Principles of

Digital Audio
Ken C. Pohlmann

Fifth Edition

McGraw-Hill
New York

Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid

Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul
Singapore Sydney Toronto

Contents

Preface to the Fifth Edition

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Chapter 1. Sound and Numbers

Physics of Sound
Sound pressure level
Harmonics
Digital Basics
Number systems
The binary number system
Binary Codes
Weighted binary codes
Unweighted binary codes
Two's complement
Boolean Algebra
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Analog Versus Digital

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Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Digital Audio

Discrete Time Sampling
The Sampling Theorem
The Nyquist frequency
Aliasing
Quantization
Signal-to-error ratio
Quantization distortion
Other architectures
Dither
Types of dither
Conclusion

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Chapter 3. Digital Audio Recording

Pulse-Code Modulation
Dither Generator
Input Lowpass Filter
Sample-and-Hold Circuit

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Analog-to-Digital Converter
Successive approximation A/D converter
Oversampling A/D converter
Record Processing
Channel Codes
Simple codes
Group codes
Code applications
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Chapter 4. Digital Audio Reproduction

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Reproduction Processing
Digital-to-Analog Converter
Weighted-resistor digital-to-analog converter
R-2R ladder digital-to-analog converter
Zero-cross distortion
High-bit D/A conversion
Output Sample-and-Hold Circuit
Output Lowpass Filter
Impulse Response
Digital Filters
FIR oversampling filter
Noise Shaping
Output Processing
Alternate Coding Architectures
Floating-point systems
Block floating-point systems
Nonuniform companding systems
,u-Law and A-law companding
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Differential PCM systems
Delta modulation
Adaptive delta modulation
Companded predictive delta modulation
Adaptive differential pulse-code modulation
Timebase Correction
Jitter
Eye pattern
Interface jitter versus sampling jitter
Jitter in storage media
Jitter in data transmission
Jitter in converters

Chapter 5. Error Correction

Sources of Errors
Objectives of Error Correction
Error Detection
Single-bit parity
ISBN
Cyclic redundancy check code
Error-Correction Codes
Block codes
Hamming" codes
Convolutional codes

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Interleaving
Cross-interleaving
Reed-Solomon Codes
Cross-Interleave Reed-Solomon Code
Product Codes
Error Concealment
Interpolation
Muting
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Duplication

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Chapter 6. Magnetic Storage Media

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Recording Bandwidth
Digital Magnetic Media
Intersymbol interference
Longitudinal magnetic recording
Vertical magnetic recording
Stationary Head Tape Recorders
The DASH format
Rotary Head Tape Recorders
Operation of a videotape recorder
Professional digital video formats
Consumer digital video formats
Modular digital multitrack
Hard-Disk Drives

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Chapter 7. Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

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DAT Tape Cassette

DAT Modes
DAT Hardware Design
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Rotary head
Track Format
Azimuth recording
Automatic track following
Eight-to-Ten Modulation
DAT Error Correction
Serial Copy Management System
Prerecorded DAT
Professional DAT
DAT timecode

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Chapter 8. Optical Disc Media

Optical Phenomena
Diffraction
Resolution of optical systems
Polarization
Design of Optical Media
Nonerasable Optical Storage
Read-only optical storage
Writej-once optical recording
Erasable Optical Storage

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Contents

Magneto-optical recording
Phase-change optical recording
Dye-polymer erasable optical recording
Digital Audio for Theatrical Film

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Chapter 9. The Compact Disc

Invention of the Compact Disc
Compact Disc Overview
Disc Design
Disc specifications
Data encoding
Player Optical Design
Optical pickup
Autofocus design
Autotracking design
One-beam pickup
Pickup control
Player Electrical Design
EFM demodulation
Error detection and correction
Output processing
Subcode
Disc Manufacturing
Premastering
Disc mastering
Electroforming
Disc replication
Alternative CD Formats
CD-ROM
CD-R
CD-RW
CD-MO
Other erasable formats
CD-i
Photo CD
CD+G and CD+MIDI
CD-3
Video CD
Super Audio CD
Disc design
DSD modulation
DST lossless coding
Player design

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Chapter 10. Perceptual Coding

Psychoacoustics
Physiology of the Human Ear and Critical Bands
Threshold of hearing, and masking
Temporal masking
Rationale for Perceptual Coding
PerceptualfCoding in Time and Frequency
Subband coding
Transform coding

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Contents

Filter Banks
Quadrature mirror filters
Polyphase filters
MDCT
Multichannel Coding
Tandem Codecs
Spectral Band Replication
MPEG-1 Audio Standard
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Psychoacoustic Models
MPEG-1 model 1
MPEG-1 model 2
Spreading Function
Tonality
MPEG-1 Layer I
Example of MPEG-1 Layer I algorithm
MPEG-1 Layer II
MPEG-1 Layer III (MP3)
MP3 transform coding
MP3 bit allocation and Huffman coding
MP3 stereo coding
MPEG-2 Audio Standard
MPEG-2AAC
AAC main profile
AAC allocation loops
AAC temporal noise shaping
AC-3 (Dolby Digital) Codec
AC-3 overview
AC-3 theory of operation
AC-3 exponent strategies and bit allocation
AC-3 multichannel coding
AC-3 bitstream and decoder
DTS Codec
Perceptual Coding Performance Evaluation
Critical listening
Listening test evaluation
Conclusion

Chapter 11. DVD

Introduction
Disc Design
Disc specification
Disc manufacturing and playback
Optical playback
Data Coding
Reed-Solomon product code
EFMPIus modulation
Universal Disc Format (UDF) Bridge
DVD-Video
DVD-Video video coding
DVD-Video audio coding
DVD-Video playback features
DVD-Video authoring
DVD-Video developer's summary

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Contents

DVD-Audio
DVD-Audio coding and channel options
DVD-Audio disc contents
DVD-Audio developer's summary
Data Compression
Entropy coding
Audio data compression
Meridian Lossless Packing
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Other DVD Disc Formats
DVD-ROM
DVD-R and DVD+R
DVD-RW and DVD+RW
DVD-RAM
DVD Content Protection
DVD-Video copy protection
DVD-Audio copy protection
Content protection for recordable media
Secure digital transmission
DVD watermarking
HD-DVD and Blu-ray

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Chapter 12. The MiniDisc

System Overview
Signal Format
Disc Design
Optical Pickup
MO Recording and Field Modulation
ATRAC Data Reduction
Disc Mastering and Manufacture

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Chapter 13. Audio Interconnection

Audio Interfaces
SDIF-2 Interconnection
Alesis Multichannel Optical Digital Interface
AES3 (AES/EBU) Professional Interface
AES3 frame structure
AES3 channel status block
AES3 implementation
AES10 (MADI) Multichannel Interface
S/PDIF Consumer Interconnection
Serial copy management system
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
AES11 Digital Audio Reference Signal
AES18 User Data Channels
AES24 Control of Audio Devices
Sample Rate Converters
Fiber-Optic Cable Interconnection
Fiber-optic systems
Fiber-optic cable
Interconnection and installation

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Contents

Chapter 14. Desktop Audio

PC Buses and Interfaces
IEEE 1394 "FireWIre"
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Sound Cards
Music synthesis
Surround sound processing
Audio Codec '97 (AC '97)
Windows Multimedia API and DirectX API
MMX
File Formats
WAV and BWF
MP3, AIFF, QuickTime, and other file formats
Open Media Framework Interchange (OMFI)
Advanced Authoring Format (AAF)
Material exchange Format (MXF)
AES31
Digital Audio Extraction
Hard-Disk Recording
System features
Flash Memory
Desktop Audio Software Applications
Hard-disk editing
Audio for video workstations

Chapter 15. Internet Audio

Networks and File Transfers
Telephone services
ISDN
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Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
Computer Networks
Ethernet
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
MediaNet
Wireless networking, WiFi, and Bluetooth
The Internet and Internet Audio
MP3
Music downloading and digital rights management
Streaming Audio
RealAudio G2 music codec
Audio webcasting
MPEG-4
MPEG-4 interactivity
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MPEG-4 audio coding
MPEG-7
Encryption
Watermarking

Chapter 16. Digital Radio and Television Broadcasting

Satellite Communication
Digital transmission
Direct broadcast satellites

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Contents

Digital Audio Radio

Transmission methods
Spectral space
Data reduction
Technical considerations
Eureka 147/DAB
In-Band Digital Radio
HD Radio
HD Radio FM-IBOC
HD Radio AM-IBOC
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Direct Satellite Radio
XM Satellite Radio
Sirius Satellite Radio
Perceptual Audio Coding (PAC) algorithm
Digital Television (DTV)
Video data reduction
MPEG video
MPEG-1 video standard
MPEG-2 video standard
ATSC Digital Television
ATSC standard
DTV implementation

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Chapter 17. Digital Signal Processing

Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing
DSP applications
Discrete Systems
Linearity and time-invariance
Impulse response and convolution
Complex numbers
Mathematical Transforms
Unit Circle and Region of Convergence
Poles and zeros
DSP elements
Digital Filters
FIR filters
MR filters
Filter applications
Sources of Errors
DSP Integrated Circuits
Processor architecture
Fixed point and floating point
DSP Programming
Filter programming
Texas Instruments code
Motorola code
Analog Devices SHARC code
Specialized DSP Applications
Digital delay
Digital reverberation
Digital mixing consoles
Loudspeaker correction
Noise removal

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Contents

Chapter 18. Sigma-Delta Conversion and Noise Shaping

Sigma-Delta Conversion
Delta modulation
Sigma-delta modulation
Analysis of first-order sigma-delta modulator
Higher-order noise shaping
Idle Tones and Limit Cycles
One-Bit D/A Conversion with Second-Order Noise Shaping
Multi-bit D/A Conversion with Third-Order Noise Shaping
Multi-bit D/A Conversion with Quasi Fourth-Order Noise Shaping
Sigma-Delta A/D Conversion
Sigma-delta A/D modulator
Digital filtering and decimation
Sigma-Delta A/D Converter Chip
Sigma-Delta D/A Converter Chip
Sigma-Delta A/D-D/A Converter Chip
Noise Shaping of Nonoversampling Quantization Error
Psychoacoustically optimized noise shaping
Buried data technique

Appendix. The Sampling Theorem

Bibliography
Index
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