or totally destroyed by each
cutting tool, but the process resumes immediately once the tool has passed.
Impregnation cake: in moderately to

highly permeable ground of varying porosity,
the slurry penetrates relatively deeply into
the pores in the ground before it stops and
sets. It is this impregnation that constitutes
the impermeable interface. This zone can
vary between several tens of centimetres and
several metres thick.
3.4 CHANGES TO SLURRY

DURING EXCAVATION
As commented above in 3.1.2, the filter

cake at the tunnel face is partially or totally
destroyed with each sweep of a cutting tool,
but re-forms behind it immediately.
A variety of external contaminates blend into

the slurry as excavation proceeds, and can
modify its initial characteristics.
Rheograms (cf. Section 4.1) show that the

yield point of the slurry after agitation is
lower than its initial value.
3.4.1 Physical contamination of

slurry by solid load
It therefore takes some time period before

the slurry returns to its initial consistency.
This time should be as short as possible in
order to reinstate watertightness to its full
value. It is characterized by the 0-10 min.
gel strength test (cf. 4.1.5).
Slurry treatment plants cannot filter out the

finest soil particles. The concentration of
external contaminates particles in the recycled slurry therefore increases with continued
use of the slurry and the density of the slurry
gradually increases, generally to the detriment of its properties (yield point, filtrate,
etc.) (cf. 4.2).
3.2 TRANSPORT
FUNCTION
The apparent viscosity of the slurry (cf. 4.1.2)
must be as low as possible for the hydraulic
mucking system. One of the properties of
Bingham fluids is that above the yield point,
the apparent viscosity decreases with increased agitation. Sufficiently intense agitation is
obtained by creating a turbulent flow regime
in the slurry pipes.
3.3 SEPARATION
FUNCTION
3.1.3 Stiffening of slurry
Use of slurry to excavate and support a tunnel

and to remove excavation spoil necessarily
implies that the slurry is treated in order to:
Bentonite slurry is a non Newtonian (ref.

chapter 4). Therefore, as a consequence of
its reduction in flow velocity, it gradually stiffens and sets.
Setting is directly linked the conventional
yield point or yield value of the slurry.
3.1.4 Types of cake

There are two types of cake:
Membrane cake: this is obtained in ground
of low permeability by using a relatively stiff
slurry. The slurry does not penetrate very far
into the ground, and creates only surface
imperrmeabilization of the ground interface.
It will be several millimetres thick.
The basic operation of a slurry separation

and treatment plant is described in
Appendix 6.
3.1.5 Speed of cake formation
This continuing process results in creation of

a filter cake of varying thickness, depending
on the permeability of the ground and the
characteristics of the slurry.
The filtration effect of slurry penetrating into

the ground immediately reduces the velocity
of slurry flow into the ground.
required for tunnel support. A trade-off must

therefore be found to meet the opposing
requirements of ground support and solids
separation.
separate solid spoil from the slurry so that

the slurry can be recycled into the mucking
circuit
separate in excess slurry as new slurry is
added
treat in excess slurry for disposal.
The first two of these operations are carried
out in real time, and the separation rates are
governed by the instantaneous penetration
rate of the TBM. Slurry in excess can be treated as a background task, and is governed by
the mean advance rate (limited to a certain
time interval), taking account of shutdowns,
lining erection, etc.
The components and physical characteristics
of a slurry must take into account this requirement for separation. These characteristics
may be inconsistent with the characteristics
It then becomes necessary to regenerate the

slurry by adding fresh slurry.
3.4.2 Chemical contamination of

slurry
Minerals or pollutants in the soil and/or
groundwater can also modify the characteristics of the slurry. They should therefore be
taken into account when the slurry components are chosen (cf. section 4.3).
Attention should also be paid to the possibility of contamination of the slurry by cement
and other chemical products (silicates etc.)
used for ground improvement prior to tunnel
excavation.
4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF
SLURRY AND THEIR MEASUREMENT
The slurry used for closed face shield TBMs is
a water-based fluid with a variety of solids
added to form a colloidal suspension. The
solid components are essentially:
mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite)
organic colloids (chiefly polymers).
There are hundreds of branded products
throughout the world described as bentonites or polymers. This can lead to considerable confusion, for although they may be
similar, they often have very different physicochemical, rehological, or filtration properties.

Apparent viscosity is the relationship between
the shear stress and the velocity gradient.
Consequently it is not a constant quantity:
4.1.1 - Introduction
muck removal
Velocity gradient
slurry preparation and treatment performance.
Apparent viscosity
Bingham fluid
Apparent viscosity
stabilization of the tunnel face and control

of ground water
Plastic viscosity concerns non-Newtonian

fluids and characterizes Bingham fluids. It
corresponds to the gradient of the linear part
of the rheogram, as shown
Newtonian fluid
Shear stress
Rheology is the science devoted to the study

of deformations and flow of matter under the
effects of internal and external stresses. In
rehological terms, tunnelling slurries are defined by a number of characteristics whose
measurement and verification are of the
greatest importance since they govern:
4.1.3 Plastic viscosity (PV)
Shear stress
4.1 REHOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES
Refer to Appendix 5 (Slurry rheology) for

more information.
Velocity gradient
Slurry
4.1.2 Apparent viscosity (AV)
Apparent viscosity
Velocity gradient
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not

often used. Since viscosity is determined by
the shear
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not
often used. Since viscosity is determined by
the shear forces at play between layers of
liquid, it has become customary to use a graphic representation of the shear stress versus velocity gradient; commonly called a
rheogram. Viscosity is no longer explicitly
discussed.
Shear stress
Shear stress
Apparent viscosity
Slurry
The apparent viscosity of slurry is its real viscosity. However, since these kinds of fluids
are non-Newtonian, their viscosity depends
on their flow velocity. Their viscosity is high
for low velocities (during filtration into the
ground, in storage tanks), but conversely, is
low for high velocities (in muck pipes, in
hydrocyclones), as can be seen from the following graphs:
Velocity gradient
Rheogram: solid lines

Apparent viscosity: dotted lines
Apparent viscosity is expressed in mPas
these days, and formerly in centipoise (cP).
1 mPa.s = 1 cP
In the case of tunnelling slurries, the plastic

viscosity is deemed to be constant, as a first
approximation. It is determined by extrapolating the linear part of the rheogram (as
shown above). This physical quantity is
important for calculation of pressure losses in
the slurry pipes. It depends above all on the
solids content of the slurry and the nature of
those solids.
Plastic viscosity is also expressed in mPa.s
(or cP).
Slurry
Newtonian fluid
The yield point determines the ability of a

slurry to set in the ground. When slurry
penetrates into the ground around a tunnel,
since its flow velocity decreases, shear
stresses become insufficient to allow it to
flow further, and it sets.
Apparent viscosity
Apparent viscosity
4.1.4 Yield point
Velocity gradient
Velocity gradient
Contrary to a Newtonian fluid, a Bingham

fluid requires a certain minimum shear stress
to be able to flow; it behaves like a viscoelastic fluid. At stresses below this yield

point, and since its viscosity is infinite, it
behaves like a solid. The actual yield point
depends on initial conditions and increases
with time at rest. In slurry-tunnelling practice,
the convention is to use a value determined
from the intersection on the rheogram of the
straight line obtained with the Fann rheometer and the vertical scale of co-ordinates.
This extrapolation is called the Yield Value
(cf. below).
and 10-min. gel strengths (refer to the

Thixotropy entry in the glossary).
Bentonite has this thixotropic behaviour.
Other commonly used additives such as
water-soluble polymers contribute other properties (viscosity, filtrate reduction, electrolytic stability, etc.).
The rheogram below illustrates the concepts
described above.
4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4.2.1 Density of slurry
Yield point
Apparent viscosity
Shear stress
Yield value
Velocity gradient
The yield point of a tunnelling slurry is associated with the physico-chemical reactions
between the active particles of the suspension. It also depends on the content of such
active particles. However, increasing the density and viscosity of a slurry by adding inert
particles does not necessarily result in an
increase in the yield point; on the contrary, it
can lower it appreciably. Tunnelling experience shows that since the soil can contain
both inert particles and active particles (clay),
slurry viscosity can also increase with density
in some cases.
Yield point (YP) is generally expressed in
Pascals (Pa) or in pounds per hundred square
feet (lb/ 100 ft 2).
The conversion is 1 Pa = 2.084 lb/100 ft 2.
4.1.5 Thixotropy and gels

An interesting property of some fluids or colloidal suspensions such as bentonite slurries
is that at rest they create a structure which
increases the stiffness of the fluid, but which
can be destroyed by agitation. Thixotropy
refers to the reversibility of this phenomenon. The process creating the structure is not
immediate, however. As stated in paragraph
3.1.5, the effective yield point changes with
the slurrys time at rest, which allows for gradual restructuring of the slurry.
Any increase in the stiffness of the slurry is
assessed by measuring gel formation times.
In practice, thixotropy represents the ability
of the slurry to reform a cake behind the cutting tools more or less quickly. It is quantified
in the laboratory by measuring the 10-sec.
Measurement of the density of a desanded

slurry serves chiefly to check the fines
content of the slurry being recycled to the
TBM. Monitoring its change can also give
information on the face conditions since:
an increase in the clay or marl content of
the slurry during excavation indicates that
solids from the ground are remaining in the
slurry, increasing its density (this can be
beneficial or detrimental to the yield value,
depending on conditions).
a decrease in the clay or marl content not
subsequent to addition of water (dilution)
indicates that groundwater is entering the
slurry, or that there is a chemical imbalance
(action of silicates, for instance, which cause
micro-foaming of the slurry).
4.2.2 Sand content (particles >

80 m)
The sand content of a slurry depends upon
the performance of the separation plant
(cyclone split ratio). Any sand remaining in

the slurry directly affects the permeability of
the cake and its stability on the ground
interface.
4.2.3 - Filterability
Filterability is the ability of a slurry to impermeabilize the ground interface by forming a
filter cake. It depends on the quality and
quantity of the components making up the
slurry.
Filterability is generally inversely related to
slurry density.
4.2.4 Quality of cake

Filter cake results from deposition of suspended solid materials on the tunnel face and
walls as the slurry penetrates into the
ground. The intrinsic qualities of a cake are
determined by its thickness and its ability to
deform without breaking. They are representative of its stability of the ground interface
and of its resistance to mechanical and
hydraulic effects induced by excavation.
4.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

4.3.1 - Presence of electrolytes
The intentional or unintentional addition of
electrolytes such as Ca++, Mg+, K+, Cl-, and
SO4- ions (mix water, ground water, mineral
content of the ground, grouted areas, etc.)
can considerably modify the physical and
rehological properties of slurry. Exchange of
ions modify the initial ionic environment of

the clay-layers and can produce coagulation
and flocculation of the suspension. These
ions modify ion balances, resulting in phase
separation due to liberation of free-water
molecules initially attached to clay platelets
or polymer chains: this results in flocculation.
Special attention must be paid to the chemical composition of water (lime-bearing water,
sea water, etc.) throughout the excavation
process.
4.3.2 pH variation
A change to the pH of the slurry also affects
its ion balances and physico-chemical properties. Beyond a pH range from 8 to 10,
there is a significant risk of poor slurry performance in both acid environments (in contact
with organic matter, for instance) and in basic
environments (in contact with cement, for
instance).
5 - MATERIELS AND
PROCEDURES FOR
MEASURING SLURRY
QUALITY
Testing chemical properties

pH: indicator strips, pH meter
Conductivity: conductivity meter
Specific surface (activity): methylene
blue value
electrolyte content
5.2 - PROCEDURES
Most slurry tests required already have standardized test procedures, principally developed by the oil industry (cf. American
Petroleum Institute: section 13),
("Recommended Practice Standard
Procedure for Field Testing Water Based
Drilling Fluids"), and also the ISO 13500 standard. Other test equipment has its own specific test method pertaining to applications in
other fields.
The methylene blue value is obtained using a
standardized test
(French standard NF P18-592).
6 - CHOICE OF MAIN
SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS
5.1 TEST EQUIPMENT
6.1 - PROPERTIES
Many types of equipment can be used for

measuring the different physical, chemical,
and rehological parameters of slurries. We
have selected only the following equipment
for continuous measurement.
When tunnelling using a closed face slurry

shield TBM, the main characteristics of the
slurry must be determined in accordance
with:
the possible presence of a groundwater,
together with its chemical properties,
Marsh funnel viscometer (not very meaningful in this field)
the risks identified (geological, environmental hazards, etc.).
Possibly, a rheometer with imposed velocity gradient (Rhomat or similar)

- It should be pointed out that many automatic viscometers found on tunnelling projects
are derived from the geometry of the Fann
rheometer and can thus be used to determine the characteristic rehological parameters of slurry on a quasi-continuous basis
by measuring values at 600 and 300 rpm.
Testing physical properties
Density
The density of a tunnelling slurry depends on
its components, on physical contamination
by fines from the ground that are recycled
through the slurry circuit, and on regeneration by fresh slurry and additives.
It has an effect on viscosity and therefore on
pressure losses in the slurry circuit.
The thickness and permeability of the cake
increase with greater density, which is therefore detrimental to the resistance of membranes and the impermeability of the tunnel
walls.
Other characteristics:
Other characteristics (pH, polymer or soluble
salt types and contents, etc.) have to be identified for better characterization of a slurry
and to meet environmental requirements:
ground/slurry interaction during excavation
(contaminated sites and grouted areas)
recycling in the slurry circuit,
disposal of liquid waste.
For guidance, Appendix 4 gives a table showing representative values for slurry parameters for different ground permeabilities.
6.2 GUIDING THE CHOICE

OF SLURRY TYPE
the type of ground to be excavated,
Testing rehological properties: measurement of AV, PV, YP, gels
Fann rheometer
the thickness of the cake. It will sometimes

limit hydration of geological strata containing clay or evaporite.
Among the most important criteria for defining a slurry are the following:
Rehological parameters, essentially yield
point (YP) and plastic viscosity (PV)
The number of parameters to be taken into

account when choosing a slurry type is so
great that these Recommendations cannot
define an exhaustive, ready-made procedure. Further difficulty arises in the case of
mixed faces (relative to variation in geology
over short distances).
From the yield point and plastic viscosity can

be defined:
For guidance and training, an elementary

classification of ground types on the basis of
their permeability is given below, with suggestions for the appropriate slurry types:
the conditions of impregnation of the

ground interface (formation of cake),
Highly permeable ground with granular or

intensely fractured structure.
the conditions of fluid flow and solid separation in the slurry circuit and treatment
plant,
Solution: bentonite slurry with rheology suitable for high porosity; in particular, appropriate yield value, 0/10-min. gel strengths,
filtrate.
Density: Baroid mud balance, densimeter
Methods for calculating these parameters

are presented in Appendix 3.
Sand content kit (sieve analysis apparatus)
Filtration properties
Filtration and cake: API fluid-loss-test filter

press and, for a more realistic approach to
interface problems, a large permeameter (cf.
Appendix 7).
Filtration properties govern cake formation.

The cake must be sufficiently impermeable,
strong and flexible (deformable) to guarantee there will be a pressure gradient across
Silty to sandy semi-permeable ground.

Solution: bentonite slurry (pure or with additive) with low filtrate and suitable rheology
(as per above).
Impermeable ground with no particular
reactivity or sensitivity to water.

Solution: water or bentonite slurry and/or
polymer.
- water-soluble polymers (cf. Appendix 2)
Impermeable, reactive ground.
- special organic products (defoaming

agents, antifriction agents, etc.).
To find the right type, it is necessary to:
Chemical additives:
have perfect knowledge of the mineralogical composition of the ground,
Various chemical additives such as KCl,

sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate,
etc. for modifying the initial properties of
clayey colloids by ion exchange.
analyze the physical and chemical interactions of the associated minerals and organic
matter.
This makes it possible to quickly define the
best system for inhibiting hydration of clay
and therefore limiting the problems entailed
in swelling, dispersion, and sticking.
The following cases can arise:
Ground with high dispersion potential
(containing illite or kaolinite, for instance):
Materials dispersing in the slurry rapidly and
in large quantities.
Solution: bentonite slurry and/or polymer
(phpa, CMC, acrylic plasticizer or phosphates, etc.)
Swelling or flowing ground (smectite,
fibrous clay, for instance):
Materials very sensitive to hydration by slurry,
or of plastic consistency.
Solution: inhibited polymer slurry, KCl, Ca++
type, etc.
Overconsolidated ground (shale, argillite,
for instance):
Materials whose structure is often foliated,
making the ground mass somewhat fragile.
Solution: bentonite slurry with little filtrate
and appropriate rehological parameters.
Ground containing evaporites (gypsum or
anhydrite, various salts, etc.:)
Solution: water, bentonite slurry and/or polymer slurry treated with sodium carbonate; in
some cases a Ca++ salt slurry can be used.
7 COMPONENTS OF
SLURRY
7.1 COMPOSITION
Tunnelling slurry is made up of components
of four different categories:
Mix water:
The quality and temperature of the mix
water have a significant effect on the properties of the components.
Active (mostly) bentonite type clays.
Organic and chemical additives:
Organic additives are divided into two
categories:
Groundwater and solids from the ground.

Active clays and additives are chosen in
accordance with the effect desired:
throughout the world described as bentonites or polymers. This can lead to considerable confusion, for although they may be
similar, they often have very different physico-chemical, rehological, or filtration properties.
The choice of the polymers or bentonites to
be used will depend on economic considerations, the specific performance of each product, the circumstances in which it will be
used, and the following requisite functions:
Viscosity level,
Viscosity improvers and filtrate reducers:

bentonites, cellulosic polymers, acrylate
polymers / acrylamides.
Sensitivity to salts, to pH, to bacterial or

enzymatic degradation,
Dispersing agent and plasticizers: lowmolecular-weight sodium-acrylate polymers,

phosphates.
Decrease of filtrate,
Clay stabilizers: cellulosic polymers and

acrylate polymers / acrylamides of high
molecular weight, salts.
Ease of use,
pH corrector: sodium carbonate and bicarbonate

It is important to realize that the way the
slurry is prepared (order of addition of components, thoroughness of mixing, etc.)
affects the performance of the components
in the resulting mix. Any undesirable effects
of the components should also be taken into
account. These might include, for example,
foaming or micro-bubbling of detergenttype surface-active agents.
Tunnelling slurries are complex products with
a range of common properties that are highly
sensitive to external factors. Mix-design testing must be carried out, for their properties
are generally not very reproducible and
depend on geological and hydrogeological
conditions.
In most cases it is recommended that a special programme for studies into tunnelling
slurries be carried out in order to allow the
mix-design is defined. This programme
should be validated and, as necessary, corrected during the works, in connection with
ongoing technical management of the
slurry. A procedure for this is proposed in
Chapter 9.
Capacity to stabilize clays,

Length of use,
etc.
In addition to the specific test methodologies of each contractor, there is a standardized method for testing the efficacy of certain
additives in different types of slurry:
Recommended Practice Standard
Procedure for Laboratory Testing Drilling
Fluids - API RP 13I.
It should be remembered that adding bentonite or polymer to a tunnelling slurry often
has a dual effect:
a principal effect: increased viscosity, reduced filtrate, etc.
one or more secondary effects: inhibition of
swelling or dispersion of clays, increased viscosity, etc.
8 TREATMENT OF EXCESS
SLURRY (SEE APPENDIX 6)
7.2 CHOICE OF
COMPONENTS
To be comprehensive, the selection of a

slurry system should consider the full lifecycle of the slurry. This will cover its manufacture, its maintenance in accordance with the
expected physical or chemical contamination, and its disposal. It is sometimes possible
to give an economic value to in excess slurry:
mortars or grouts for ground improvement
or tunnel backgrouting, agricultural fertilizers, ground impermeabilization, etc.
Tunnelling slurries are generally colloidal suspensions containing two types of colloids:
In general terms, disposing of or treating in

excess slurry involves considerable cost for a
project; Attention should therefore paid to:
Mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite),

Organic colloids (chiefly polymers).
Taking account of the difficulties when studying the choice of slurry,
There are hundreds of branded products
Minimizing the volume to be wasted

Limiting the cost of treatment to the exact
need,
Making provision for the site footprints
necessary for treatment plant in the project
planning stage.
Slurries are stable colloidal suspensions
of particles that do not easily settle out
naturally.
It is generally necessary to use physico-chemical treatments to flocculate them and clarify the water extracted from them.
A variety of standard tests should be performed beforehand to optimize the quality of
treatment required prior to industrial-scale
testing.
be required. The geological report should

specify the physical, chemical, and mineralogical nature of the ground and ground water
that will be encountered, including any particular or localized features. It is also useful to
include on a longitudinal geological profile
the prior ground improvement carried out,
with indication of the products used. The
profile should specify and demarcate the
succession of different formations. This data
will serve to identify the sequence of different slurries best adapted to the individual
circumstances.
9.3 TESTING IMPLEMENTATION AND FOLLOW-UP
The schedule should also integrate other

conditions concerning the project, particularly the landtake likely to be required for the
slurry separation and treatment plant.
9.3.1 Documentary system and

checks
9 SLURRY SCHEDULE
9.2.3 - Plant
9.1 - OBJECTIVES
The correct choice and definition of plant

(TBM and treatment plant) are vital for the
success of a project.
The slurry schedule is a document serving to

guide the determination of slurry types and
of means of testing them to ensure they
meet the technical and economic requirements of the project. Its purpose is to propose the system that best meets the requirements.From natural slurry to the most
complex chemical formulations, there are
enormous numbers of possibilities which
should, in principle, provide a solution perfectly suited to every project.
9.2 - PREPARATION
In addition to what is presented in the preceding chapters, the slurry schedule should
include a detailed study of what follows.
9.2.1 Regulatory considerations:

environment / health and safety
In France, the use, storage, and disposal of
spoil and slurry are governed by Law No. 923 of 3/1/92 on water and waste. The Law
demands that potential users carefully study
their project in respect of slurry and spoil
starting at the beginning of the project.
Together with equipment for treating waste,
the slurry schedule should result in a reduction in the volume of waste to be dumped
and in optimization of the environmental
quality of that waste.
9.2.2 Site conditions: project geometry, geology, geotechnics, and

landtake
The slurry schedule should consider the geometry, geology, and environment of the project, and any ground improvement that may
The slurry schedule should address the

compatibility of plant, ground, and spoil. It
should consider the possibility of frequent
water inflow which would modify the initial
slurry concentrations. It should contain considerations relating to hyperbaric work in the
cutterhead chamber.
By considering these factors and the expected TBM advance rates, the slurry preparation and treatment plant capacity should be
correctly sized.
9.2.4 Quality of components

(water, additives)
The specifications drawn up the suppliers of
bentonite and additives should define the
means of delivery, the necessary reserve supplies, and the quantities of consumables
(water, main additives).
9.2.5 Consumption estimate

Using the factors described above, it will be
possible to estimate the quantities required
and the cost price of the different solutions
considered (total cost, per cubic metre of
slurry, per cubic metre of excavation).
The quantities of different materials expected to be consumed are estimated by considering the following volumes:
Volume of purges of the slurry circuit,
Volume lost to the surrounding ground,
Volume lost with solid spoil,
Volume of in excess slurry.
Tests should be carried out to establish a system for checking the required instructions
and specifications. These tests will concern:
Slurry types and components,
Requisite characteristics. The checks are
carried out by means of standardized tests
and/or other measuring systems (e.g. realtime logging system).
Treatment of waste.
The checks should be described in procedures specific to each project:

Checks of incoming products delivered to
the site (quantity and quality); the delivery
checks will be associated with sampling, as
required.
Ongoing checks should be carried out for
at least every lining ring, and should compare the values at the start of the circuit and
after desanding in order to quantify the physical and chemical contamination of the
slurry.
Consumption of different products (water,
bentonite, additives, etc.) should be monitored daily.
The results of these checks should be recorded on standardized project data sheets
(Appendix 8).
For formalization of this data, the documentary system will therefore comprise at least:
a set of procedures,
a shift report (or daily report) serving to
draw up a report on the follow-up of effective parameters and consumptions.
an executive report at the end of the
project.
9.3.2 Personnel
Consideration must be given to the technical
qualification of the personnel, and where
necessary the needs for special training on
the techniques involved should be defined.
The workforce and supervisors must have
sufficient knowledge to be at ease with:
technical aspects of tunnelling slurries and
their treatment,
the effect of these aspects on the environment and health and safety (manufacturers
issue technical and safety data together with
advisory notices on use of their products).

10 USING SLURRY
10.2 MANUFACTURE
must therefore have equipment specifically

for these operations.
10.1 RECEPTION OF BASIC

PRODUCTS
Usually, mother slurries with high bentonite contents (60 to 80 kg/m3) are produced
in order to reduce the volumes to be stored.
This mother slurry is subsequently diluted
with water to achieve the required density
just before it is injected into the slurry circuit.
This dilution and injection must be carried
out very carefully, particularly as regards
compliance with the concentrations and quality of the mix. The slurry treatment station
Bentonite does not hydrate easily and the

efficiency of and thoroughness hydration
depends very much on the mixing energy
expended. It requires a high-turbulence
mixer followed by a minimum period of
maturing (12 to 24 hours).
Bentonite is a natural product. If necessary,

its rehological characteristics should be checked when it is delivered to the site.
The quality of the mixing water used should
be analyzed at the basic formulation stage.
Incorporation of additives also requires special equipment for storage, handling, dilution
(where applicable), and batching.
A P P E N D I X 1 : G L O S S A RY
Activity of clay: The activity of clay is representative of ion charge that gives it the ability
to swell due to adsorption.
Adsorption: Fixing of water molecules on
the surface of elementary soil particles (clay
platelet for example).
Apparent viscosity (AV): Ratio of the shear
stress to the velocity gradient. The unit of
measurement is the pascal second (or millipascal second). With the Fann rheometer, it
is calculated by testing at 600 rpm and dividing the result by 2. The unit of measurement is the millipascal second (1 millipascal
second = 1 centipoise (former unit)).
Bentonite: Cf. Appendix 2, Chapter 3.
Bingham fluid: Fluid requiring exertion of a
minimum stress to set it in movement. The
Yield Value determines the value of that
stress.
Cake: In laboratory testing, the thickness of
a layer of solid materials deposited on filter
paper in the filtrate measurement test (filtercake); the unit is the millimetre. For the meaning in the context of excavation, refer to the
definitions in Chapters 3.1.2 and 3.1.4 .
Coagulants: Products that neutralize or
invert surface charges of suspended matter:
ferric chloride, lime, aluminium sulphate, etc.
Density: Ratio of the mass of a given
volume of one body to the mass of the same
volume of a reference body, under conditions which must be specified for both
bodies (water at 4C for liquids). It is expressed as a dimensionless number.
Fann rheometer: A.P.I standardized apparatus for applying shear to a fluid by means
of an immersed cylinder rotating at a controlled speed and for determining the response
of the fluid by measuring the stress applied
to a concentric cylinder left free to turn. The
preset speed of rotation are 3, 6, 100, 200,
300, and 600 rpm. Stress is read off in
lbs/100 Square feet. Simple calculation
methods enable the data obtained to be
10
used to determine the values of different

rehological parameters (apparent viscosity,
plastic viscosity, yield point)
Filter press: A filter press consists of a
series of hollow trays clamped between a
mobile plate and a fixed plate by a hydraulic
cylinder. The edges of the chambers thus
created are covered with filter cloth. Slurry is
pumped into the chambers, generally from
the centre of the trays, and the filtrate is collected in a channel at the side.
Filtrate test: Laboratory test characterizing
the ability of a slurry to retain water. Filtrate
measurement is expressed as the quantity of
fluid collected in a test tube after 30 minutes
at a pressure of 7 bars exerted by an apparatus known as the filter press. The unit of measurement is the millilitre. All things being
equal, the volume of filtrate is proportional
to the area of filtration, to the pressure, and
to the square root of the test duration.
Flocculants: Products with inter-particle
action due to bridging. They include highmolecular-weight polymers, bentonite, etc.
Fluid: See Appendix 5, Chapter 3.
Gradient or velocity (or shear velocity):
See Appendix 5, Chapter 3.
Marsh viscosity (MV): Laboratory test
where the time in seconds for 946 ml of slurry
to flow through a 4.75 mm nozzle
(water = 26s). The reading obtained depends
on YP, PV, thixotropy, and density.
Consquently this measurement is hardly
representative of the characteristics of a
slurry.
Newtonian fluid: Fluid for which the shear
stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate.
pH: Expresses the acidity or alkalinity of an
aqueous solution. The pH value of pure
water is 7. The products used in tunnelling
slurry achieve their optimum yield when the
colloidal state of the slurry is in the pH range
from 8 to 10.
Plastic viscosity (PV): See Article 4.1.3.

With the Fann rheometer, plastic viscosity is
calculated by testing at 600 rpm and reducing from the reading the reading taken at
300 rpm. , The unit of measurement is the
millipascal second (1 millipascal second =
1 centipoise (former unit)).
Polymers: See Appendix 2, Chapter 2.
Rheogram: Graphic representation of the
behaviour of a fluid subject to shear. Shear
stress is plotted against the velocity gradient.
Rheology: Branch of mechanics which studies the deformation of materials or their
flow under stress (see Appendix 5).
Shear stress: Force exerted on a surface by
a fluid and causing shear (refer also to
Appendix 5, Chapter 3).
Slurry: Also known as drilling mud/fluid.
Colloidal clay suspension, with or without
water-soluble polymers and/or salts to
enhance its original characteristics, that has
desirable rehological and filtration properties
and possibly the ability to stabilize ground to
be excavated.
Stiffness: See Article 4.1.4.
Thixotropy: Reversible phenomenon of
certain colloidal suspensions whereby they
fluidify when agitated and gel when left to
rest. Thixotropy can be estimated from the
evolution of gelling over time. With the Fann
rheometer, gels are measured by testing at
no more than 3 rpm after a waiting period of
10 sec. (gel 0) and 10 min. (gel 10). The unit
of measurement is lbs / 100ft
Yield point: See Article 4.1.4.
Yield value (YV): An extrapolated yieldpoint value (see Article 4.1.4) derived from a
Fann rheometer test. Calculated by testing
at 300 rpm and deducting from the reading
the reading for the plastic viscosity, PV. The
unit of measurement is the lb/100 Square
feet. To convert to Pa, divide by 2.
Yield point (YP): See Yield value

APPENDIX 2:
P O LY M E R S A N D B E N T O N I T E S F O R T U N N E L L I N G S L U R R I E S
This appendix presents the main types of polymers used for underground works.
1- GENERAL
Polymer: chemical compound obtained by
polymerizing molecules of a given compound known as a monomer.
Polymers often have high molecular weights
(high polymers) and are formed by chains
repeating:
the same unit:
-A-A-A-A-A
or several units:
(-A-B-A-B-A-B)n
or linear units with branches:
B-B
|
(-A-B-A-B-A-A-B-A-B)n
|
A
The degree of polymerization ( n ) refers to
the number of repetitions of the basic unit.
The molecular weight - which depends on
the degree of polymerisation, the degree of
substitution, and the distribution of substitution govern the physical and chemical properties of a polymer, Organic polymers,
which are the most common products on the
market, can be pure or mixed with each
other or with inorganic products such as clay,
salts, carbonates, etc.
2 - TYPES OF POLYMERS
USED IN TUNNELLING
SLURRY
They consist of amylose and amylopectin.

They are hydrolyzed by heat to increase
their water solubility.
They are sensitive to fermentation and are
not greatly used other than as slurry filtrate
reducers.
Etherification gives them a better level of
viscosity.
2.2 - GUAR GUM

Guar gum is an extract of the guar seed. It is
often referred to as a natural polymer or
polysaccharide and is used as a viscosity
improver. Being non-ionic, it exhibits good
tolerance to mono-valent salts such as NaCl,
KCl, etc. or divalent salts like CaCl2, etc.
However, it is sensitive to bacterial attack, to
enzymes, to oxidation, and to high pH
values. It is difficult to screen. It can be crosslinked to form a stiff jelly by creating bridges
between the different polymer chains.
2.3 - XANTHAN
Xanthan is obtained from bacterial fermentation of sugar by-products. It is often referred
to as a bipolymer, and is used as a viscosity
improver. Its pseudo-plastic naturehigh viscosity at low shear rates and low viscosity at
high shear ratesis sought after in slurries
with low bentonite contents. Despite its anionic nature, it exhibits good resistance to salts.
2.4 CELLULOSE ETHERS
There are four types of water-soluble polymers:
Cellulose ethers are extracted from cellulose.

Depending on the derivation process, they
may be anionic (CMC, PAC) or non-ionic
(HEC). CMCs are widely used as viscosity
improvers and filtrate reducers.
Bacterial polymers: xanthan, scleroglucane
CMCs are characterized by:
Natural polymers: starches, guars
Their molecular weight: The higher their

molecular weight, the more viscous the
aqueous solutions made with them will be.
Synthetic polymers: acrylamides, acrylates

Semi-synthetic polymers: cellulose ethers,
modified starches and guars
2.1 STARCHES AND AMYLASE

DERIVATIVES
There are various natural starches: potato,
corn, wheat, rice starch, etc. and they have
characteristics as follows:
Their degree of substitution (or the number

of carboxyl groups attached to the molecule
(DS= 0.7 1.2 ): This characteristic gives
CMCs solubility and resistance to salts. If
substitution is more regular, as in the case of
PACs, clay stabilization is increased by reducing the clay hydration and, consequently,
their dispersion and swelling.
Their degree of purity, i.e. their active-matter content: the other products they contain
are salts, which are by-products of the reaction (degree of purity = 50 to 99%).
Cellulose ethers are not stable under bacterial or enzyme attack.
2.5 - POLYACRYLAMIDES
Polyacrylamides are derivative of acrylamide.
A whole series of derivatives has been prepared from the basic structure by copolymerisation:
Either with acid compounds like acrylic
acid, giving anionic copolymers: phpa.
Or with amine-type compounds, giving
cationic copolymers.
They are anionic, non-ionic, or cationic longchain, purely synthetic high polymers. They
remain stable under bacterial or enzyme
attack but are sensitive to high shear rates.
They are used as viscosity improvers and as
flocculants, possibly in association with a
coagulant to stabilize clay. The basic unit is
repeated a very large number of times and
has undergone more or less thorough hydrolysis, which results in a broad variety of products with varied characteristics regarding:
Viscosity,
Adsorption on clay,
Flow resistance,
Sensitivity to salts.
2.6 - POLYACRYLATES
Anionic low-molecular-weight synthetic polymers used as plasticizers and dispersing
agents.
There are other varieties with higher molecular weights which are used as filtrate reducers
or bentonite dopes.
3 - BENTONITE
The gross percentage breakdown of
Montmorillonite is the same as that of aluminium silicate and hydrated magnesia, like
many natural silicates, but its exceptional
properties are due to a special molecular
structure that is characterized as follows.
11

3.1 - STRUCTURE OF
BENTONITE
The elementary Montmorillonite platelet
consists of two tetrahedral layers of Si4+ on
either side of a third octahedral layer whose
centre is occupied by a cation such at Al3+.
The three layers comprise an elementary platelet about 10 thick. The smallest volume
with all the characteristics of crystal is a sandwich of two layers of these elementary platelets. In practical terms, bentonite always
takes the form of primary particles of about
ten platelets or micro-aggregate or agglomerations of several hundred platelets.
These are the finest particles of a bentonite
well dispersed in water. They are microscopic
in dimension (0.1 to 2 m).
During the alteration of igneous rocks (pegmatites, diorites, rhyolites, ash), a series of
cation migrations have resulted in substitution of Si by Al, for example, in the tetrahedral layers and of Al by Mg-Fe-Li cations,
etc., in the octrahedral layers. Substitution of
cations of lower valence creates excess negative charges in the platelet. This excess is
compensated by cations between platelets
(Na+, Ca2+ for instance). These cations are the
source of the capability for cation exchange,
an essential characteristic of bentonites (CE
expressed in milliequivalents of cation per
100 g of bentonite calcined at 1000 C).
Since these substitutions, the numbers of
which are highly variable, occur in very
haphazard fashion and allow a great many
possible combinations, it is easy to imagine
the very large variety of bentonites that can
exist.
The exchangeable cations attached to the
available negative charges are located in the
spaced between the layers and in breaks in
12
the platelets. In an aqueous medium, water

molecules attach between the plates, causing them to move apart, causing intra-structural swelling of the bentonite. The space
between layers becomes the seat of cation
exchange. Some important properties of
bentonites depend closely on the type and
number of cations exchanged: swelling, viscosity of suspensions, plasticity, Atterberg
limits, and some other characteristics of
interest for foundry work. The type of
exchangeable cations provides a basis for
classifying natural bentonites into two categories:
behaviour under heat (up to 1000C),
Natural calcium bentonites:
rehological properties (colloidal suspensions),
In which the exchangeable cations are generally Ca++ and Mg++ cations in varying proportions.
Natural sodium bentonites:
In which the exchangeable cations are mostly
Na+ (70-80%) cations, with approximately 20
to 30% Ca++ and Mg++ cations.
3.2 - BENTONITE
PROPERTIES
The properties of a bentonite depend on all
the mineralogical characteristics referred to
above, in short:
the type and variety of Montmorillonite,
the purity of the raw bentonite
(% Montmorillonite),
the size of colloidal hydrated particles (1-2 m),
the specific surface of the particles (expressed in m2/g),
the cation-exchange capacity,
the type of exchangeable cations (alkaline
alkaline earth),
possible presence of electrolytes (stabilizing or flocculating action).

The properties of a bentonite also depend
on the physical state it is in. It can be solid,
semi-solid, plastic, semi-liquid, or liquid,
depending on the proportions of bentonite
and water. The essential properties of bentonite as a slurry component in tunnelling are
as follows:
adsorbant properties,
binding, agglomerating, and adhesive properties,
clogging properties (colloidal suspensions).
3.3 - BENTONITE FOR

UNDERGROUND WORKS
Depending on the intended use (deep or
shallow drilling, special foundations, bentonite/cement grout, tunnelling, or ground
impermeabilization), bentonite producers
propose a variety of different products adapted to each application. The performance of
these products depends on their origin and
the treatment the raw material may have
been given in the plant: activation (sodium
carbonate or other salts for calcium bentonites), drying, crushing, addition of mineral
or organic dopes (CMC, acrylate/acrylamide,
etc.). The requisite tests should be carried
out in order to select the products that best
meet the characteristics required by the
slurry schedule. In this respect, particularly
close attention should be paid to bentonite/polymer interaction, stability over time,
etc.

APPENDIX 3:
P R I N C I P L E F O R E VA L U AT I O N O F T H E R E H O L O G I C A L
CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELLING SLURRIES
The principle of ground support using slurry
pressure relies on the possibility of mobilizing a pressure in a liquid against a soil subject to a state of stress, be it saturated or not.
Soil is a porous medium through, which a
liquid whose rehological characteristics
match the Bingham model, can flow.
Slurry penetration into soil has been studied
experimentally in the laboratory by a number
of TBM manufacturers, using large permeaters (see Appendix 7). The test set-ups used
comprise a cylinder filled with the soil to be
studied, into which the slurry is made to
penetrate by a hydrostatic pressure difference. The pressure gradient, the depth of
penetration, and the flow rate can also be
measured.
In the extreme case of a ground mass with a
very high in-situ permeability, and with a very
fluid slurry, flow occurs under the effect of
the hydrodynamic (over)pressure, until
such time as this pressure ceases to exist
when the slurry stops penetrating into the
ground because of head losses or the yield
value of the slurry.
In these experiments, it has been seen that
the volume of ground to be penetrated can
be insufficient to stop slurry penetration, and
that as a result there is permanent flow
through the ground, with a certain flow rate.
This extreme case corresponds to creation of
a hydraulic flow regime in a soil as a result of
a hydrodynamic pressure. The pressure can
be maintained only if there is the required
flow rate (generally high), which, in the
medium term, is not good for the support
function required.
On the other hand, as soon as a membrane (polyethylene film, for instance) prevents outward flow, hydrostatic thrust is
mobilized. This is the mechanism wanted in
slurry-pressure support system: ideally, formation of a film or membrane, or more commonly of a clogged zone called the cake
that will mobilize all or part of the potential
hydrostatic thrust.
Such a cake can be the membrane or
impregnation type (see section 3.1.4).
The stability of the ground supported
depends on the stability of the soil particles
at the ground interface. When the stability of
an infinitesimal volume of a non-cohesive soil
at the edge of the free surface is studied, it is
demonstrated [1] that the pressure gradient
required to ensure stability can be be calculated from the relationship:
f = (1 n ) (g s ) sin ( )
sin
where
n = porosity of the soil
g = density of solid grains
s = density of slurry
= angle of internal friction of the soil
= angle of the free surface to the horizontal
where K is the horizontal permeability of the

in situ soil, and A is an adimensional coefficient between 5 and 10 which in theory
increases with the degree of scatter of soil
pore diameters and decreases with gradual
clogging of the ground by slurry.
Comparison of the two gradients, one required by the ground and the other provided by
the slurry penetrating the ground, using the
safety factor inherent to uncertainties over
the values of the parameters (F 2), indicates
the yield point f required for the slurry, in
accordance with ground conditions.
When the pores are too big, the value of f
required may be high. Rather than adjust the
characteristics of the bentonite solution
(higher concentration, additives, etc.), it may
be possible to reduce the pore diameter by
adding clay or sand fines, for example.
The particles added form a granular mix with
maximum dimension dslurry for which the following characterization can be proposed:
Soil saturated with slurry

- s = (1 - n ) (g - s )
tg.dS > ( - s ). dv or f
for = 90
The slurry is considered to act like a perfect
Bingham fluid, establishing a gradient known
as the stagnation gradient because of its
thixotropic properties. This stagnation gradient, fso, depends on the permeability and
porosity (pore diameters) of the ground. It
has been studied both theoretically and
experimentally:
1. Theoretically: a study of the mobilization
of the flow of a Bingham fluid with a yield
point f in a circular tube of radius R shows
that flow in the tube ceases if the hydraulic
gradient p /L proves the relation
R = 2f x[L/p], yielding a relationship of the
type:
2.f
(f in Pa)
fso =
R
2. Experimental studies [2,3] have demonstrated a relationship between R and the d10 of
the in situ soil (d10 in mm):
fso = a. f / d10, with a varying from 0.25 to 2.

a = dimensionless coefficient
3. More recently, theoretical and experimental studies [4] have led to a relationship of the
following type being established:
d15ground 5dslurry (filter condition)

According to some authors [2], experience
shows that relations of the type
d15ground 8dslurry or d20ground = 3dslurry
are acceptable.
REFERENCES
[1] Les boucliers pression de boue, by J.
Ferrand and J. Pera Annales de lITBTP n
420 (December 1983)
[2] Stability of slurry trenches
MllerKirchenbauer 5th International Soil
Mechanics Congress, Madrid 1972, IV-12.
[3] Nachweis des Sicherheit gegen den
Schlitz gefhrende Gleitflgen im Boden,
nach DIN 4126 Vornorm. Kilcher (M) and
Karstedt (J).
[4] La prvention des fontis dans les travaux
au tunnelier : des tudes en temps rel.
P. Aristaghs, F. Berbet, P. Michelon
Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains No. 128,
March/April 1995.
[5] Impermabilisation du front de taille par
injection de boue bentonitiques pralablement des interventions hyperbares (BPNL)
B. Demay, L. Nicolas Tunnels et
Ouvrages Souterrains No. 150 Nov./Dec.
1998.
fso =
13

APPENDIX 4 :
S L U R RY PA R A M E T E R TA B L E
The table below gives orders of magnitude in the form of bracket values for slurry parameters against different permeabilities in homogeneous
ground. These values are merely orders of magnitude for the purposes of illustration.
Parameters
AV
PV
YP
0/10 gel strengths
Filtrate
Cake (API test)
Marsh viscosity
Density
pH
Sand
Unit
cp
cp
Pa
lbs/100ft
ml
mm
s/946 ml
Type 1
K>1*10-4 m/s
permeable
(alluvium ETC.)
SOLS TYPES
Type 2
10-4<K<10-7 m/s
semi-permable
(sandy soils, etc.)
15 - 40
5 - 20
8-5
10 - 30
20 - 50
2-6
40 - 120
1.02 - 1.15
7 - 10
15
10 - 20
5 - 10
5 - 10
3 - 20
15 - 30
1-5
35 - 50
1.02 - 1.20
7 - 10
1-5
Type 3
K<1*10-7 m/s
impermable neutral
(chalk, etc.)
Type 4
K<1*10-7 m/s
impermeable reactive
(clay, etc.)
8 - 20
5 - 10
< 15
Not applicable
Not applicable
1-5
30 - 50
1.02 - 1.60 1.02 - 1.30
7 - 10
1-5
(standardized test methods Recommended Practice Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids API RP 13 B-1, 1 June 90)
APPENDIX 5 :
S L U R RY R H E O L O G Y
1 - DEFINITION OF
RHEOLOGY
2 RHEOLOGY OF
TUNNELLING SLURRIES
Rheology can be defined as the science of

the flow and deformation of matter. It studies
the reactions of all solid or liquid substances
to deforming forces and classifies them using
precise terms, and in the least complex
cases, serves to draw up empirical equations
taking account of deformation. It thus serves
to accurately define properties that we refer
to with vague terms such as thick, thin,
sticky, viscous, etc, but it calls into question concepts that we feel we know about,
such as solid and liquid: when subjected to
long-term stress, most solids flow and
deform. The stained-glass windows of cathedrals, which are thicker at the bottom than at
the top, are one of the most spectacular
examples proving the fluid behaviour of glass.
The rheology of tunnelling slurries can be

defined by a number of quantities (viscosity,
gel strengths, etc.) whose testing and measurement are of great practical importance
since they govern::
Pump ratings
Cleaning of the excavation and suspension
of spoil
Correct flow velocities.
14
3 - DEFINITIONS AND
TERMINOLOGY
Fluid:
A fluid is a deformable continuous substance. It has no specific shape. It can flow
and undergo substantial deformation under
the effect of even very weak forces. Liquids
and gases are both fluids, but whereas a
liquid occupies a determined volume which

varies little with external conditions (temperature, pressure, etc.), a gas always takes up
the greatest volume available to it. In what
follows, the term is used loosely, and any
fluid is taken to be a liquid.
Laminar flow:
Laminar flow is a special kind of hydraulic
flow characterized by conservation of the
form of liquid layers during their movement.
Reynolds defined a quantity which bears his
name and which determines the kind of flow
in a pipe (laminar, unstable, or turbulent).
Viscosity:
Viscosity is the expression of frictional forces
between the particles of a fluid; it demonstrates the imperfection of its fluidity. It
must be remembered that viscosity exists
only in relation to the movement of a fluid.
Velocity gradient (shear gradient):
A liquid flowing under a laminar regime can
be assimilated to a stack of layers sliding

over each other, each driven at its own
speed. The velocity gradient between any
two layers of a fluid is therefore the quotient
of the velocity difference between those
layers divided by the distance between
them. The dimensional measurement of the
velocity gradient (sometimes called the shear
gradient or the shear rate) is the reciprocal of
a time; it is measured in s-1.
Shear stress:
In practical terms, these very simple theoretical models do not fit tunnelling slurries perfectly. Since they can define a fluid only over
a limited range of velocity gradients, they
cannot take account of the plastic or viscoplastic behaviour of tunnelling slurries.
Consequently other models have been developed. Most of them are based on the basic
models above.
Herschel-Bulkley model: = YP + K x G N
4 COMPONENTS MODELS
In a laminar regime, the flow of a liquid is
characterized by a relationship between a
shear stress and a deformation velocity.
Depending on the type of fluid, this relationship can take on different forms, the most
common of which are as follows:
Newton model: = x G
where : shear stress
G: velocity gradient
: viscosity
Bingham model: = YP + PV x G
where YP: yield point
PV: plastic viscosity
Ostwald model: = K x G N
where K: consistency index
N: rehological performance index
Representative rheograms of these three
models are as shown below:
This model is a synthesis of the above three

models, for, depending on the values of YP,
K, and N, it can represent them all:
YP = 0 , N = 1: Newton model (K = )
YP = 0 , N 1: Ostwald model
YP > 0 , N = 1: Bingham model (K = PV)
a > 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastic or plastic,

depending on whether c is positive or negative
c< 0, in addition to the origin, the plot has
two further intersections with the vertical
scale. There is a yield point. The liquid is plastic and close to being a Bingham fluid (2)
c 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastiqc (3), c = 0
being a special case where the liquid can be
considered to be a plastic material whose
yield point has been moved to the origin.
Steiger-Ory model: G = a 3 + c
The Steiger-Ory model was developed from
assumptions of symmetry and continuity
(curve through the origin, symmetry of representation). The formula used to draw the
representative rheogram is
a mathematical function, G
= f (t ), whose terms do not
Shear stress t
have any real physical
significance, but the equation has the advantage of
illustrating the behaviour
of many fluid types:
Newtonian,
plastic,
pseudo-plastic. We shall
restrict ourselves here to
giving the empirical
Steiger-Ory formula and to
presenting
different
variants for different values
for coefficients a and c.
Velocity gradient
BINGHAM
Shear stress
Shear stress
a < 0, is meaningless
This model gives a better representation of

the behaviour of tunnelling slurries and
allows for subsequent introduction of notions
of gelling in time (YP = f (t)), which is characteristic of destructuring/restructuring phenomena.
NEWTON
Velocity gradient
a = 0, the plot is a straight line passing

through the origin; the fluid is Newtonian,
with viscosity h = 1/c (1)
OSTWALD
Shear stress
Shear stress is the result of forces of internal

friction opposing the flow of liquid. It
depends on the velocity gradient of the fluid,
and its evolution in accordance with the velocity gradient characterizes the response of
the material to deforming forces, which therefore defines its components performance.
Shear stress is sometimes referred to as
shear tension; it is always compared to a unit
surface area, making it similar to a pressure,
and it is therefore expressed in Pa in the
System International (S.I).
If:
Velocity gradient
Velocity gradient
15

APPENDIX 6 :
P R I N C I P L E O F O P E R AT I O N O F A S L U D G E T R E AT M E N T P L A N T
6.1 - SEPARATION OF SOLID

SPOIL FROM SLURRY: (in
real time)
6.1.1. Scalping: Separation of
large particles (> 6 mm approx.):
gravel and pebbles, but also
lumps and flakes of earth that
have not been broken down.
a) Scalping with vibrating screen: For sandy
and stoney ground that does not stick
b) Scalping with drum screen: Especially
good for sticky, clogging clayey ground.
6.1.2 - Desanding: Separation of

sand from slurry
Sand is separated out from the slurry in 1, 2 or
3 series stages of hydrocyclones. Centrifuges
may also be used to separate out silt.
6.1.3 - Dewatering:
Vibrating dewatering units are fitted with
slot-type grilles on a slight slope. They are
used to dewater underflow material from
hydrocyclones. After dewatering, sand and
silt has residual humidities of between 10 and
20%, depending on the characteristics of the
mucking slurry.
Unlike screens, there is a self desaturation phenomenon in a dewatering unit: with
a given circulating load, an underlying layer
of filter material is formed.
Because of the diversity of the ground
types encountered and the broad range of
viscosities of mucking slurries, a desanding
unit with 2 separation stages plus dewatering
is generally necessary for most tunnelling
projects. The second separation stage refines
the relatively coarse split of the first.
6.2 - SEPARATION OF
EXCESS SLURRY FROM
RECYCLED SLURRY: (in real
time)
After desanding and desilting, most of the
slurry is fed back into the slurry circuit, after
compensating with fresh slurry to maintain
the required rehological characteristics. The
excess is disposed of, to maintain the correct
weight/volume balance (density and levels).
6.3 - TREATMENT OF EXCESS

SLURRY: (in real time, partly as a background task)
The treatment of excess slurry is closely linked to the required spoil consistency (liquid,
paste, or solid) and the quality of the ground
water absorbed and of the water discharged
from the plant (pH, SS, hydrocarbons, etc.).
How a hydrocyclone works: (from French

documentation: Mines et Carrires /
Lpuration physico-chimique des eaux)
Cycloning is a process for separating liquids from solids that uses centrifugal force. Slurry is injected tangentially into the cylindrical part of the
cyclone. The vortex created causes the heavy, i.e. coarse particles to be thrown against the walls of the cyclone and to be carried down the conical section with downward flow while the finest particles, which are less affected by centrifugal force, are carried by
the upward flow. The fineness of separation increases with increasing inlet velocity, and a small-diameter hydrocyclone also separates out finer particles.
The split size, or d50, is the particle dimension which has equal chances of being in the overflow or underflow. It is
the grain size that is split exactly into two equal amounts by the hydrocyclone. The empirical Yoshioka and Hotta
formula can be used to calculate the d50 integrating viscosity:
d50 (m) =
entre inlet
d50: split size in m
Di: equivalent diameter of cycline
inlet in metres
Q: inlet flowrate in m3/s
0,2 x 106.Dc0,1 x D00,8 x Di0,6 x

Q x (s - p)
asurverse overflow
Dc: cyclone diameter in metres
: apparent viscosity of slurry
1 + 2,5 x ((p 1) / (s 1) ) en mPa.s
s: real density of solids in kg/ m3
sous-verse underflow
D0: overflow diameter in metres
p: pulp density in kg/m3
A division curve can be drawn up, with on the horizontal scale the grain size and on the vertical scale the percentage by mass of the underflow grading. The plot is generally linear between points d25 and d75, from which the split size can be characterized by the imperfection coefficient I:
d75 d25
I=
16
2 x d50
the smaller I is, the better the split ( 0.3-0.4 for cyclones)
Treatment
Appearance
of discharge
Density of
discharge
Details
No treatment (direct discharge)
Liquid
1,15 1,25
Slurry is remoed at its optimum density for

separation conditions
Thickening by flocculation-settlement
Paste
1,20 1,40
Coagulant and flocculant required
Epaississement par centrifugation
Paste
1,25 1,45
Flocculant required
Treatment with cement, and lagooning
Solid
1,30 1,50
Addition of 20 to 40% cement by weight of dry

solids + 12 to 24-hours holding time
Belt-filter treatment
Solid
1,60 1,75
Flocculant added to slurry
Filter-press treatment
Solid
1,70 2,00
0 to 10% slaked lime added to slurry (by weight of

dry solids)
6.3.1 - Thickening by flocculationsettlement of thick slurry paste

Flocculation requires effluent concentrations of about 20 to 30 g per litre of dry
solids, which generally implies addition of
considerable quantities of water for dilution
before treatment.
Clay particles consist of a stack of elementary platelets of variable specific surface
( 20 m2/g for kaolinite / 100-150 m2/g for
construction bentonite): this structure
explains the high swellability of bentonite.
There is a layer of adsorbed water on the surface of the particle (ionic double layer) which
is electrically charged with easily exchangeable cations (+). Its potential increases
with the specific surface of the particles. The
presence of more or less bentonite usually
requires there to be a phase of coagulation
by adsorption of cations to reduce the
potential of the ionic double layer, followed
by addition of a flocculant (generally a synthetic polymer such as polyacrylamide) to
form inter-particle bridges (coagulant
consumption 100 - 200 ml/T of dry solids
flocculant consumption 100 - 200 g/T of
dry solids).
6.3.2 - Additional treatment by

pressing to obtain solid bulk
waste that can be handled easilty:
The filterability of bentonite slurries is generally poor ( r0.5 = 1014 to 1015 m.kg-1 )
If a belt filter is used, the slurry must be
flocculated beforehand, and belt filters can
only be used if the slurry has a low specific
resistance (r0.5 < 1011 m.kg-1) and is compressible (s>1), for the filter pressures that can be
applied are relatively low (0.3 to 1 bar).
In most cases a filter-press produces hard,
solid cakes from slurrys with high specific
resistances (r0.5 = 1015 m.kg-1), using the possible filtration pressures of 0 to 20 bars. It is
generally necessary to treat the slurry beforehand by adding lime or some other filtration
aid to dewater a slurry with a specific resistance of r0.5 = 1012 m.kg-1.
6.3.3 - Slurry filter index: (from

Degrmont technical report on
water)
6.3.3.1 - Specific resistance to filtration
Use a filtration cell of the Baroid filter-press
type using compressed air and a paper filter.
Pour 100 to 150 ml of slurry into the cell.
Allow the filtrate to flow off and record the
volume V0
Apply the required pressure (0.5 to 16 bars)
and record the volume of filtrate every 10,
15, 20, 30, or 60 seconds, depending on the
filtrate flow velocity.
Filtrate volumes V0, V1, V2 correspond
to times T0, T1, T2
Plot points against Vx horizontally and
Tx / ( Vx V0) vertically, and measure slope a
of the linear part of the curve.
Specific resistance r in
m.kg-1 = ( 2 A P S2 ) / ( C )
P: filter pressure in Pa
A: slope of straight plot for filterability test, in
s.m-6
S: filtration surface in m2
: dynamic viscosity of filtrate in Pa.s
(approximately 1.1 x 10-3 Pa.s at 20C)
C: dry solids at 105C divided by the volume
of slurry in kg.m-3
Different slurries are generally compared
in terms of their r0.5 values (0.5 bar pressure):
If r0.5 = 1014 to 1015 m.kg-1: slurry not easily
pressed, requiring an admixture such as lime
to assist filtration
If r0.5 = 1x1011 to 5x1011 m.kg-1: slurry easily
pressed, requiring no filtration admixture.
6.3.3.2 - Compressibility factor
Measure the specific resistance to filtration,
r, at several pressures, P.
Plot curve log r = f (log P)
The value of s is determined from the slope
of the straight line
= (log r1 log r) / (log P1 log P)
If s < 1: the filteration flow rate increases
as P increases => the slurry is not very compressible and high pressures are recommended (15-16 bars).
If s > 1: the filtration flow rate decreases as
P increases => the slurry is compressible and
it is recommended that the pressure be raised gradually to facilitate drainage.
Where
17

APPENDIX 7
PERMEAMETER
PERMEAMETER - PRINCIPLE GUIDE

PressionValve + pressure regulator with aadjustment from 0
to 0.15 MPa ajustable
Entonfunnelnoir
ManomPressure
Additionnal equipment
Scales for soil weight
Scales for water weight
Valve
Compressed air in
Levels
Tube
T
Boue - (15 litres)
Overflow
Translucent cylinder
Service pressure up to 0.15 MPa
Soil - (20 litres)
gracylindergg
Attachment
4 legs allowing permeameter handling
18
NB
It would be useful to have the permeater
To a tilting base so that filter cake
Performance under compressed air can be
Tested and to facilitate emptying

APPENDIX 8 :
S TA N D A R D S L U R RY- M O N I T O R I N G D O C U M E N TAT I O N
The following forms are given to illustrate standard documentation for monitoring tunnelling slurry:
Daily monitoring report
Test report
19
20
Comentaries
Slurry pH
Additive type
Additive addition
Concentration
test on parent slurry

Parent slurry addition
Concentration

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AFTES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING

SLURRY FOR USE IN SLURRY SHIELD TBM

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

APPENDIX 4: SLURRY PARAMETER TABLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

APPENDIX 6: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SLUDGE

APPENDIX 8 STANDARD SLURRY-MONITORING

1 - FOREWORD PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS

For vertical drilling:

the hole by laminar flow to prevent erosion of

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

2 BASIC ROLES AND

In the simplest cases, only the function of

Excavation of the tunnel produces a change

2.3 SECONDARY FUNCTIONS AND QUALITIES OF

moderate to high in-situ permeability

Characteristic curve of ground (C, )

2.2 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

Impregnation cake: in moderately to

3.4 CHANGES TO SLURRY

As commented above in 3.1.2, the filter

A variety of external contaminates blend into

Rheograms (cf. Section 4.1) show that the

3.4.1 Physical contamination of

It therefore takes some time period before

Slurry treatment plants cannot filter out the

3.1.3 Stiffening of slurry

Use of slurry to excavate and support a tunnel

Bentonite slurry is a non Newtonian (ref.

3.1.4 Types of cake

The basic operation of a slurry separation

3.1.5 Speed of cake formation

This continuing process results in creation of

The filtration effect of slurry penetrating into

required for tunnel support. A trade-off must

separate solid spoil from the slurry so that

It then becomes necessary to regenerate the

3.4.2 Chemical contamination of

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

slurry preparation and treatment performance.

stabilization of the tunnel face and control

Plastic viscosity concerns non-Newtonian

Rheology is the science devoted to the study

4.1.3 Plastic viscosity (PV)

Refer to Appendix 5 (Slurry rheology) for

4.1.2 Apparent viscosity (AV)

Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not

Rheogram: solid lines

In the case of tunnelling slurries, the plastic

The yield point determines the ability of a

4.1.4 Yield point

Contrary to a Newtonian fluid, a Bingham

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

and 10-min. gel strengths (refer to the

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4.1.5 Thixotropy and gels

Measurement of the density of a desanded

4.2.2 Sand content (particles >

(cyclone split ratio). Any sand remaining in

4.2.4 Quality of cake

4.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue

Testing chemical properties