Metallurgy For Non-Metallurgists Training by Khalid Dubai

Metallurgy for
Non-Metallurgists
27 31 December 2009
Dhow Palace Hotel, Dubai
By
Walid Jouri
Senior Consultant
Participants Name
This material is intended for the personal use of the delegate attending the programme presented by GLOMACS. No part
of the material may be reproduced, stored electronically, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior
written consent of GLOMACS.
FORWARD
Welcome to Metallurgy for non Metallurgists. This four day program will provide an
integrated practical overview of metals, starting from materials testing and physical/mechanical
properties, through corrosion properties and strength/deformation principals, and to ferrous and
non ferrous alloys and heat treatment.
Each of the major topics will be presented as individual units, and in the context of the overall
usage of metal components and structures and failure mechanisms, and mechanical integrity.
INSTRUCTOR: DR. WALID JOURI

Walid Jouri obtained his B.Eng. and Ph.D. Degrees, in Mechanical Engineering, in the United
Kingdom. He has extensive operational experience as an industrial consultant across a wide
range of industries, focussing on engineering design in key infrastructure projects and the
manufacturing sector. He specialises in advising on engineering design, factory process and
layout, prototype testing and type qualification
He was formally the head of School of Engineering and Manufacture. He is currently a Senior
Lecturer, specialized in Metallurgy, Materials, Advanced Composites, Structures and
Mechanical Engineering Design.
His main research activities involved the testing and analyses of the mechanical properties of
metals, polymers and advanced composites.
He also specialized in the design and production of instrumented testing machines for
determining the properties of materials.
He has been involved with numerous materials research projects for the nuclear, automotive,
railway, gas and chemical industries.
He has conducted a variety of short courses including Metallurgy for non Specialists,
Metallurgy, Corrosion and Failure Prevention, Materials Technology, Materials Properties
and Selection, Metallurgy and Pipes, Materials of Construction for Process Equipment and
Piping System, Corrosion for non Specialists, Cathodic Protection, Damage Analysis
Investigation Techniques, Advanced Polymers and Composites, Mechanical Technology,
Mechanical Equipment, Practical Pump Technology, Practical Valve Technology,
Welding Technology, Engineering Design Drawing, Print Reading and Symbols.
Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009
PROGRAMME OVERVIEW
Programme Objectives
To provide participants with an integrated practical knowledge on the basic structure of metal
alloys and relating it to the mechanical and physical characteristics of metals. The behaviour of
metals under various loading conditions (static, dynamic, fatigue and creep) will be presented
and related to design methodology and procedures; rules of thumb, standards, and best industry
practices.
Programme outcome
Upon completion of this course, participants will have gained an understanding of the important
principals of engineering involving properties and characteristics of metals and alloys, including
fabrication and heat treatment of commercial steels and non-ferrous alloys.
Participants will acquire sufficient knowledge and skills to independently evaluate possible
metallurgical and design solutions, to recognise crucial metallurgical phenomena and
intelligently discuss their metal problems with design engineers, metallurgists and fabricators.
Training Methodology
The course combines presentations and discussions of topics covered with relevant examples. It
combines knowledge of fundamental principles related to the structure of metals sound
engineering principles, methods, and applicable standards and best industry practices and
enforces learning with Question & Answer sessions to maximize the benefits to the participants.
Videos of relative manufacturing processes of metals will also be included.
Participants will be provided with comprehensive course notes and copies of presentation
material that will be very valuable for detailed study and future reference.
INTENDED AUDIENCE
This programme is intended for those who use or supervise activities requiring the use of metal
parts or structures. Those with little or no prior formal background who function as managers,
supervisors, engineers, planners, inspectors, designers, researchers, investors or procurers, and
who seek a basic understanding of the practical aspects of metallurgy should find this course
valuable.
1.
TESTING AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Introduction
The following topics will be covered in detail:
Tensile, impact and hardness tests
Fatigue and creep failure
Objective
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
Understand the fundamental bases of mechanical testing
Compare mechanical properties of metals for selection purposes
2.
THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS
Introduction
Bonding in metals
Solidification crystal growth and structures of metals
Defects in metals during solidification
Objective
Gain an understanding of the nature of metallic bonds and crystal structures of metals
Understand the solidification process of pure metals
Learn of examples of probable defects that may occur within the solidified structure of a
metal
3.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
AND MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Introduction
The preparation (Mounting Grinding, Polishing and Etching) of metal specimens
Metallurgical and Electron Microscopes
Objective
Gain a basic understanding of the way metal specimens are prepared prior to microscopic
examination
Understand the use of microscopes for metallurgical examination
4.
DISLOCATIONS AND
STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS IN METALS
Introduction
Edge Dislocation (line imperfections) in crystals
Strengthening of metals by Grain Size Reduction, Solid Solution and Strain Hardening
Softening of metals by annealing
Comparison of Cold and Hot working of Metals
Objective
Understand the phenomenon of dislocations; one of the most fundamental properties,

related to the strength of metals.
Gain knowledge in controlling the strength of metals by controlling the movement of

dislocations.
Gain initial knowledge of softening metals by the application of heat (annealing)
5.
BINARY EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS
Introduction
Solubility and cooling curves
Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams (Eutectic Type, Solid Solution Type and Combination
Type)
Objective
Understand temperature/time cooling curves of pure substances.
Gain knowledge of thermal equilibrium diagrams (phase diagrams) and related

microstructures of selected types of metal alloys.
6.
FERROUS ALLOYS
Introduction
Definitions and classifications and some uses of ferrous alloys including;

Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Stainless steels
Cast irons
Objective
7.
Gain an understanding of the nature, properties , classifications and uses of a variety of

ferrous alloys
HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
Introduction
Hardening of carbon steel (by quenching)
Annealing, normalising and tempering
Surface treatments
Heat affected zone (HAZ) in welding
Objective
Understand fundamental hardening, softening and grain control processes related to steel
Understand additional processes such as surface hardening of steel
Gain knowledge of related topics related to the heat affected zone (HAZ)
8.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Introduction
Nickel and cobalt
Titanium alloys
Objective
9.
Gain knowledge of additional special application non-ferrous alloys such as nickel based,
cobalt based and titanium based alloys.
FABRICATION OF METALS
Introduction
A selection of metal fabrication methods, including;

Forming
Casting
Welding
Objective
Understand basic metal fabrication techniques
Learn about practical examples of welding and repair technique related to pipes
10. CORROSION IN METALS

Introduction
The electrochemical cell
Types of electrochemical corrosion
Protection against electrochemical corrosion
Objective
Gain an fundamental understanding of the nature and types of corrosion
Learn about various methods of protection against corrosion
Gain knowledge of obtaining the remaining life of a metal component, from corrosion
consideration
11. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Introduction
Introduction to a selection of Non Destructive Techniques (NDT), applications and

standards, such as;
Dye penetrant
Magnetic methods
x-ray methods and - ray methods
Ultra-sonic methods
Eddy current testing
Objective
Gain an understanding in various NDT methods and standards
Be able to determine appropriate NDT techniques for a variety of applications
CONTENTS
1.
1. 1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
TESTING AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
TENSILE TESTING
1.1. 1 The Tensile Test Piece
1.1. 2 The Tensile Test
1.1. 3 Force Extension Curve
1.1. 4 Engineering Stress & Strain Curve
1.1. 5 Properties Obtained From the Tensile Test
1.1.6 Ductility in metals
1.1.7 Fracture of Metals
IMPACT TESTS
1.2.1 Standard Impact Tests, Izod and Charpy
1.2.2 Impact Specimen
1.2.3 Izod Impact Test
1.2.4 Charpy Test
1.2.5 Transition Temperature
HARDNESS TESTS
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 The Vickers Hardness Test
1.3.3 The Brinell Test
1.3.4 The Rockwell Test
1.3.5 The Shore Skleroscope Hardness Test
COMPARISON OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
FATIGUE FAILURE
1.5.1 Nature of Fatigue Failure
1.5.2 The Mechanism of Fatigue Failure
1.5.3 Fatigue Testing
1.5.4 Improving Fatigue resistance
CREEP FAILURE
1.6.1 Nature of Creep
1.6.2 Creep Test
THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

THE STATES OF MATER
SOLIDIFICATION AND STRUCTURES OF METALS
2.2.1 Solidification of pure metals
2.2.2 Basic Metallic structures
2.2.3 Polymorphic transformation of metals
2.3
CRYSTAL GROWTH AND OVERALL BULK SOLIDIFICATION
OF METALS
2.4
DEFECTS IN METALS DURING SOLIDIFICATION
APPENDIX 2A
BONDING IN METALS
2A.1 SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
2A.2 METALIC BONDING
2A.3 BONDING ENERGY AND INTERATOMIC SPACING
APPENDIX 2.B
THE VARIOUS POSSIBLE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.10
1.10
1.11
1.11
1.11
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.17
1.18
1.20
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.26
1.26
1.26
2.
2.1
2.2
2.1
21
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.6
2.8
2.12
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.16
II
3.
3.1
3.2
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
AND MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 The preparation of metal specimens
3.1.1.1 General Process
3.1.1.2 Mounting of specimen
3.1.1.3 Grinding and polishing the specimen
3.1.1.4 Etching the Specimen
MICROSCOPES
3.2.1 The Metallurgical Microscope
3.2.2 The Electron Microscopes
DISLOCATIONS AND
STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS IN METALS
THEORETICAL AND OBSERVED MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF METALS
DISLOCATIONS IN CRYSTALS
4.2.1 Imperfections in crystals
4.2.2 Edge Dislocation
4.2.3 Summary of the general properties of dislocations
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
4.3.3 Solid Solution Strengthening
4.3.4 Strain Hardening and Annealing
4.3.4.1 Strain Hardening
4.3.4.2 Annealing
4.3.4.3 Summary and Comparison of Cold and
Hot working of Metals
5.
5.1
5.2
BINARY EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

SOLUBILITY
ALLOYS
5.2.1 General Concepts
5.2.2 Solid Solutions
5.3
COOLING CURVES
5.3.1 Pure substance
5.3.2 Solutions
5.4
ALLOY TYPES
5.4.1 General definitions
5.4.2 Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams (Eutectic Type)
5.4.3 Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Solid Solution Type)
5.4.4 Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Combination Type)
APPENDIX 5A
BINARY ALLOY TYPES
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.5
3.6
4.1
4.1
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.10
4.10
4.12
4.15
5.1
5.1
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.13
5.14
5.19
III
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
FERROUS ALLOYS
DEFFENITION OF FERROUS ALLOYS
CARBON STEELS
6.2.1 General classifications
6.2.2 Iron-Carbon (Fe3C) Phase Diagram
6.2.3 The Uses of Plain Carbon Steels
6.2.4 Classification of carbon steels
6.2.4.1
Low-Carbon Steels
6.2.4.2
Medium-Carbon Steels
6.2.4.3
High-Carbon and tool Steels
ALLOY STEELS
6.3.1 The Need for Alloying
6.3.2 Classification of alloying elements
6.3.3 Alloying Elements
6.3.4 The Classification of alloy Steels
STAINLESS STEELS
6.4.1 General properties and classification
6.4.2 The Iron-Chromium-Carbon Phase Diagram
6.4.3 Ferritic Stainless Steels
6.4.4 Martensitic Stainless Steels
6.4.5 Austenitic Stainless Steels
6.4.6 Precipitation Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels
6.6.7 Duplex Stainless Steel
CAST IRONS
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.6
6.8
6.8
6.9
6.12
6.13
6.13
6.13
6.14
6.16
6.19
6.19
6.19
6.20
6.21
6.22
6.24
6.25
6.29

GENERAL HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES
HARDENING OF CARBON STEEL (BY QUENCHING)
7.2.1 Basic Process
7.2.2 Critical Cooling Rate and Mass Effect
7.2.3 Hardenability of steel; The Jominy (End-Quench) test
ANNEALING, NORMALISING AND TEMPERING
7.3.1 General Principals
7.3.2 Annealing
7.3.2.1 Basic process
7.3.2.2 Process Annealing (Stress Relief annealing)
7.3.2.3 Full Annealing
7.3.2.4 Spheroidising Annealing
7.3.3 Normalizing
7.3.4 Tempering
TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION (TTT) DIAGRAMS
SURFACE TREATMENTS
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Selectively Heating the Surface
7.5.3 Carburising
7.5.4 Nitriding
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ) IN WELDING
7.6.1 Deffinition
7.6.2 HAZ of Carbon and Alloy Steels
7.6.3 HAZ of Stainless Steel
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.13
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.17
7.18
7.20
IV
APPENDIX 7A
DIFFUSION PROCESS IN METALS
8.
8.1
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
NICKEL AND COBALT
8.1.1 General Characteristics
8.1.2 Nickel and Monel
8.1.3 Super alloys
8.1.3.1 General characteristics
8.1.3.2 Solid Solution Strengthening
8.1.3.3 Carbide Dispersion
8.1.3.4 Precipitation Hardening
8.2
TITANIUM ALLOYS
8.2.1 Types of titanium alloys
8.2.2 Processing of Titanium Alloy
Appendix 8A Selection of Nickel Based Alloys
9
9.1
9.2
INTRODUCTION
FORMING OPERATIONS
9.2.1 General Classification
9.2.2 Forging
9.2.3 Rolling
9.2.4 Extrusion
9.2.5 Drawing
9.2.6 Bending
9.2.7 Sheet Forming
9.2.8 Shake - down (Auto frettage)
9.3
CASTING
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Sand Casting
9.3.3 Die Casting
9.3
WELDING
9.4.1 Basic Techniques
9.4.2 Gas Welding
9.4.3
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
9.4.4
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
9.4.5
Gas Metal-Arc Welding
9.4.6
Submerged Arc Welding
9.4.7
Resistance spot welding
7.22
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.5
8.5
8.7
8.8
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.11
9.13
9.13
9.14
9.14
9.15
9.15
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
CORROSION IN METALS
INTRODUCTION
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
TYPES OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
10.3.1 General Corrosion (Uniform Corrosion)
10.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion (Composition Cell)
10.3.3 Crevice Corrosion (Concentration Cell)
10.3.4 Pitting Corrosion
10.3.5 Demetallification (Selective Leaching)
10.3.6 Impingement Attack Corrosion (Erosion Corrosion)
10.3.7 Cavitation Attack Corrosion
10.3.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
10.3.9 Inter-Granular Corrosion.
10.4 PROTECTION AGAINST ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
10.4.1
Protection by Design
10.4.2
Protection Using Inhibitors and Coatings
10.4.3
Cathodic Protection
Appendix 10A Remaining life calculations (for corrosion)
10.1
10.1
10.1
10.3
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.8
10.8
10.9
10.9
10.10
10.13
10.13
10.15
10.16
10.17
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.1
11.1
11.1
11.2
11.4
11.4
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.12
11.7
11.23
11.26
11.31
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
CHARACTERISATION OF NDT METHODS
HISTORY OF NDT
DYE PENETRANT
MAGNETIC METHODS
11.4.1 Basic Principles
11.4.2 Types of particles
11.4.3 Variations
11.4.4 Advantages and limitations of magnetic methods
11.5 X-RAY METHODS
11.6 - RAY METHODS
11.7 ULTRA-SONIC METHODS
11.8 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
11.9 SUMMARY AND SELECTION OF N. D. T. METHODS
Appendix 11 A ISO Standards for NDT Inspection
1.1
1
1.1
TESTING AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF METALS
Tensile Testing
One of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests is performed in tension. The tension (or
tensile) test can be used to ascertain several mechanical properties of materials that are important
in design. A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load
that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen.
1.1.1
The Tensile Test Piece
Standard tensile specimens are shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Normally, the cross section is
circular, but rectangular specimens are also used. During testing, deformation is confined to the
parallel centre region, which has a uniform cross section along its length.
In order to eliminate any variations in tensile test data due to differences in the shapes of test
pieces, standard shapes are adopted.
The following are the dimensions of some standard test pieces:
End
Breadth, bo
ro
Thickness to
Gauge Length, Lo
(Original Length)
Original Cross-Sectional Area, Ao = bo x to
Figure 1.1 Flat Tensile Specimen
End
Diameter, do
Gauge Length, Lo
(Original Length)
ro
Original Cross-Sectional Area, Ao = (do)

4
Figure 1.2 Round Tensile Specimen
1.2
An important feature of the dimensions is the radius given for the shoulders of the test pieces.
Variations in the radii can affect markedly the tensile test data. Very small radii can cause
localised stress concentrations, which may result in the test piece failing prematurely. The
surface finish of the test piece is also important for the same reason.
The reason for the specification of a relationship between the gauge length and the crosssectional area of the test piece is in order to give reproducible test results for the same test
material when different size test specimens are used.
1.1.2
The Tensile Test
The tensile specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of the tensile testing machine
(Figure 1.3). The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate,
and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load (with a load cell)
and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer). A load (force) elongation (extension)
test typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive; that is, the test specimen is
permanently deformed and usually fractured.
Load Cell
Jaws
Extensometer
Specimen
Moving Cross-Head
Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of the apparatus used to conduct tensile stress-strain
tests.
(The specimen is elongated by the moving crosshead; load cell and extensometer measure,
respectively, the magnitude of the applied load and the elongation)
1.1.3
Force Extension Curve
The output of such a tensile test is recorded on a strip chart (or by a computer) as a load (or
force) versus elongation as shown in Figure 1.4 for a ductile metal specimen (e.g. low carbon
steel).
These load-deformation characteristics are dependent on the specimen size. For example, it will
require twice the load to produce the same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the specimen
is doubled. To minimise these geometrical factors, load and elongation are normalised to the
respective parameters of engineering stress and engineering strain.
1.3
Elastic
Plastic
Load
(F)
Fully Plastic
Maximum Load
Fracture
Yield Load
Original Area (Ao)
Original (Gouge) Length lo
Extension (e)
Elastic Extension
Plastic extension
Neck forming
Area at Fracture (Af)
Total Extension
(Extension at Fracture)
Figure 1.4 Typical load-extension curve for a ductile metal (e.g. low carbon steel)
1.1.4
Engineering Stress & Strain Curve
The results of a single tensile test may apply to all sizes and shapes of specimens for a given
material if we convert the force to stress and the extension to strain. Engineering Stress and
Engineering Strain are defined by the following equations:
Engineering Stress
Load
Original cross-sectional area
Engineering Strain
Extension
= e = L - Lo
Original length (gouge length) Lo
Lo
F
Ao
Where A0 is the original cross-section area of the specimen before the test begins, L0 is the
original distance between the gauge marks, and L is the distance between the gauge marks after
force F is applied.
1.4
The conversions from load-gauge length to stress-strain are also included in Table 1.1. The
stress-strain curve (Figure 1.5) is usually used to record the results of a tensile test.
Table 1.1
Results of tensile test of a 12.5 mm diameter aluminium alloy,
with a gouge length of 50 mm
Force, F
(KN)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
33.8
Stress, ,
(MN/m2)
0
40.7
81.5
122.1
162.8
203.5
244.2
275
Extension, e
(mm)
0.00
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
2.00
Strain
0.0000
0.0006
0.0012
0.0018
0.0024
0.0030
0.0036
0.0400
34.4 (max)
28.9 (fracture)
280
235
3.00
5.20
0.0600
0.1400
350
Stress (MPa)
300
250
200
Yield
Strength
Tensile
Strength
150
Fracture
Strength
100
50
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Strain
Figure 1.5 The stress strain curve for an aluminium alloy from Table 1
1.5
1.1.5
Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test
Information concerning the strength, stiffness, and ductility of a material can be obtained from
the tensile test.
Elastic Versus Plastic Deformation
In the initial part of the stress strain curve (Figure 1.5), the stretching of the specimen is said to
be elastic. When a force is first applied to the specimen, the bonds between the atoms are
stretched and the specimen elongates. When we remove the force, the bonds return to their
original length and the specimen returns to its initial size. The stress is proportional to the strain
(i.e. straight-line curve).
Eventually, the material yields (with the increase in stress), after which the specimen will be
permanently deformed (or set) upon the release of load. Hence, upon the onset of yield and
thereafter, the deformation of the specimen is said to be plastic.
Yield Strength
The yield strength is the stress at which the metal becomes permanently deformed, or set, (Figure
1.5). It therefore is the stress that divides the elastic and plastic behaviour of the material.
Practical applications of the Yield-Stress
If we are designing a component that must support a force during use, we must be sure that the
component does not plastically deform. We must therefore select a metal that has high yield
strength, or we must make the component large so that the applied force produces a stress that is
below the yield strength.
On the other hand, if we are manufacturing shapes or components by some deformation process
(such as bending or drawing etc.), the applied stress must exceed the yield strength to produce a
permanent change in the shape of the metal.
1.6
Proof Stress
In some materials, the stress at which the material changes from elastic to plastic behaviour is
not easily detected. In this case, we may determine an offset yield strength or proof stress
(Figure 1.6). We can decide that a small amount of permanent deformation, such as 0.2% or
0.002 strain might be allowable without damaging the performance of our component. We can
construct a line parallel to the initial portion of the stress-strain curve but offset by 0.002 strain
from the origin. The 0.2% proof strength is the stress at which our constructed line intersects the
stress-strain curve.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Determine the 0.2% proof strength for grey cast iron (Figure 6)
Answer:
By constructing a line starting at 0.002 strain (0.2/100), which is parallel to the elastic portion of
the stress-strain curve, we find that the 0.2% proof strength is 275MPa.
0.2 % Proof Stress

300
275
Stress (MPa)
200
100
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
Strain
Figure 1.6 Part of the stress-strain curve for grey cast iron
1.7
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength is the stress obtained at the highest applied force and thus is the maximum
stress on the engineering stress-strain curve (Figure 1.5). In many ductile metals, deformation
does not remain uniform. At some point, one region deforms more than other areas and a large
decrease in the cross-sectional area occurs (Figure 1.7). This locally deformed region is called a
neck. Because the cross-sectional area becomes smaller at this point, a lower force is required to
continue its deformation, and the engineering stress, calculated from the original area A0, will
decrease. The tensile strength is the stress at which necking begins in ductile materials.
Neck
Figure 1.7 Localised deformation (necking) of a ductile tensile specimen that been has
deformed beyond the Tensile stress.
Tensile strengths are often reported in handbooks because they are easy to measure; they are
useful in comparing the behaviours of materials, and they permit us to estimate other properties,
which are more difficult to measure. However, the tensile strength is relatively unimportant for
materials selections or materials fabrication the yield strength determines whether the
material will or will not deform.
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, or Youngs modulus, E, is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the
elastic region (Figure 5). This relationship obeys Hookes Law.
Modulus of Elasticity
E = Stress =
Strain
1.8
The modulus is a measure of the stiffness of the material. A stiff material, with a high modulus
of elasticity, maintains its size and shape even under an elastic load. If we are designing a shaft
and bearing, we may need very close tolerances.
Figure 1.8 shows the elastic behaviour of steel and aluminium. If a stress of 210 MPa is applied
to the shaft, steel deforms elastically 0.001mm/mm while, at the same stress, aluminium deforms
0.003mm/mm. Steel has a modulus of elasticity (around 210 GPa) three times greater than that
of aluminium (around 70 GPa).
Steel
Stress (MPa)
Aluminium
210
200
100
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Strain
Figure 1.8 Comparison of the elastic behaviour of steel and aluminium
1.9
1.1.6
Ductility in metals
Ductility is a measure of the amount of deformation that a material can undergo without
breaking. There are two ways of measuring the ductility, namely, Percentage Elongation and
Percentage Reduction in Area.
Percentage Elongation
This describes the amount of stretching of the specimen at the point of fracture (Figure 1.9),
using the equation;
%Elongation =
Lo
(Lf L0)100
Lo
A0
Where L0 = Gauge length
Lf = Fracture length
Load
Lf
Construction
line parallel to
original elastic
line
Extension
Lf
Af
Figure 1.9- Schematic representation
of a ductile tensile specimen before and
after fracture.
Percentage Reduction in Area
This describes the amount of thinning a specimen undergoes during the test (as shown in Figure
1.9) and is represented by the equation;
%Reduction in area =
(A0 Af )100
Ao
Where A0 = Original cross-sectional area

Af = Area at fracture
Ductility is important to both designers and manufactures. The designer of a component would
require some ductility so that if the stress is increased and becomes too high, the component will
deform plastically before it breaks. Fabricators will usually require ductile material so that they
can perform complicated shapes without breaking the material.
1.10
1.1.7
Fracture of Metals
If a metal deforms for an appreciable amount without breaking (i.e. high %Elongation and high
%Reduction in Area), it is said to be ductile. On the other hand, metals that break without, or
with A small amount of plastic deformation breaking (i.e. low %Elongation and low %Reduction
in Area) then it is said to be brittle.
Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture surfaces will have their own distinctive features on both macroscopic and
microscopic levels. Figure 1.10 shows schematic representations for two characteristic
macroscopic fracture profiles and their respective stress-strain curves.
The configuration shown in Fig. 10 a) is found for soft metals. These, ductile, materials neck
down to a point fracture, showing a certain amount of percentage area reduction (sometimes
called, cup-and-cone fracture).
Stress
Stress
Strain
Strain
a)
b)
Figure 1.10
(a)
Ductile fracture after some necking
1.11
(b)
Brittle fracture without any plastic deformation
brittle fracture
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation, and by rapid crack propagation.
The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile
stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface, as indicated in Figure 1.10 b).
Fracture surfaces of materials that failed in a brittle manner will have their own distinctive
patterns, any signs of gross plastic deformation will be absent.
For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the successive and
repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes; such a process is
sometimes termed cleavage.
1.2
Impact Testing
1.2.1
Standard Impact Tests, Izod and Charpy
Impact tests indicate the behaviour of a material under conditions of mechanical shock and to
some extent measure its toughness. Brittleness and consequent lack of reliability resulting
from incorrect heat-treatment or other caused may not be revealed during a tensile test but will
usually be evident in an impact test. Two standard impact tests are usually utilised; the Izod and
the Charpy tests.
1.2.2
Impact specimen
Figure 1.11 a) shows standard notched test pieces for both the Izod and Charpy impact tests. To
set up stress concentrations, which ensure that fracture does occur, test pieces are notched. It is
essential that notches always be standard, for which reason a standard gauge is used to test the
dimensional accuracy of the notch
1.2.3
The Izod Impact Test
In this test, a standard notched specimen (Figure 1.11 a)) is held in a vice and a heavy pendulum
striker (or hammer), mounted on ball bearings, is allowed to strike the specimen after swinging
from a fixed height (Figure 1.11b). The striking energy, typically of 167J, is partially absorbed in
breaking the specimen. Hence, as the pendulum swings past the test specimen, it carries a pointer
to its highest point of swing, thus indicating the amount of energy (related to the difference in the
height of the striker before (ho) and after (hf) impact) impact used in fracturing the test piece.
1.2.4
The Charpy Test
The Charpy test procedure (Figure 1.11 c)) employs a test piece (mounted as a simply-supported
beam instead of in the cantilever form used in the Izod Test. The striking energy is typically
300J.
1.12
10mm
10mm
Notch (450)
a)
8mm
Centre of gravity of striker (hammer)
Pointer Scale
ho (Initial height)
(Final height) hf
Point of impact
Clamp
b)
Supports
Striker (Top View)
c)
Figure 1.11
1.13
a)
b)
1.2.5
Dimensions of standard test pieces for both Izod and Charpy Tests.
Standard Izod and c) Charpy test set-ups.
Transition Temperature
The results of a series of impact tests performed at various temperatures, for a particular metal,
are shown in Figure 1.12. At high temperatures, a large absorbed energy is required to cause the
specimen to fail, whereas at low temperatures even a relatively ductile material may fail with
little absorbed energy.
Absorbed Energy
Brittle
Ductile
Transition Temperature
Test Temperature
Figure 1.12 - Typical results from a series of impact tests on a particular metal
At high temperatures, the material behaves in a ductile manner, with extensive deformation and
stretching of the specimen prior to failure. At low temperatures, the material is brittle, and little
deformation at the point of fracture is observed. The transition temperature is the temperature
at which the material changes from ductile to brittle failure.
A material that may be subjected to an impact blow during service must have a transition
temperature below the temperature of the materials surroundings.
1.14
1.3
Hardness Tests
1.3.1
Introduction
Classically, hardness could be defined as the resistance of a surface to abrasion and early
attempts to measure surface hardness were based on this concept.
Hardness may be measured by observing the resistance of the surface layers to plastic
deformation under static pressure is measured rather than true hardness.
In most of these methods, the static force used is divided by the numerical value of the
surface area of the resulting impression to give the hardness index.
A typical hardness test set up is illustrated in Figure 1.13, in which an indenter (e.g. diamond tip
pyramid, cone or ball) is allowed, for a short pre-determined time to, locally and plastically,
deform the surface of a specimen by a very small, but representative amount.
Fulcrum
Indenter
(e.g.
Diamond,
pyramid,
cone or Ball)
Rigid Beam
Specimen
Automatic
timing
mechanism
Load, F
(Force)
Figure 1.13 Basic Principles of the force application system in the Hardness Testing
Machine
Several standard hardness tests ( e.g. Vickers, and Rockwell) will be described. The test set-ups
are essentially similar except for the type of indenters used and, to some extent, the method of
measuring the indentations.
1.15
1.3.2
The Vickers Hardness Test or Diamond Pyramid Hardness Test
This standard hardness test uses, as its indenter, a diamond square-based pyramid, with an
included angle of 1360, (Figure 1.14), which will give geometrically similar impression (square)
under different applied forces.
Square
impression
on surface
of specimen
Force, F
1360
Specimen
a)
Adjustable slits
b)
c)
Figure 1.14- Standard Vickers diamond pyramid

a) Schematic of the diamond pyramid.
b) The 136 diamond pyramid is pushed with constant force, F. into the surface of the
specimen for a specified time.
c) Top view of the resulting impression, square, on the surface of the specimen as seen
under the microscope.
In this test, the diagonal length, d, of the square impression is measured by means of a
microscope, which has a variable slit built into the eyepiece, (Figure 1.14c). The width of the slit
is adjusted so that its edges coincide with the corners of the impression and the relative diagonal
length of the impression then obtained from a small instrument attached to the slit, which works
on the principle of a revolution counter.
The ocular reading ( of the dimension, d) thus obtained is converted to Vickers Pyramid
Hardness Number by reference to tables.
The Vickers hardness, Hv, may also be calculated using the following relationship;
Vickers hardness =
Force
Surface Area of impression
= 2Fsin(136/2)
d2
Vickers harnesses for a selection of metals (and some ceramics and polymers, for comparison)
are included in Table 1.2.
1.16
Material
Tin
Aluminium
Gold
Copper
Iron
Mild steel
Fully hardened steel
Limestone
MgO
Window glass
Fused silica
Granite
Quartz
Tungsten carbide
Polypropylene
Polycarbonate
PVC
Polyacetal
PMMA
Polystyrene
Epoxy
1.3.3
Hv (kgf /mm)
5
25
35
40
80
140
900
250
500
550
720
850
1200
2500
7
14
16
18
20
21
45
Table 1.2 Typical Vickers, Hv, values

of a selection of materials
The Brinell Test
Probably the best known of the hardness tests, was devised by a Swede, Dr Johan August Brinell
in 1900. In this test, a hardened steel ball is pressed into the surface of the test piece using the
appropriate specified force as shown in Figure 1.15.
D
Force, F
Specimen
Top view of circular impression
Figure 1.15 A typical Brinell-type Test set-up, using a ball indenter with diameter, D, and
leaving a circular impression with diameter, d, at the surface of the
specimen.
The diameter of the impression, d, so produced is then measured and the Brinell Hardness
Number, HB, derived from:
1.17
Brinell hardness =
Force
Surface Area of impression
2F
D(D (D2 d2)1/2)
And the units will be kgf/mm. To obviate tedious calculations, HB, is found by reference to the
appropriate set of tables.
1.3.4 The Rockwell Test
The Rockwell hardness test was devised in the USA and is particularly suitable for rapid routine
testing of finished material since it indicates the final result direct on a dial which is calibrated
with a series of scales.
A number of different combinations of indenter and indenting force can be used in conjunction
with the appropriate scale as shown in figure 1.16.
SCALE
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
INDENTER
Diamond Cone
1/16" Steel Ball
Diamond Cone
Diamond Cone
1/8" Steel Ball
1/16" Steel Ball
1/16" Steel Ball
1/8" Steel Ball
1/8" Steel Ball
TOTAL FORCE (kgf)

60
100
150
100
100
60
150
60
150
1200
0.2mm
tip
radius
Of these, Scale C is probably the most popular for use with steels.
Figure 1.16 The Rockwell table of scales and Diamond Cone Indenter
1.3.5
The Shore Scleroscope hardness test (Greek: skleros hard)
In this hardness test, the instrument embodies a small diamond-tipped miniature tup which is
allowed to fall from a standard height, inside a metal tube with a graduated glass window, and
strike the surface of the specimen as shown in Figure 1.17. The height of rebound is taken as the
hardness index. Since the shore Scleroscope is a small, portable instrument, it is very useful for
the determination of hardness of large rolls, castings and gears, and other large components,
which could not easily be placed on the testing tables of any of the more orthodox testing
machines.
Metal tube
Miniature Tup
(drop mass)
Graduated glass window
1.18
Specimen
Figure 1.17 The Shore Scleroscope hardness instrument and set-up
1.4
Comparison of Mechanical Properties of Metals
Based on the data obtained from tensile, impact and hardness tests, it should now be possible to
compare various metals according to their mechanical properties.
Table 1.3 include the mechanical properties of several metals and alloys. Hence, consider , for
example the mechanical properties of mild steel and a Ni/Cr/Mo steel alloy. It can be clearly
seen that the steel alloy has a superior strength when compared with mild steel (in terms of the
proof stress, Tensile strength and hardness).
However, mild steel is much tougher (i.e. higher impact value) and more ductile (%Elongation)
that the steel alloy. As a general rule, the strength of a metal may be increased, but at the expense
of ductility and toughness.
Other factors such as prise must be considered. For example, the steel alloy will be much more
expensive than mild steel. This problem may be overcome by specifying thicker sections of mild
steel rather than thinner ones from the steel alloy.
However, this means that the component made from mild steel will be much heavier than an
equivalent component made from the steel alloy, hence, a weight penalty.
The fabrication costs must also be considered. For example, the steel alloy will be more
expensive to fabricate (e.g. bending, cutting machining etc) than mild steel.
It is therefore important to specify the requirement of a particular design and then chose a
material accordingly. Hence, the use of more expensive material must always be justified.
1.19
Table 1.3
Metal or
Alloy
Lead
Aluminium
Duralum
Magnesium
6A1/1Zn
Copper
70/30 Brass
Phosphor
Bronze (5%
tin)
Mild Steel
0.45%
Carbon Steel
4Ni/Cr/Mo
Steel
18/8 Stainless
Steel
Grey Cast
Iron
Titanium commercially
pure
Titanium
Alloy
(4Sn/4A1/
4Mo 0.5Si)
Typical Mechanical Properties of Some Metals and Alloys

Condition
Soft Sheet
Wrought &
Annealed
Extruded &
fully heat
treated
Extruded Bar
Wrought &
Annealed
Annealed
0.1% Proof
Strength
(N/mm)
---
Tensile
Strength
(N/mm)
18
Youngs
Modulus
(kN/mm)
16
Elongation
(%)
Hardness
(Brinell*)
65
Impact
Value
(Izod) (J)
---
25
60
70
60
15
27
275
430
71
15
115
22
170
300
48
10
60
46
216
130
60
42
59
85
320
Deep drawn
Rolled &
Annealed
Hard rolled
Hot Rolled
Sheet
Normalised
Water
quenched &
tempered at
600C
Air hardened
& tempered at
300C
370
465
68
62
90
19
132
---
120
340
66
72
---
650
710
188
61
270
400
28
100
75
420
665
27
152
44
540
780
25
200
65
1200
1550
225
12
444
22
Softened
185
525
220
30
170
68
As cast
---
300
150
250
Annealed
Sheet
370
450
120
30
---
61
Precipitation
Hardened
1200
1390
150
16
---
---
100
101
210
200
1.20
1.5
Fatigue failure
1.5.1
Nature of Fatigue Failure
In many applications, a component or structure (e.g. from a bridge, aircraft or machine) is

subjected to the repeated (cyclic) application of a stress below the yield strength of the material.
This repeated stress might occur as a result of tension and compression, rotation, bending, or
even vibration as shown in Figure 1.18.
a) Repeated
tension /compression
b) Repeated bending
c) Repeated torsion
Figure 1.18 Types of fatigue loading

Although the stress may be below the yield strength, the material may fail after a large number
of applications of stress. This mode of failure is known as fatigue.
Final Fatigue failure is catastrophic, occurring very suddenly and without warning. It is brittle
in nature, even in normally ductile materials. There is little, if any, gross plastic deformation.
The fatigue process occurs by initiation, propagation and final fracture.
1.21
1.5.2
The Mechanism of Fatigue Failure
Fatigue failure begins (nucleates) quite early in the service life of the member by the formation
of a small crack, generally at some point on the external surface, as shown in Figure 1.19.
A fatigue crack 'front' advances a very small amount during each stress cycle This crack
develops slowly into the material in a direction roughly perpendicular to the main tensile axis.
Ultimately the cross-sectional area of the member will have been so reduced that it can no longer
withstand the applied load and ordinary tensile fracture will result.
Initial
crack
Final
fractured
surface
Nucleation
Figure 1.19
Crack growth
Fracture
The progress of fatigue failure
A fatigue fracture thus develops in three stages - nucleation, crack growth and final
catastrophic failure.
Since the crack propagates slowly from the source, the fractured surfaces rub together due to the
pulsating nature of the stress and so the surfaces becomes burnished whilst still exhibiting the
conchoidal marking (beach marks) representing the large ripples.
Final fracture, when the residual cross section of the member is no longer able to carry the load,
is typically crystalline in appearance.
Fatigue failures in metals are therefore generally very easy to identify.
1.22
1.5.3
Fatigue Testing
A common method to measure the resistance to fatigue is the rotating cantilever beam test
(Figure 1.20).
Motor
Chuck
Specimen
Counter
Tension/compression
Load
Figure 1.20 - The rotating cantilever beam fatigue tester
One end of a machined, cylindrical specimen is mounted in a motor-driven chuck. A weight is
suspended from the other end. The specimen initially has tensile force acting on the top surface,
while the bottom surface is compressed. After the specimen turns 90, the locations that were
originally in tension and compression have no stress acting on them. After a half revolution of
180, the material that was originally in tension is now in compression. Thus, the stress at any
one point goes through a complete cycle from zero stress to maximum tensile stress to zero
stress to maximum compressive stress.
After a sufficient of cycles, the specimen may fail. Generally, a series of specimens are tested at
different applied stresses and the stress (S) is plotted versus the number of cycles to failure (N),
as shown in Figure 1.21.
Stress, (or S)
(MPa)
600
Tool Steel
Endurance Limit
400
Aluminum alloy
105
Figure 1.21
Number of cycles to failure (N)
- The stress-number of cycles to failure curve for an Tool steel and an

aluminium alloy. (Not to scale).
1.23
The fatigue test can tell us how long a part may survive or the maximum allowable loads that can
be applied to prevent failure.
Fatigue Life
The fatigue life indicates how long a component survives when a stress, ,
is repeatedly applied to the material. For example, If we are designing a
tool steel part that must undergo 100,000 cycles during its lifetime, the part
must be designed so that the applied stress is lower than 600Mpa (Figure
1.21).
Fatigue Limit
The fatigue limit, which is the stress below which failure by fatigue never
occurs, is our preferred design criterion. At the fatigue limit the S-N curve
become horizontal. To prevent a tool steel part from failing, we must be
sure that the applied stress is below 400 MPa (Figure 1.21).
Fatigue Strength
Some materials, including many aluminium alloys, have no true fatigue

limit. For these materials, we may specify a minimum fatigue life; then
the fatigue strength is the stress below which fatigue does not occur within
this time period. In many aluminium alloys, the fatigue strength is based
on 500 million cycles.
1.5.4 Improving Fatigue resistance

Methods of improving the fatigue resistance of engineering components are discussed as follows.
Surface Finish
Fatigue cracks initiate at the surface of a stressed material, where the

stresses are at a maximum. Any design or manufacturing defect at the
surface concentrates stresses and encourages the formation of a fatigue
crack. This susceptibility may be measured using a notched fatigue
specimen (Figure 1.22). Sometimes highly polished surfaces are prepared
in order to minimise the likelihood of a fatigue failure.
Stress
Un-Notched specimen
Notched specimen
Number of cycles
Figure 1.22 - The effect of a notch on the fatigue properties of a metal.
1.24
Care should also be taken during the welding of engineering components.

Bad welding (e.g. undercut and lack of penetration as shown in Figure
1.23)) could lead to the inclusion of stress raisers , which me, ultimately
lead to catastrophic fatigue failure.
Undercut
Lack of penetration
Bad
Good
Bad
Good
Figure 1.23 Examples of weld defects
Material Strength
The fatigue resistance is related to the strength of the material at the

surface. In many ferrous, or iron-base, alloys, the fatigue limit is
approximately one-half the tensile strength of the material. This ratio
of fatigue limit to tensile strength is the fatigue ratio.
Fatigue ratio =
Fatigue limit
Tensile strength
0.5
If the tensile strength at the surface of the material increases, the

resistance to fatigue also increases.
Environmental
Effects
Temperature influences the fatigue resistance. As the temperature of the

material increases, the strength decreases and consequently both fatigue
life and fatigue limit decrease.
Corrosion may also cause a component to loose its surface smoothness and
eventually lead to fatigue failure, in service.
1.25
Design effects
Proper design of engineering components can dramatically improve their

fatigue life. On of the most important design techniques is to reduce the
effects of sharp corners, hence reduce the effects of so called stress raisers,
Improved by a Fillet Radius
Figure 1.24
Typical design considerations for the improvement of the fatigue resistance

of engineering components
1.26
1.6
Creep Failure
1.6.1 Nature of Creep

If we apply a stress to a metal at a high temperature, the strength of the metal may drop as shown
in Figure 1.25. The metal may also stretch and eventually fail, even though the applied stress is
less than the yield strength at that temperature.
a) Engineering stress strain behaviour for iron at

three temperatures.
b) Plot of modulus of elasticity versus

temperature for Tungsten, Steel, and
Aluminium
Figure 1.25
1.6.2 Creep Test
To determine the creep characteristics of a material, a constant stress is applied to a cylindrical
specimen placed in a furnace (Figure 1.26 a).
Constant Stress
Furnace (constant Temperature)
Creep Specimen
1.27
Figure 1.26 a) A specimen is placed in a furnace at an elevated temperature under a

constant applied stress in the creep test.
During the creep test, the strain or elongation is measured as a function of time and plotted to
give the creep curve, as shown in Figure 1.26 b).
Constant Stress
Constant Temperature
Fracture
Strain
Creep rate =
t
0
First
Second Stage
Third
Stage
(Steady state)
Stage
Time
Figure 1.26 b) A typical creep curve showing the strain produced as a function of time for
a constant stress and temperature
It can bee seen from figure 1.26 b), that creep will take place in three stages
First stage
As soon as stress is applied, the specimen stretches elastically a small amount 0 (Figure 1.26 b),
lecture notes), depending on the applied stress and the modulus of elasticity of the material at the
high temperature
Second Stage
During second-stage, or steady-state creep, the metal stretches (slips) at an almost steady rate, as
long as the temperature and stress (loading conditions) are kept constant. The slope of the
steady-state portion of the creep curve is the creep rate.
1.28
Third Stage
Eventually, during third-stage creep, necking begins, the stress increases and the specimen
deforms at an accelerated rate until failure occurs. This is partly due to the eventual sliding of
parts of the metal at grain boundaries as shown in Figures 1.27a) and b).
Grain
Grain
Grain
Figure 1.27 a) - Effect of third stage creep at grain boundary
Eventual opening
and rupture at
grain boundaries
1.29
Figure 1.27 b)
Cracking between 3 grains of Ni (16%)-Cr (9%)-Fe alloy after 35%

elongation at 3600C and initial strain rate of 3x10-7sec-1.
2.1
2. THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS
2.1
The States of Mater
All chemical elements can exist in either the solid, liquid or gaseous state depending on the
prevailing conditions such as temperature and pressure. The atoms (or ions or molecules) in
mater will also posses a certain amount of energy (potential energy) by virtue of their state as
shown in Figure 2.1.
GAS
Potential Energy
Condensation
LIQUID
Crystallisation
SOLID
Inter-atomic distance
Figure 1 Relative potential energy and atomic arrangements in the three states of matter.
(In the gaseous and liquid states, these arrangements are disorderly, but in the solid state, the
ions conform to some geometrical pattern.)
In the gaseous state, the molecules will have a relatively large amount of potential energy
(Figure 2.1) and move about in a disorderly fashion with relatively large intermolecular
distances.
On condensation to a liquid, the atoms come into contact with each other to form bonds (Figure
2.1), but there is still no orderly arrangement of the atoms, though a large amount of potential
energy is given up in the form of latent heat.
When solidification takes place (Figure 2.1), there is a further discharge of latent heat, and the
potential energy falls even lower as the atoms take up orderly positions in some geometrical
pattern, which constitutes a crystal structure. The rigidity and cohesion of the structure is then
due to the operation of the metallic bond (see Appendix 2A, at the end of this chapter).
Substances can be classified as either amorphous or crystalline.
2.2
Crystalline structure
The crystalline structure consists of atoms, or, more properly, ions, arranged according to some
regular geometrical pattern as shown in Figure 2.2. This pattern varies, as we shall see, from one
substance to another. All metals are crystalline in nature. If a metal, or other crystalline solid, is
stressed below its elastic limit, any distortion produced is temporary and when the stress is
removed, the solid will return to its original shape. Thus, removal of stress leads to removal of
strain and we say that the substance is elastic.
Basic unit
(crystal)
Figure 2.2
Idealised space lattice, of a metal showing
a basic unit (crystal) and repeat units.
Atom
(or ion)
Repeat
units
Hard-sphere unit cell representation of the simple cubic

crystal structure.
Amorphous state
In the amorphous state, the elementary particles are mixed together in a disorderly manner, their
positions bearing no fixed relationship to those of their neighbours.
The amorphous structure is typical of all liquids in that the atoms or molecules of which they are
composed can be moved easily with respect to each other, since they do not conform to any fixed
pattern. In the case of liquids of simple chemical formulae in which the molecules are small, the
forces of attraction between these molecules are not sufficient to prevent the liquid from flowing
under its own weight; that is, it possesses high mobility. Many substances, generally regarded
as being solids, are amorphous in nature and rely on the existence of long-chain molecules such
as many polymers, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Chains
HHHHH
Bond
C-C-C-C-C-----HHHHH
Representation of a polyethylene sample
Basic Polyethylene chain

(Carbon, C, and Hydrogen, H)
Figure 2.3- Representation of polyethylene (in the amorphous condition)

2.3
2.2
SOLIDIFICATION AND STRUCTURES OF METALS
2.2.1 Solidification of pure metals

When a pure liquid solidifies into a crystalline solid, it does so at a fixed temperature called the
freezing point. During the crystallisation process the atoms assume positions according to some
geometrical pattern (Fig. 1), and whilst this is taking place, heat (the latent head of solidification)
is given out in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics, without any fall in temperature
taking place. A typical cooling curve for a pure metal is shown is Figure 2.4.
Temperature
Freezing begins
Freezing ends
Freezing point
Time
Figure 2.4 Typical cooling curve of a pure metal
2.2.2 Basic Metallic structures

There are several types of pattern or space lattice in which metallic atoms can bind together and
arrange them selves on solidification (see Appendix 2.B at the end of this chapter). But the three
most common structures, namely, body-centred cubic, face-centred cubic and hexagonal
close-packed are shown in Figure 2.5.
The hexagonal close-packed represents the closest packing, which is possible with atoms. It is
the sort of arrangement obtained when one set of snooker balls is allowed to fall in position on
top of a set already packed in the triangle. The face-centred cubic arrangement is also close
packing of the atoms, but the body-centred cubic is relatively open.
Typical metallic structures are included in Table 2.1.
2.4
Hard Sphere Model
Simple Model
Aggregate of many atoms
a)
Hard Sphere Model
Simple Model
b)
Simple Model

c)
Figure 2.5 The three principal types of structure in which metallic elements crystallise.
a) Body-centered cubic crystal, b) Face-centered cubic crystal and c) Hexagonal
-close-packed crystal.
2.5
Table 2.1- Typical metallic crystalline structures

Body-centered cubic
(BCC)
Vanadium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Iron (, )
Chromium ()
Face-centered cubic
(FCC)
Copper
Silver
Cobalt ()
Iron ()
Chromium ()
Gold
Aluminium
Lead
Nickel
Platinum
Hexagonal-close-packed
(HCP)
Beryllium
Magnesium
Cobalt ()
Cadmium
Zinc
2.2.3 Polymorphic transformation of metals

Some metals (e.g. Iron, Cobalt and Chromium, see table 2.1) may changes their crystalline form
as the temperature is raised or lowered. This is also accompanied by a noticeable change in
volume or the body of metal. An element, which can exist in more than one crystalline form in
this way is said to be Polymorphic. Thus pure iron can exist in three separate crystalline forms,
which are designated by letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha (), gamma () and delta ().
-iron, which is body-centred cubic and exists at normal temperatures, changes to -iron, which
is face-centred cubic, when heated to 910C. At 1400C the face-centred cubic structure reverts
to body centred cubic -iron. (The essential difference between -iron and -iron, is only in the
temperature range over which each exists.) These Polymorphic changes are accompanied by
changes in volume-contraction and expansion respectively as shown in Figure 2.6.
Volume
910
1400
Temperature 0C
Figure 2.6 The effect of Polymorphic transformations on the expansion of pure iron.
(The close packing of the phase causes a sudden decrease in volume of the unit cell at
910C and a corresponding increase at 1400C when the structure changes to )
2.6
2.3
Crystal growth an overall bulk solidification of metals
When a pure metal solidifies, each crystal begins to form independently from a nucleus or
centre of crystallisation. The nucleus will be a simple unit of the appropriate crystal lattice,
and from this the crystal will grow. The crystal develops by the addition of atoms according to
the lattice pattern it will follow, and rapidly begins to assume visible proportions in what is
called a dendrite. This is a sort of crystal skeleton, rather like a backbone from which the
arms begin to grow in other directions, depending upon the lattice pattern. From these secondary
arms, tertiary arms begin to sprout, somewhat similar to the branches and twigs of a fir-tree. In
the metallic dendrite, however, these branches and twigs conform to a rigid geometrical pattern.
A metallic crystal grows in this way because heat is dissipated more quickly from a point, so that
it will be there that the temperature falls most quickly leading to the information of a rather
elongated skeleton (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7
The early stages in the
growth of a metallic
dendrite
The dendrite arms continue to grow and thicken at the same time, until ultimately the space
between them will become filled with solid. Meanwhile the outer arms begin to make contact
with those of neighbouring dendrites, which have been developing quite independently at the
same time. All these neighbouring crystals will be orientated differently due to their independent
formation; that is, their lattices will meet at odd angles.
When contact has taken place between the outer arms of neighbouring crystals further growth
outwards is impossible, and solidification will be complete when the remaining liquid is used up
in thickening the existing dendrite arms. Hence, the independent formation of each crystal leads
to the irregular overall shape of crystals. The dendritic growth of crystals during the bulk
solidification of a metal is illustrated in Figure 2.8. In these diagrams, however, the major axes
of the crystals are all shown in the same horizontal plane, i.e. the plane of the paper (for the sake
of clarity), whereas in practice, grains will grow in a three-dimensional manner.
Independent
nucleation
of dendrites
Grain (dendritic)
growth
Contact between
dendrites
Final structure
Grain
Grain
boundary
Figure 2.8 The dendritic growth of metallic crystals (grains) from the liquid state.
2.7
Dendritic growth may be observed as shown in Figure 2.9, where an iron dendrite was allowed
to form within a copper matrix.
Figure 2.9 Dendritic Growth

This iron dendrite grew from a nucleus at n in a molten mixture of iron and copper. After
all the available iron has been used up, the dendrite ceased to grown and the molten copper
solidified as the matrix in which the iron dendrite remains embedded. (In fact, the iron
dendrite will contain a little dissolved copper in solid solution whilst the copper matrix
will contain a very small amount of the dissolved iron.) x 300 magnification.
2.4
Defects in Metal During Solidification

Porosity in metals
If the metal we have been considering is pure, we shall see no evidence whatever of dendritic
growth once solidification is complete, since all atoms are identical. Dissolved impurities,
however, will often tend to remain in the molten portion of the metal as long as possible, so that
they are present in that part of the metal which ultimately solidifies in the spaces between the
dendrite arms. Since their presence will often cause a slight alteration in the colour of the parent
metal, the dendritic structure will be revealed on microscopic examination.
The areas containing impurity will appear as patches between the dendrite arms. Inter-dendritic
porosity may also reveal the original pattern of the dendrites to some extent. If the metal is
cooled too rapidly during solidification, molten metal is often unable to feed effectively into
the spaces, which form between the dendrites, due to the shrinkage (Figure 2.11 a)). which
accompanies freezing. These spaces then remain as cavities following the outline of the solid
dendrite. Such shrinkage cavities can usually be distinguished from blowholes formed by
dissolved gas (gas porosity). The former are of distinctive shape and occur at the crystal
2.8
boundaries, whilst the latter are quite often irregular in form and occur at any point in the crystal
structure (Figure 2.11 b)).
Gas porosity
(Blow holes)
Shrinkage
a)
b)
Figure 2.10 Porosity in Cast Metals

Shrinkage cavities (a) tend to follow the shape of the dendrite arms and occur at the crystal
boundaries, whilst gas porosity (b) is usually of irregular shape and occurs at almost any point
in the structure.
Defects in metal castings
The rate at which a molten metal is cooling when it reaches its freezing point affects the size of
the crystals, which form. A slow fall in temperature, which leads to a small degree of
undercooking at the onset of solidification, promotes the formation of relatively few nuclei, so
that the resultant crystals will be large (they are easily seen without the aid of a microscope).
Rapid cooling, on the other hand, leads to a high degree of undercooking being attained, and the
onset of crystallisation results in the formation of a large shower of nuclei. This can only mean
that the final crystals, being large in number, are small in size. In the language of the foundry,
chilling causes fine-grain casting. (Throughout this study, the term grain and crystal are
used synonymously). Thus the crystal size of a pressure die-casting will be very small compared
with that of a sand-casting. Whilst the latter cools relatively slowly, due to the insulating
properties of the sand mould, the former solidifies very quickly, due to the contact of the molten
metal with the metal mould. Similarly, thin sections, whether in sand or die-casting, will lead
to a relatively quicker rate of cooling, and consequently smaller crystals.
2.9
In a large ingot the crystal size may vary considerably from the outside surface to the centre
(Figure 2.11). This is due to the variation, which exists in the temperature gradient as the ingot
solidifies and heat is transferred from the metal to the mould. When metal first makes contact
with the mould the latter is cold, and this has a chilling effect, which results in the formation of
small crystals , Chill Crystals (grains), at the surface of the ingot. As the mould warms up, its
chilling effect is reduced, so that the formation of nuclei will be retarded as solidification
proceeds. Thus crystals towards the centre of the ingot will be larger, Large Equi-Axed
Crystals. In an intermediate position, the rate of cooling is favourable to the formation of
elongated columnar crystals, so that we are frequently able to distinguish three separate zones
in the crystal structure of an ingot, as shown in (Figure 2.11). Planes of weakness, originating
from the corners of the casting may also be apparent due to the irregular clashing of crystals
from the sides of the mould.
Figure 2.11 The Crystal Structure in a section of a large cast ingot
Grain Boundary Defects
Grain boundary defect is an example of what is termed Interfacial Defects. In this case, a grain
boundary separates two small grains having different crystallographic orientation in a
polycrystalline metal. Within the boundary region, there is some atomic mismatch in the
transition from the crystalline orientation of one grain and that of an adjacent one, as shown in
Figure 2.12.
Various degrees of crystallographic misalignment between adjacent grains are possible as shown
in Figure 2.12. Fore example, when the orientation mismatch is slight (on the order of a few
degrees), then the term Low-angle boundary is used. Similarly, the term High- angle
boundary is used when the orientation mismatch is large (on the order of many degrees).
2.10
Figure 2.12
Schematic diagram showing High and Low grain angle boundaries and the
adjacent atom positions
The atoms are bonded less regularly at grain boundaries. Consequently, there is an interfacial, or
grain boundary energy (measured in J/m2), present between atoms at the boundaries, which in
higher than the energy of atoms at the interior positions of the grain.
The magnitude of the boundary energy is related to the degree of mismatch, being higher for
high angle boundaries. Grain boundaries are more chemically reactive than grains because of
grain boundary energy. Furthermore, impurity atoms (for example in metal alloys; section 4.3.3)
tend to segregate at grain boundaries because of their high-energy state.
In addition, the total inter-granular energy is lower in large coarse grain metals than ones in fine
grained ones since there is less total boundary are in coarse grain metals. Hence, at elevated
temperatures, fine grains tend to inter-connect and grow in order to reduce the total boundary
energy (section 4.3.4.2).
Grain boundaries are important factors in reducing (hindering) the movement of dislocation
(section 4.3.2).
In spite of this disordered arrangement of atoms and lack of regular bonding between atoms
along grain boundaries, a polycrystalline metal is still strong: the cohesive forces within and
across the boundaries are present. Furthermore, the density of a single crystal is virtually
identical to that of a polycrystalline sample of the same metal.
2.11
Vacancies
A vacancy (or a vacant lattice site) is the simplest example of what is termed a point defects. A
vacancy denotes a lattice position (or site) from which an atom is missing, as shown in Figure
2.13.
Atoms occupying regular

Lattice Positions
vacancy
Figure 2.13
Two-dimensional representation of a vacancy
All crystalline solids contain vacancies and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a material
that is free of these defects. The number of vacancies increases with the increase in temperature
of the crystalline solid. Vacancies play an important role in inter-atomic diffusion (Appendix
7.A).
Other examples of point defects are Substitiotional and Interstitial defects, which ore related to
the production of metal alloys (section 5.2.2).
Line defects
Line defects are related to what is termed Dislocations. Dislocations are extremely important
and chapter 4 has been dedicated to discuss this subject.
2.12
APPENDIX 2A
Bonding in Metals
2A.1 Simplified Structure of an Atom (EXAMPLE LITHIUM, LI)

Nucleus
Neutron
Proton
Shell (K, L, M, etc.)

Electron
L
Contents of an Atom
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Charge (C,Coulomb)
+ 1.602 x 10-19
0
- 1.602 x 10-19
Relative Charge
+1
0
-1
Mass (Kg)
1.6727 x 10-27
1.6747 x 10-27
0.00091085 x 10-27
Relative Mass
1
1
0
Atom Characteristics
Atomic Number = Number of Electrons = Number of Protons (e.g. 3 for Li)
For a Neutral atom, Number of Electrons = Number of Protons
Atomic Weight, or Atomic Mass, (relative) Number of Neutrons + Number of Protons (e.g. 6
for Li)
Ions
An atom, which has acquired an electrical charge as a result of a gain (-ve charge) or a loss (+ve
charge) of electrons is called an ion.
Cation is an ion possessing a +ve charge (e.g. Na+ or Fe+ + etc).
Anion is an ion possessing a -ve charge (e.g. Cl- or S - - etc).
2.13
2A.2
Metallic Bonding
There are several mechanisms that atoms (or ions) will adopt in order to bind (make bonds) and,
hence, create a material. Metals for example create metallic bonds as shown in Figure 2A.1.
In this mechanism, the metal atoms become positively charged ions by giving up some up their
valence electrons (outer electrons), which, in tern, forms an electron sea (negatively charged).
Hence the positively charged ion cores are bonded by the mutual attraction of the negatively
charged electrons.
Metallic Bonds
_
__
__
__
__
__
+
__
__
__
__
+
__
__
__
__
__ __
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
Positively
charged
metallic ions
__
+
__
+
__
__
__
__
__
+
Figure 2A.1- Model of metallic bonding in metals
Sea of
negatively
charged
electron
2.14
2A. 3 Bonding energy and Inter-Atomic Spacing

Inter-atomic spacing is the distance between atoms and is caused by a balance between
attractive and repulsive forces acting on the atoms (or ions). In a metallic Bond, for example,
the attraction between the electrons and the atom core is balanced by the repulsion between the
atom cores as shown in Figure 2A.2. Equilibrium separation, ro, occurs when the total energy
between a pair of atoms (or ions) is at a minimum and when no net force is acting to either
attract or repel atoms. The minimum energy is said to be the Bonding Energy.
Atomic Radius
Positive
core
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
Negative
electrons
__
Outer shell
Repulsion
(+)
Energy
Interatomic Distance ( r )
Bonding Energy ( U0 )
Attraction
(-)
(minimum)
Attraction
(+)
Force
Inter-atomic Distance ( r )
Repulsion
(-)
Equilibrium
Separation, r0
Figure 2A.2 Variation of Energy and Force with inter-atomic Distance
2.15
As mentioned above, the minimum energy in Figure 2A.2 is the Bonding Energy, U0, or the
energy required to create or break the bond. Consequently, materials having high bonding
energies also have high values of strength and melting temperatures. The Bonding Energy of the
metallic bond varies between 100 800 (kJ/mol).
The Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus) of a metal which is the amount a material will
stretch when a force is applied (i.e. a measure of stiffness) is related to the Force-Extension
curve of Figure 2A.2. A steep slope (which correlates to a higher binding energy and melting
temperature) means that a greater force is required to stretch the bond; thus, the metal has a
higher Modulus of Elasticity (and, hence, a higher stiffness).
2.16
APPENDIX 2B
The Various Possible crystal structures (14 in total), or Bravais Lattices
3.1
3. SPECIMEN PREPARATION AND MICROSCOPIC

EXAMINATION
3.1
Introduction
On accessions it is necessary to examine the structural elements, e.g. grain size and defects that
influence the properties of metals. Sometimes, the grains are macroscopic and may be viewed
by the naked eye, e.g. zinc grains on the surfaces of galvanised steel components. However, in
most metals, the constituent grains are of microscopic dimensions and their details must be
investigated using some kind of microscopy.
Grain size, shape and defects are only few of the many features in metals of what is termed
microstructure.
In order to view the microstructure at the of a metal, first the surface of the metal must be
prepared and then viewed by a microscope.
3.1.1
3.1.1.1
The Preparation of Metal Specimens

General Process
In preparing a metal specimen for microscopic examination it is first necessary to produce in it a

surface which appears perfectly flat and scratch free when viewed with the aid of a microscope.
This involves first grinding the surface flat, and then polishing it to remove the marks left by
grinding (it is necessary to mount small specimens to facilitate the grinding process). The
polishing process causes a very thin layer of amorphous metal to be burnished over the surface
of the specimen, thus hiding the crystal structure. In order to reveal its crystal structure, the
specimen is etched in a suitable reagent. This etching reagent dissolves the flowed or
amorphous layer of metal and preferentially attacks the grain boundaries, thus making them
visible and distinguishable.
3.1.1.2
Mounting of the specimens
It is difficult to handle small specimens in order to grind them. It is therefore necessary to mount
the specimen, usually using some plastic material, in order to be able to better handle the
specimen and facilitate the grinding and polishing process.
A typical set-up for mounting the specimen is shown in Figure 3.1. This involves placing the
specimen in a small mould and surrounding it with a plastic powder. Force (using a plunger) and
heat (using an electric heater) is applied for a short time. This compacts the powder and binds it
together. The specimen will be securely embedded in the mount and may be more easily
handled, thus, enabling its surface be ground and polished.
Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists
27 31 December 2009
3.2
Plunger
Outer Sleeve
Plastic
Powder
Heater
Specimen
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.1
(a)
(b)
Mould for mounting specimens in plastic materials when pressure is

necessary
Moulding the mount
Specimen securely embedded in Finished mount
3.1.1.3
Grinding and polishing the specimen
Grinding creates an evenly flat surface specimen. This is achieved by subjecting the surface of
the specimen to coarse, intermediate and fine hand grinding which is carried out on emery papers
(e.g. silicon carbide paper) of progressively finer grade, as shown in Figure 3.2 a). These must
be of the very best quality, particularly in respect of uniformity of particle size. Usually, four
grades of paper are necessary (e.g. 220, 320, 400 and 600 from coarse to fine), since by using a
paper with a waterproof base, wet grinding can be employed.
Water
Grinding
Paper
Grinding
Motion
Specimen
Rotary
wheel
Motor
Coarse
Fine
Figure 3.2 Hand-grinding and b) Rotary-wheel grinding set-ups
27 31 December 2009
3.3
Since it has been recognised that the dust of many heavy metals is dangerously toxic. Rotary
grinding wheels are available on to which discs of grinding paper are clamped. These are driven
by two-speed motors and are fitted with water drip-feeds and suitable drains as shown in Figure
3.2 b).
Most metallographic specimens are then polished using one of the proprietary diamond-dust
polishing compound, which is smeared on a polishing pad (which in turn is mounted on a rotary
wheel, similar to the set up in Figure 3.2 b)). In these materials, the graded diamond particles are
carried in a cream base, which is soluble in both water and the special polishing fluid, a few
spots of which are applied to the polishing pad, in order to lubricate the work and promote even
spreading of the compound. These compounds are graded and colour-coded according to
particle size (in micrometers, m). For polishing irons and steels it is generally convenient to
use a two-stage technique necessitating two polishing wheels. Preliminary polishing is carried
out using, for example, a 6m particle size. The specimen is then washed and finished on the
second wheel using a 1m particle size.
To summarise, the most important factors affecting a successful finish are:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3.1.1.4
Care should be taken not to overheat the specimen during grinding. In steel this may
have a tempering effect.
Absolute cleanliness is essential at every stage
If a specimen has picked up deep scratches in the later stages of grinding it is useless to
attempt to remove them on the polishing pad. If a specimen is polished for too long on
the pad its surface may become rippled.
Apply light pressure at all times during grinding and polishing
Etching the Specimen
The final polishing operation (section 3.2.3) is somewhat different in character and really
removes the ridged surface layer by means of a burnished operation. When polishing is
complete the ridges have been completely removed, but the mechanism of polishing is such that
is leaves a flowed or amorphous layer of metal on the surface (Fig. 3.3). This hides the crystal
structure and must be dissolved by a suitable etching reagent.
Before being etched the specimen must be absolutely clean, otherwise it will undoubtedly stain
during etching. The specimen should first be washed free of any adhering polishing compound.
Even now, the specimen may be slightly greasy, and the final film of grease is best removed by
immersing the specimen in boiling ethanol (white industrial methylated spirit) for about two
minutes.
From this point onwards, the specimen must not be touched by the fingers but handled, for
example, with a pair of nickel crucible tongs. It is removed from the ethanol and cooled in
running water before being etched. With specimens mounted in thermoplastic materials it may
be found that the amount is dissolved by hot ethanol. In such cases swabbing with a piece of
cotton wool soaked in caustic soda solution may be found effective for degreasing.
27 31 December 2009
3.4
When thoroughly cleaned, the specimen is etched by being plunged into the etching reagent and
agitated vigorously for several seconds. The specimen is then quickly transferred to running
water to wash away the etching reagent, and then examined to see the extent to which etching
has taken place. Such inspection is carried out with the naked eye. If successfully etched the
surface will appear slightly dull and in cast materials, the individual crystals may actually be
seen without the aid of the microscope. If the surface is still bright, further etching will be
necessary. The time required for etching varies with different alloys and etching reagents. Some
alloys can be etched sufficiently in a few seconds, whilst some stainless steels, being resistant to
attack by most reagents, require as much as thirty minutes.
After being etched, the specimen is washed in running water and then dried by immersion for a
minute or so in boiling ethanol. The specimen must be dried evenly and quickly, or it will stain.
If an efficient drier is available the boiling ethanol bath can be dispensed with.
Grinding
a)
Polishing
Flow
b)
Etching
c)
Sectioned side
view of grain
Top view of
ground, polished
and etched grains
d)
Figure 10.4
(a)
Grooves (rough surfaces) produced in the metal surface by the final grinding
operation.
(b)
Final polishing has produced a smooth surface but with a flowed layer.
(c)
Etching has removed the flowed layer,
(d)
thus revealing the crystal structure beneath as viewed by an optical microscope.
A summary of useful etching reagents is given in Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3.
Table 3.1
Etching Reagent for Steels
Type of Etchant
Composition
2cm nitric acid;
98cm
ethanol
Nital
(industrial
methylated spirit)
27 31 December 2009
3.5
Table 3.2
Etching Reagent for Copper
Type of Etchant
Composition
20cm ammonium
Ammonical
hydroxide (0.880);
ammonium peroxo10g
ammonium
disulphate
peroxodisulphate;
80cm water
Table 3.3
Etching Reagent for Aluminium
Type of Etchant
Composition
Dilute hydrofluoric
acid
3.2
0.5cm hydrofluoric
acid; 99.5cm water
Microscopes
3.2.1 The Metallurgical Microscope

The metallurgical microscope is similar in optical principles to any other microscope, but differs
from some of them in the method by which the specimen is illuminated. Most biological
specimens can be prepared as thin, transparent slices mounted between sheets of thin glass, so
that illumination can be arranged simply, by having a source of light behind the specimen.
Metals, however, are opaque substances, and since they must be illuminated by frontal
lighting, it follows that the source of light must be inside the microscope tube itself. This is
usually accomplished, as in Figure 3.4, by means of a small plain-glass reflector, R, placed
inside the tube.
Eye piece E
Tube
Light source
Reflector
Objective O
Specimen
Figure 10.5 - The basic optical system of the metallurgical microscope.
27 31 December 2009
3.6
The eyepiece, E, is so called because it is the lens nearest the eye. It is a relatively simple lens
and its purpose is to magnify the image produced by the objective. Eyepieces are made in a
number of powers, usually x6, x8, x10 and x15.
The overall approximate magnification of the complete microscope system can be calculated
from:
Magnification
Where:
T
F
N
=
=
T.N.
F
the tube length of the microscope measured from the back component of
the objective to the lower end of the eyepiece.
the focal length of the objective
the power of the eyepiece
Thus, for a microscope having a tube length of 200mm and using a 16mm focal-length objective
and a x10 eyepiece, the magnification would be 200 x 10, i.e. 125.
16
Most modern microscope objectives are engraved with a multiplying power which is relative to
the tube length of the microscope for which they are designed. The overall magnification is then
obtained simply by multiplying the power of the objective by that of the eyepiece, e.g. a x40
objective used in conjunction with a x10 eyepiece will give an overall magnification of x400.
3.2.2
The Electron Microscopes
Whilst much of the routine micro-examination of metals is carried out at low magnifications in
the region of x100, it is often necessary in metallurgical research to be able to examine structures
at very high magnifications. Unfortunately, the highest magnification possible with an ordinary
optical microscope is in the region of x2000. Above this magnification, the dimensions being
dealt with are comparable with the wavelength of light itself. Indeed, since blue light is of
shorter wavelength than red light, it is advantageous to view specimens by blue light when
examining very fine detail at high magnifications.
For very high-power microscopy (between x2000 and several millions) light rays can be
replaced by a beam of electrons. The bending or refracting of light rays in an optical
microscope is achieved by using a suitable glass-lens system. A similar effect is produced in the
electron microscope by using an Electro-magnetic lens to refract the electron beam. This
lens consists of coil systems, which produce the necessary Electro-magnetic field to focus the
electron beam.
The scanning electron microscope differs in principle from the metallurgical instrument in that
electrons generated and reflected from the actual surface of the specimen are used to produce the
image. The image is built up by scanning the surface in a manner similar to that employed in a
synchronously scanned cathode ray tube. An image of very high resolution is produced but an
even more important feature is the great depth of field available as compared with an optical
instrument. This enables unprepared surfaces, e.g. fractures, to be scanned at magnifications up
to 50,000.
27 31 December 2009
4.1
4. DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING

MECHANISMS OF METALS
4.1
Theoretical and Observed Mechanical Properties of Metals
Data obtained from tensile stress- strain curves give important information about the stress
dependence of plastic deformation in a crystalline (polycrystalline) metal, but without providing
an explanation of the processes (mechanisms) that determines the mechanical properties.
As with elastic deformation, the stress at which plastic deformation occurs is related to the
strength of the interatomic bonds (see Appendix 2.A in chapter 2). But in plastic deformation,
the atoms are permanently displaced from their original equilibrium positions.
The mechanisms involved in the plastic deformation of metals have been investigated by
studying the response of single metallic crystals to an applied tensile stress. These studies
showed that two processes occurred, Slip and Twinning. The slip process predominates unless
the deformation takes place at extremely low temperatures or as a result of a shock loading.
Therefore, the slip process will only be considered in the present study.
Slip involves the movement of planes of atoms over one another as shown in Figure 4.1.
Top plane of Atoms
Shear Force
Imaginary Slip Plane
Bottom Plane of Atoms
a) Initial position of atoms
Simultaneous breaking of
interatomic bonds
b) Intermediate position of atoms
Movement of top plane over

bottom plane (by on step)
c) Final position of atoms
4.2
Figure 4.1 Idealised slip process in materials
Some attempts have been made to theoretically predict the strength of metals, based on the
assumption that all the atoms of one plane can move, at the same time, over another plane (in a
sliding or shear action). This will involve the Simultaneous breaking and reforming of the
interatomic bonds, as shown in Figure 4.1. This is an oversimplification of the real deformation
process, but, for now, will serve as a useful attempt to illustrate the basic principles.
For example, some theoretical analysis were based on estimating the critical resolve shear stress,
c, which is the force require to initiate slip (in a sliding or shear manner). The analysis
concluded that the critical resolve shear stress simplifies into the following equation:
c = G/2
Where G is the shear modulus, a material property

(G (Youngs Modulus)/2)
The theoretical and experimental values of are compared bellow for a selection of high purity
metals.
Metal
Silver
Aluminium
Copper
Iron
Theoretical c
(N/mm2)
3140
3340
4930
7000
Experimental c
(N/mm2)
0.38
0.80
0.50
28.00
It can be well observed from the above analysis that metals are much weaker (hence, more
ductile) in practice than the predicted theoretical analysis.
Other theoretical analysis shoe that metals have yield strengths far below the levels predicted by
calculation as much as a factor of 105 smaller. Even ceramics, many of them, yield at stresses,
which are as much as a factor of 10 below their ideal strength.
Other experimental observations (based on tensile testing of metals) show that after the metal has
yielded, it seems to become stronger with the increase in stress (until the maximum stress
value).
Why is this?
4.3
4.2
Dislocations in Crystals
4.2.1 Imperfections in crystals

It was stated that many important engineering materials (e.g. metals) were normally made up of
crystals, and explained that a perfect crystal was an assembly of atoms packed together in a
regularly repeating pattern.
But crystals (like everything else in this world) are not perfect; they have defects in them. Just as
the strength of a chain is determined by the strength of the weakest link, so the strength of a
crystal-and thus of our material-is usually limited by the defects that are present in it. The
dislocation is a particular type of defect (line defect) that has the effect of allowing materials to
deform plastically (that is, they yield) at stress levels that are much less than the theoretical,
predicted values. There are two types of dislocations, the Edge and the Screw dislocations.
It should be noted that imperfections in metals do not imply that the metal is not good (far from
it, imperfections in metals are heavily utilised in engineering processes as will be discussed
later).
4.2.2 Edge Dislocation
Figure 4.2 shows an edge dislocation from a continuum viewpoint (i.e. ignoring the atoms).
Such a dislocation is made in a block of material by cutting the block up to the line marked by ,
then displacing the material in the cut by a distance b (the atom size) normal to the line , Then
adding half a plane of atoms and finally gluing the cut-and-displaced surfaces back together.
Figure 4.2 The idealised atom positions around an edge dislocation

The material in the middle of the block now contains a half-plane of atoms, with its lower edge
lying along the line ( the dislocation line). This defect is called an edge dislocation because it
is formed by the edge of the half-plane of atoms; and it is written briefly by using the symbol .
Dislocation motion produces plastic strain. (Figures 4.3 a, b) show how the atoms rearrange as
the dislocation moves through the crystal, and that, when one dislocation moves entirely through
a crystal, the lower part is displaced under the upper by the distance b (called the Burgers
vector). The same process is drawn, without the atoms, and using the symbol for the position
of the dislocation line, in Figure 4.3 c).
4.4
The way in this dislocation works can be likened to the way which a ballroom carpet can be
moved across a large dance floor simply by moving rucks along the carpet- a very much easier
process than pulling the whole carpet across the floor in one go.
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Unit of slip (Burgers vector, b)

Shear Stress
b
Figure 4.5
b
Shear Stress
Slip plane
Slip step
Dislocation
Glide direction
Figure 4.3
Atomic bonds at the centre of the dislocation break and reform to allow the
dislocation to move.
Figure 4.4
Complete sequence for the introduction of a dislocation into a crystal from the lefthand side, its migration through the crystal, and its expulsion on the right-hand
side; this process causes the lower half of the crystal to slip by a distance b under the
upper half.
Figure 4.5
Block diagram of the movement of an Edge dislocation

4.5
4.2.3
Summary of the general properties of dislocations
A dislocation is a line defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned. the edge
dislocation is represented by the symbol ().
A dislocation can easily move within a grain of a metal and enables a metal to be ductile.
A dislocation creates a stress field around it, which increases (or is annihilated) when two or
more dislocations come close to one another.
The application of an elastic strain on the metal will not cause a dramatic change in the initial
positions of the dislocations.
However, the application of plastic strain on a metal (below 0.3) of its melting temperature
will multiply the number of dislocations and move them closer to each other, hence, creating
dislocation pile-ups which will strengthen (work harden or strain harden) the metal.
Work hardening explains the sudden change in the shape of the stress-strain diagram after the
metal has yielded. At maximum stress, the majority of dislocations would have moved to
their final positions after which the metal starts to neck (see section 1.3.3 and Figure 1.7)
Hence, controlling the movement of dislocations may change the strength, hardness, and
ductility of a metal. For example, a metal may be strengthened by Cold working (work
hardening or strain hardening), grain refinement (and other heat treatment processes)
and alloying.
Note that, after strengthening (using any of the above techniques), a metal may be softened
by the application of heat.
4.3
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
4.3.1 Introduction
Several hardening techniques are at the disposal of an engineer, and frequently alloy selection
depends on the capacity of a material to be tailored with the mechanical characteristics required
for a particular application.
Important to the understanding of strengthening mechanisms is the relation between dislocation
motion and mechanical behaviour of metals. Because macroscopic plastic deformation
corresponds to the motion of large numbers of dislocations, the ability of a metal to plastically
deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move. Since hardness and strength (both
yield and tensile) are related to the ease with which plastic deformation can be made to occur, by
reducing the mobility of dislocations, the mechanical strength may be enhanced: that is,
greater mechanical forces will be required to initiate plastic deformation.
In contrast, the more unconstrained the dislocation motion, the greater the facility with which a
metal may deform, the softer and weaker it becomes.
Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this simple principle: restricting or hindering
dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.
4.6
The present discussion is confined to strengthening mechanisms for single-phase metals, by
grain size reduction, solid-solution alloying, and strain, or work, hardening.
4.3.2 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal influences the
mechanical properties. Adjacent grains normally have different crystallographic orientations
and, of course, a common grain boundary, as indicated in Figure 4.6 a).
Figure 4.6 a) The motion of a dislocation as it encounters a grain boundary, illustrating

how the boundary acts as a barrier to continued slip. Slip planes are
discontinuous and change directions across the boundary.
During plastic deformation, slip or dislocation motion must take place across this common
boundary, say, from grain A to grain B in Figure 4.6. The grain boundary acts as a barrier to
dislocation motion for two reasons:
1.
Since the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing into grain B will
have to change its direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the crystallographic
miss-orientation increases.
2.
The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a discontinuity of slip
planes from one grain into the other.
It should be mentioned that, for high-angle grain boundaries, it may not be the case that
dislocations traverse grain boundaries during deformation; rather, a stress concentration ahead of
a slip plane in one grain may activate sources of new dislocations in an adjacent grain. On the
other hand, small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in interfering with the slip process
because of the slight crystallographic misalignment across the boundary
A fine-grained material (one that has small grains) is harder and stronger then one that is coarse
grained, since the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion.
For many materials, the yield strength y varies with grain size according to:
y = A + kd-
In this expression, termed the Hall-Petch equation, d, is the average grain diameter, and, A, and
, k, are constants for a particular material. It should be noted that the above equation is not valid
for both very large (i.e., coarse) grain and extremely fine grain polycrystalline materials.
4.7
Figure 4.6 b) demonstrates the yield strength dependence on grain size for a brass alloy. Grain
size may be regulated by the rate of solidification from the liquid phase, and also by plastic
deformation followed by an appropriate heat treatment.
It should also be mentioned that grain size reduction improves not only strength, but also the
toughness of many alloys.
Figure 4.6 b) The influence of grain size on the yield strength of a 70 Cu 30 Zn brass
alloy. Note that the grain diameter increases from right to left.
Grain structure of a polycrystalline metal as a result of plastic deformation

Figure 4.6 c) Before deformation the grains are equiaxed.
Figure 4.6 d) The deformation has produced elongated grains. X 170
4.8
4.3.3
Solid Solution Strengthening
Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with impurity atoms that go into
either substitutional or interstitial solid solution. Accordingly, this is called solid-solution
strengthening. High impurity metals are almost always softer and weaker than alloys composed
of the same base metal.
Alloys are, therefore, stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go into solid
solution ordinarily impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms. Lattice strain field
interactions between dislocations and these impurity atoms result, and, consequently, dislocation
movement is restricted, as illustrated in Figure 4.7 for, for example, a copper zinc alloy.
Movement
Zinc Atoms
(blocking the
movement)
dislocation
Copper Atoms
Figure 4.7
Simple model of impurities (Zinc) blocking the movement of an oncoming

dislocation (made from Copper atoms)
Increasing the concentration of the impurity results in an attendance increase in tensile, yield
strengths and hardness. Figure 4.8 illustrates the influence of concentration of zinc in copper.
350
Tensile Strength
(Mpa)
300
250
200
0
10
20
30
Zinc content (weight %)
40
Figure 4.8 Variation of Tensile strength with Zinc content of a Copper zinc alloy
4.9
The resistance to slip is greater when impurity atoms are present because the overall lattice strain
must increase if a dislocation is torn away from them. Furthermore, the same lattice strain
interactions will exist between impurity atoms and dislocations that are in motion during plastic
deformation. Thus, a greater applied stress is necessary to first initiate and then continue plastic
deformation for solid-solution alloys, as opposed to pure metals; this is evidenced by the
enhancement of strength and hardness.
Figure 4.9
A transmission electron micrograph of a titanium alloy, in which the dark lines are
dislocations. X 51,450
4.10
4.3.4
Strain Hardening and Annealing
4.3.4.1 Strain Hardening

Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is
plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature
at which deformation takes place is cold (about 0.3 of the melting temperature) relative to the
absolute melting temperature of the metal. Most metals strain harden at room temperature.
It is sometimes convenient to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold work
rather than as strain. Percent cold work (%CW) is defined as:
%CW = (Ao Ad) x100
Ao
Where A0 is the original area of the cross section that experiences deformation, and Ad is the
area of deformation. Sometimes, The percentage reduction in thickness is used.
An example of a production process, which makes use of strain hardening, is the cold rolling
process, for the production of sheet metals as shown in Figure 4.10 and Table 4.1.
(As-received metal)
Cross-sectional
Area Ao
(First Roll)
Cross-sectional
Area Ad1
Roller
(Second Roll)
Cross-sectional
Area Ad2
Elongated grains
a) Cold rolling
process.
Stress
Stress
Stress
b) Stress-Strain
diagrams of
specimens
cut from the
three crosssections.
Strain
Strain
Strain
Figure 4. 10 Cold rolling of sheet metals
4.11
Table 4.1 Results obtained from the cold Rolling of aluminium sheet
% Elongation
Hardness
% Cold Work
Tensile Strength
( Vickers, Hv )
(or % reduction in
( N/mm2 )
Thickness)
0
92
40
20
15
107
15
28
30
125
8
33
40
140
5
38
60
155
3
43
Table 4.1 demonstrate how the tensile strength and hardness increase with increasing cold work.
The price for this enhancement of hardness and strength is in the ductility of the metal, in which
the ductility, in percent elongation, experiences a reduction with increasing percent cold work.
Strain hardening is also demonstrated in part of a stress-strain diagram (Figure 4.11). Initially,
the metal with yield stress (or proof stress) y1 is plastically deformed to point D. The stress is
released, then reapplied with a resultant new yield strength, y2. The metal has thus become
stronger during the process because y2 is greater than y1.
Stress
y 2
y 1
Release
Recoverable
Elastic Strain
Re-Load
0
Strain
Permanent, Plastic Strain (set)
Figure 4.11 - Part of the stress-strain curve, showing recoverable and permanent
extensions
The strain hardening phenomenon is explained on the basis of dislocation-dislocation strain field
interactions. The dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation or cold work, due to
dislocations multiplication or the formation of new dislocations, the average distance of
separation between dislocations decreases the dislocations are positioned closer together.
4.12
On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are repulsive. The net result is that the
motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other dislocations. As the dislocation
density increases, this resistance to dislocation motion by other dislocations becomes more
pronounced (dislocation tangles are created). Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform a
metal increases with increasing cold work.
4.3.4.2
Annealing
Strain hardening is often utilised commercially to enhance the mechanical properties of metals
during fabrication procedures. The effects of strain hardening may be removed by an annealing
heat treatment. Annealing is a heat treatment designed to eliminate the effects of cold working
and to restore the cold-worked metal to the original soft, ductile condition. Several applications
for annealing are employed.
First, annealing may be used to completely eliminate the strain hardening achieved during
cold working; the final part is soft and ductile but still has a good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
Second, after annealing, additional cold work could be done, since the ductility is restored.
By combining repeated cycles of cold working and annealing, large total deformations may
be achieved.
Finally, annealing at a low temperature may be used to eliminate the residual stresses (see
Appendix 4A) produced during cold working without affecting the mechanical properties of
the finished part.
There are three stages in the annealing process: Recovery, Recrystalisation and grain-growth.
An example of the use of the annealing process is the hot working of sheet metals, as
demonstrated in Figure 4.12. The effects of cold working and the three stages of annealing on the
properties of brass are shown in Figures 4.13.
4.13
(As-received metal)
Cross-sectional
Area Ao
(First Roll)
Cross-sectional
Area Ad
Cold worked and recovered grains
Recrystalised Grains
(new grains)
Final size of grains
Grain growth
Roller
Heat Source
Figure 4.12 Hot rolling process (above 0.5 of the melting temperature)
4.14
Figure 4.13 The effect of cold work and annealing on the properties of a Copper-Zinc (Brass) alloy
The three stages in the annealing process: Recovery, Recrystalisation and grain-growth, will
now be explained.
Recovery
The original cold-worked microstructure is composed of deformed grains containing a large

number of tangled dislocation. When we first heat the metal, the additional thermal energy
permits the dislocations to move and form the boundaries of a sub-grain (polygonised) structure
(the boundaries will form the basis of the grains during the Recrystalisation stage). The
dislocation density, however, is virtually unchanged. This low-temperature treatment is called
recovery and occurs at about 0.3 - 0.4 of the melting temperature of the metal.
Because the number of dislocations is not reduced during recovery, the mechanical properties of
the metal are relatively unchanged. However, residual stresses are reduced or even eliminated
when the dislocations are rearranged; recovery is often called a stress relief annealing.
In addition, recovery restores high electrical conductivity to the metal; combining strain
hardening with recovery permits us to produce copper or aluminium wire for transmission of
electrical power that is strong yet still has high conductivity. Finally, recovery also improves the
resistance of the material to corrosion.
4.15
Recrystalisation
Recrystalisation occurs by the nucleation and growth of new grains containing few dislocations.
When the metal is heated above the Recrystalisation temperature, approximately 0.4 0.5 times
the absolute melting temperatures of the metal, rapid recovery eliminates residual stresses and
produces the polygonised dislocation structure. New grains then nucleate at the cell boundaries
of the polygonised structure, eliminating most of the dislocations (Figure 4.13). Because the
number of dislocations is greatly reduced, the Recrystalised metal has a low strength but a
high ductility.
Grain Growth
At still higher annealing temperatures, above 0.5 of the melting temperature, both recovery and
Recrystalisation rapidly occur, producing the fine Recrystalised grain structure. However, the
energy associated with the large amount of grain boundary area makes the fine structure unstable
at high temperatures. To reduce this energy, the grains begin to grow, with favoured grains
consuming the smaller grains (Figure 4.13). This phenomenon is called grain growth. Grain
growth is almost always undesirable and hence, must be controlled by the appropriate
application of annealing temperature and time.
4.3.4.3
Summary and Comparison of Cold and Hot working of Metals
In cold working operations, the strain hardening increases progressively with the amount of
plastic deformation. Whilst, during hot working, the influence of the thermal energy nullifies the
strain hardening effect.
Since recovery occurs at about 0.4 of the melting temperature, cold working is generally
considered to involve plastic deformation below a temperature of 0.3 of the melting temperature.
Advantages of cold working:
The surface finish of the product is good.
Good dimensional accuracy is obtained (and maintained)
The yield stress in increased compared with the un-worked metal, so that higher service
stresses can be accommodated, unless the service temperature is above 0.3 of the melting
temperature.
By controlling the amount of plastic deformation and subsequent annealing treatment, a

range of grain sizes can be produced which influences the yield strength.
4.16
Disadvantages of cold working:
The forming machinery, e.g. rollers, dies, etc. must be sufficiently large (hence, expensive)
to sufficiently exert stresses in excess of the work hardening strength of the metal.
The ductility of the product is reduced, hence, increasing the probability of brittle failure in
service.
Hot working operations correspond to temperatures above 0.5 the melting temperature, where
crystallisation readily occurs.
Advantages of hot working:
Far greater dimensional changes (e.g. reductions in area) than can be achieved by cold
working.
Changes in the product shape can be achieved at considerably lower stresses than during cold
working, with a consequent reduction in the size of the forming machinery.
Disadvantages of hot working:
Poor surface finish due to oxidisation at high temperature.
Low strength of the metal.
Lack of dimensional acuracy.
5.1
5. BINARY EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

5.1
Solubility
In metals, alloys ore created when two or more metals (or metals and non-metals) are combined
to form a solid metallic material, which has enhanced mechanical properties. In order to
understand the formation of alloys, it is first necessary to understand the basic principles of
solubility, and terminology, in the liquid and solid states as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
UNLIMITED SOLUBILITY
Alcohol
Water
Number of Phases = 1, Water +Alcohol

Solution
LIMITED SOLUBILITY
Salt
Salt
Add Salt
Water is the Solvent

Salt is the
Solute
Add more Salt
Water
Number of Phases = 1, Water + Salt
Number of Phases = 2, Water + Salt (solution)

and excess Salt
VIRTUALLY NO SOLUBILITY
Oil
Water
Number of Phases = 2, Water and Oil
Figure 5.1 Illustration of solubility

Phase: A volume of material with uniform physical and mechanical properties. The components of the phase (e.g. water
+ alcohol) are miscible and in liquid solution or Solid Solution.
5.2
Solubility is also influenced by temperature. As an example, the solubility of Sodium Chloride in

water will be considered.
Sodium chloride (common table salt) dissolves readily in water. In cold water, and at room
temperature, approximately 35g of sodium chloride will dissolve in 100g of water, hence,
resulting in a single-phase system. The exact amount will depend upon the temperature of the
water. If more sodium chloride is added to the solution it will not dissolve because the solution
is saturated, hence, resulting in a two-phase system (saturated water + salt and excess salt). The
excess salt will remain as a solid residue. The solubility of the sodium chloride increases only
slightly as the temperature of the water increases.
In this example, the sodium chloride is dissolved in water, thus:
1.
2.
3.
The water is called the SOLVENT.

The sodium chloride is called the SOLUTE.
The resulting liquid is called the SOLUTION.
Copper sulphate can also be dissolved in water but, unlike sodium chloride, its solubility
increases substantially as the temperature of the solvent increases. This is shown in Fig. 5. 2.
Temperature
(0C)
100
Unsaturated solution
80
Saturated solution
60
Saturated solution
and
precipitated copper sulphate
40
20
0
20
30
40
50
60
Mass of copper sulphate (g), in 100g of water
Figure 5.2 Sollubility of copper sulphate in water
Now, from Figure 5.2, Consider 50g of copper sulphate being dissolved in 100g of water as
shown by the broken line.
(a)
Above 80C the water is capable is dissolving more than 50g of copper sulphate, so the
solution is said to be UNSATURATED.
(b)
At 80C the water will dissolve a maximum of 50g of copper sulphate, so the solution is
said to be SATURATED.
5.3
(c)
Below 80C the water dissolves less then 50g of copper sulphate. For example, at 40C
only 30g of copper sulphate can be dissolved in 100g of water (only 30g of Copper
sulphate can be HELD IN SOLUTION) and the balance of 20g of copper sulphate will
be precipitated out of solution as a solid residue.
Substances, which will not dissolve in a solvent are said to be insoluble.

Note: A Substance may be insoluble in one solvent, but soluble in another.
5.2
Alloys
5.2.1
General concepts
Pure metals are used where good electrical conductivity, good thermal conductivity, good
corrosion resistance or all of these properties are required. Since pure metals usually lack the
strength required for structural materials, alloys are designed to give superior mechanical
properties and they can be tailored to suit a particular application.
An alloy is an intimate association of two or more component materials, which form a metallic
liquid or solid. The component materials may be metal elements, or they may be metal and nonmetal elements. They may also be metal elements and chemical compounds.
Useful alloys can only be produced from component materials, which are soluble in each other
in the molten state. That is, they are completely miscible. It would be useless to try and form an
alloy from lead and zinc. The molten zinc would float on the molten lead and, on cooling, they
would form two separate layers in the solid state with only tenuous bonding at the interface.
Alloys are formed in one of three ways:
1.
If the alloying components in the molten solution have similar chemical properties, and
their atoms are similar in size, they will not react together but will form solid solutions
upon cooling.
2.
If the alloying components in the molten solution have different chemical properties they
may attract each other and form chemical compounds. These are often referred to as
intermetallic compounds. Upon cooling the crystals will consist of a mixture of such
compounds.
3.
In a situation where atoms with different chemical properties attract each other less than
those with similar chemical properties, then both intermetallic compounds and solid
solutions will be present at the same time. Upon cooling they will tend to separate out at
the grain boundaries to form a heterogeneous mixture.
In any alloy the metal, which is present in the larger proportion is referred to as the parent
metal or solvent, whilst the metal (or non-metal) present in the smaller proportion is known as
the alloying component or solute.
5.4
5.2.2
Solid Solutions
Most metals are completely and mutually soluble (they are miscible) in the liquid state, that is,
when they are molten. Some, such as copper and nickel, not only form solutions in the molten or
liquid state, but remain in solution upon cooling, and hence solidification, and become solid
solutions. There are two TYPES of solid solution, Substitutional solid solutions and
interstitial solid solutions.
Substitutional solid solutions

The copper-nickel alloy mentioned previously is a Substitutional solid solution. The more
important factors governing the formation of a substitutional solid solution are:
(a)
ATOMIC SIZE. The atoms of the solvent and solute must be approximately the same
size. If the atom diameters vary by more than 15% the formation of a substitutional solid
solution is highly unlikely.
(b)
THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE (e.g. Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic, etc.) of the
two metals must be the same.
(c)
ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES. All metals are electropositive to some degree. If there

is only a small difference in charge between the alloying components then they will
probably form a solid solution. Conversely if their positive charges are very dissimilar
they are more likely to form intermetallic compounds.
(d)
VALENCY. A metal of lower valency is more likely to dissolve one of higher valency
than the other way round, assuming the conditions set out in (a) and (b) are also
favourable. This holds good particularly for monovalent metals such as copper, silver
and gold.
a) Copper FCC
b) Nickel FCC
c) Substitutional Cu-Ni alloy
Figure 5.3 Substitutional Solid Solution (Example, COPPER, Cu- NICKEL, Ni)
(a) Face-centred cubic crystal of copper
(b) Face-centred cubic crystal of nickel
(c) Substitutional solid solution of copper and nickel.
5.5
Figure 5.3 shows that both copper and nickel form face-centred cubic crystals. When these two
metals are in solid solution they form a single face-centred cubic lattice with atoms of nickel
replacing atoms of copper in the lattice. Hence the term substitutional solid solution.
The substitution can be ordered, with the atoms taking up regular fixed positions of geometric
symmetry in the lattice. However, most solid solutions can be disordered, with the solute atoms
appearing virtually at random throughout the solvent lattice.
interstitial solid solutions
Interstitial Solid Solutions are formed when the solute atoms are small enough to lie between the
solvent atoms. For example, carbon atoms can form an interstitial solid solution with facecentred cubic crystals of iron as shown in Figure 5.4. There are only five elements, boron,
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen which have sufficiently small enough atomic radii to fit
into interstitial sites and form interstitial solid solutions with metals.
Interstitial Site
Iron (Fe)
Carbon (C)
Figure 5.4 Interstitial Solid Solution (Example Steel, Fe-C)
Intermetallic Compounds
It has already been stated that where the components of the alloy are sufficiently different
chemically, they will tend to form compounds of fixed composition (e.g. Fe3C in steels and
CuAl2 in aluminium-copper alloys) rather than solid solutions (having variable compositions).
In general, intermetallic compounds tend to be hard and brittle and are thus less useful for
engineering alloys than the tough and ductile solid solutions. Intermetallic compounds are most
widely found in bearing metals where they form hard, wear-resistant pads with a low co-efficient
of friction, set in a matrix of a tough solid solution.
5.6
5.3
Cooling Curves
5.3.1
Pure Substance
Most substances can exist as gases, liquids and solids, depending upon their temperature (see
Figure 2.1). Water is one such substance, which can exist as a gas or vapour (steam) if it is
sufficiently hot; as a liquid; and as a solid (ice) if it is sufficiently cold.
Temperature
(OC)
Steam (vapor)
100
Water (liquid)
0
Ice (solid)
Time
Figure 5. 5 Cooling Curve for pure Water
If water is raised to its boiling point and allowed to cool slowly, the change in temperature with
time can be plotted as a graph as shown in Figure 5.5. Such a graph is called a cooling curve.
It will be seen that when a change of state occurs (such as liquid water to solid ice) there is a
short pause in the cooling process. This pause is referred to as an arrest point and is the result of
the substance absorbing or giving out latent heat. Latent heat is the heat energy required to
produce a change of state in a substance at a constant temperature. The gaseous, liquid and
solid states of a substance are often referred to as phases. A substance is said to be in the
gaseous phase, the liquid phase or the solid phase. It will be seen later that phase changes can
also occur in solids.
A physical change of state during the cooling, or heating, of a substance is always accompanied
by an arrest point in the cooling or heating curve.
The cooling curve shown in Figure 5. 5, is typical of pure substances and applies equally well
to any pure metal. Alloys consist of two or more components and, to understand their
behaviour on cooling, the above explanation must now be extended to encompass a solution.
5.7
5.3.2
Solutions
A suitable solution is that of domestic table salt (sodium chloride) in water. Figure 5. 6 shows
the cooling curve for pure water compared with the cooling curve for a salt-water solution for the
temperature range covering the liquid and solid phases.
Pure water
Salt Water Solution
Temperature
(OC)
Liquid solution of salt in

water
(One phase)
0
Upper arrest point
Solid ice and Liquid

solution
(Two phases)
Lower arrest point
Time
Solid ice and finely mixed

crystals of ice in salt
(two phases)
Figure 5. 6 Cooling Curve for pure Water and water - salt solution
From Figure 5.6, it can be observed that the salt-water solution has two arrest points and that
both these are below the freezing point of water.
A salt-water solution has a lower freezing point than pure water and a 0C, no change of state
occurs. However, as cooling continues, droplets of pure water separate out from the solution and
immediately change into ice particles. This occurs at the upper arrest point, which is not
usually too well defined, and the process of separation continues as the temperature of the
remaining solution is further reduced. Thus, as the temperature continues to fall, more and more
water separates out and freezes, causing the concentration of the remaining salt water to increase.
When the lower arrest point is reached, even the concentrated salt-water solution freezes and no
liquid phase is left. The solid so formed consists of a mixture, solution, of fine crystals of pure
water (ice) and fine crystals of salt.
If the water salt solution experiment is repeated several times using stronger and weaker saltwater solutions, it will be seen that the upper arrest points vary as shown in Figure 5. 7, whilst
the lower arrest points remain consistent.
5.8
Hypo-Eutectic Compositions
(Weak Solutions)
Hyper Eutectic Compositions

(Strong Solutions)
Temperature
Upper Arrest Temperatures

(Upper critical temperature
line)
-21.1 0C
Lower Arrest Temperatures

(Lower critical temperature
line)
Eutectic composition (23.3% salt)
Time
Figure 5. 7 Family of Cooling Curves for Water Salt solutions
The family of cooling curves so produced, show some interesting trends. Reference to Figure 5.
7 show that:
1.
The temperature of the lower arrest point remains constant.
2.
The temperature of the upper arrest point falls as a concentration of the solution increases
until a point is reached where the temperatures of the upper and lower arrest points
coincide.
3.
The ratio of solid to liquid at the point where the temperatures coincide is referred to as a
eutectic. Solutions with a lower concentration of solid to liquid are referred to as hypoeutectic solutions. Solutions with a higher concentration of solid to liquid are referred to
as hyper-eutectic solutions.
4.
When the concentration of the solution increases beyond that of the eutectic composition,
the temperature of the upper arrest point rises once more.
Since water separates out as ice crystals between the arrest points of hypo-eutectic solutions, and
since salt separates out between the arrest points of hyper-eutectic solutions, the remaining
solution is always of a constant concentration. This concentration is the same as for the eutectic
solution. The logic for this is apparent if reference is again made to Figure 5.7. The fact that
excess water or salt is rejected from the solution so that a eutectic balance is always ultimately
achieved, results in the diagram formed from the cooling curves (Figure 5.7) being referred to as
a thermal equilibrium diagram.
5.9
5.4
Alloy Types
5.4.1
General definitions
Alloys containing two components are referred to as BINARY ALLOYS. Even when more
than two components are present, a lot of useful information can be obtained from a study of the
binary diagram of the two principal components present. Hence, in this section the discussion
will be confined to binary alloys (the influence of additional alloying elements, e.g. chromium to
steel will be discussed later). The constituent components of most commercially available binary
alloys are soluble in each other in the liquid (molten) state and, in general, do not form
intermetallic compounds. (The exceptions are some bearing alloys).
However, upon cooling into the solid state, binary alloys can be classified into three main types:
1.
Simple Eutectic Type. The two components are soluble in the liquid state, but
completely insoluble in each other in the solid state.
2.
Solid Solution Type. The two components are completely soluble in each other both in
the liquid state and in the solid state.
3.
Combination Type. The two components are completely soluble in each other in the
liquid state, but are only partially soluble in each other in the solid state. Thus this type
combines some of the characteristics of both 1 and 2 above, hence the name combination
type thermal equilibrium diagram.
There are many other examples of binary alloys, which could be quoted, but the three examples
considered cover the three most common types of thermal equilibrium diagram.
These three types of binary alloy and their thermal equilibrium diagrams will now be considered
in greater detail.
5.4.2
Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams (Eutectic Type)
Figure 5.8, shows a eutectic-type thermal equilibrium diagram and it will be seen that it is
identical with the diagram produced for a common salt solution (Figure 5.7). That is, complete
solubility of salt in water in the liquid state and complete insolubility (crystals of ice and separate
crystals of salt) in the solid state.
The main difference between Figures 5.7 and 5.8 is that, in Figure 5.8, the temperature is plotted
against the composition (i.e. percentage, %, amount of material), which is a more practical way
of representing the cooling behaviour of a binary alloy.
In the general case of Figure 5.8, the two components present are referred to as metal A and
metal B. In the solid state both components retain their individual identities as crystals of A and
crystals of B.
5.10
Temperature
Liquid phase
(A+B in solution)
Liquidus
(upper arrest line)
Solid A
Plus liquid A+B
Solid B
Plus
Liquid A+B
Liquidus
(Upper arrest line)
Solidus
(lower arrest
line)
Solid
(A+B)
0
100
25
75
50
50
75
25
100 % B
0%A
Composition (percentage, %)
Figure 5.8 Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Eutectic Type)
Reference to Figure 5. 8 shows that the line joining the points where solidification begins is
referred to as the liquidus. The line joining the points where solidification is complete is
referred to as the solidus.
This type of equilibrium diagram gets its name from the fact that at one particular composition
(E), the temperature at which solidification starts to occur is a minimum for the alloying
components present. With this composition the liquidus and the solidus coincide at the same
temperature, thus the liquid changes into a solid with both A crystals and B crystals forming
instantaneously at the same temperature. This point on the diagram is called the eutectic; the
temperature at which it occurs is the eutectic temperature, and the composition is the eutectic
composition (see figure 5. 10).
Figure 5.8 also shows that when both alloying components are liquid (molten), this region of the
diagram is referred to as the liquid phase. The term phase, when related to a thermal
equilibrium diagram, is defined as a region on that diagram which has the same chemical
composition or structure throughout. Thus, above the liquidus, the A and B components form
a homogenous solution and the definition is applicable. It is not applicable between the liquidus
and solidus, neither is it applicable below the solidus in this diagram.
In practice, few metal alloys from simple eutectic type thermal equilibrium diagrams.
Exceptions to this are the cadmium-bismuth alloys. The thermal equilibrium diagram for
cadmium-bismuth alloys is shown in Figure 5. 9.
5.11
20 % Cd - 80% Bi
80 % Cd - 20% Bi
40 % Cd - 60% Bi
Pro-eutectic
Cadmium
Pro-eutectic
Bismuth
Eutectic
Structure
Eutectic
Structure
Figure 5.9 Cadmium-Bismuth Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Eutectic type)
5.12
It can be seen, from Figure 5.9, that the eutectic composition occurs when the alloy consists of
40% cadmium and 60% bismuth. Solidification occurs at just over 140C with both metals
crystallising out of solution simultaneously. The eutectic structure is usually lamellar in form,
as shown in Figure 5.10. In this instance, there are alternate layers of cadmium and bismuth.
Consider the cooling of an alloy consisting of 80% cadmium and 20% bismuth (hyper-eutectic).
1.
Above the liquidus, there is a liquid solution of molten bismuth and molten cadmium.
2.
As the solution cools to the liquidus temperature for the alloy under consideration,
crystals of pure cadmium start to precipitate out (sometimes called primary or proeutectic cadmium). This increases the concentration of bismuth and reduces the
concentration of cadmium present in the remaining solution. Thus, the solidification
temperature is reduced to that appropriate for this new ratio of cadmium and bismuth, and
further crystals of pure cadmium precipitate out. This again reduces the percentage of
cadmium present in the remaining solution and the solidification temperature is further
reduced with more pure cadmium crystals being precipitated out. This process repeats
itself until the eutectic composition is reached (at the eutectic temperature).
3.
At the eutectic composition, crystals of cadmium and bismuth precipitate out

simultaneously to form lamellar eutectic crystals of the two metals (i.e. layers, lamellae,
of cadmium over layers of bismuth) as shown in Figure 5.10. Thus the final composition
of the solid alloy will consist of crystals of pure cadmium in a matrix of crystals of
eutectic composition.
Bismuth
(lamelar)
Cadmium
(lamelar)
Figure 5. 10 Lamellar structure of Eutectic Composition (Example cadmium-bismuth)
Similarly for an alloy of 80% bismuth and 20% cadmium (hypo-eutectic), the amount of
cadmium present in solution compared with the amount of bismuth present in the solution will
gradually increase as pure crystals of bismuth precipitate out (sometimes called primary or proeutectic bismuth) until the eutectic composition is reached. Thus, in this instance the
composition of the solid alloy will consist of crystals of pure bismuth in a matrix of crystals of
eutectic composition.
For an alloy of 60% bismuth and 40% cadmium, only crystals of eutectic composition will be
present.
5.13
5.4.3
Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Solid Solution Type)
It has already been stated (section 5.2.2) that copper and nickel are not only mutually soluble in
the liquid (molten) state, but are also mutually soluble in the solid state. They form a
substitutional solid solution. The thermal equilibrium diagram for copper-nickel alloys is shown
in Figure 5. 11. Again, the line marked liquidus joins all the points where solidification
commences, whilst the line marked solidus joins all the points where solidification commences,
whilst the line marked solidus joins all the points where solidification is complete. This time,
there is no eutectic composition.
Liquid
L
Liquid Solution, L
Point A
A
Liquidus line
Point B
Solid Solution,
Point C
Figure 5.11 Copper-nickel thermal equilibrium diagram (Solid Solution Type)

Thus, for 100% copper, 0% nickel (pure copper), there is a single solidification temperature of
1085C. This is to be expected since for a pure metal (in fact any pure substance) the transition
from liquid to solid takes place at a constant temperature.
Figure 5.11 shows a single phase liquid solution above the liquidus line (example point, A).
Between the solidus and liquidus is a solution of molten copper and nickel together with crystals
of a solid solution of copper and nickel (i.e. two phases, example point B). This solid solution is
referred to as .
Below the solidus, the alloy consists entirely of crystals of copper and nickel in solid solution
(i.e. one phase, example point C). Hence in this diagram, it is correct to refer to the liquid phase
and the solid phase.
Finally, Figure 5.11 shows that 100% nickel and 0% copper (pure nickel) solidifies at the single
temperature of 1453C
5.14
5.4.4
Thermal Equilibrium Diagram (Combination Type)
Many metals and non-metals are neither completely soluble in each other in the solid state, nor
are they completely insoluble. They form a thermal equilibrium diagram of the type shown in
Figure 5.12. In this system there are two solid solutions labelled and .
The use of the Greek letters , , etc.. in thermal equilibrium diagrams may be defined, in
general, as follows:
1.
- Solid solution of one component A in an excess of another component B such that B

is the solute and A is the solvent.
2.
- Solid solution of the component B in an excess of component A so that now A

becomes the solute and B becomes the solvent.
Temperature
Liquid phase
(A+B in solution)
Liquidus
Liquidus
Solidus
Solid
Plus liquid A+B
Solid
Plus
Liquid A+B
Solid solution,
Solid solution,
Solvus
Solid
(+)
0
100
25
75
50
50
75
25
Composition (percentage, %)
Figure 5. 12 Combination type thermal equilibrium diagram
100 % B
0%A
5.15
Pb
100 %
Composition (wt% Pb)
Pb
0%
Proeutectic
Proeutectic
Proeutectic
Proeutectic
Liquid
solution
Liquid
solution
Sn
Composition (wt % Sn)
Sn
Lamellar structure of the Eutectic composition
is a solid solution of component A (Pb) with a small amount of component B (Sn)

is a solid solution of component B (Sn)
with a small amount of component A (Pb)
Figure 5.13 Tin (Sn) - lead (Pb) Equilibrium Diagram

Lead - Tin alloys (soft solders) are a typical example of this type of thermal equilibrium diagram
In this case, let component A be Lead and component B be Tin
Phase
This is the solid solution of component A with an amount of component B, eg,

19.2% tin in 80.8% lead at the eutectic temperature.
Phase
This is the solid solution of component B with an amount of component A, eg,

2.6% lead in 97.4% tin at the eutectic temperature.
5.16
With reference to Figure 5.13, the following observations are made:

1.
Above the liquidus, there is a homogenous solution of molten tin and lead (one phase).
2.
For hypo-eutectic alloys. Between the liquidus and the solidus the hypo-eutectic alloys
will consist of the liquid solution of tin and lead plus crystals of the solid solution of
composition. Below the eutectic temperature, the line separating the phase from the
plus phases is called the Solvus.
3.
For hyper-eutectic alloys. Between the liquidus and the solidus the hyper-eutectic alloys
will consist of the liquid solution of tin and lead plus crystals of the solid solution of
composition. Below the eutectic temperature, the line separating from the phase from
the plus phases is also called the Solvus.
EXAMPLE 5. 1
CONSIDER AN ALLOY OF COMPOSITION 10% TIN, 90% LEAD.
Upon cooling from the molten state, where both metals are completely soluble in each other, to a
temperature below the liquidus ( Figure 5.13) then crystals of the phase solid solution start to
grow. As in the previous diagrams, solidification is complete when the solidus is reached and
the solid alloy will consist of crystals of the phase in the solid solution. The composition of
this solid solution will be 19.2% tin in 80.8% lead, as previously stated. However, as the
temperature of the alloy continues to fall, it will eventually meet the Solvus. At this point, the
solid solution will be saturated with tin.
Further cooling to room (ambient) temperature will result in the tin precipitating out to form the
other solid solutions possible in this system, the phase. Thus the final composition of this alloy
will consist of tin-crystals of the phase dispersed through a matrix of crystals of low tin content
phase.
EXAMPLE 5. 2
CONSIDER AN ALLOY OF COMPOSITION 30% TIN, 70% LEAD
Upon cooling from the molten state, where both metals are completely soluble in each other, to
below the liquidus (Figure 5.13), then crystals of phase solid solution start to grow. This
increases the concentration of tin and reduces the concentration of lead in the remaining molten
solution. The solidification temperature is reduced to that appropriate for this new ratio, and the
process repeats itself with more and more phase solid solution being precipitated out until the
eutectic composition is reached.
At this point, crystals of both and phase solid solutions are precipitated out simultaneously
to form lamellar eutectic crystals (see Fig. 10). Thus, the final composition of the solid alloy
will consist of crystals of phase solid solutions in a matrix of crystals of eutectic composition.
5.17
Examples 5.1 and 5.2 are important to the engineer as they explain the behaviour of the various
types of soft solder in popular use. Thus, the popular 60% tin, 40% lead alloy known as
tinmans solder has the lowest melting and solidification temperature since it is
approximately the eutectic alloy (see Figure 5.13). This also accounts for its instant setting with
no pasty range. Its relatively high tin content and low electrical resistance also accounts for its
widespread use for soldered joints in the electronics industry.
On the other hand, the plumber requires a solder with a long pasty range, which will set
slowly to enable a wiped joint to be made. A typical plumbers solder would consist of 80%
lead and 20% tin so that there is a maximum temperature range between the liquidus and the
solidus (see Figure 5.13). At the same time, the liquidus temperature is safely below the melting
point of pure lead so that there is less danger of melting the lead pipe or component being joined.
The illustrations below (Figure 5.14) show the microstructures of typical lead tin alloys.
a)
Microstructure of eutectic lead tin alloy showing alternating layers of lead rich phase solid solution (dark layers) and tin rich -phase solid solution (light layers).
375 Magnification
b)
c)
5.18
b)
Microstructure of 30% lead 70 % tin alloy showing pro-eutectic (primary) tin rich
-phase solid solution grains within a eutectic structure of alternating layers of lead
rich -phase solid solution (dark layers) and tin rich -phase solid solution (light
layers). 500 Magnification.
c)
Microstructure of 50% lead 50 % tin alloy showing pro-eutectic (primary) lead

rich -phase solid solution grains within a eutectic structure of alternating layers of
lead rich -phase solid solution (dark layers) and tin rich -phase solid solution
(light layers). 400 Magnification.
5.19
Figure 5.14
Appendix 5A Binary Alloy Types, Summary
TA = Melting Temperature of Component A

TB = Melting Temperature of Component B
Solid Solution Type
L (Liquid Solution A+B)
Temperature
TB
(Complete solubility in the solid state)

Solid Solution A+B
And Liquid L
Completely soluble above Liquidus

(i.e. liquid solution)
See Fig.
5.11
TA
Completely soluble below Solidus
(i.e. Solid solution)
Solid Solution A+B
0% B Composition
100%A
(%)
Example: Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni) Alloy
Simple Eutectic Type
Temperature
TA
(Complete insolubility in the solid state)
Completely Soluble above Liquidus

(i.e. liquid solution)
100%B
0%A
TB
Liquid Solution A+B

Solid A
And
Liquid solution A+B
See Fig.
5.9
Solid B
And Liquid solution A+B
Eutectic
No Solubility below Solidus

(completely insoluble)
Example: Cadmium (Cd), Bismuth (Bi) Alloy
Combination Type
Composition
Solid A and Solid B

0% B
Composition
100%A
(%)
Temperature
100%B
0%A
TB
See Fig.
5.13
(Partial solubility in the

solid state)
Completely soluble above Liquidus
TA
and
Liquid Solution A+B
L
Liquid Solution A+B
Partially soluble below Solidus

and Solvus
and
Liquid Solution A+B
Example: Lead(Pb), Tin (Sn) alloy

Solvus
0% B
100%A
Eutectic
Composition
and
Composition
(%)
100%B
0%A
= Solid solution of component A with

a small amount of component B.
= Solid solution of component B with
a small amount component A.
6.1
6.
6.1
FERROUS ALLOYS
Definition of ferrous alloys
Ferrous alloys are those of, which iron is the prime constituent are produced in larger
quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction
materials. Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
(1) Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earths crust
(2) Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction;
refining, alloying and fabrication techniques
(3) Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of
mechanical and physical properties.
The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion. This
subject discusses compositions, microstructures, and properties of a number of different classes
of steels and cast irons.
6.2
Carbon steels
6.2.1 General classification

Steels are iron-carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying
elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0
wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration,
namely, into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group
according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain Carbon Steels contain only
residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For Alloy Steels,
more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.
6.2.2 Iron-Carbon (Fe3C) Phase Diagram

The Iron- Carbon (Iron carbide) phase diagram is shown in Figure 6.1. It is observed that the true
eutectic composition is 4.3 % carbon (i.e. liquid solution to solid solutions).
However, there is another composition (0.8%C) with a temperature of 7230C. The 0.8%C
composition is similar in shape to the eutectic composition, but with the difference in that the
alloy transforms from a solid solution, called Austenite, to other forms of solid solutions. The
0.8%C composition will therefore be refereed to as the Eutectoid (Eutectic-like) composition.
The maximum amount of carbon that Austenite can absorb in solid solution is 2 %C, as shown in
Figure 6.1. Beyond a 2%C composition, and with the addition of silicon, the alloy is called cast
iron.
It is also observed from Figure 6.1 that at a constant composition of 6.68%C, an inter-metallic
compound (i.e. of fixed composition) is formed. This is a hard and brittle form of iron carbide
(Fe3C) called Cementite.
6.2
Figure 6.1
Iron Carbon Phase Diagram
Figure 6.2 Part of the Iron Carbon Phase Diagram
6.3
It should now be noted that, for practical proposes and most engineering applications, the
maximum amount of carbon that can be included in about 1.6 %C, after which the steel becomes
very brittle and un-workable. Hence, only part of the iron-carbon phase diagram will be
considered as shown in Figure 6.2. This part of the diagram is the part which we make use of in
the heat-treatment of carbon steels
As it was noted (section 2.2.3), the pure metal iron, at temperatures below 910C, has a bodycentred cubic structure, and if we heat it to above this temperature the structure will change to
one which is face-centred cubic.
On cooling, the change is reversed and a body-centred cubic structure is once more formed. The
importance of this reversible transformation lies in the fact that up to 2.0% carbon can dissolve
in face-centred cubic iron, forming what is known as a solid solution*. The solid formed when
carbon atoms are absorbed into the face-centred cubic structure of iron is called AUSTENITE.
*
A solid solution as being very much like a liquid solution in that particles of the added
metal are absorbed without visible trace, even under a high-power microscope, into the
structure of the parent metal.
Whilst in body-centred cubic iron, no more than 0.025 % carbon can dissolve in this way, and
the extremely low level of solid solution formed when carbon dissolves in body-centred cubic
iron is called Ferrite.
As a piece of steel in its face-centred cubic form cools slowly and changes to its body-centred
cubic form, any dissolved carbon present in excess of 0.025 % will be precipitated, whilst if it is
cooled rapidly enough such precipitation is prevented. Upon this fact depends our ability to
heat-treat steels and, in turn, the present advanced state of our twentieth-century technology.
For many practical purposes, we can regard ferrite as having the same properties as pure iron. In
most text-books on metallurgy, the reader will find that the symbol (gamma) is used to denote
both the face-centred cubic form of iron and the solid-solution Austenite. Whilst, the symbol
(alpha) is used to denote both the body-centred cubic form of iron existing below 910C and
the solid-solution ferrite. The same nomenclature will be used in this chapter.
When carbon is precipitated from Austenite it is not in the form of elemental carbon (graphite),
but as the compound iron carbide, Fe3C, usually called Cementite. This substance, like most
other metallic carbides, is very hard, so that, as the amount of carbon (and hence, of cementite)
increases, the hardness of the slowly cooled steel will also increase.
In the same way, Figure 6.2 shows the temperatures at which transformation begins and ends for
any solid solution (Austenite) of carbon and face-centred cubic iron.
The allotropic (or polymorphic) transformation temperature of face-centred cubic iron is altered
by adding carbon. On the extreme left of Figure 6.2, is an area labelled ferrite? This indicates
the range of temperatures and compositions over which carbon can dissolve in body-centred
cubic () iron. On the left of the sloping line AB, all carbon present is dissolved in the bodycentred cubic iron, forming the solid-solution ferrite, whilst any point representing a composition
and temperature to the right of AB indicates that the solid solution is saturated. So that some
of the carbon contained in the steel will be present as cementite. The significance of the slope of
AB is that the solubility of carbon in body-centred cubic iron increases from 0.006% at room
temperature to 0.025 % at 723C.
6.4
We will now study the transformations, which take place in the structures of three representative
steels (0.4 %C, 0.8 %C and 1.2 %C), which have been heated to a temperature high enough to
make them austenitic and then allowed to cool slowly.
Steel containing 0.40% carbon (example of hypo-Eutectoid steel alloy)
If a steel containing 0.40% carbon is heated to some temperature above U1 (which is called the
upper critical temperature of the steel), the structure begins to change from one which is
face-centred cubic to one which is body-centred cubic. Consequently, small crystals of bodycentred cubic iron begin to separate out from the Austenite (Figure 6.2 [ii]).These body-centred
cubic crystals retain a small amount of carbon (less than 0.025 %), so we shall refer to them as
crystals of ferrite (or pro-Eutectoid ferrite).
As the temperature continues to fall the crystals of ferrite grow in size at the expense of the
Austenite (Figure 6.2 [iii]), and since ferrite is almost pure iron, it follows that most of the
carbon present accumulates in the shrinking crystals of Austenite. Thus, by the time our piece of
steel has reached L1, (which is called its lower critical temperature) it is composed of
approximately half ferrite (containing only 0.025 % carbon) and half Austenite, which now
contains 0.8% carbon.
The composition of the Austenite at this stage is represented by E. Austenite can hold no more
than 0.8% carbon in solid solution at this temperature (723C), therefore, as the temperature falls
still farther, the carbon begins to precipitate as cementite. At the same time, ferrite is still
separating out and we find that these two substances, ferrite and cementite, form as alternate
layers until all the remaining Austenite is used up (Figure 5.2 [iv]).
This laminated structure of ferrite and cementite, then, will contain exactly 0.8% carbon, so that
it will account for approximately half the volume of our 0.4% carbon steel. It is an example of
what, in metallurgy, we call an Eutectoid. This particular Eutectoid is known as Pearlite
because when present on the etched surface of steel it acts as a diffraction grating, splitting up
white light into its component spectrum colours and giving the surface a mother of pearl sheen.
In order to be able to see these alternate layers of ferrite and cementite of which Pearlite is
composed, a metallurgical microscope capable of a magnification in the region of 500 diameters
is necessary.
Any steel containing less than 0.8% carbon will transform from Austenite to a mixture of
ferrite and Pearlite in a similar way when cooled from its austenitic state. Transformation
will begin at the appropriate upper critical temperature (given by a point on CE, which
corresponds with the composition of the steel) and end at the lower critical temperature of
723C. The relative amounts of ferrite and Pearlite will depend upon the carbon content of the
steel (Figure 6.2), but in every case, the ferrite will be almost pure iron and the Pearlite will
contain exactly 0.8% carbon.
Steel containing 0.80 % carbon (Eutectoid steel alloy)
Steel containing 0.8% carbon will not begin to transform from Austenite on cooling until the
point E is reached. Then transformation will begin and end at the same temperature (723C).
Since the steel under consideration contained 0.8% carbon initially, it follows that the final
structure will be entirely Pearlite (Figure 6.2 [vi]).
6.5
Steel containing 1.2 % carbon (example of hyper-Eutectoid steel alloy)
Steel, which contains, say, 1.2% carbon will begin to transform from Austenite when the
temperature falls to its upper critical at U2. Since the carbon is this time in excess of the
Eutectoid composition, it will begin to precipitate first; not as pure carbon but as needle-shaped
crystals of cementite round the Austenite grain boundaries (Figure 6.2 [viii]). This will cause the
Austenite to become progressively less rich in carbon, and by the time a temperature of 723C
has been reached the remaining Austenite will contain only 0.8% carbon. This remaining
Austenite will then transform to Pearlite (Figure 6.2 [x]), as in the two cases already dealt with.
Any steel containing more than 0.8% carbon will have a structure consisting of cementite
and Pearlite if it is allowed to cool slowly from its Austenite state. The Pearlite part of the
structure always contains alternate layers ferrite and cementite in the correct proportions to give
an overall carbon content 0.8% for the Pearlite. It follows than any variation in the total carbon
content of the steel above 0.8% will cause a corresponding variation in the amount of primary
cementite present.
The terms
and
primary cementite, or pro-Eutectoid cementite

primary ferrite, or Pro-Eutectoid ferrite
are used to denote that cementite or ferrite which forms first, i.e. before the remaining Austenite
transforms to Pearlite.
A plain carbon steel which contains less than 0.8% carbon is generally referred to as a hypoEutectoid steel, whilst one containing more then 0.8% carbon is known as a hyper-Eutectoid
steel. Naturally enough, plain carbon steel containing exactly 0.8% carbon is called Eutectoid
steel.
So far, we have been dealing only with the types of structure produced when plain carbon steels
are cooled slowly from the austenitic normalising and annealing. By very rapid cooling from the
austenitic structure, called Martensite, is formed. This does not appear on the equilibrium
diagram simply because it is not an equilibrium structure. Rapid cooling has prevented
equilibrium from being reached.
Martensite is very hard indeed. Unfortunately, it is also rather brittle, and the steel is used in this
condition only when extreme hardness is required. To increase the steels toughness after
quenching (at the expense of a fall in hardness) the steel can be tempered. A modification in the
structure will take place depending upon the tempering temperature. This temperature will vary
between 250 and 650C according to the combination of mechanical properties required in the
finished component.
Whatever temperature is used, tempering assists the microstructure to proceed in some measure
back towards equilibrium, with the precipitation of microscopical particles of cementite in
varying amounts from the original martensitic structure.
6.6
6.2.3 The Uses Of Plain Carbon Steels

By varying the amount of carbon in a steel, and by selecting a heat-treatment programme suited
to that carbon content, we are able to produce a vast range of different mechanical properties
such as are available in no other metallic alloy. Moreover, carbon steel is a relatively
inexpensive alloy when compared with non-ferrous alloys generally. Small wonder then that
steel is by far out most important engineering alloy. Possibly, its most serious fault is that it
rusts and we must often spend considerable amounts of money on protecting its surface from
atmospheric corrosion.
As shown in Figure 6.3 , the hardness of a plain carbon steel increases progressively with
increase in carbon content. Hence, in general the low- and medium-carbon steels are used for
structural and constructional work, whilst the high-carbon steels are used for the manufacture of
tools and other components where hardness and wear-resistance are necessary.
Screws
Structural
Steels
Stampings
Rivets
Nails
Figure 6.3
Gears
Shafts
Screw Drivers
Rails
Drills
Taps
Dies
Shear Blades
Chisels
Some Hand Tools
Saws
Razors
Broaches
Reamers
A diagram showing the relationship between carbon content, microstructure

and mechanical properties of plain carbon steels in the normalised condition.
Typical uses of these steels are also indicated.
6.7
Commercial plain carbon steels may be classified into five groups as indicated in Table 6.1,
which, along with Figure 6.3, indicates some of the common uses of these alloys.
Table 6.1 Summary of the classification carbon steels
Type of Steel
Dead Mild
Percentage
Carbon
0.05 0.15
Mild
0.10 0.20
0.20 0.30
Medium Carbon
0.30 0.40
0.40 0.50
High Carbon
0.50 0.60
0.60 0.70
0.70 0.80
0.80 0.90
Tool Steels
0.90 1.00
1.00 1.10
1.10 1.20
1.20 1.30
1.30 1.40
Uses
Chain, stampings, rivets, wire, nails, seam-welded
pipes, hot- and cold-rolled strip for many purposes
Structural steels, R.S.J., screws, machine parts,
case-hardening, drop-forgings, stampings
Machine and structural work, gears, free-cutting
steels, shafting, forgings
Connecting-rods, shafting, wire, axles, crane
hooks, high-tensile tubes, forgings
Crankshafts, axles, gears, shafts, die-blocks,
rotors, heat-treated machine parts
Rails, laminated springs, wire ropes
Drop-hammer dies, set-screws, screw-drivers,
saws, mandrels, caulking tools, drills
Band saws, anvil faces, wrenches, laminated
springs, small forgings, cable wires, dies, large
dies for cold presses
Cold chisels, shear blades, punches, rock drills,
some hand tools
Axes, knives, dies, picks
Drills, taps, milling cutters, knives, screwing dies
Ball bearings, dies, drills, lathe tools, woodworking tools
Files, reamers, knives, broaches, lathe and woodworking tools
Saws, razors, boring and finishing tools, machine
parts where resistance to wear is essential
6.8
6.2.4 Classification of carbon steels

The following general categories of carbon steels, with reference to typical standards, will be
considered: Low carbon, Medium carbon, high carbon and tool steels.
6.2.4.1
Low-Carbon Steels
Of all the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low-carbon
classification. These generally contain less than about 0.30 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat
treatments intended to form Martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
Microstructures consist of ferrite and Pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are
relatively soft and weak, but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are
machinable, weldable, and of all the steels, are the least expensive to produce.
Typical applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel
and angle iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges and cans. Tables 6.2 a
and b, respectively, present the compositions and mechanical properties of several plain lowcarbon steels. They typically have a yield strength of 40,000 psi (275 MPa), tensile strengths
between 60,000 and 80,000 psi (415 and 550 MPa), and a ductility of 25% elongation.
Table 6.2 a
Compositions of Five Plain Low-Carbon Steels and Three High-Strength,

Low Alloy Steels
DESIGNATIONa
AISI/SAE or
UNS Number
ASTM Number
1010
1020
A36
A516 Grade 70
COMPOSITION (wt%)b
C
Mn
Plain Low-Carbon Steels

G10100
0.10
0.45
G10200
0.20
0.45
K02600
0.29
1.00
K02700
0.31
1.00
High-Strength, Low Alloy Steels
A440
K12810
0.28
1.35
A633 Grade E
K12002
0.22
1.35
A656 Grade 1
K11804
0.18
1.60
Other
0.20 Cu (min)
0.25 Si
0.30 Si (max), 0.20 Cu
(min)
0.30 Si, 0.08 V, 0.02 N,
0.03 Nb
0.60 Si, 0.1V, 0.20 Al,
0.015 N
The codes used by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and in the
Uniform Numbering System (UNS) are explained in the text.
b
Also a maximum of 0.04 wt% P, 0.05 wt% S, and 0.30 wt% Si (unless indicated otherwise).
6.9
Table 6.2 b
Mechanical Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Material and Typical Applications

for Various Plain Low-Carbon and High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels
AISI/SAE or
ASTM Number
Tensile
Strength [psi
x 10 (MPa)]
Yield
Ductility
Strength [psi
(%EL in 2 in.)
x 10 (MPa)]
Plain Low-Carbon Steels
1010
47 (325)
26 (180)
28
1020
55 (380)
30 (205)
25
A36
58 (400)
32 (220)
23
A516 Grade 70
70 (485)
38 (260)
21
Typical Applications
Automobile
panels,
nails, and wire
Pipe; structural and
sheet steel
Structural (bridges and
buildings)
Low-temperature
pressure vessels
High-Strength, Low Alloy Steels

A440
63 (435)
42 (290)
21
A633 Grade E
75 (520)
55 (380)
23
A656 Grade 1
95 (655)
80 (552)
15
Structures
that
are
bolted and riveted
Structures used at low
ambient temperatures
Truck
frames
and
railway cars
Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They
contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel and molybdenum in combined
concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.
Most may be strengthened by heat treatment, yielding tensile strengths in excess of 70,000 psi
(480 MPa); in addition, they are ductile, formable, and machinable. Several are listed in Table
6.2.
In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon
steels, which they have replaced in many applications where structural strength is critical (e.g.,
bridges, towers, support columns in high-rise buildings, and pressure vessels.)
6.2.4.2
Medium-Carbon Steels
The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.30 and 0.60 wt%. These
alloys may be heat-treated by austenitising, quenching, and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties.
They are most often utilised in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered
Martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities and can be successfully
heat treated only in very thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates.
Additions of chromium, nickel and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys to be heattreated, giving rise to a variety of strength-ductility combinations. These heat-treated alloys are
stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and
high-strength structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance
and toughness.
6.10
Table 6.3 a
AISI/SAE and UNS Designation Systems and Composition Ranges for Plain
Medium - Carbon Steel and Various Low-Alloy Steels
AISI/SAE
Designationa
UNS
Designation
Composition Ranges (wt% of Alloying Elements in

Addition to C)b
Ni
Cr
Mo
Other
10xx,
Plain
G10xx0
Carbon
11xx,
Free
G11xx0
Machining
12xx,
Free
G12xx0
Machining
13xx
G13xx0
40xx
41xx
43xx
46xx
48xx
51xx
61xx
86xx
92xx
G40xx0
G41xx0
G43xx0
G46xx0
G48xx0
G51xx0
G61xx0
G86xx0
G92xx0
0.08-0.33S
0.10-0.35S,
0.04-0.12P
1.601.90Mn
1.65-2.00
0.70-2.00
3.25-3.75
0.40-0.70
0.80-1.10
0.40-0.90
0.70-1.10
0.50-1.10
0.40-0.60
0.20-0.30
0.15-0.25
0.20-0.30
0.15-0.30
0.20-0.30
0.10-0.15V
0.15-0.25
1.80-2.20Si
The carbon concentration, in weight percent times 100, is inserted in the place of xx
for each specific steel
Except for 13xx alloys, manganese concentration is less than 1.00 wt%
Except for 12xx alloys, phosphorus concentration is less than 0.35 wt%
Except for 11xx and 12xx alloys, sulphur concentration is less than 0.04 wt%
Except for 92xx alloys, silicon concentration varies between 0.15 & 0.35 wt%
The compositions of several of these alloyed medium-carbon steels are presented in Table 6.3 a.
Some comment is in order regarding the designation schemes, which are also included. The
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) are responsible for the classification and
specification of steels as well as other alloys. The AISI/SAE designation for these steels is a
four-digit number: the first two digits indicate the alloy content; the last two, the carbon
concentration. For plain carbon steels, the first two digits are 1 and 0; alloy steels are designated
by other initial two-digit combinations (e.g., 12, 41, 43). The third and fourth digits represent
the weight percent carbon multiplied by 100. For example, a 1060 steel is a plain carbon steel
containing 0.60 wt% C.
A unified numbering system (UNS) is used for uniformly indexing both ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys. Each UNS number consists of a single-letter prefix followed by a five-digit number. The
letter is indicative of the family of metals to which an alloy belongs. The UNS designation for
these alloys begins with a G, following by the AISI/SAE number; the fifth digit is a zero. Table
6.3 b contains the mechanical characteristics and typical applications of several of these steels,
which have been quenched and tempered.
6.11
Table 6.3 b
AISI
Number
1040
1080
1095
Typical Applications and Mechanical Property Ranges for Oil-Quenched and

Tempered Medium - Plain Carbon and Alloy Steels.
MECHANICAL PROPERTY RANGES
Tensile
Yield
Ductility
UNS
Strength [psi Strength [psi
(%EL in 2
Number
x 10 (MPa)] x 10 (MPa)]
in.)
Plain Carbon Steels
88-113
62-85
33-19
G10400
(605-780)
(430-585)
116-190
70-142
24-13
G10800
(800-1310)
(480-980)
G10950
4063
G40630
4340
G43400
6150
G61500
110-186
(760-1280)
74-120
(510-830)
Alloy Steels
114-345
103-257
(786-2380)
(710-1770)
142-284
130-228
(980-1960
(895-1570)
118-315
108-270
(815-2170)
(745-1860)
26-10
24-4
21-11
22-7
Typical
Applications
Crankshafts,
bolts
Chisels,
hammers
Knives,
hacksaw
blades
Springs, hand
tools
Bushings,
aircraft tubing
Shafts,
pistons, gears
- Classified as high-carbon steels
6.2.4.3
High-Carbon and tool Steels
The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 0.9 wt%, are the
hardest, strongest and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in a
hardened and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable of
holding a sharp cutting edge.
The tool and die steels (between 0.90 and 1.4 wt% C) are high-carbon alloys, usually containing
chromium, vanadium, tungsten and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon
to form very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and WC). Some
tool steel compositions and their applications are listed in Table 6.4. These steels are utilised as
cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw
blades, springs and high-strength wire.
6.12
Table 6.4
Designations, Compositions and Applications for Six Tool Steels.
AISI
Number
UNS
Number
W1
T72301
0.6-1.4
S1
T41901
0.50
2.50
1.50
O1
T31501
0.90
0.50
0.50
A2
T30102
1.00
1.00
5.00
D2
T30402
1.50
1.00
112.00
1.00
M1
T11301
0.85
8.50
4.00
1.00
6
6.3.1
1.50
Composition (wt%)
Mo
Cr
V
Other
Typical
Applications
Blacksmith
tools, woodwork
tools
Pipe
cutters,
concrete drills
Shear
blades,
1.00Mn
cutting tools
Punches,
embossing dies
Cutlery,
drawing dies
Drills,
saws;
lathe and planer
tools
Alloy Steels
The Need for Alloying
The limitations of plain carbon steels can be summarised as follows:

(a)
(b)
(c)
A high critical cooling rate which leads to cracking when quench hardening
Poor hardenability and a corresponding low value of ruling section
Compared with alloy steels, carbon steels can only attain relatively low values of tensile
strength even after quench hardening and tempering unless such properties as ductility
and toughness are reduced in value to unacceptable levels.
Alloying elements are added to plain carbon steels to overcome these limitations and, in some
instances, to improve the corrosion and heat resistance and, in some instances, to improve the
corrosion and heat resistance as well.
However, alloy steels are more expensive and more difficult to process than plain carbon steels
and should only be used where their special properties can be fully exploited.
6.3.2 Classification of alloying elements

In general, alloying elements may be categorised as Carbide formers and Graphitisers (there
are other classifications such as austenite stabilisers and ferrite stabilisers).
Carbide Former
Some alloying elements form very stable carbides, which are harder then iron
carbide (cementite). The formation of such carbides increases the overall
hardness of the steel and makes it suitable for tooling purposes. The carbide
promoting elements are: chromium, manganese, niobium, molybdenum,
titanium, tungsten and vanadium (see Figure 6.4)
6.13
Graphitisers
Not all alloying elements tend to combine with carbon when in the presence of
iron. Far from forming carbides, such alloying elements as nickel, aluminum
and silicon cause instability in any carbide present so that carbon may be
precipitated out as free graphite. If any of these elements are required, for
particular alloy steel, in appreciable amounts, either carbide forming alloying
elements must also be present or the carbon content of the steel must be kept
very low. Therefore it is not possible to have a high-carbon, high-nickel alloy
steel (For example, this may take place in combination with chromium).
Element
Proportion dissolved in Ferrite
Proportion present as carbide
Nickel
Silicon
Aluminium
Manganese
Chromium
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Vanadium
Titanium
Niobium
Copper
0.3 % max
Lead
Figure 6.4 -
6.3.3
The physical states in which the principle alloying elements exist when in
steel
Alloying Elements
Steels containing iron and carbon with traces of phosphorus, silicon, and not more than 1.5%
manganese are referred to as plain carbon steels. The heat treatment of such steels is fully
discussed in chapter 7.
Alloy Steels are carbon steels, normally containing less than 1.0% carbon, to which other metals
and some non-metals (alloying elements) have been added in sufficient quantities to alter the
properties of the steels to a significant extent. The more important alloying elements will now be
considered.
6.14
Chromium
The presence of small amounts of chromium stabilises the formation of hard

carbides and improves the susceptibility of steels to heat treatment.
Unfortunately, the presence of chromium also promotes grain growth; therefore
chromium is rarely used as an alloying element on its own. The presence of
large amounts of chromium improves the corrosion resistance and heat
resistance of steels (stainless steels)
Copper
The presence of up to 0.5% copper improves the corrosion resistance of alloy

steels
Lead
The presence of up to 0.2% lead improves the machinability of steels, but

unfortunately it also reduces the strength of the steel to which it is added.
Manganese
This element is always present in steel as it combines with residual sulphur

from the smelting process and reduces the brittleness caused by the presence
of iron sulphide. It also stabilises the phase (austenite) and helps to promote
the formation of stable carbides. In large quantities (up to 12.5%), manganese
improves the wear resistance of steels by causing them to form a hard skin
spontaneously when subjected to abrasion.
Molybdenum
The presence of molybdenum in alloy steels raises their high-temperature

creep strength, stabilises their carbides, improves the ability of cutting tools to
retain their hardness at high temperature, and reduces the susceptibility of
nickel-chromium steels to temper-brittleness and weld-decay. Molybdenum is
also present in chromium steel alloys to reduce grain growth (see chromium).
Nickel
The presence of nickel in alloy steels results in increased strength by grain

refinement. It also improves the corrosion resistance of steel.
Silicon
The presence of up to 0.3% silicon improves the fluidity of casting steels

without the reduction in mechanical properties associated with phosphorus. Up
to 1% silicon improves the heat resistance of steels. Unfortunately, silicon,
like nickel, is a powerful graphitiser and is never added in large amounts to a
high carbon steels.
Tungsten
The presence of tungsten in alloy steels promotes the formation of very hard
carbides, and reduces the heat treatment transformations. This enables the
steels to retain their hardness at high temperature. Tungsten is mainly
found in high-speed steels, which are used for cutting tools and in high-duty
die steels which have to operate at high temperatures.
Vanadium
Vanadium is not used on its own, but is used to enhance the benefits of other
alloying elements. The effects of this element in alloy steels are many and
various:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
It promotes the formation of carbides

It stabilises martensite and thus improves hardenability
It reduces grain growth
It enhances the hot hardness of tool steels and die steels
It improves the fatigue resistance of steels
6.15
Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide
stabiliser to some austenitic stainless steels.
Phosphorus Increases strength and hardnability, reduces ductility and toughness. Increases
machineability and corrosion resistance
Sulphur
Reduces toughness and strength and also weldabilty. Sulphur inclusions, tend to
segregate to the grain boundaries as liquid films, thus weakening them
considerably. Manganese breaks up these films into globules of manganese
sulphide.
6.3.4 The Classification of alloy Steels

The most convenience way to classify the wide range of alloy steels available to the engineer is
to group them according to application, and then form sub-groups according to their principal
alloying elements.
There are five main groups:
(a)
Structural Steels
These must not be confused with steels used for

structural steelwork, but refers to those steels where
strength is of paramount importance rather than, say,
corrosion resistance or heat resistance (see Table 6.5)
(b)
Corrosion-resistant Steels
These include the stainless steels together with less

expensive low alloy steels (see Table 6.6)
(c)
Heat-resistant Steels
These steels are used for such applications as the

valves in automobile engines and for components for
gas-turbines and jet engines where low creep
characteristics are required (see Table 6.6)
(d)
Tool & Die Steels
These are hard and wear-resistant steels which retain

their hardness at high operating temperatures and
which resist cracking and distorting during heat
treatment.
(e)
Ferro-magnetic Steels
Most steels show some Ferro-magnetic properties, but

this group of steels has been specially developed to
exploit these properties.
6.16
Table 6.5 Typical Structural (low-alloy) steels

Type
Type of Steel
Composition
Mn
Ni
Cr
Mo
Condition
Yield Tensile
(MPa) (MPa)
Izod
(J)
A%
150M28
Low
manganese
0.28
1.50
---
---
---
Normalised
355
590
---
20
530M40
Nickel
manganese
0.40
0.90
1.00
---
---
Quench hardened
from 850C in oil,
tempered at 600C
495
695
91
25
608M38
Manganesemolybdenum
0.38
1.50
---
---
0.50
Quench hardened
from 850C in oil,
tempered at 600C
1000
1130
70
19
653M31
Nickel
chromium
---
Quench hardened
from 820C
840C in oil,
tempered at 600C
820
930
105
23
---
2010
27
14
817M40
Nickel
chromium
molybdenum
0.40
0.30
Quench quenched
from 840C and
tempered at 600C
990
1080
70
22
Manganesenickelchromiummolybdenum
0.38
960
1040
85
21
945M38
0.31
0.60
0.55
1.40
3.00
1.50
0.75
1.00
1.20
0.50
0.20
Quench quenched
from 840C and
tempered at 600C
Applications
Cheap medium-duty alloy
for automobile comp/s
Crankshafts, connecting
rods, axles and general
components in the
automobile and machine
tool industries
Lower-cost substitute for
nickel-chromemolybdenum steels for
highly stressed comp.s
Highly stressed
components such as,
differential shafts, halfshafts, stub axles,
connecting rods, pinion
shafts, high-tensile studs
and bolts
Highly stressed gears for
the automobile and
machine tool industries
Highly stressed
components where
resistant to shock and
fatigue is important
A cheaper alloy than
817M40, but still suitable
for highly stressed
components where
resistance to shock and
fatigue is important.
6.17
Table 6.6
Type of
Steel
403S17
Ferritic
420S45
Martensitic
Corrosion and heat-resistant steels: derived from BS 970: Pt 3

Composition
Mechanical Properties
Tensile Yield
%
Brinnel
C
Mn
Cr
Ni
Ti
Si
(MPa)
0.04
0.30
0.45
1.0
14.0
13.0
0.50
1.0
---
---
0.80
0.80
(MPa)
Elong.
510
340
31
---
1470
---
---
450
1670
---
---
534
61
278
50
170
896
803
30
---
302S25
Austenitic
0.1
1.0
18.0
8.50
---
0.80
321S20
Austenitic
weld-decay
resistant
0.1
0.80
18.0
8.50
1.60
0.80
649
278
45
180
401S45
Valve Steel
0.4
0.50
8.0
0.5
---
3.0
---
---
---
225
(min)
349S54
Valve Steel
0.5
10.0
22.0
4.50
---
0.25
---
---
---
321
(min)
Heat Treatment
Applications
Hard.
Soft & ductile; can be used

Condition
soft. for fabrications, pressings,
Cannot be hardened drawn components, spun
Domestic
except by cold-work components.
utensils.
Corrosion-resistant springs
Quench from 950C
for food processing and
- 1000C
chemical plant. CorrosionTemper 400-450C
resistant cutlery and edge
Temper 150-180C
tools
18/8 stainless steel widely
Condition
soft
used for fabrications and
solution
treatment
domestic and decorative
from 1050C
purposes
Condition
soft 18/8 which can be safely
solution
treatment fabricated by welding,
from 1050C. Can used for brewing, foodonly
be
work- processing, and chemical
plant.
hardened
Quench harden in oil
Heat-resistant steel of
from 1030-1060C.
relatively
low
cost.
Temper at 750General purpose steel
850C
Soften by solution
A high-quality, high cost
treatment at 1160valve steel suitable for
1190C. Harden by
hostile environments, e.g.
precipitation
furnace and chemical-plant
treatment at 750components
850C for 6 to 15 hrs
6.18
6.4
Stainless steel
6.4.1
General properties and classification
Stainless steels were developed in 1913 in Sheffield by a Sheffield metallurgist Harry Brearley,
following his discovery that a 13% chromium steel which he was experimenting with to combat
erosion of rifle barrels, showed resistance to rusting.
Stainless steels are selected for their excellent resistance to corrosion. All true stainless steel
steels contain a minimum of about 12% Cr. which permits a thin, protective surface layer of
chromium oxide to form when the steel is exposed to oxygen.
There are four categories of stainless steels based on crystal structure and strengthening
mechanism. Examples and characteristics of each type are included in Table 6.7 at the end of
this section.
6.4.2
The Iron-Chromium-Carbon Phase Diagram
Figure 6.5 shows the iron-chromium phase diagram. The chromium produces a gamma, , loop
(austenite loop). As the amount of chromium increases, the temperature range in which
austenite is stable decreases until the austenite completely disappears. Thus with high chromium
contents, the ferritic, or , structure is present at all temperatures. Chromium is a ferrite
stabilising element.
2000
Ferrite
Liquid L
temperature
(0C)
1500
Austenite
1000
Minimum Cr
level for
protection
500
0
20
80
100
Wt % Chromium
Figure 6.5
The iron - chromium phase diagram (not to scale)
6.19
6.4.3
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steels contain up to 30% Cr (typically within the range 11-28%.) and less than
0.12% C.
Commonly used alloys include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12%
Cr.
Because of the BCC structure, the ferritic stainless steels have good strengths and moderate
ductilities derived from solid solution strengthening and strain hardening.
When the carbon or chromium contents are high, precipitation of carbide particles provides
dispersion strengthening but also embrittles the alloy.
Ferritic stainless steels have excellent corrosion resistance and moderate formability and are
relatively inexpensive.
As these alloys can be considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable, they can
be readily fusion welded. However, a coarse grained heat affected zone (HAZ), up-on welding
may have poor toughness.
The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness.
Excessive grain coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick section
material.
When welding thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special precautions are necessary.
In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the grain
coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal.
Although preheating will not reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain
the weld metal above the ductile-brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual stresses.
Preheat temperature should be within the range 50-250 0C depending on material composition.
6.20
6.4.4
Martensitic Stainless Steels
From figure 6.5, it is found that, say, a 17% Cr-0.5% alloy heated to 1200C produces 100%
austenite, which transforms to martensite on quenching. The martensite is then tempered to
produce high strengths and hardness.
The chromium content is usually less than 17% Cr; otherwise the austenite field becomes so
small that very stringent control over both austenitising temperature and carbon content is
required. Lower chromium contents also permit the carbon content to vary from about 0.1% to
1.0%, allowing martensite of different harnesses to be produced.
Since the chromium gives the steel high hardenability, an air or oil quench permits
martensite to form. The martensitic stainless steels have tempering curves similar to those of
high-alloy tool steels. Little softening occurs until a tempering temperature near 500C is
reached.
The low chromium content and the presence of two phases cause tempered martensitic stainless
steels to have less corrosion resistance than the other stainless steels.
However, the combinations of hardness, strength and corrosion resistance makes the alloys
attractive for many applications, including high-quality knives, ball bearings and valves.
The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have a moderate chromium content, 12-18%
Cr, with low Ni but more importantly have a relatively high carbon content.
The principal difference compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless
steel is the potentially hard HAZ martensitic structure and the matching composition weld metal.
The material can be successfully welded providing precautions (egg Preheating to around 200 to
300 0C and post-weld heat treatment, at 650-750 0C) are taken to avoid cracking in the HAZ,
especially in thick section components and highly restrained joints.
6.21
6.4.5
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Nickel, which is an austenite stabilising element, increases the size of the austenite field while
nearly eliminating ferrite from the iron-chromium-carbon alloys (Figure 6.6). If the carbon
content is below about 0.03%, the carbides do not form and the steel is virtually all austenite at
room temperature.
1000
Temperature
(0C)
500
+ Chromium carbide
0.4
Wt% Carbon
Figure 6.6
Part of the iron-chromium-nickel-carbon phase diagram at a constant 18% Cr-8% Ni.
(not to scale)
The FCC austenite stainless steels have excellent ductility, formability and corrosion resistance.
Strength is obtained by extensive solid solution and the austenitic stainless steels may be cold
worked to higher strengths than the ferritic stainless steels.
The steels have excellent low temperature impact properties, since they have no transition
temperature.
Furthermore, the austenitic stainless steels are not ferromagnetic. Unfortunately the high nickel
and chromium contents make the alloys expensive.
Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26% chromium (Cr)
and 8-22% nickel (Ni).
A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is Type 304 which contains approximately
18%Cr and 10%Ni.
These alloys can be readily welded using any of the arc welding processes (TIG, MIG, and
MMA).
As they are non-hardenable on cooling, they exhibit good toughness and there is no need for preor post-weld heat treatment.
6.22
Examples of carbon content include;

304 L grade Low Carbon, typically 0.03% Max
304 grade Medium Carbon, typically 0.08% Max
304H grade High Carbon, typically Up to 0.1%
The higher the carbon content the greater the yield strength.
Typical Alloy Content includes;
304
316
316 Ti
320
321
347
308
309
(18-20Cr, 8-12Ni)
(16-18Cr, 10-14Ni + 2-3Mo)
(316 with Titanium Added)
(Same as 316Ti)
(17-19Cr, 9-12Ni + Titanium)
(17-19Cr, 9-13Ni + Niobium)
(19-22Cr, 9-11Ni)
(22-24Cr, 12-15Ni)
304 + Molybdenum
304 + Moly + Titanium
304 + Titanium
304 + Niobium
304 + Extra 2%Cr
304 + Extra 4%Cr + 4% Ni
All the above stainless steel grades are basic variations of a 304. All are readily weldable and all
have matching consumables, except for a 304 which is welded with a 308 or 316, and 321 is
welded with a 347 (Titanium is not easily transferred across the arc) and a 316Ti is normally
welded with a 318.
Molybdenum has the same effect on the microstructure as chrome, except that it gives better
resistance to pitting corrosion. Therefore a 316 needs less chrome than a 304.
Other Austenitic stainless steel grades include,
310
904L
(24-26Cr,19-22Ni) True Austenitic. This material does not transform to ferrite on

cooling and therefore does not contain delta ferrite. Can be tricky
to weld.
(20Cr,25Ni,4.5Mo) Super Austenitic or Nickel alloy. Superior corrosion resistance
providing they are welded carefully with low heat input (less than 1
kJ/mm recommended) and fast travel speeds with no weaving.
Each run of weld should not be started until the metal temperature
falls below 100C. It is unlikely that a uniform distribution of
alloy will be achieved throughout the weld (segregation), therefore
this material should either be welded with an over-alloyed
consumable such as a 625 or annealed after welding, if maximum
corrosion resistance is required
Austenetic stainless steel may suffer from decay (sensitisation) due to welding (will be discussed
in a later section).
6.23
EXAMPLE 6.1
Describe a simple test to separate high-nickel stainless steel from low-nickel stainless steel.
Answer:
The high-nickel stainless steels are austenitic, whereas the low-nickel stainless steels are
probably ferritic or martensitic.
An ordinary magnet will be attracted to the low-nickel ferritic and martensitic steels but will not
be attracted to the high-nickel austenitic steel.
EXAMPLE 6.2
Which of the stainless steels would you select for a pump used to transport liquid helium at 4 K
(-2960C)?
Answer:
Because of the extremely low temperature, a material with good low-temperature properties is
necessary. The austenitic stainless steels might serve best, since they do not have a ductilebrittle transition temperature and thus have better low-temperature toughness.
6.4.6
Precipitation Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels
The composition of the precipitation hardening, or PH, stainless steels is similar to that of the
austenitic stainless steels except for the presence of aluminium, niobium or tantalum. The PH
stainless steels derive their properties from solid solution strengthening, strain hardening, age
hardening, age hardening and the martensitic reaction. High mechanical properties are obtained
even with low carbon contents.
A heat treatment for a typical is now considered after fabrication of the steel in the annealed
condition, three steps are required.
1. Conditioning. This step, done at 760C to 955C, prepares the austenite for subsequent
transformation to martensite.
2. Quenching and transformation. The steel is cooled to 15C or below to permit austenite to
transform to martensite.
3. Precipitation. The steel is reheated to 500C to 600C, permitting, for example Nb3Al, and
other precipitates to form from the martensite. Higher strengths are obtained with lower
ageing temperatures.
6.24
6.4.7
Duplex Stainless Steel
Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of austenite and
ferrite.
Duplex solidifies initially as ferrite, then transforms on further cooling to a matrix of ferrite and
austenite. In modern raw material the balance should be 50/50 for optimum corrosion
resistance, particularly resistance to stress corrosion cracking. However the materials strength is
not significantly effected by the ferrite / austenite phase balance.
Micro-structure
of Standard Duplex
Dark Areas:- Ferrite

Light Areas:- Austenite
The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the range 22-26% Cr, 4-7% Ni
and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1-0.3%) to stabilise the austenite and
improve weldability.
Typically, Duplex stainless steel has twice the yield of austenitic stainless steels. Minimum
Specified UTS typically 680 to 750N/mm2. Elongation; typically > 25%.
It has superior corrosion resistance than a 316. Good Resistance to stress corrosion cracking in a
chloride environment and good fatigue resistance than normal stainless steels.
Duplex stainless steel is, therefore, extensively used in Oil & Natural Gas production and
chemical plants etc.
As well as their high resistance to generalised corrosion, these steels are frequently used to solve
the problem of pitting corrosion. Their resistance to pitting corrosion is given by their Pitting
Resistance Equivalent Number, PREN;
PREN = % Cr + 3.3x % Mo + 16x % N.
The higher the PREN, the greater the resistance to corrosion.
The distinction between Duplex and Super Duplex steels lies in their PREN.
The composition of the duplex and super duplex grades
Standard Duplex S31803 22%Cr - 5%Ni - 2.8%Mo- 0.15%N (PREN = 32-33)
Super Duplex: S32760 (Zeron 100) 25%Cr - 7.5%Ni - 3.5%Mo - 0.23%N (PREN = 40)
Stronger and more corrosion resistant than standard duplex.
6.25
Because of the complex nature of this material it is important that it is sourced from good quality
steel mills and is properly solution annealed.
The material work hardens if cold formed; even the strain produced from welding can work
harden the material particularly in multi pass welding. Therefore a full anneal is advantageous,
particularly if low service temperatures are foreseen.
The high strength of this material can make joint fit up difficult.
Usable temperature range restricted to, -50 to 280C
Nitrogen is a strong austenite former and largely responsible for the balance between ferrite and
austenite phases and the materials superior corrosion resistance. Nitrogen cant be added to filler
metal, as it does not transfer across the arc.
It can also be lost from molten parent metal during welding. Its loss can lead to high ferrite and
reduced corrosion resistance.
Nitrogen can be added to the shielding gas and backing gas, up to about 10%; however this
makes welding difficult as it can cause porosity and contamination of the Tungsten electrode
unless the correct welding technique is used.
Too much Nitrogen will form a layer of Austenite on the weld surface. Hence, most duplex and
super duplex are, usually, TIG welded using pure argon.
Fast cooling from molten will promote the formation of ferrite, slow cooling will promote
austenite. During welding fast cooling is most likely, therefore welding consumables usually
contain up to 2 - 4% extra Nickel to promote austenite formation in the weld.
Duplex welding consumables are suitable for joining duplex to austenitic stainless steel or
carbon steel; they can also be used for corrosion resistant overlays.
Nickel based welding consumables can be used but the weld strength will not be as good as the
parent metal, particularly on super duplex.
Acceptable phase balance is usually 30% Austenite 70% Ferrite;
Low levels of austenite: - Poor toughness and general corrosion resistance.
High levels of austenite: - Some Reduction in strength and reduced resistance to stress
corrosion cracking.
Good impact test results are a good indication that the material has been successfully welded.
The parent metal usually exceeds 200J.
The ductile to brittle transition temperature is about 50C. The transition is not as steep as that
of carbon steel and depends on the welding process used.
Multi run welds tend to promote austenite and thus exhibit higher toughness
Tight controls and the use of arc monitors are recommended during welding and automatic or
mechanised welding is preferred. Repair welding can seriously affect corrosion resistance and
toughness; therefore any repairs should follow specially developed procedures.
Production control test plates are recommended for all critical production welds.
Welding procedures should be supplemented by additional tests, depending on the application
and the requirements of any application code:Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 200
6.26
Table 6.7
Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications for Austenitic, Ferritic, Martensitic and
Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels
Composition (wt%)
AISI
Number
UNS
Number
Cr
Ni
Other
Conditiona
FERRITIC
1.0Mn,
Annealed
0.75Ti
409
S40900
0.08
11
446
S44600
0.20
25
304
S30400
0.08
19
316L
S31603
0.03
17
12
1.5Mn
Annealed
AUSTENITIC
2.0Mn
Annealed
2.0Mn,
Annealed
2.5Mo
Tensile
Yield
Ductility
Strength
Strength
(%EL in 2
[psi x 10
[psi x 10
in.)
(MPa)]
(MPa)]
65 (448)
35 (240)
25
80 (552)
50 (345)
20
85 (586)
35 (240)
55
80 (552)
35 (240)
50
70 (483)
140 (965)
105 (724)
260 (1790)
40 (275)
100 (690)
60 (414)
240 (1655)
30
23
20
5
130 (897)
40 (275)
35
215 (1480)
195 (1345)
Typical
Applications
Automotive
exhaust
Valves
(high
temperature)
glass moulds
Food processing
Welding
Construction
MARTENSITIC
410
S41000
0.15
12.5
1.0Mn
440A
S44002
0.70
17
1.0Mn,
0.75Mo
17
1.0Mn,
1.0Al
Annealed
Q&T
Annealed
Q&T
Rifle
barrels,
cutlery
Cutlery, surgical
tools
PRECIPITATION HARDENABLE
17-7PH
S17700
0.09
Solution
Treated
Precipitatio
n hardened
Q and T denotes quenched and tempered
Knives, springs
6.27
6.5
CAST IRONS
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.1 wt%; in
practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt%C and, in addition, other
alloying elements. A re-examination of the iron-iron carbide phase diagram (Figure 6.1) reveals
that alloys within this composition range become completely liquid at temperatures between
approximately 1150 and 1300C (2100 and 2350F), which is considerably lower than for steels.
Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to casting. Furthermore, some cast irons are very
brittle, and casting is the most convenience fabrication technique.
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be made to
dissociate or decompose to form ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction.
Fe3C 3FI () + C (graphite)

This tendency to form graphite is regulated by the composition and rate of cooling. Graphite
formation is promoted by the presence of silicon in concentrations greater than about 1wt% (up
to about 3%).
Also, slower cooling rates during solidification favour graphitisation (the formation of graphite).
For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and mechanical
behaviour depend on composition and heat treatment. The most common cast iron types are
grey, nodular, white and malleable.
The microstructures of the five important types of cast irons are shown schematically in Figure
6.7.
Grey cast iron contains small, interconnected graphite flakes that cause low strength and
ductility.
White cast iron is a hard, brittle, un-machinable alloy containing massive amounts Fe3C.
Malleable cast iron is produced by the heat treatment of white iron, causing irregular but
rounded clumps of graphite to precipitate. This graphite form permits good strength, ductility
and toughness in the iron.
Ductile or nodular cast iron contains spheroidal graphite particles obtained during solidification
by the addition of small amounts of magnesium to the molten iron. Properties are similar to
those of malleable iron.
6.28
a) White Cast Iron:

The light cemenite regions are surrounded by pearlite,
which has the ferrite cemenite layered structure.
b) Grey Cast Iron:

The dark graphite flakes are embedded in an ferrite matrix.
Fig. 6.7
c) Malleable Cast Iron:

Dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an
ferrite matrix.
d) Ductile (Nodular) Cast Iron:

The dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an ferrite matrix.
Grey Iron
The carbon and silicon contents of grey cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and
3.0 wt%, respectively. For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of flakes
(similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an ferrite or pearlite matrix.
Because of the graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on grey appearance, hence its name.
Mechanically, grey iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of its
microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed and may serve as points of
stress concentration when an external tensile stress is applied.
Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads. Typical mechanical properties
and compositions of several of the common grey cast irons are listed in Table 6.8. Grey cast
irons do have some desirable characteristics and in fact are utilised extensively.
They are very effective in damping vibrational energy, compared to steel. Base structures for
machines and heavy equipment that are exposed to vibrations are frequently constructed of this
6.29
material. In addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear. Furthermore, in the molten
state they have a high fluidity at casting temperature, which permits casting pieces having
intricate shapes; also, casting shrinkage is low. Finally, and perhaps most important, gray cast
irons are the least expensive of all metallic materials.
White Iron
The low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exists as cemenite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white
appearance and thus it is termed white cast iron. Thick sections may have only a surface layer
of white iron that was 'chilled' during the casting process; grey iron forms at interior regions,
which cool more slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of the Cementite phase, white iron
is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually unmachinable. Its use is
limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface and without a high
degree of ductility - for example, as rollers in rolling mills. Generally, white iron is used as an
intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.
Malleable Iron
Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 and 900C (1470 and 1650F) for a prolonged
time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the
cemenite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix. Some typical mechanical characteristics are also listed in Table 6.8.
Representative applications include connecting rods transmission gears and different cases for
the automotive industry and also flanges, pipe fittings and valve part for railroad, marine and
other heavy-duty services.
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the grey iron before casting produces a
distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still forms, but as
nodules or sphere like particles instead of flakes. The resulting alloy is called nodular or ductile
iron.
The matrix phase surrounding these particles is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat
treatment. it is normally pearlite for an as-cast piece. However, a heat treatment for several
hours at about 700C (1300F) will yield a ferrite matrix .
Castings are stronger and much more ductile than grey iron, as a comparison of their mechanical
properties in Table 6.8 shows. In fact, ductile iron has mechanical characteristics approaching
those of steel. For example, ferritic ductile iron has tensile strengths ranging between 55,000
and 70,000 psi (380 and 480 MPa) and ductilities (as percent elongation) from 10 to 20%.
Typical applications for this material includes valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gear and other
automotive and machine components.
6.30
Table 6.8 Designations, Minimum Mechanical Properties, Approximate Compositions and Typical Applications for Various Grey, Nodular and Malleable Cast Irons.
Composition (wt%)
UNS
Number
Si
Other
SAE G2500
F10005
3.3
2.2
0.7Mn
SAE G4000
F10008
3.2
2.0
0.8Mn
Grade
Tensile
Yield
Ductility
Strength [psi Strength [psi
(%EL in 2
x 10 (MPa)] x 10 (MPa)]
in.)
Matrix
Structure
Typical
Applications
GREY IRON
Pearlite
ferrite
Pearlite
ferrite
+
+
Engine
Blocks,
brake drums
Engine cylinders
& pistons
25 (173)
---
---
40 (276)
---
---
60 (414)
40 (276)
18
100 (690)
70 (483)
120 (828)
90 (621)
Gears, rollers
50 (345)
32 (224)
10
65 (448
45 (310)
General
engineering
service at room &
elevated
temperatures
DUCTILE (NODULAR) IRON

ASTM A536
60-40-18
F32800
100-70-03
F34800
120-90-02
F36200
Ferrite
3.5 3.8
MALLEABLE IRON
32510
F22200
2.3 2.7
45006
2.4 2.7
2.0 2.8
0.05Mg,
<0.20Ni, Pearlite
<0.10Mo
Tempered
martensite
1.0 1.75 <0.55Mn Ferrite

1.25 1.55
<0.55Mn
Ferrite
pearlite
Valve & pump

bodies
High-strength
gears
7.
7.1
7.1
General Heat Treatment Processes
Sections 4.3.4.2 and 6.2.2 have discussed a number of phenomena that occur in metals and alloys at
elevated temperatures, for example, re-crystallisation (section 4.3.4.2) and the decomposition of
austenite (section 6.2.2). These are effective in altering the mechanical characteristics when
appropriate heat treatments of thermal processes are employed. In fact, the use of heat treatments on
commercial alloys is an exceedingly common practice. Therefore, we consider the details of some of
these processes, including Quenching, Annealing, Normalising and Tempering.
Plain carbon steel may be hardened or softened using a variety of heat treatment processes.
Examples of this include;
Quenching (hardening process)
Annealing (softening process) - Process or stress relief annealing

- Full Annealing
- Spheroidising Annealing
Normalising (softening process)
Tempering (softening process)
7.2
Hardening of carbon steel (by Quenching)
7.2.1
Basic Process
The process (Figure 7.1) starts by heating the component to above its upper critical temperature
(hence, transforming it to Austenite). This allows all the carbon to be absorbed in the austenitic
phase. Then, the steel is quenching (rapid cooling) so that the carbon will not have enough time to
precipitate out of the austenitic phase and, hence will be trapped, creating a supersaturated and
extremely distorted and hard phase called Martensite. The final hardness will depend on the carbon
content and cooling rate.
Component
Water, Oil, etc.
(Quenching bath)
Heat to Austenite
Quench (rapid Cooling)
7.2
Figure 7.1 Schematic presentation of the Quench hardening process

Martensite is formed due to rapid quenching of steel (transformation under non-thermal
equilibrium conditions). Martensite is distorted crystals of iron super-saturated with carbon. These
distorted crystals reduce the movement of slip planes (Figure 7.2). It is the hardest possible structure
produced from plain carbon steel and, for all practical applications, has no ductility. A further heat
treating process (softening) to restore some ductility must follow conventional quenching.
Ball Indentor
Perfect
Crystals
(soft)
Slip Planes
Martensitic
Crystals
(hard)
7.2 Model comparing soft steel with one having a martensitic structure.
7.2.2
Critical Cooling Rate and Mass Effect
The Critical Cooling Rate is the slowest cooling rate (quenching rate) required, from which a steel
can be quenched, in order to obtain a final structure which is completely (100%) Maretnsitic.
A thin component will give up its heat and cool more quickly than a thick component if both are
quenched in the same quenching bath.
When a thick component is quenched, the heat will be trapped at the center so that the core of the
component cools more slowly than the outer layers. This leads to variations in hardness across the
component. This variation in hardness is referred to as the mass effect.
Distance
Martensitic Structure
Coarse grains of
Pearlite + Ferrite (Hypo Eutectoid)
or
Pearlite + Cementite (Hyper
Eutectoid)
Component surface
Centre
Component Surface
Hardness
7.3
7.2.3
Hardenability of steel; The Jominy (End-Quench) test
The response of steel to a given hardening treatment is known as the Hardenability of steel. Good
hardenability is indicated by a greater depth of hardening below the surface of the component.
The Jominy (End-Quench) test is used to determine the hardenability of steel as shown in Figure
7.3. It involves heating a specimen to just above the upper critical temperature so that it is fully
Austenitic, and then quenching it by spraying a jet of water against its lower end.
25 mm
100 mm
Quenching frame
Specimen
25 mm
Water spray
Figure 7.3 The Jomini End Quench Test
7.4
The specimen cools very rapidly at the quenched end and progressively less rapidly towards the
opposite (shouldered) end. A flat is ground along the side of the specimen and hardness tests (e.g.
Brinnell, Rockwell etc) are carried out every 3mm from the quenched end. The hardness is plotted
against the distance from the quenched end to give a hardenability curve as shown in Figure 7.4 a).
800
Hardness (Vickers)
Figure 7.4 a)
700
Hardenability curves
(0.3 % C, 3.0% Ni-Cr-Mo) steel alloy
Improved hardenability
600
500
Good hardenability
400
300
Poor hardenability
0.3 % plain carbon
200
100
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Distance from quenched end
Figure 7.4 b)
Hardenability curves for five different steel
alloys, each containing 0.4 wt% C.
Approximate alloy compositions (wt%) are
as follows;
43401.85 Ni, 0.80 Cr, and 0.25 Mo

41401.0 Cr and 0.20 Mo
86400.55 Ni, 0.50 Cr, and 0.20 Mo;
51400.85 Cr
1040 is an unalloyed steel.
7.5
7.3
Annealing, Normalising and Tempering
7.3.1 General Principals

By selecting on of the above heat treatment processes one or more of the following aims may be
achieved.
a)
To soften the steel after quenching.
b)
To improve machinability.
c)
To relive internal stresses induced by some previous process (e.g. cold working
or uneven cooling).
d)
To remove coarseness of grains and overcome internal defects (especially for
large castings or large forgings).
The heat treatment processes will include the following steps (cycle);
a)
b)
c)
Heat the steel (in a furnace) to a certain pre-determined temperature.

Hold the steel at that temperature (soaking) for a sufficient time to allow
necessary changes to occur.
Cool the steel at a controlled pre-determined rate.
In general, the heat treatment processes improve the ductility of steel at the expense of strength and
hardness.
7.6
7.3.2
Annealing
7.3.2.1 Basic process

The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated
temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing is carried out
to:
(1) relieve stresses;
(2) increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or
(3) produce a specific microstructure.
Any annealing process consists of three stages:
(1) heating to the desired temperature,
(2) holding or soaking at that temperature, and
(3) cooling, in the furnace (i.e. extremely slow rate of cooling), usually to room temperature.
Time is an important parameter in these procedures. During heating and cooling, there exist
temperature gradients between the outside and interior portions of the piece; their magnitudes
depend on the size and geometry of the piece. If the rate of temperature change is too great,
temperature gradients and internal stresses may be induced that may lead to warping or even
cracking. Also, the actual annealing time must be long enough to allow for any necessary
transformation reactions. Annealing may be accelerated by increasing the temperature, since
diffusion processes are normally involved.
A variety of annealing heat treatments are possible; they are characterized by the changes that are
induced, which many times are microstructural and are responsible for the alteration of mechanical
properties.
The annealing processes considered, are illustrated in Figure 7.5, and include:
Process or stress relief annealing

Full Annealing
Spheroidising Annealing
The above processes will be discussed, in turn, in sections 7.3.2.2, 7.3.2.3 and 7.3.2.4.
7.7
300
Temperature
500
1000
Full Annealing
Temperature range
900
7230
800
700
630
6500
600
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Wt% Carbon
Process Annealing
(Stress relief Annealing)
Spheroidising
Annealing
Increase time
Lamellar
Pearlite
Annealing
treatment
Stress-Relief
Annealing
Spheroidised
Annealing
% Carbon
Up to 0.4 %
Annealing
Temperature (C0)
630 - 723
Above 0.4 %
650 - 723
Full Annealing Up to 0.8 %
Above 0.8 %
3080 above upper

critical temperature
line
3080 above lower
critical temp. line
Balling-up of
Cementite
Annealing
Cycle
Heat to
required
temperature
and cool in
furnace.
Spherical
Cementite
Main applications and

comments
Used for cold worked
components, and
residual stress relieving
Used for cold worked or
quench hardened
components
Used for large castings
and forgings.
Maximum softness
And ductility.
Figure 7.5 The Annealing Processes
7.8
7.3.2.2
Process Annealing (Stress Relief annealing)
Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work, Distortion and
warpage may resulting from residual stresses. That is, to soften and increase the ductility of a
previously strain-hardened metal.
It is also commonly utilised during fabrication procedures that require extensive plastic deformation,
to allow a continuation of deformation without fracture or excessive energy consumption. In this
case, recovery and re-crystallisation processes are allowed to occur.
The Process annealing temperature range and carbon contents are illustrated in Figure 7.5.
Ordinarily a fine-grained microstructure is desired, and therefore, the heat treatment is terminated
before appreciable grain growth has occurred. Surface oxidation or scaling may be prevented or
minimized by annealing at a relatively low temperature (but above the recrystallisation temperature)
or in a non-oxidizing atmosphere.
7.3.2.3
Full Annealing
A heat treatment known as full annealing is often utilised for components that will be machined or
will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation. But in particular it is well
suited for large castings where there is a need to eliminate any casting defects and homogenise the
grain structure.
In low- and medium- carbon steels (up to 0.8 wt%C) The alloy is austenitised by heating to 30 80C above the upper critical temperature line until equilibrium is achieved as indicated in Figure
7.5.
For steels with higher carbon contents (over0.8 wt%C) the full annealing temperature range is
between 30 80 C above the lower critical temperature line achieved as indicated in Figure 7.5.
This steel is prevented from forming a fully austenitic structure (where carbon is completely
absorbed). This is because, on slow cooling from a fully austenitic phase, the precipitated proeutectoid cementite (Fe3C) Would form as a continuos film on the austenite grain boundary and
eventually cause embroilment when the steel is fully cooled.
The alloy is then furnace cooled; that is, the heat-treating furnace is turned off and both furnace and
steel cool to room temperature at the same rate, which takes several hours.
The microstructural product of this anneal is course pearlite (in addition to any pro-eutectoid phase)
that is relatively soft and ductile. The full-anneal cooling procedure is time consuming; however, a
microstructure having small grains and a uniform grain structure results.
7.9
7.3.2.4 Spheroidising Annealing

Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing even coarse pearlite may still be
too hard to conveniently machine or plastically deform. These steels, and in fact any steel, may be
heat treated or annealed to develop the spherodite structure as shown in Figure 7.5.
Spheroidised steels have a maximum softness and ductility because the boundary areas between
lamellar cementite and lamellar ferrite has been reduced, hence leaving hard spherodised (ball
shaped) cementite in a continuos soft matrix of soft ferrite. Hence, Spheroidised steels are easily
machined or deformed.
The Spheroidising heat treatment consists of heating the alloy at a temperature just below the
eutectoid [line (650 7230C) in the + Fe3C region of the phase diagram. If the precursor
microstructure contains pearlite, Spheroidising times will ordinarily range between 15 and 25 h.
during this annealing there is a coalescence of the Fe3C to form the spheroid particles.
7.3.3
Normalizing
Steels that have been plastically deformed by, for example, a rolling operation, consist of grains of
pearlite (and most likely a proeutectoid phase), which are irregularly shaped and relatively large, but
vary substantially in size.
An annealing heat treatment called normalizing is used to refine the grains (i.e., to decrease the
average grain size) and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution; fine-grained pearlitic
steels are tougher than course-grained ones. The normalising process is illustrated in Figure 7.6.
Temperature
50
Normalising
Temperature range
7.10
350
1000
900
7230
800
700
600
0
Normalising
Temperature (C0)
Between 50 85
above the upper
critical temperature
line
0.2
0.4
0.6
Normalising
Cycle
Similar to full
annealing, but the
component is
cooled in still air
(i.e. at a faster
rate of cooling).
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Wt% Carbon
Main applications and comments

Similar applications to full
annealing.
The structure and properties vary
with the thickness of the component.
The tensile strength, Yield point,
ductility and toughness (i.e. impact
value) are higher than the values
obtained for full annealing.
Figure 7.6 - The Normalising Heat Treatment Process
Normalizing is accomplished by heating at approximately 50 - 85C above the upper critical

temperature, which is, of course, dependent on composition, as indicated in Figure 7.6. After
sufficient time has been allowed for the alloy to completely transform to austenite a procedure
termed austenitizing the treatment is terminated by cooling in air. A normalizing cooling curve is
superimposed on the continuous cooling transformation diagram (Figure 10.18).
7.11
7.3.4
Tempering
The Martensite of a quenched plain carbon steel is extremely hard, brittle and highly stressed.
Consequently, cracking and distortion of the component are liable to occur after quenching.
It is necessary, therefore, to warm the steel below the lower critical temperature in order to stabilise
martensite, relieve the stresses and toughen the component (at the expense of some hardness and
strength).
This is achieved by a process called Tempering (hence the term Quench and Temper). The steel
is heated and allowed to cool slowly. Some typical tempering temperatures are included in Table
7.1. Experienced engineers may be able to estimate the tempering temperature by the coloration on
the surface of the components.
Table 7.1 Typical tempering temperatures and applications.
Some applications
Temper color*
Temperature (C0)
Pale straw
230
Planing and slotting tools
Dark straw
240
Milling cutters, drills
Brown
250
Taps, drills
Brownish purple
260
Punches, dies, reamers
Purple
270
Press tools, axes
Dark purple
280
Chisels
Blue
300
Wood saws, springs
450-650
Toughening for
constructional steels
* Appearance of an oxide film that forms on a polished surface of the material as it is heated.
7.4
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams
As stated in previous sections, the transformation of metals from one structure to another is
dependent on time and temperature. In this case, the transformation of steel from austenite to its
relevant micro-constituents will be considered, and, in particular, the transformation of a eutectoid
steel (0.8 wt%C). For an eutectoid steel, the slow transformation from austenite will result into a
lamillar combination of Ferrite () and cementite (Fe3C) which is called pearlite.
(Ferrite)
Pearlite
Fe3C (Cementite)
The thickness of the ferrite and cementite influence the strength and hardness of the steel alloy. Fine
(thin) layers will result in an alloy which is harder than on with coarse (thick) layers. The degree of
7.12
fineness of pearlite depends on the cooling rates from austenite to pearlite (faster rates of
cooling, but not as fast as quenching, will produce finer pearlite).
In addition, quenching of steel from austenite will produce a hard martensitic structure. This is also
dependant upon the rate off cooling.
It is therefore desirable to produce a method of determining the cooling rates that are required to
achieve the desired microstructure and determining appropriate heat treatment processes.
This may be achieve by developing Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagrams as shown in
an example in Figure 7.7 for a eutectoid steel. The TTT diagram has two curves (each having a
distinct Nose). They denote the start and end of transformation from austenite.
With reference to Figure 7.7, the following transformations are discussed:
Transformation 1.
Coarse pearlite plates
On very slow cooling, few nuclei form just bellow the transformation temperature (723 0C)and are
able to grow rapidly. The structure will consist of coarse cementite plates attached to ferrite plates
(coarse pearlite). This is a relatively soft but not very ductile. This is not a desirable structure (it may
occur in very large castings where the rate of cooling is very slow) and requires further heat treating
(e.g. Spheroidising annealing).
Transformation 2.
Fine pearlite
Upon slightly faster cooling rates, transformation is somewhat delayed and a metastable austenite is
formed until the time and temperature of transformation is reached. A great many nuclei are formed
and the structure will consist of much finer but still lamellar pearlite.
Transformation 3.
Isothermal Anneal
If the steel is rapidly cooled from austenite then held at a temperature (isothermal) above the nose of
the outer transformation curve, then the pearlite produced will have much more uniform properties.
Transformation 4.
Austempering and Bainite
If the steel is rapidly cooled, as to miss the nose of the outer curve, and then held at an intermediate
temperature (say 300 0C) for isothermal transformation (i.e. constant temperature), then a structure
called Bainite is formed. In this structure, the carbide particles appear as spheroids in a matrix of
solid solution. Such a structure posses a desirable combination of strength and ductility.
Transformation 5.
Hardening
Finally, if austenite was subjected to rapid quenching, then the precipitation of the carbide phase
(cementite) is suppressed. The result will be martensite. Transformation of martensite starts at
temperature Ms (Martensite Start temperature) and is halted at Mf (Martensite finish temperature),
sometimes this could be the formation of say 90% martensite. A further heat treating process is
required to regain some of the ductility of martensite. This was discussed in the previous section.
7.13
Beginning of transformation
End of transformation
800
723
1. Coarse lamellar pearlite
600
2. Fine lamellar pearlite
Temperature 0C
3. Isothermal Annealing
400
4. Austempering
Bainite (Spheroid Fe3C particles in )
Martensite
start, Ms
200
50 % Martensite
90 %
5. Hardening
0.1
10
1000
100,000
Log Time, s
Figure 7.7
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagram for a eutectoid steel (o.8 wt% C)
(not to perfect scale)
7.5
Surface treatments
7.5.1
Introduction
Low-carbon steels have low strength and hardness but good ductility and toughness, whereas highcarbon steels have the opposite behavior. We can, by proper heat treatment, produce a structure that
is hard and strong at the surface, so that excellent wear and fatigue resistance are obtained, but at
the same time gives a soft, ductile, tough core which provides good resistance to impact failure.
These controlled surface heat treatment process is called Case Hardening (including Selective
Surface heating , carburising and Nitriding).
7.14
7.5.2 Selectively Heating the Surface

We could begin by rapidly heating the surface of a medium-carbon steel above the upper critical
temperature the centre remains below the Lower critical temperature line (723 0C).
After the steel is quenched, the centre is still a soft mixture of ferrite and pearlite, while the surface
is martensite as shown in Figure 7.8. The depth of the martensite layer is the case depth.
Tempering produces the desired hardness at the surface.
Local heating can be provided to the surface by using a gas flame, or an induction coil, a laser
beam, or an electron beam. We can, if we wish, harden only selected areas of the surface that are
most subject to failure by fatigue or wear.
a)
b)
Heat treat
Component
Water, Oil, etc.
(Quenching bath)
Heat surface only
to Austenite
Quench (rapid Cooling)
c)
Case Depth
Upper Critical Temperature
Temperature
Lower Critical Temperature

Case Depth
Thickness
Figure 7.8 - Selective Heating the Surface Process

(a)
Surface hardening by localised heating
(b)
Only the surface heats above the Upper critical temperature and is quenched to
martensite
(c)
The case depth in a surface-hardened specimen.
7.15
7.5.3
Carburising
Often components (e.g. gears) require a hard surface to resist wear and a tough core to resist shock
loads. These two properties do not exist in one steel. For toughness, the core should note exceed 0.3
% carbon content, whilst to give adequate hardness, the surface should have a carbon content of
approximately 1.0 %. Carburising is the usual solution to this problem
In this case hardening process, we start with a low-carbon steel, which usually contains alloying
elements for improved hardenability.
The component is first heated to above the upper critical temperature an transforms into austenite.
The component is then surrounded with a carbon rich medium as shown in Figure 7.9.
Pack carburising requires that the steel be surrounded by charcoal, which burns to produce an
atmosphere of carbon monoxide from which carbon atoms diffuse into the steel.
In gas carburising, the steel is placed in a sealed furnace containing carbon monoxide.
Liquid carburising requires that steel be placed in a bath of molten cyanide, which contains carbon.
The high temperature of the component is maintained and carbon is diffused (Appendix 7.A) into
the surface of the steel. A high carbon content is produced at the surface due to rapid diffusion and
the high solubility of carbon in austenite.
The steel component is then quenched and tempered, the surface becomes a high-carbon tempered
martensite, while the centre remains soft and ductile.
The thickness of the hardened surface, again called the case depth, depends on the amount of
carbon present at the surface of the steel, the temperature, and the time as shown in Figure 7.10).
The case depth is much smaller in carburised steels than in selective surface heat treatment (section
7.4.2).
7.16
Carbon rich medium
a) Carburising
Soft core
b) Quenching
Hard surface
c) Heat treating
Figure 7.9 - Carburising of a low-carbon steel to produce a high-carbon, wear resistant

surface
CARBON
CONTENT
High temperature or long time
Low temperature or low time
Distance from Surface

Figure 7.10 Effect of carburising time and temperature on the case depth
7.5.4
Nitriding
Nitriding is similar to the carburising process, but, in this case, nitrogen provides a hardening effect
similar to that of carbon.
In cyaniding, the steel is immersed in a liquid cyanide bath, which permits both carbon and nitrogen
to diffuse into the steel. In carbonitriding, a gas containing carbon monoxide and ammonia is
generated and both carbon and nitrogen diffuse into the steel. Finally, only nitrogen diffuses into
the surface from a gas in Nitriding. Nitriding is carried out below the lower critical temperature.
7.17
In each of the above surface treating processes, compressive residual stresses are introduced at
the surface, providing excellent fatigue resistance in addition to the good combination of hardness,
strength and toughness.
7.6
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in Welding
7.6.1
Definition
During Fusion welding, the work-pieces to be joined and the filler material (i.e., welding rod) are
heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause both to melt. Upon solidification, the filler
material forms a fusion joint between the work-pieces, as shown below.
Parent metal
Preparation of parent
metal before welding
Welding metal (from filler)
During welding
After solidification
Thus, there is a region adjacent to the weld that may have experienced micro-structural and property
alterations: this region is termed the heat-affected zone (sometimes abbreviated HAZ).
7.18
7.6.2
HAZ of carbon and Alloy Steels
A possible micro structure of a HAZ for, for example cold worked high alloy steel (including some
ferritic stainless steels), is illustrated in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11
Schematic cross-sectional representation in the vicinity of a typical fusion weld.
7.19
Possible problems with the welded structure include the following:

1.
If the work-piece material was previously cold worked, this heat-affected zone may have
experienced re-crystallisation and grain growth, and thus a diminishment of strength, and
toughness.
If un-treated, this may lead to premature cracking, especially if subjected to fatigue stresses.
2.
Upon cooling, residual stresses may form in this region that weaken the joint, again leading
to cracking.
3.
For steels, the material in this zone may have been heated to temperatures sufficiently high
to form austenite.
Upon cooling to room temperature, the micro-structural products that form depend on
cooling rate and alloy composition.
For plain carbon steels that have low harden-abilities, normally pearlite and ferrite will be
present.
However, for alloy steels, one micro-structural product may be martensite, which is
ordinarily undesirable because it is so brittle and lead to fracture.
4.
For a quenched and tempered steel, a portion of the heat-affected zone below the lower
critical temperature may over temper.
Normally, it is not advisable to weld in the quenched and tempered condition.
7.20
7.6.3
HAZ of Stainless Steel
By definition, stainless steels need a minimum of 12% Cr in order to create an effective oxide layer
capable of resisting corrosion.
Some stainless steels (especially Austenitic) may be sensitised during welding, which renders
them susceptible to inter-granular corrosion.
Inter-granular corrosion occurs preferentially along grain boundaries for some alloys and in specific
environments. This could lead to catastrophic fracture failures as the material disintegrates along
some of its affected grain boundaries.
This could take place under static, fatigue or creep conditions.
This type of corrosion is especially prevalent in some stainless steels.
When heated to temperatures between 500 and 800C (950 and 1450F) for sufficiently long time
periods, these stainless steel alloys become sensitized to inter-granular attack.
It is believed that this heat treatment, for example as a result of welding, permits the formation of
small precipitate particles of chromium carbide (Cr23C6) by reaction between the chromium and
carbon in the stainless steel. These particles form along the grain boundaries (within the HAZ), as
illustrated in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12
Chromium carbide formation at grain boundaries of stainless steel
Both the chromium and the carbon must diffuse to the grain boundaries to form the precipitates,
which leaves a chromium-depleted zone adjacent to the grain boundary.
Consequently, this grain boundary region is now highly susceptible to corrosion because of the
resultant compositional cell that has resulted between the grain boundaries and the grains.
7.21
Inter-granular corrosion is an especially severe problem in the welding of stainless steels, when it is
often termed weld decay, which leads to pre-mature fracture of the welded sections.
Figure 7.13 shows this type of inter-granular corrosion.
Figure 7.13
Weld decay (sensitisation) of stainless steel
Stainless steels may be protected from inter-granular corrosion by the following measures:
(1)
Subjecting the sensitized material to a high-temperature heat treatment in which all the
chromium carbide particles are re-dissolved within the grains.
(2)
Lowering the carbon content below 0.03 wt% C so that carbide formation is minimal.
(3)
Alloying the stainless steel with another metal such as niobium or titanium (about 1 %),
which has a greater tendency to form carbides than dose chromium, so that chromium
remains in solid solution within the grains.
7.22
APPENDIX 7A
Diffusion process in metals
Diffusion is the movement of atoms within a metal. A diffusing atom must squeeze past surrounding
atoms to reach its new site within the crystal lattice. In order to do this, energy (e.g. thermal energy)
must be supplied. In other words, the atom must pass over an energy barrier in order to move to a
new location. This energy barrier is the Activation Energy, Q.
Two types of diffusion mechanisms will be considered, Vacancy diffusion and Interstitial
diffusion.
Vacancy Diffusion
Vacancies are point imperfections within a crystal lattice. The number of vacancies increases with
temperature.
In Self-Diffusion (for pure metals) or diffusion involving substitutional atoms, an atom leaves its
lattice site to fill a nearby vacancy (thus creating a vacancy in the original lattice site).
13 Lattice Sites
12 Atoms
1 Vacancy
Vacancy
Figure 7.A.1
Interstitial Diffusion
Interstitial diffusion occurs when a small interstitial atom moves from one interstitial site to another.
No vacancy is required for this mechanism to work.
Interstitial Atom
Interstitial Site
Figure 7.A.2
8.1
8
8.1
NON FERROUS ALLOYS
Nickel and Cobalt
8.1.1 General Characteristics

Nickel and cobalt alloys are used for corrosion protection and for high temperature resistance,
taking advantage of their high melting points and high strengths.
Nickel is FCC and has good formability; cobalt is an allotropic metal, with the FCC structure
above 417oC and the HCP structure at lower temperatures.
Special cobalt alloys are used for exceptional wear resistance and, because of resistance to
human body fluids, for prosthetic devices. Typical alloys and their appliances are listed in Table
8.1.
8.1.2 Nickel and Monel

Nickel and its alloys have excellent corrosion resistance and forming characteristics.
When copper is added to nickel, the maximum strength is obtained near 60% Ni. A number of
alloys, called Monels, with approximately this composition are used for their strength and
corrosion resistance in salt water and at elevated temperatures.
Some of the Monels contain small amounts of aluminium and titanium. These alloys show an
age-hardening response by the precipitation of , a coherent Ni3Al or Ni3Ti precipitate, which
nearly doubles the tensile properties. The precipitates resist averaging at temperatures up to
425oC (Figure 8.1).
Tensile
Strength
(Mpa)
Figure 8.1
The effect of temperature on the tensile Strength of several nickel-base alloys.

8.2
8.1.3
Super-Alloys
8.1.3.1 General characteristics

Superalloys contain large amounts of alloying elements intended to produce a combination of
high strengths at elevated temperatures, resistance to creep temperatures up to 10000C, and
resistance to corrosion. Yet, these excellent high temperature properties are obtained even
though the melting temperature of the alloys is about the same as that for steels.
The three categories of superalloys (nickel base, iron-nickel base, and cobalt base) often have
exotic names, befitting their use. Typical applications include vanes and blades for turbine and
jet engines, heat exchangers, chemical reaction vessel components, and heat-treating equipment.
Figure 8.2 shows the effect of temperature on the stress-rupture properties.
(MAR-M246)
(DS-Ni)
(Haynes 25)
(Inconel 600)
Figure 8.2
The stress-rupture behaviour of selected superalloys at 650oC and 11000C.
To obtain high strengths and creep resistance, the alloying elements must produce a strong,
stable microstructure at high temperatures. Solid solution strengthening, Dispersion
strengthening and precipitation hardening are generally employed.
8.3
8.1.3.2 Solid Solution Strengthening.

Large additions of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten and smaller additions of tantalum,
zirconium, niobium, and boron provide solid solution strengthening. Because no catastrophic
metallurgical softening process occurs on heating, the effects of solid solution strengthening are
stable and consequently make the alloy resistant to creep.
8.1.3.3 Carbide Dispersion.

All of the alloys contain a small amount of carbon, which, by combining with other alloying
elements, produces a network of fine stable carbide particles. The carbide network interferes
with dislocation movement and prevents grain boundary sliding. The carbides include TiC, BC,
ZrC, TaC, Cr7C3, Cr23 C6, Mo6 C, and W6 C, although often the carbides are more complex and
contain several alloying elements. Stellite 6B, a cobalt-base superalloy, has unusually good wear
resistance at high temperatures due to these carbides.
8.1.3.4 Precipitation Hardening.

Many of the nickel-iron superalloys, which contain aluminium and titanium, form the coherent
precipitate (Ni3Al or Ni3Ti) during aging. The particles, Figure 8.3, increase strength and
resistance to creep, even at high temperatures.
Figure 8.3
The microstructure of a typical superalloy, showing

a grain boundary carbide network and the dispersed precipitate
(x 15,000).
8.4
TABLE 8.1 Compositions, properties, and applications for selected nickel and cobalt alloys
Material
Pure Ni (99.9% Ni)
Ni-Cu alloys
Monel 400
Ni, 31.5% Cu)
Monel K-500
(Ni, 29.5% Cu, 2.7%
Al-0.6% Ti)
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
344
655
538
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
110
620
%
Elongation
45
4
269
37
Strengthening
Mechanism
Annealed
Cold worked
Applications
Corrosion
resistance
Annealed
Valves, pumps,
heat exchangers
Shafts, springs,
impellers
1034
759
30
Aged
621
200
49
Carbides
Heat treatment
equipment
Hastelloy B-2
(Ni, 28% Mo)
897
414
61
Carbides
Corrosion
resistance
Hastelloy G
(Ni, 20% Cr, 20% Fe,
7%Mo + Nb, Ta)
690
324
50
Aged
Chemical
processing
MAR-M246
(Ni, 10% Co, 9% Cr,
10% W+ Ti, Al, Ta)
966
862
Aged
Jet engines
S-Ni
(Ni, 2% ThO2)
490
331
14
Dispersion
Gas turbines
614
282
37
Carbides
Heat exchangers
931
448
60
Carbides
Jet engines
1221
710
Carbides
Abrasive wear
resistance
Ni superalloys
Inconel 600
(Ni, 15.5% Cr, 8% Fe)
Fe-Ni superalloys
Incoloy 800
(Ni, 46% Fe, 21% Cr)
Co superalloys
Haynes 25
(50% Co, 20% Cr,
15% W, 10% Ni)
Stellite 6B
(60% Co, 30% Cr, 4.5% W)
8.5
8.2
Titanium Alloys
8.2.1 Types of titanium alloys

Titanium is a relatively lightweight metal that provides excellent corrosion resistance, high
strength-to-weight ratio (/), and good high temperature properties, such as creep resistance.
Strengths up to 1380 MPa coupled with a density of 4.505 Mg/m3 provide the excellent
mechanical properties, such as strength, ductility and fatigue resistance, while an adherent,
protective TiO2 film provides excellent resistance to corrosion and contamination below 535oC.
Above 535oC, the oxide film breaks down and small atoms, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen embrittle the titanium.
Furthermore, titanium alloys have good manufacturing processing properties, such as machining
and forging.
Titanium is allotropic, with the HCP crystal structure () at low temperatures and a BCC
structure () above 882oC. Alloying elements provide solid solution strengthening and change
allotropic transformation temperature.
TABLE 8.2
Properties of selected titanium alloys
Material
Commercially pure Ti
99.5%Ti
99.1%Ti
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
241
484
172
414
24
25
R50500
Alpha Ti alloys
5% Al, 2.5%Sn
862
779
15
R54520
Beta Ti alloys
13% V, 11%Cr, 3%Al
10% V, 2%Fe, 3%Al
1290
1223
1214
1150
5
10
Near alpha Ti alloys

8%Al, 1%Mo, 1% V
6%Al, 4%Zr, 2%Sn, 2% Mo
950
1007
890
993
15
3
Alpha-beta Ti alloys
8% Mn
6% Al, 4% V
7% Al, 4% Mo
6% Al, 6% V, 2% Sn
966
947
1172
1103
862
877
1034
1034
15
14
10
12
%
Elongation
ASM Number
R54810
R56400
There are several categories for titanium and its alloys, which are summarised in Table 8.2.
Commercially Pure Titanium.
Unalloyed titanium is used for its superior corrosion resistance. Impurities, such as oxygen,
dramatically increase the strength of the titanium. Commercially pure titanium is relatively weak
(Figure 8.4) but has the best corrosion resistance. Applications include heat exchangers, piping,
reactors, pumps, and valves for the marine, chemical and petrochemical industries.
8.6
Alpha () Titanium Alloys.

The most common of the all-alpha alloys contains 5% Al and 2.5% Sn, both of which solid
solution strengthen the alpha. These alloys have good corrosion and oxidation resistance,
maintain their strength well at high temperatures, have good weldability, and normally have
good ductility and formability in spite of their HCP structure. Applications include gas turbine
engine casings and chemical processing equipment requiring strength up to 4800C.
Beta () Titanium Alloys.
Vanadium or molybdenum are added to titanium (in addition to beta stabilising elements, such as
chromium or iron). In the annealed condition, strength of is derived from solid solution
strengthening. The alloys can also be aged to produce higher strengths. The alloy offers the best
combination of high strength and toughness. Applications include high-strength fasteners,
beams, and other fittings for aerospace applications.
Alpha-Beta Titanium Alloys.
With proper balancing of the and stabilisers, a mixture of and is produced at room
temperature. Annealing provides a combination of high ductility, uniform properties, and good
strength. Applications include prosthetic implants, airframe structures and rocket casings.
Figure 8.4
The effect of temperature on the yield strength of selected

titanium alloys.
8.7
8.2.2
Processing of Titanium Alloys
In terms of its occurrence in the earths crust, titanium is a relatively abundant material.
However, the major limitation of titanium its chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated
temperatures. This property has necessitated the development of non conventional processing
techniques, such as refining, melting and casting. Consequently, titanium is are very expensive.
In spite of this high temperature reactivity, the corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal
temperature are unusually high.: they are virtually immune to air, marine and a variety of
industrial environments.
Titanium alloys are processed into useful shapes by casting, forming, and joining techniques.
However, care must be taken to prevent contamination when the room temperature of the alloy
exceeds 535oC.
The alloys for titanium castings are melted in a vacuum furnace and poured into moulds
constructed from a ceramic material or graphite.
Special precautions are also required to minimise contamination during welding. For example,
gas-tungsten arc welding produces welds with the same resistance to corrosion as the base
material. However, the welded area must be protected with an inert gas until the weld cools
below 535oC.
Some alloys, including the Ti, 6% Al, 4% V alpha-beta alloy, are superplastic and can be
deformed as much as 1000%. During the slow process of deformation, the alloy is protected by
argon atmosphere. The superplastic forming can also be coupled with simultaneous diffusion
bonding to produce complicated aircraft parts.
8.8
Appendix 8A Selection of Nickel Based alloys

The various nickel alloys presented below are used in different applications depending on
their resistance ability at elevated temperatures, strength, toughness and other properties.
Inconel alloys are generally known for their resistance to oxidation and their ability to maintain
their structural integrity in high temperature atmospheres. There are several Inconel alloys that
are used in applications that require a material that does not easily succumb to caustic corrosion,
corrosion caused by high purity water, and stress-corrosion cracking. While each variation of
Inconel has unique traits that make it effective in different circumstances, the majority of the
alloys are used frequently in the chemical industry.
ALLOY 600 (UNS N06600) Ni 72.0, Cr 15.5, Fe 8.0 Mn 1.0 C 0.15 Cu 0.5 Si 0.5 S 0.015
ALLOY 600 is a nickel-chromium-iron alloy and used in typical applications like jet engines,
steam generators, spark electrodes, furnace retort seals, food and chemical processing. It offers
high resistant to corrosion and heat, excellent mechanical properties, high strength and good
workability.
ALLOY 601 (UNS N06601)Ni 61 Fe Bal Cr 23 Al 1.4 C 0.10 Mn 1.0 S 0.015 Si 0.5
ALLOY 601 has better oxidation resistant, reduces environments, and possesses high
temperature strength and good carbonization resistant. This nickel-chromium alloy is widely
used in electronic components, industrial furnaces and thermocouple protection tubes.
ALLOY 625 (UNS N06625) Ni 58.0, Cr 21.5 Mo 9.0,Mn 0.50 C0.10 Si 0.50 Fe 5.0
Due to excellent resistance to oxidation and corrosion, ALLOY 625 is used in a wide spectrum
of applications like in seawater applications, aerospace industry, heat exchangers, and nuclear
reactors. The nickel based alloy has good resistance to alkalis and organic acids, exhibits
excellent strength and toughness at high temperatures.
ALLOY DS
ALLOY DS is a nickel-chromium-iron alloy and used for furnace parts, heat treatment and
vitreous enameling equipment. ALLOY DS is available in standard product forms such as round,
plate, sheet, strip, tube, pipe, and wire. Like other nickel alloys, it also possesses good oxidation
and corrosion resistant.
ALLOY 330 (330UNS N08330) Fe 44.0, Ni 35.5, Cr 18.5, Si 1.1
ALLOY 330 remains stable during long-time exposure to high temperature. ALLOY 330 can be
readily fabricated using standard procedures for stainless steel and nickel alloys. It is used for
industrial heating furnaces, cyanide salt pots, retorts and muffles.
ALLOY C276
ALLOY C276 has universal corrosion resistance and greater fabricability and can be hot and
cold by conventional procedures. ALLOY C276 are resistant to wet chloride gas, hypochlorite,
chlorine dioxide solutions and maintains high strength at room temperatures. It is widely used in
sulfuric acid reactors, heat exchangers, Sour gas wells and reaction vessels.
ALLOY 602CA
ALLOY 602CA has resistance to oxidation at higher temperatures, even under cyclic conditions.
This nickel based alloy due to its high strength and high temperature used for furnace
construction and industrial engineering. It has excellent creep rupture strength.
8.9
ALLOY 690 UNS N06690

ALLOY 690 is a high-chromium nickel alloy and exhibits excellent resistance to oxidation
and high-temperature atmospheres. Due to its high strength and good metallurgical stability,
ALLOY 690 is used widely in nuclear power, chemicals, heat-treatment and electronics
industries.
ALLOY 617
These are used in gas turbines, industrial furnace components and applications where hightemperature corrosion resistance is important. ALLOY 617 has good ductility, exceptional
strength and finds its use in the gas turbines, petrochemical processing and heat-treating
equipment.
ALLOY X
ALLOY X is a super nickel based alloy that delivers strong strength characteristics at very
high temperature. It is typically used in industrial furnace, petrochemical, gas turbine and jet
engines operations. ALLOY X has good resistance to carburization and chloride stresscorrosion cracking.
9.1
9
9.1
Introduction
It is appropriate to conclude the treatment of metallic materials by discussing some engineering

applications and fabrication techniques.
Many times a materials problem is really one of selecting that material which has the right
combination of characteristics for a specific application. Therefore, the persons who are
involved in the decision making should have some knowledge of the available options.
On many occasions, the suitability of a material for an application is dictated by the ease of
producing a desired shape and the cost involved.
Metal fabrication techniques are the methods by which metals and alloys are formed or
manufactured into useful products. On many occasions they are performed with additional
techniques such as refining, alloying, and often heat-treating processes that produce alloys with
the desired characteristics. We draw on a number of concepts and phenomena that have been
developed in preceding chapters, including mechanical properties, phase diagrams, and various
strengthening mechanisms.
This chapter is, therefore, is devoted to a brief exploration of several techniques by which metals
are fabricated. They include metal-forming methods, casting and welding. Often two or more
fabrication methods must be used before a piece is finished.
The methods chosen depend on several factors; the most important are the properties of the
metal, the size and shape of the finished piece, and, of course, the cost.
9.2
Forming Operations
9.2.1
General Classification
Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation; for example, forging, rolling, extrusion and drawing are common forming
techniques.
Of course, the deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of
which must exceed the yield strength of the material. Most metallic materials are especially
amenable to these procedures, being at least moderately ductile and capable of some permanent
deformation without cracking or fracturing.
When deformation is achieved at a temperature above 0.5 of the melting temperature of the
metal, the process is termed hot working: otherwise, if below 0.3 of the melting temperature it is
cold working. With most of the forming techniques, both hot- and cold-working procedures are
possible.
For hot-working operations, large deformations are possible, which may be successively
repeated because the metal remains soft and ductile. In addition, deformation energy
requirements are less than for cold working. However, most metals experience some surface
oxidation, which results in material loss and a poor final surface finish.
9.2
Cold working produces an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility, since the
metal strain hardens (i.e. becomes harder upon the application of a plastic stress). Advantages
over hot working include a higher quality surface finish, better mechanical properties and a
greater variety of them, and closer dimensional control of the finished piece.
On occasion, the total deformation is accomplished in a series of steps in which the piece is
successfully cold worked a small amount and then heat treated: however, this is an expensive
and inconvenient procedure.
A description of the forming techniques is illustrated schematically in Figure 9.1.
9.2.2
Forging
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot metal: this may
be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.
Forgings are classified as either closed or open die. For closed die, a force is brought to bear on
two or more die halves having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed in the cavity
between them (Figure 9.1 a). For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g.,
parallel flat, semicircular) are employed, normally on large work-pieces.
Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and the best combination of mechanical
properties. Wrenches, and automotive crankshafts and piston connecting rods are typical articles
formed using this technique.
9.2.3
Rolling
Rolling, the most widely used deformation process consists of passing a piece of metal between
two rolls as shown in Figure 9.1 b). A reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses
exerted by the rolls.
Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with high quality surface
finish. Circular shapes as well as I-beams and railroad rails are fabricated using grooved, or
shaped, rolls.
9.2.4
Extrusion
For extrusion, a bar of metal, for example, is forced through a die orifice by a compressive
force that is applied to a ram as shown in Figure 9.1 c). The extruded piece that emerges has the
desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area.
Extrusion products include rods and tubing that may have rather complicated cross-sectional
geometries. Seamless tubing may also be extruded.
9.2.5
Drawing
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a tensile
force that is applied on the exit side as shown in Figure 9.1 d). A reduction in cross section
results, with a corresponding increase in length.
9.3
The total drawing operation may consist of a number of dies in a series sequence. Rod, wire, and
tubing products are commonly fabricated in this way.
Die (open)
Force
Die (closed)
a)
Metal blank
Forged piece
Force
Roll
b)
Roll
Container
Die
Extrusion
Force
Billet
c)
Ram
Container
Die
Clamp
d)
Force
Die
Figure 9.1
Metal Deformation Processes (Forming) during a) Forging, b) Rolling,

c) Extrusion and d) Drawing.
9.4
9.2.6
Bending
Many metal components are shaped by the process of bending in one ore several parts. Bending
equipment include presses, dies and tools of varying geometry.
The equipment used for bending depends on the size, mostly length, of the bent parts and rates of
production.
For example, short lengths can be bent at high rates in mechanical presses as shown in Figure 9.2
a). Shapes that are more complex and multiple bends may also be produced by repeated bending
as shown in Figures 9.2 b), c) and d).
Note that the female die may in Figure 9.2 b) may be replaced by a pad of polyurethane foam, as
shown in Figure 9.2 c) in order to reduce the tooling cost.
Force
Male Die
Work Piece
Female Die
a)
Force
Tool
Work
Piece
Polyurethane
Female
Die
b)
Figure 9.2
c)
d)
a) Basic Mechanical press die, b) Die and tool, c) same as b) but using a
polyurethane pad in the female die and d) multiple bending.
9.5
Bending along a straight line is also possible by a wiping motion as shown in Figure 9.3 a).
Bending along a uniform and adjustable curvature may be imparted to a sheet, plate or section by
passing it through a three-roll bender, with rolls arranged in a pyramid fashion as shown in
Figure 9.3 b). This is an important preparation step for making large welded-plate structures.
Adjust for curvature

Bending
Force
Holding
Force
Pressure
Pad
Wiping
Die
Work-piece
(Sheet, plate, etc.)
Roll
Die
Die
a)
Figure 9.3
b)
Bending of work-piece (e.g. sheet metal, plate etc.) using
a) a wiping Die and b) bending Rolls (pyramid arrangement).
Continuos production and very high production rates may be obtained using Roll Forming.
Bending is now done progressively, by passing the sheet strip between contoured, driven rolls
placed in tandem (in line) as shown in Figure 9.4. Typical products include corrugated sheets and
tubes (the tubes are later welded along the seem).
Work-piece
(e.g. Sheet Metal)
a)
Contoured Dies
b)
Figure 9.4
Example of continuos bending (and rolling) of sheet metal using

a) two and b) multiple contoured Dies.
9.6
9.2.7
Sheet Forming
Large quantities of sheet metal are formed into, more or less, container like components of a
great variety of shapes (such as domes, cans etc.). In contrast to bent parts, they are characterised
by curvatures in two direction. They can be produced by Stretch Forming, Deep Drawing or
their combination.
Stretch Forming
In Stretch Forming, the metal sheet is completely clamped on its circumference and the shape
is developed with a reduction in sheet thickness. This method may be carried out in a variety of
ways.
For example, the sheet may be clamped and, using force, a male die is pushed into the sheet to
produce the required shape, as shown in Figure 9.5 a). The advantage is that only one die (male
die or form punch) is needed, but productivity is low; hence, stretch forming is most suitable for
low-volume production as is typical in the aircraft industry. Very large parts, such as fuselage
skins, wing skins, boat hulls etc., can be formed. Rolled an extruded sections may also be stretch
formed.
For mass production, such as is typical for the automotive and appliance industries, a variation of
the above process is used. In this case, an automated press in combination with male (or punch)
and female dies are used in a process called Stretch Drawing as shown in Figure 9.5 b). The
punch co-operates with the female die to define the shape. One part is finished for each press
strike; thus, productivity is high but die costs are high too.
Punch
(dome shaped)
Force
Sheet
Metal
Fixed
Clamp
Force
a)
Figure 9.5
Clamp
Sheet Metal
Punch
(dome shaped)
Female
Die
b)
Examples of a) Stretch Forming and b) Stretch Drawing of sheet metal
9.7
Deep Drawing
The difference between stretching and deep drawing is that, in stretching, the blank (e.g. sheet) is
clamped and the final shape is attained at the expense of sheet thickness. While, in deep drawing,
the blank is allowed to draw into the die and the thickness is nominally unchanged. This process
is extensively used for the production of containers and cans.
The deep drawing process may be used with or without a Blank-Holder as shown in Figure
9.6. A blank holder is normally used for relatively thin blanks where wrinkling during the
drawing process may occur. The blank-holder must exert sufficient pressure to prevent
wrinkling, but not enough to stop the blank from sliding between the female die and the blankholder.
Force
Punch
Blank (e.g. sheet metal)
Die
a)
Slight Force
Blank-holder
b)
Figure 9.6
Containers formed by Deep Drawing a) without and b) with a blank-holder
9.8
9.2.8
Shake - down (Auto frettage)
Shake Down is a process that makes use of work hardening of metals.

Examples; Gun Barrel, pressure vessels. The vessel is plugged at both ends and pressurised
beyond its yield stress.
Pressurised Metal vessel (or barrel)
Plastic
Zone
Pressu
Elastic
Zone
Pressurisation of the cylinder will cause the inner section to yield before the outer section.
On release of pressure, the elastic outer zone will attempt to return to its original dimensions but
is prevented from doing so by the permanent plastic deformation (or set) of the yielded inner
zone.
The outer elastic zone of the cylinder will be held in a state of residual tension.
The inner plastic zone of the cylinder will be held in a state of residual compression.
The cylinder is said to be pre - stressed and will, therefore, be able to withstand subsequent
higher internal pressures.
9.9
9.3
Casting
9.3.1
Introduction
Casting is a fabrication process whereby a molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having the
desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but experiences some
shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed when:
(1)
(2)
(3)
The finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method would be impractical,
A particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would be
difficult,
In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical.
Furthermore, the final step in the refining of even ductile metals may involve a casting process.
A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including sand, die,
investment and continuous casting.
9.3.2
Sand Casting
With sand casting (Figure 9.7), probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used as the
mold material. A two-piece mold (cope and drag) is formed by packing sand around a pattern
that has the shape of the intended casting. Furthermore, a gating system is usually incorporated
into the mold to expedite the flow of molten metal into the cavity and to minimise internal
casting defects. Sand-cast parts include automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants and large pipe
fittings.
Sectional view of a casting mould
Stages of sand casting operation
Figure 9.7 Section through a typical sand casting set-up
9.10
9.3.3
Die Casting
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure (and at a relatively high
velocity) and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained as shown if Figure 9.8. A twopiece permanent steel mold or die is employed: when clamped together, the two pieces form the
desired shape. When complete solidification has been achieved, the die pieces are opened and
the cast piece is ejected.
Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive method: furthermore, a single set of
dies may be used for thousands of castings. However, this technique lends itself only to
relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc, aluminium and magnesium, which have low melting
temperatures.
Figure 9.8 - Section through a Die Casting set-up
9.11
9.4 Welding
9.4.1 Basic Techniques
In a sense, welding may be considered a fabrication technique. In welding (or joining), two or
more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or
inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.
The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion), rather than just mechanical, as with
riveting and bolting.
A successful welding process must ensure that the layer of oxide (which is usually present at the
surfaces of metals) must be destroyed (by heat from the welding process) so that good metal to
metal contact is achieved between, for example, the filler metal and parent metals.
A variety of welding methods exists, including arc, gas and resistance welding as shown in
Figure 9.9.
9.12
Figure 9.9 - Typical welding processes:

a)
b)
c)
d)
Oxyacetylene welding
Shielded metal arc welding
Gas Tungsten arc welding
Gas metal arc welding
e)
f)
Submerged arc welding

Resistance welding
9.13
9.4.2
Gas Welding (Figure 9.9 a)
Gas welding is a form of what is called thermal welding, where the heat required for fusion
may be provided by a chemical heat source.
In the widest spread form of gas welding oxy fuel gas welding (OFW), heat is produced by
the combustion of acetylene (C2H2) with oxygen. Both are stored at high pressure in gas
tanks and are united in the welding torch. After ignition, a temperature of approximately
3,700 K (3,400 oC or 6,200 oF) is generated in the flame.
The filler material is provided by using an appropriate (and independent) welding rod (which
include a flux to protect the parent metal).
Other gases, including propane, natural gas, or hydrogen are also used as the heat source,
particularly for aluminium and lower melting metals.
The flame protects low carbon steels, lead, and zinc sufficiently, but a flux is needed for most
other materials.
The process has the advantage of portability and is suitable for all welding positions.
The relatively low flamed temperature and the flexibility of manual control make the process
suitable for all but the refractory metals and reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium.
9.4.3
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding , SMAW, (Figure 9.9 b)
The arc is struck between the filler wire or rod (consumable electrode) and the work
pieces to be joined. The current maybe AC or DC. In the latter case the electrode may
be negative (direct current, electrode negative, DCEN or straight polarity) or positive
(DCEP or reverse polarity). The weld dimensions depend on polarity, current intensity,
voltage, flux, electrode size and orientation, and the rate of travel along the weld seam.
An essential element of the process is the coating applied to the outside of the filler wire
(coated electrode).
The coating fulfils several functions: combustion and decomposition under the heat of
arc creates a protective atmosphere; melting of the coating provides a molten slag cover
on the weld; the sodium or potassium content of the coating readily ionises to stabilise
the arc. In addition, alloying elements may be introduced from the coating.
Choice of the electrodes is critical to the success of the process. During welding, the
electrode melts at a rate of approximately 250mm/min (10 in/min) whilst the coating
melts into a slag (which much be removed if more than one passage required to build up
the full weld thickness). Since the coating is brittle, straight sticks of typically 450mm
(18-in) length are generally used, making this process suitable only for hand operation, at
relatively slow rates, but still at a low cost.
9.14
The process is versatile and suitable for field application, but requires considerable skill.
Welding in all positions, including overhead welding is possible if the metal and slag solidify
fast enough.
9.4.4
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, GTAW, (Figure 9.9 c)
The arc is maintained between the work piece and a tungsten electrode protected by an inert gas
(hence the name Tungsten Inert Gas, or TIG welding).
A filler may or may not be used. The protective atmosphere maybe given by argon, which
maintains a stable arc for deeper penetration and a hotter arc by helium, or by a mixture of the
two.
To strike an arc, electron emission and ionization of the gas are initiated by withdrawing the
electrodes from the work surface in a controlled manner, or with the aid of an initiating arc.
High frequency current super imposed on the alternating or direct welding current helps to start
the arc and also stabilises it.
Both hand and automatic operations are possible. The process demands considerable skill but
produces very high quality welds on almost any material, in any welding position, and also on
thinner gages) below 6mm (0.25in)).
The weld zone is visible, and there is no weld spatter or slag formation, but electrode particles
may enter the weld.
9.4.5
Gas Metal-Arc Welding , GMAW, (Figure 9.9 d)
The consumable metal electrode, fed through the welding gun, is shielded by an inert gas, thus,
the acronym MIG (metal inert gas) welding.
It is suitable for most metals. No slag is formed and several layers can be built up with little or
no intermediate cleaning.
Argon is a suitable gas for all materials; helium is sometimes preferred because of its higher
ionisation potential and, therefore, higher rate of heat generation for the welding of
aluminium and copper; Ar with 20 to 50% CO2 or pure CO2 is generally used for carbon steels;
speciality gases are also being introduced, tailored to specific tasks.
The electrode is usually connected to the positive terminal (DCEP or reverse polarity). At high
current densitys metal is transferred from the electrodes to the weld zone in a fine spray
(spray transfer) ; at low currents and voltages transfer is in blobs that drop by gravity
(globular transfer).
Particularly with CO2 as the shielding gas, a short- circuiting mode of operation occurs with
drops of liquid metal transferring by gravity and surface tension. The latter operation is
preferable for thin sections or sheets because of the lower heat. The advantage of CO2 (with
small amounts of oxygen) for steel is the low cost and high transfer rate.
9.15
The wire electrodes can be supplied in long, coiled lengths with allow uninterrupted welds in any
welding position. In semi-automatic welding the welder guides the gun and adjusts process
parameters; in automatic welding, all functions are taken over by the welding machine or robot.
On-site welding can be difficult because draughts blow the shielding gas away from the weld
zone.
9.4.6
Submerged Arc Welding, SAW, (Figure 9.9 e)
The consumable electrode is now the bare filler wire and the weld zone is protected by a
granular fusible flux supplied quite independently, from a hopper, in a thick layer that
covers the arc.
The flux shields the arc, allows high currents and great penetration depth, acts as a
deoxidiser and scavenger, and may contain powder metal alloying elements.
SAW is primarily an automatic welding process with high travel speeds.
electrodes can be used to deposit large amounts of filler material.
Tandem
The weld position must be horizontal; thus, it is suitable for steel lined pipes, cylinders,
and for circular welds if the work piece is rotated.
Double submerged arc welding (with one weld from the inside, the other from the
outside) is used is making spiral welded pipelines. It can also be used with welding
robots, with the work piece manipulated to appropriate positions.
9.4.7
Resistance spot welding , RSW, (Figure 9.9 f )
Electric resistance welding represents, in some ways, a transition from solid-state welding to
liquid-state welding. After pressing together the two parts to be joined, an alternating current is
passed through the contact zone. Since this zone represents the highest resistance in the electric
circuit, power losses are concentrated there. The energy is converted into heat, and the current is
left on until melting occurs at the interface between the two parts. Pressure is then kept on until
the weld solidifies.
Resistance spot welding is an example of electric resistance welding, where two, usually water
cooled, electrodes press the two sheets of metal together. The current is then applied for a pre
determined number of cycles (in the automotive industry, 20 to 30 cycles), whereupon the
interface heats up and a molten pool weld nugget) is formed. Pressure is released only after the
current has been turned off and the nugget has solidified.
Electrodes are made of materials of high conductivity and hot strength, such as copper with some
Cd, Cr, or Be additions, or copper tungsten or molybdenum alloys.
Since heat must be concentrated in the weld zone, resistance away from this zone should be low,
especially at the points where the current is supplied to the work pieces by the electrodes.
Materials of high heat conductivity and specific heat (such as aluminium or copper) call for very
high currents to prevent dissipation of heat.
9.16
Surface cleanliness is important but not quite as vital as in solid state joining because some of the
contaminants are expelled from the melt. Never the less, scale, thick oil films, and paint must be
removed, but relatively simple surface preparation is adequate and zinc coated steel can be
welded too.
Quality control is most important. Welds are destructively tested to establish optimum
process parameters; thereafter, in process inspection includes surface temperature
measurement (from which weld zone temperatures can be extrapolated).
The electrodes may be incorporated into a fixed machine or a portable welding gun. Multiple
electrodes are used for the welding of large assemblies. The process may be highly automated
and incorporating programmable robots.
Because of the wide spread application of sheet spread metal parts, resistance spot welding has
acquired a prominent position, from attaching handles of cookware to assembling whole
automobile bodies (there are some 8,000 to 10,000 spot welds per car).
10.1
10
10.1
CORROSION IN METALS
Introduction
The composition and physical integrity of a solid material are altered in a corrosive environment.
In chemical corrosion, the material is dissolved by a corrosive liquid. In electrochemical
corrosion, metal atoms are removed from the solid material due to an electric circuit that is
produced. Metals react with a gaseous environment, usually at elevated temperatures and the
material may be destroyed by formation of oxides or other compounds.
10.2 The Electrochemical Cell

An electrochemical cell is formed when to pieces of metal in contact with one another are placed
in a conducting liquid or electrolyte. The complete electric circuit that is produced permits
either electroplating or electrochemical corrosion.
Components of an Electrochemical Cell.
There are four components in an electrochemical cell (Figure 10.1)
1. Anode: The anode gives up electrons to the circuit and corrodes.
2. Cathode: The cathode receives electrons from the circuit by means of a chemical, or cathode,
reaction. Ions that combine with the electrons produce a by-product at the cathode.
3. Physical contact: The anode and cathode must be electrically connected, usually by physical
contact, to permit the electrons to flow from the anode to the cathode.
4. Electrolyte: A liquid electrolyte must be in contact with both the anode and the cathode.
The electrolyte is conductive, thus completing the circuit. The electrolyte provides the
means by which metallic ions leave the anode surface and assures that ions move to the
cathode to accept the electrons.
Electrons
Contact
Cathode
Anode
Anode
electron
Ion
Water
Ions
Steel water pipe
C
(a)
(b)
Copper fitting
Electrolyte
A (Anode)
C (Cathode)
Figure 10.1
The components in an electrochemical cell
(a) A possible electroplating set-up

(b) A corrosion cell between a steel water pipe and a copper fitting.
27 31 December 2009
10.2
This description of an electrochemical cell defines either electrochemical corrosion or

electroplating. The two processes differ depending on the purpose of the cell, the source of the
electric potential by which a current is caused to flow in the circuit and the type of reaction that
occurs at the cathode.
Anode Reaction
The anode, which is a metal, undergoes an oxidation reaction by which metal atoms are ionised.
The metal ions enter the electrolytic solution while the electrons leave the anode through the
electrical connection.
M
n+
+ ne
( M= metal, e = electron, n = integer 1,2,3)
Because metal atoms leave the anode, the anode corrodes.

Cathode Reaction in Electroplating
In electroplating, a reduction reaction, which is the reverse of the anode reaction, occurs at the
cathode.
M
n+
+ ne
The metal ions, either intentionally added to the electrolyte or formed by the anode reaction,
combines with electrons at the cathode. The metal then plates out and cover the cathode
surface.
Cathode reaction in corrosion
Except in unusual conditions, plating of a metal does not occur during electrochemical
corrosion. Instead, the reduction reaction forms a gas, liquid or solid by-product (e.g. rust) at
the cathode.
27 31 December 2009
10.3
10.3 Types of Electrochemical Corrosion

10.3.1
General Corrosion (Uniform Corrosion)
This is the general wastage of a metal which occurs on reaction with the environment when a
chemical compound of the metal is produced. This type of corrosion (for example, the rusting of
mild steel in normal atmospheres) proceeds evenly over the surface of a metal and the rate of
reduction in metal thickness is often predictable.
General thinning takes place until failure. On the basis of tonnage wasted, this is the most
important form of corrosion. However, uniform corrosion is relatively easily measured and
predicted, making disastrous failures relatively rare.
In many cases, it is objectionable only from an appearance standpoint. As corrosion occurs
uniformly over the entire surface of the metal component, it can be practically controlled by
cathodic protection, use of coatings or paints, or simply by specifying a corrosion allowance.
The corrosion rates for selected metals are illustrated below;
* On aluminium materials pitting is generally more important than uniform corrosion.
27 31 December 2009
10.4
10.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion (Composition Cell)
When dissimilar metals are connected in the presence of a conducting solution, an electrolytic
cell is produced (composition cell).
The most active metal becomes an anode and is corroded at a greater rate than it would be it if
were not coupled to the dissimilar metal. Conversely, the less active metal is protected.
Familiar examples of galvanic corrosion are the rapid attack of steel nails in a copper plate and
the protection of steel plate by galvanizing (protection of steel by a zinc coating).
Often, we use a galvanic series, in which the different alloys are ranked according to their
anodic or cathodic tendencies in a particular environment (Table 10.1). We may find a different
galvanic series for seawater, fresh-water and industrial atmospheres.
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Zinc
Galvanised steel
5052 Aluminium
3003 Aluminium
Cadmium
Low carbon steel
Cast iron
410 Stainless steel
50 wt% Lead Tin solder
Lead
Tin
40%Copper Zinc brass
Nickel based alloys
Copper
30% Copper Nickel alloy
Silver
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Anode
Cathode
Table 10.1 Part of The galvanic series in seawater
27 31 December 2009
10.5
10.3.3 Crevice Corrosion (Concentration Cell)
The difference in chemical composition (electrolyte concentration) between the environment

inside a crevice and that outside one can stimulate pitting. Sharp corners where debris can
accumulate, and gaps at the edges of gaskets, washers, fastener heads, surface deposits, disbonded coatings, threads, lap joints and clamps or packing material may act as crevices (in which
the levels of oxygen are lower than the outside, i.e. less concentrated).
The metal in contact with the most concentrated solution is the cathode: the metal in contact with
the dilute solution is the anode.
The oxygen concentration cell (often referred to as oxygen starvation) occurs when the cathode
reaction is the oxygen electrode. Electrons flow from the low oxygen region (e.g. part of a metal
under a water drop), which serves as the anode, to the high-oxygen region, which serves as the
cathode.
Crevice corrosion is initiated by changes in local chemistry within the crevice;
a. Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice
b. Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
c. A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
d. Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g. chloride) in the crevice
Deposit attack is a form of concentration cell corrosion which occurs where the different
chemical environment under a scale or deposit gives rise to pits.
Waterline attack is another form of concentration cell corrosion can occur at the waterline of a
container because of the higher oxygen concentration in the surface layers of solution.
Long metal pipes buried under the soil may also suffer form of concentration cell corrosion, due
to the changing chemistry of the soil (i.e. the electrolyte).
27 31 December 2009
10.6
10.3.4
Pitting Corrosion
This term is used to describe all those forms of corrosion where the attack is localized into small
holes that may be deep. The total amount of metal removed may be small, but it may result in
perforation of a metal section. The pits can be either randomly distributed or associated with
changes in section, chemical composition, or microstructure of the alloy. A common example of
pitting corrosion is that occurring in stainless steels, caused by chloride-containing solutions.
Pitting may be initiated by:
a. Localized chemical or mechanical damage to the protective oxide film; water chemistry
factors which can cause breakdown of a passive film are acidity, low dissolved oxygen
concentrations (which tend to render a protective oxide film less stable) and high
concentrations of chloride (as in seawater)
b. Localized damage to, or poor application of, a protective coating
c. The presence of non-uniformities in the metal structure of the component, e.g. nonmetallic inclusions.
Some definitions
Pitting: corrosion of a metal surface, confined to a point or small area that takes the form
of cavities.
Pitting factor: ratio of the depth of the deepest pit resulting from corrosion divided by
the average penetration as calculated from weight loss.
Pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN): an empirical relationship to predict the
pitting resistance of austenitic and duplex stainless steels.
It is expressed as PREN = %Cr + 3.3 (%Mo + 0.5 %W) + 16x%N.
or PREN = % Cr + 3.3x % Mo + 16x % N.
For materials selection purposes, the pitting corrosion of several metals are listed in Table 10.2
27 31 December 2009
10.7
Pitting corrosion of selected Stainless steels and Nickel alloys
a
R =No pitting; F=failed by pitting and/or crevice corrosion; FG =failed by general corrosion.
b
2% KMnO4-2% NaCl, no crevices (pH 7.5), c10% FeCl3-6H2O with crevices (pH 1.6).
With 0.2% N and 0.033%C. eResistant up to 65C (150 F).
d
Table 10.2
27 31 December 2009
10.8
10.3.5 Demetallification (Selective Leaching)
Corrosive action on an alloy is highly selective, effectively only one metal, for example zinc,
from a copper-zinc alloy (dezincification), or iron from a grey cast iron component
(graphitisation).
The metal remaining after this form of attack has, in general, similar dimensions to the original
components, but it is porous and lacking in mechanical strength.
10.3.6 Impingement Attack Corrosion (Erosion Corrosion)
The combination of a moving fluid, mechanical abrasion by suspended particles, and a greater
supply of reactive species results in localized attack, for example when a flowing stream of fluid
strikes a plate or pipe bend.
The increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal surfaces of a tube can result in rapidly
increasing erosion rates and eventually a leak.
Erosion corrosion can also be aggravated by faulty workmanship. For example, burrs left at cut
tube ends can upset smooth water flow, cause localized turbulence and high flow velocities,
resulting in erosion corrosion.
A combination of erosion and corrosion can lead to extremely high pitting rates.
In offshore well systems, the process industry in which components come into contact with sandbearing liquids, this is an important problem.
Materials selection plays an important role in minimizing erosion corrosion damage. Caution is
in order when predicting erosion corrosion behaviour on the basis of hardness.
High hardness in a material does not necessarily guarantee a high degree of resistance to erosion
corrosion. Design features are also particularly important.
27 31 December 2009
10.9
10.3.7 Cavitation Attack Corrosion
Sudden changes in pressure in a liquid result in the formation of vapour-filled cavities which
subsequently collapse causing mechanical damage. Propellers and pumps are subject to this form
of attack, which is mainly mechanical but otherwise has similarities to impingement.
this can actually produce steam at the suction of a pump in a matter of minutes. When a process
fluid is supposed to be water in the 20-35C range, this is entirely unacceptable. Additionally,
this condition can form an airlock, which prevents any incoming fluid from offering cooling
effects, further exacerbating the problem. The locations where this is most likely to occur, such
as:
At the suction of a pump, especially if operating near the net positive suction head
required (NPSHR)
At the discharge of a valve or regulator, especially when operating in a near-closed

position
At other geometry-affected flow areas such as pipe elbows and expansions, also, by
processes incurring sudden expansion, which can lead to dramatic pressure drops
10.3.8
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Corrosion
Load
Load
Metals supporting stresses well within their normal capabilities can crack in some specific
environments (i.e. a combined action of corrosion and stress).
Environments that are known to produce stress-corrosion cracking in a particular alloy can be
avoided, while others can sometimes be predicted from existing information
The Chloride SCC in a 316 stainless steel chemical processing piping system is an example of
the catastrophic nature of this severe form of corrosion attack (cracking usually take place along
the grain boundaries (locations of high energy within the metal)
27 31 December 2009
10.10
10.3.9 Inter-Granular Corrosion.
The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated by grain boundaries.
Intergranular corrosion is a highly selective, localised attack, along the grain boundaries, or
immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of the grains remain largely unaffected.
Materials between the grains of metal are either corroded away or are weakened to the extent
that the individual metal crystals can separate.
This form of corrosion is usually associated with chemical segregation effects (impurities have a
tendency to be enriched at grain boundaries) or specific phases precipitated on the grain
boundaries. Such precipitation can produce zones of reduced corrosion resistance in the
immediate vicinity.
The attack is usually related to the segregation of specific elements or the formation of a
compound in the boundary. Corrosion then occurs by preferential attack on the grain-boundary
phase, or in a zone adjacent to it that has lost an element necessary for adequate corrosion
resistance - thus making the grain boundary zone anodic relative to the remainder of the surface.
The attack usually progresses along a narrow path along the grain boundary and, in a severe case
of grain-boundary corrosion; entire grains may be dislodged due to complete deterioration of
their boundaries.
In any case the mechanical properties of the structure will be seriously affected.
A classic example is the sensitisation or weld decay of stainless steels (Austenitic) during
welding. Chromium-rich grain boundary precipitates lead to a local depletion (i.e. less than 12%
Cr, which is the minimum for corrosion protection) of Cr immediately adjacent to these
precipitates, leaving these areas vulnerable to corrosive attack in certain electrolytes. Reheating a
welded component during multi-pass welding is a common cause of this problem.
Selection of Metals According to their Corrosion Characteristics
The susceptibilities of different metallic materials to the types of corrosion described in the
following paragraphs are given in Table 10.3. The metals and alloys are arranged in very
approximate order of susceptibility that is the most susceptible at the foot of the table.
Table 10.4 illustrate a practical example of materials selection for valve components in the petrochemical industry
27 31 December 2009
10.11
Table 10.3 Comparative susceptibility of metallic materials to different types of corrosion
27 31 December 2009
10.12
Table 10.4
Corrosion Properties of Valves and Valve Components Against Selected Environments
Gas, Natural
Oil, Petroleum (Refined)
Aluminium
Good
Aluminium
Excellent
Ductile Iron
Good
Ductile Iron
Good
Bronze
Good
Bronze
Good
Carbon Steel
Good
Carbon Steel
Excellent
S.S. 304
Excellent
S.S. 304
Excellent
S.S. 316
Excellent
S.S. 316
Excellent
S.S. 17-4 PH
Excellent
S.S. 17-4 PH
Excellent
Alloy 20
Excellent
Alloy 20
Excellent
Monel
Excellent
Monel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
Hastelloy (B) (C) Excellent
FEP/PFA/PTFE
FEP/PFA/PTFE
Excellent
Oil, Petroleum (Sour)
Excellent
Water, Sea
Aluminium
Excellent
Aluminium
Good
Ductile Iron
Fair
Ductile Iron
Not Recommended
Bronze
Fair
Bronze
Good
Carbon Steel
Good
Carbon Steel
Not Recommended
S.S. 304
Excellent
S.S. 304
Excellent
S.S. 316
Excellent
S.S. 316
Excellent
S.S. 17-4 PH
Excellent
S.S. 17-4 PH
Good
Alloy 20
Excellent
Alloy 20
Excellent
Monel
Excellent
Monel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
FEP/PFA/PTFE
FEP/PFA/PTFE
Excellent
Chlorine (Wet)
Excellent
Drilling Mud
Aluminium
Not Recommended
Aluminium
Good
Ductile Iron
Not Recommended
Ductile Iron
Good
Bronze
Not Recommended
Bronze
Good
Carbon Steel
Not Recommended
Carbon Steel
Good
S.S. 304
Not Recommended
S.S. 304
Excellent
S.S. 316
Not Recommended
S.S. 316
Excellent
S.S. 17-4 PH
Not Recommended
S.S. 17-4 PH
Excellent
Alloy 20
Not Recommended
Alloy 20
Excellent
Monel
Good
Monel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
Nickel
Excellent
FEP/PFA/PTFE
FEP/PFA/PTFE
Excellent
27 31 December 2009
Excellent
10.13
10.4 Protection Against Electrochemical Corrosion

10.4.1 Protection by Design
By properly designing metal structures, corrosion can be slowed or even avoided. Some of the
factors that should be considered are as follows:
1.
Prevent the formation of galvanic cells. For example, steel pipe is frequently connected
to brass plumbing fixtures, producing a galvanic cell that causes the steel to corrode. By
using intermediate plastic fittings to electrically insulate the steel and brass, this problem
can be minimised.
2.
Make the anode area much larger than the cathode area.
For example, copper rivets can be used to fasten steel sheet. Because of the small area of
the copper rivets, a limited cathodic reaction occurs. The copper accepts few electrons
and the steel anode reaction proceeds slowly.
If, on the other hand, steel rivets are used for joining copper sheet, the small steel anode
area gives up many electrons, which are accepted by the large copper cathodic area.
Corrosion of the steel rivets is then very rapid.
3.
Avoid crevices between assembled or joined materials (Figure 10.2).
27 31 December 2009
10.14
a)
Crevice corrosion
(concentration cell)
Fastener
b)
Solder or braze material
(Composition cell)
Ions
c)
Weld
Figure 10.2
Alternative methods for joining two pieces of steel
(a)
Fasteners may produce a concentration cell
(b)
Brazing or soldering may produce a composition cell
(c)
Welding a filler metal that matches the base metal may avoid galvanic cells
27 31 December 2009
10.15
10.4.2 Protection Using Inhibitors and Coatings

Inhibitors may be used to, for example, to pasivate the surface by providing it with an effective
protective film.
Most steels will corrode, for example, if chloride ions, Cl- or sulphate ions SO42-, are present
(these ions are very effective in breaking the protective surface film on most metals),
A common inhibitor for steel is sodium nitrite which functions as an oxidising agent and hence
forms a very stable protective film, which acts as a very effective barrier to further corrosion.
It is important, however that the correct levels of inhibitors are used and that the inhibitor will
coat all the areas of the component, otherwise the opposite effect (accelerated corrosion) may
take place.
Coatings are used to isolate the anode and cathode regions. Temporary coatings, such as grease
or oil, provide some protection but are easily disrupted.
Organic coatings such as paint, or ceramic coatings, such as enamel or glass, provide better
protection. However if the coating is disrupted, a small anodic site is exposed that undergoes
rapid, localised corrosion.
Metallic coatings include tin-plated and galvanised (zinc-plated) steel (Figure 10.3).
continuous coating of either metal isolates the steel from the electrolyte.
However, when the coating is scratched, exposing the underlying steel, the two coatings behave
differently. The zinc continues to be effective since zinc is anodic to steel. Since the area of the
exposed steel cathode is small, the zinc coating corrodes at a very slow rate and the steel remains
protected.
In addition, steel is anodic to tin, so a tiny steel anode is created when tinplate is scratched.
Rapid corrosion of the steel subsequently occurs.
Zn 2+
Zn 2+
e-
Fe 2+
e-
e-
Steel
Steel
Zinc
Figure 10.3
e-
Tin
Zinc-plated steel and tin-plated steel are protected differently.

Zinc protects steel even when the coating is scratched, since zinc is anodic to
steel.
Tin does not protect steel when the coating is disrupted, since steel is anodic
with respect to tin.
27 31 December 2009
10.16
10.4.3 Cathodic Protection

We can protect against corrosion by supplying the metal with electrons and forcing the metal to
be a cathode (Figure 10.4). Cathodic protection can be produced by using a sacrificial anode or
an impressed voltage.
Atmosphere
e-
e-
Mg 2+
Soil
Mg
Mg 2+
a)
Rectifier (DC source)

Atmosphere
Soil
e-
b)
Scrap iron
Figure 10.4
(a)
(b)
Cathodic protection of a buried steel pipeline
A sacrificial magnesium anode assures that the galvanic cell makes the pipeline the
cathode
An impressed voltage between a scrap iron auxiliary anode and the pipeline assures
that the pipeline is the cathode.
A sacrificial anode is attached to the material to be protected (Figure 10.4 a)), forming an
electrochemical circuit. The sacrificial anode corrodes, supplies electrons to be metal, and
thereby prevents an anode reaction at the metal. The sacrificial anode, typically zinc or
magnesium is consumed and must eventually be replaced.
Applications include preventing corrosion of buried pipelines, ships, off-shore drilling platforms
and water heaters.
An impressed voltage is obtained form a direct current source connected between an auxiliary
anode and the metal to be protected (Figure 10.4 b)). Essentially, we have a battery connected so
that electrons flow to the metal, causing the metal to be the cathode. The auxiliary anode, such
as scrap iron, corrodes.
27 31 December 2009
10.17
Appendix 10 A Remaining Life Calculations (for Corrosion)

The remaining life of the piping system shall be calculated from the following formula (API 570);
Remaining Life (years)
ta tm
Corrosion Rate
Where;
ta = actual minimum thickness, in inches (mm), determined at the time of inspection.

tm = minimum required thickness, in inches (mm), for the limiting section or zone.
And
Corrosion rate is measured in inch (mm) per year.
The long term (L.T.) corrosion rate of piping circuits shall be calculated from the following
formula;
Corrosion Rate (L.T.)
tinitial tlast
Time (years) between
last and initial inspections
The short term (S.T.) corrosion rate of piping circuits shall be calculated from the following
formula;
Corrosion Rate (L.T.)
tprevious tlast
Time (years) between
last and initial inspections
Long-term and short-term corrosion rates should be compared to see which results in the shortest
remaining life.
27 31 December 2009
11.1
11. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

11.1
Characterisation of NDT methods
Each NDT method can be completely characterized in terms of five principal factors:
Energy source or medium used to probe the test object (such as
waves or thermal radiation).
X-rays, ultrasonic
Nature of the signals, image or signature resulting from interaction with the test
object (attenuation of X-rays or reflection of ultrasound, for example).
Means of detecting or sensing resulting signals (photo emulsion, piezoelectric crystal
or inductance coil).
Method of indicating or recording signals (meter deflection, oscilloscope trace or
radiograph).
Basis for interpreting the results (direct or indirect indication, qualitative or
quantitative, and pertinent dependencies).
11.2
History of NDT
Oil & Chalk

This is a traditional method of visual inspection, which led eventually to the more
penetrating materials used today as dye & fluorescent penetrant methods.
X & Gamma Rays - 1917
Electromagnetic radiations to which most constructional materials are transparent in
some degree, and whose variations in material density cast shadows on to
photographic film or fluorescent screen.
Magnetic Particle testing - 1923
Magnetic flux leakage fields produced by discontinuities on or just below the surface
act as a small magnet and attract fine steel particles.
Ultrasonic Echo Sounding (1924)
Pulsing sound waves through material and timing the return echoes from boundaries,
contours and internal discontinuities to determine the size and position of any internal
discontinuities.
Eddy Current (1942)
Fluctuating magnetic field induces eddy currents which in turn are detected and
analysed by equipment to determine condition of material.
27 31 December 2009
11.2
11.3
Dye Penetrant
In these methods (Figures 11.1, 11.2), the surface to be examined is cleaned and then
dried. A penetrant fluid is then sprayed or swabbed on the surface, which is usually
warmed.
After sufficient time has elapsed for the penetrant to fill any fissures, which may be
present, the excess is flushed from the surface with warm water (the surface tension of
the water is too high to allow it to enter the narrow fissure).
The test surface is then carefully dried, coated with fine powdered chalk and set aside
for some time.
As the coated surface cools, it contracts and penetrant tends to be squeezed out of any
cracks, so that the chalk layer becomes stained, thus revealing the presence of the
cracks.
Most penetrants of this type contain a scarlet dye, which renders the stain immediately
noticeable. Aluminum alloy castings are often examined in this way.
Penetrant
Fissure (hairline crack)
(i)
Figure 11.1
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Chalk
(ii)
(iii)
The Penetrant method of crack detection
The cleaned surface is coated with penetrant, which seeps into any cracks
present.
Excess penetrant is removed from the surface
The surface is coated with chalk. As the metallic surface cools and
contracts penetrant is expelled from the crack to stain the chalk.
27 31 December 2009
11.3
Fig. 11.2 The Penetrant method of crack detection of a weld surface
This method is used to detect surface breaking discontinuities only, as the dye has to
be drawn in to the discontinuity by capillary action. It is used mainly on Non-ferrous
materials and steels.
This method requires the examination surface to be thoroughly de-greased, and
contaminants to be removed from within any flaws, otherwise the dye will not be
drawn in to the flaw. It is a lengthy process, allowing time for the capillary action to
take effect, and messy, with the dye spraying and the powder developer spraying.
Penetrants containing a compound, which fluoresces under the action of ultra-violet
light, may also be used.
This renders the use of messy chalk unnecessary, and is more sensitive than visible
red dyes.
When the prepared surface is illuminated by ultra-violet light, the cracks containing a
penetrant are revealed as bright lines on a dark background. This may be automated
by the use of a CCTV camera and an output signal sensitive to UV light variations.
Solvent removable dye penentrants
These can be either visible or fluorescent, and the penetrant liquid is not soluble in
water. Therefore components must be cleaned with a chemical solvent, such as
27 31 December 2009
11.4
Trichloroethelyne to remove grease and other contaminants, and the dye is wiped off
after application with a similar solvent to remove background colouring.
Water removable dye penentrants
These still need the solvent pre-clean, but the dyes may be removed either with a
direct water wash, or by the application of an emulsifier and then water wash. These
types of dyes are easier to clean off from rough and porous surfaces.
11.4
Magnetic Methods
11.4.1
Basic Principles
The magnetic dust method is one of the basic techniques utilising the magnetic
properties of the alloy. It consists in laying, for example, the steel component across
the arms of a magnetising machine and then sprinkling it with a special magnetic
powder.
The excess powder is blown away, and any cracks or defects are then revealed by a
bunch of powder sticking to the area on each side of the crack.
Since the crack lies across the magnetic field lines of force (flux) will become widely
separated at the air gap (Figure 11.3 a) and b) ) and magnetic particles will align
themselves along the lines of force.
Magnetic pole
Component
Distorted lines of force (flux leakage)

due to air gap
Fig. 11.3 a)
The principles of magnetic dust crack detection
27 31 December 2009
11.5
Fig. 11.3 b)
Magnetic dust crack detection of a plate
Variations of the basic magnetic technique include the use of a current flow with laidon cable (Figure 11.4), in which a series of rods with articulated legs are used to
accommodate the shape of the specimen surface (flat welded plate in this case) and
ensure good magnetic contact.
Fig. 11.4 Current flow technique with laid-on cable
27 31 December 2009
11.6
11.4.2 Types of particles

Normal
White Background contrast aid paint, viewed under normal light. The sensitivity of
this examination is dependent upon many factors, such as the thickness of the white
background coating, the strength of the magnetic field and the steel particle size.
Sometimes the white background is very difficult to remove.
Fluorescent particles
No background contrast aid is needed, but the examination must be conducted in a
darkened area under fluorescent light. The steel particles fluoresce quite brightly
when a quantity of them are pulled together by the field around a discontinuity.
Because of the brightness
27 31 December 2009
11.7
11.4.3 Variations
A variation of the magnetic technique is to use a flux leakage detector (instead of
magnetic dust), which will detect any variations (leakage) in the magnetic flux due to
a crack, as shown in Figure 11.5, for a tubular specimen.
a)
b)
Fig. 11.5
Flux Leakage detector variation of the magnetic method

for a) rotational and b) transverse directions
27 31 December 2009
11.8
11.4.4 Advantages and limitations of magnetic methods
Magnetic methods are usually suitable for the detection of surface breaking, or very
near surface discontinuities.
It relies on the effect that a discontinuity disturbs the lines of flux within a
ferromagnetic material, forcing them to break the surface, where they act as a small
magnet, attracting the applies fine steel particles to the discontinuity, where they can
then be seen.
For this reason it can only be used on Ferromagnetic materials.
The cleanliness requirements are less stringent than with Dye Penetrants, but still
major surface contaminants such as paint and rust and Mill scale will need to be
removed prior to the examination.
However, there is no requirement to degrease the surfaces, unless fluorescent means
are being utilised. The discontinuities may be full of grease without it affecting the
examination.
Its advantages over Dye Penetrant examinations are that it is quicker, the particles
only taking a few seconds to accumulate at a discontinuity, and because of the less
stringent cleanliness needs there are going to be fewer spurious indications.
27 31 December 2009
11.9
11.5 X-ray Methods
X-rays are used in the detection of cavities, flaws and other discontinuities in castings,
welded joints and the like, especially below the surface of the material.
The advantage of Radiography over other forms of N. D. T. is that it produces "hard
copy" of the welds that can be viewed by other people, whereas most forms rely upon
the operator's interpretation of signals and indications.
X-rays used in metallurgical radiography are harder than those used in medicine.
That is, they are of shorter wavelength and better able to penetrate metals. At the
same time their properties make them more dangerous to human body tissue, and
instruments producing radiation of this type needs to be carefully shielded in order to
prevent the escape of stray radiation.
Like light, X-rays travel in straight lines, but whilst metals are opaque to light, they
are moderately transparent to X-rays, particularly those of short wavelength.
Figure 12-6 illustrates the principle of X-radiography. A component is interposed
between a shielded source of X-rays and a photographic plate. Some of the radiation
will be absorbed by the metal so that the density of the photographic image will vary
with the thickness of metal through which the rays have passed.
x-ray source
Outline of component (top view)
Internal Defect
Image of internal defect
Side view
of component
Photographic film
Fig. 11.6
Resultant negative
Radiography of a casting using X-rays.
A cavity in the casting (Figure 11.6) will result in those X-rays, which pass through
the cavity being less effectively absorbed than those rays, which travel through the
entire thickness of metal.
Consequently the cavity will show as a dark patch on the resultant photographic
negative in the same way that a greater intensity of light produces a darker area on an
ordinary photographic negative.
Figure 12-7 illustrates various configurations for detecting cracks in tubular sections
using the X-Ray method.
27 31 December 2009
11.10
Fig. 11.7
X-Ray techniques of circumferential butt-welds in pipes:

F and S represent the film and source respectively, and Q shows
the position of the image quality indicator
(a) source inside (central), film outside, single wall method,

(a') source inside (off-centre), film outside, single wall method,
(b) source outside, film inside, single wall method,
(c) source and film outside, double wall, single image method, and
(d) source and film outside, double wall, double image method.
27 31 December 2009
11.11
A fluorescent screen (Figure 11.8) may be substituted for the photographic plate so
that the resultant radiograph may be viewed instantaneously. This type of fluoroscopy
is obviously much quicker (and automated), but is less sensitive than photography and
its use is usually limited to the less-dense alloys.
(Fluoroscopic material)
Figure 11.8
Television Fluoroscopic System for Weld Inspection
27 31 December 2009
11.12
11.6 - ray Methods
- rays can also be used in the radiography of metals, the technique used being
similar to that used with X-rays.
Since they are of shorter wavelength than are X-rays, - rays are able to penetrate
more effectively a greater thickness of metal. Hence they are particularly useful in
radiography of steel, which absorbs radiation more readily than do light alloys.
Figure 11.9 is an illustration of a typical -ray set up for pipe welding inspection.
Figure 11. 9 ray source container with detachable source

for pipe weld inspection
27 31 December 2009
11.13
11.7
Ultra-sonic Methods
The Echo method is one of the ultrasonic testing methods for metals, where a signal is
transmitted from a source through the specimen and the time interval, which elapses
between transmission and reception of the echo, is a measure of depth.
Ordinary sound waves (of frequencies between 30 and 16,000 Hz) tend to bypass the
small defects we are dealing with in metallic components and ultra-sonic frequencies
(between 0.5 and 15 MHz) are used for metals inspection.
When an ultrasonic vibration is transmitted from one medium to another some
reflection occurs at the interface. Any discontinuity (e.g. a defect) in the structure will
therefore provide a reflecting surface for ultrasonic impulses (Figure 9.9).
A probe containing an electrically excited quartz or barium titanate crystal, for
example, which can both transmit and receive high-frequency vibrations is used to
traverse the surface of the material to be examined (Figure 11.10).
The probe is coupled to a pulse generator and to a signal amplifier, which transfers the
resultant image to a CRT (cathode-ray tube), or oscilloscope.
Oscilloscope reading
t
d
Probe
d
t
Component
Defect
Transmitted
pulse
Echo from
defect
Echo from
lower surface
of component
Fig. 11.10 a) The detection of a defect in a component

by an ultrasonic double probe.
The first echo comes from the defect, whilst the second echo comes from
the lower surface of the component.
Measurement of the time interval between transmission of the impulse
and reflection of the first echo determines the depth of the defect.
27 31 December 2009
11.14
In satisfactory material, the pulse will pass from the probe unimpeded through the
metal and be reflected from the lower inside surface at back to the probe, then acting
as receiver.
Both transmitted pulse and echo are recorded on the C.R.T. and the distance between
peaks is proportional to thickness, t, of the test piece.
If any discontinuity is encountered such as a defect, then the pulses interrupted and
reflected as indicated. Since the echo returns to the receiver in a shorter time an
intermediate peak appears on the CRT trace. Its position relative to the other peaks
gives an indication of the depth of the fault beneath the surface.
Figure 11.10 b) Typical Ultra sonic equipment

It should be noted that ultrasonic waves are mechanical vibrations, not electromagnetic radiation, and so have different wavelength in different materials. This is
possible because of the elastic properties of the material.
Hence, ultrasonic waves cause the particles within the material to vibrate (induced
vibration) with specific frequencies (idealised as sinusoidal), dependant on the
material properties.
There are two basic types of particle induced wave, Compressional Waves (or
Longitudinal Wave, or Primary, P-Wave) and Shear Waves (or Transverse Waves).
Compressional Waves; Takes place if the particle motion in a wave is along the
direction of travel of the wave (as in the probe illustrated in Figure 12-10). Such wave
can propagate in solids, liquids and gases.
27 31 December 2009
11.15
Shear Waves; This takes place in solid materials, where it is possible for the particle
motion to be at a right angle to the direction of travel of the wave. Hence the particle
wave is termed the shear wave. For practical purposes, shear waves can not be
generated in liquids.
Shear waves may be produced using an ultrasonic device as shown in Figure 11.11.
Fig. 11.11
Design of a single crystal shear wave probe
For metals (and most other materials), the velocity of the shear wave is about half the
velocity of a compressional wave, travelling in the same material.
A list of velocities for selected materials is shown below
Material
Aluminum
Mild steel
Magnesium
Copper
Titanium
Polythene
Perspex (Lucite)
Water
Relative density
2.70
7.85
1.70
8.90
4.51
1.20
1.18
1.00
Compressional
(m/s)
6300
5900
5770
4700
6000
2000
2700
1490
Shear
(m/s)
3080
3230
3050
2260
3000
540
1300
27 31 December 2009
11.16
There are a number of basic probe configurations which are applicable to a range of
testing problems, as shown in Figure 11.12.
a)
The basic pulse echo system using a normal (0) compressional wave
combined transmitter and receiver probe.
b)
A through-transmission technique with transmitter and receiver on

opposite sides of the specimen: if there is a flaw within the ultrasonic beam
area (case B), the signal is lost or reduced.
c)
A double-probe compressional wave system: normally there is no input signal

shown on the display.
Figure 11.12 Selected ultrasonic configurations
27 31 December 2009
11.17
d)
The basic shear wave pulse echo system.
e)
The shear wave can be reflected off the lower surfaceknown as the full-skip
technique. The half-skip technique is shown on the right-hand side of (d).
f)
Separate transmitter and receiver technique to search for vertical defects: the
two probes are mechanically linked.
g)
The double-skip technique with shear waves. Note that the laminar defect
would not be detected.
h)
Another type of tandem technique with shear wave probes: both probes act as
transmitters and receivers.
Figure 11.12 Cont.
27 31 December 2009
11.18
i)
As for (h). The presence of a defect is indicated by an echo (B) and a loss of
transmitted amplitude (C).
j)
With a single transmitter and receiver probe, a vertically-oriented defect can

easily be missed, due to the return echo missing the probe.
k)
Flowing Water Probe technique (water is the coupler)
l)
With a large, complex-shaped specimen, there can be section changes which

produce reflections, mode conversions and a mass of spurious indications on
the trace. Most of the waves follow a longer path length than the direct
reflection off the end C of the specimen, so many of the spurious indications
are shown after the end-wall pulse, which makes them easier to identify.
Figure 11.12 Cont.
27 31 December 2009
11.19
m) Inspection of single-V weld (important to detect lack of root penetration or

fusion)
n) Inspection of Double-V weld (important to detect lack of root penetration or

fusion)
Figure 11.12 cont.
27 31 December 2009
11.20
o)
Weld inspection: detection of crack or lack effusion at the edge of the root
bead. From side A, the flaw echo will generally show slightly greater
amplitude than a root bead echo and will be slightly in front of the centerline
position; from side B, the flaw echo is slightly behind the centerline position.
The flaw echo will probably persist when the probe is moved in or out from
the weld seam
Figure 11.12 Cont.
All these probe configurations in Figure 12-12, except (k), are contact techniques,
used with a couplant between the probe face and the specimen.
The probe may also have a protective membrane to minimise wear on a rough surface.
Compressional wave probes may have a delay shoe, and this can be of a material
such as Polyimide, which is heat resistant, for use on hot specimens.
Soft-tipped transducers which require no couplant are available for use on composites
and soft non-metallic surfaces. Usually, because of the interference losses, such
probes are for transmission-mode operation only (Figure 12-12 b), and for low
frequencies (0.51.0 MHz).
27 31 December 2009
11.21
Another method of overcoming the couplant problem is the roller probe (wheel
probe). This consists of a soft plastic tyre completely filled with coupling fluid under
pressure, with the piezoelectric crystal and its backing fixed to the shaft of the roller,
so that it maintains its beam angle as the wheel is rolled over the specimen.
With contact probes which are moved over the specimen surface by hand, a liquid is
used to maintain ultrasonic contact between the probe (whether this is the
piezoelectric crystal surface, a protective cap, or a delay block) and the specimen
surface.
It is desirable to choose suitable practical properties of the couplant liquid; e.g. noncorrosive, non-toxic, high viscosity, and inexpensive.
Glycerine is an excellent ultrasonic couplant, but is expensive.
The commonest couplant liquid is medium-viscosity oil, the main disadvantage being
its tendency to spread where it is not needed.
Silicon-oil can be used for hot surfaces, up to about 300C.
Thick oil, grease, or petroleum jelly can be used on vertical surfaces.
A cleaner material, which is very successful, is a water-soluble paste.
27 31 December 2009
11.22
11.8 Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing, rely on the interaction between the material and an
electromagnetic field.
An alternating current flowing in a conductive coil produces an electromagnetic field.
If a conductive material is placed near or within the coil (Figure 11.13), the field of
the coil will induce eddy currents and additional electromagnetic fields in the sample,
which in turn interact with the original field of the coil.
By measuring the effect of the sample on the coil, it is possible to deduce information
concerning the structure and properties of the sample.
crack
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 11.13 a) Coil inducing an eddy current (through-coil method) in a tube,

where the presence of a crack alters the flow of the eddy current.
b) The probe method for eddy current inspection.
c) Single coil split ferrite core differential probe
d) Two coil probe
27 31 December 2009
11.23
Figure 11.13 (Cont)
e) Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) probe in a pipe.

T - transmit coil
R - array of receiver coils
W- tracking/alignment support wheels
As mentioned before, eddy current testing involves the observation of the interaction
between electromagnetic fields and metals. Hence, the basic requirements are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
a coil or coils carrying an alternating current,

a means of measuring the current, or the voltage, in this coil,
a metal specimen to be tested.
The test coil can be wound in solenoid form to encircle a specimen such as a bar or
tube (Figure 11.13 a). It can be either a single coil (Figure 11.13 b and c), or a pair of
coils (Figure 11.13 d) used as a bridge balancing circuit (the coil is usually held in a
probe which is moved over the surface of a specimen). In addition, the coil can be
wound on a bobbin to move along the inside of a tube (Figure 11.13 e) or hole.
In the eddy current test, it is possible to optimize the size and geometry of the coil, the
proximity of the coil to the sample, and the frequency and magnitude of the current in
the coil for a particular application.
Once the optimum conditions are determined, it is possible to detect changes in
electrical and magnetic properties of the sample. These changes are often due to
differences in composition, microstructure, and other properties.
If properly calibrated, the eddy current test can determine whether a material has been
properly heat treated. Because discontinuities in the sample will alter the electromagnetic fields.
Even changes in the size of the sample or the thickness of the plating on a sample
might be detected by the test.
Potentially harmful defects and cracks can be detected. But, particularly at high
frequencies, the eddy currents do not penetrate deeply below the surface of many
metals as shown in the table below.
27 31 December 2009
11.24
Frequency (MHz)
0.001
0.010
Depth (mm)
2.00
2.65
10.00
12.00
0.50
45.00
12.00
Copper
Aluminium
70: 30 copper: nickel
Titanium
Cast steel
Graphite
Zirconium
Depth (mm)
0.64
0.84
3.15
3.80
0.15
13.00
3.50
0.050
Depth (mm)
0.28
0.04
1.41
1.67
0.07
6.20
1.90
Hence, eddy current testing, like magnetic particle inspection, is best suited for
detecting flaws near the surface of the sample.
The eddy current test is particularly rapid compared with most other non-destructive
testing techniques.
Therefore, large numbers of parts can be tested quickly and economically.
Often the eddy current test is set up as a "go or no go" test that is standardized on
good parts. If the interaction between the coil and the part is the same when other
parts are tested, the parts may be assumed to be good.
11.9
Summary and Selection of N. D. T. Methods
In selecting the N. D. T. method for the evaluation of a specific defect it should be

kept in mind that the various methods are complimentary to each other, and that
several methods may be capable of performing the same task.
Selection of a method is based upon such variables as:
1. Material
2. Manufacturing process.
3. Type and origin of possible defects.
4. Accessibility.
5. Acceptance level.
6. Availability of manpower and equipment.
7. Cost.
Stages at which N.D.T. may be employed include.
27 31 December 2009
11.25
1. For parent and raw materials

2. For assessment of procedures and welder qualification.
3. For assessment of production welds.
4. During welding.
5. During and after weld repairs.
6. Prior to Post Weld Heat Treatment.
7. After PWHT and prior to pressure test.
8. During and after pressure test.
Welding procedure and welder technique will have a direct effect on fabrication
imperfections and defects. Incorrect procedure or poor technique may produce
imperfections leading to premature failure in service.
Defects fall in to 2 main classifications.
Linear/Planar types
Lack of Penetration.
Lack of Fusion.
Slag.
Volumetric types
Slag.
Porosity.
Wormholes.
Planar defects will generally best be found with Ultrasonic means, unless the plane
happens to lie parallel to the beam of radiation. Ultrasonic methods will normally use
several different probe angles to find all defects.
All volumetric types will manifest themselves on a radiograph, but some will only be
seen on the most sensitive X-ray films.
27 31 December 2009
11.26
Other types of defects may happen during service, and may lead to catastrophic
failure if not detected in good time. The service defects may include:
Brittle cracks
Stress corrosion cracking
Fatigue cracks
Creep cracks
Erosion
Various forms of corrosion
Figure 11.14 illustrate some of the defects that may be detected using NDT.
Figure 11.14 Typical pipe defects that may be detected using NDT methods
27 31 December 2009
11.27
N. D. T. of welding provides the client with assurance of the quality of workmanship.
Whether this is done on a sample basis, such as 10%, or a full inspection process, with
100% visual and N. D. T. of the work there is some record of the testing.
Whilst a 10% inspection may not seem much assurance, provided it is done on a
random basis, with no forewarning to the welders of which welds are going to be
tested, if those welds tested are o/k then the chances are that the rest will be
satisfactory. Usually this percentage is backed up by a ful1 system pressure test as
well.
A 100% N. D. T. test of a system is necessary on critical systems, such as Nuclear
Plant, High Pressure fluid systems, or systems carrying toxic or hazardous substances.
This high level of assurance is beneficial in almost eliminating the chances of a
system failure in normal use.
Table 11-1 provides a summary of the major NDT methods, selection and
applications.
Appendix 11-A summarises the ISO Standards for NDT Inspection.
27 31 December 2009
11.28
Method
Principle
Material
Applications
Magnetic
particle
Magnetic particles attracted by

leakage flux at surface flaws of
magnetic object aid visual
inspection.
Magnetic
materials
Alternating current coil induces

eddy currents in test object.
Metals
Surface flaws such as

Easy to interpret, fast, simple Parts must be relatively
cracks, laps, and seams. to perform
clean. Usually requires
Some subsurface flaws.
high current source. Parts
sometimes must be
demagnetized. Standards
difficult to establish.
Material composition,
Intimate contact between coil Sensitive to many
structure,
hardness
and material not required.
variables. Sensitivity
changes, cracks, case Versatile. Special coils easily varies with depth.
depth, voids, large
made. Fast operation can be Response often
inclusions, tubing weld automated. Electric circuit
comparative.
defects, laminations,
design variations permit
coating thickness,
selective sensitivity and
porosity.
function. Sensitive to surface
and near surface
inhomogeneities.
Surface flaws such as
Simple to perform, applicable Only surface flaws
cracks, porosity, pits,
to complex shapes, on site
detected. Surfaces must
seams, and laps.
inspection.
be clean. Penetrant
washes out of wide
defects, Standards difficult
to establish.
Internal defects such as
More standards established Health precautions
inclusions, porosity,
than for other methods.
necessary. Defect must be
shrink, hot cracks,
Internal defects detected.
at least 2% of total section
coarse structure in cast
Permanent film record.
thickness. Film processing
materials.
Automatic thickness gauging. requires time, facilities,
and care, Difficulty with
Lack of fusion and
complex shapes, Most
penetration in welds.
costly non-destructive test
Thickness measurement.
method.
Detection of missing
internal parts in an
assembly.
(SAE J420)
Electromagnetic
(eddy current}
Flaws and material properties

affect flow of currents.
(SAE J425)
Information derived from meter

or cathode ray tube indications.
Liquid penetrant is drawn into

surface flaws by capillary action,
then revealed by developer
material to aid in visual
inspection.
Liquid
penetrant
(SAE J426)
Penetrating
Radiation
(SAE J427)
General Penetrating
radiation is differentially
absorbed by materials, depending upon thickness and type of
material.
Nonporous
material,
metals,
plastics,
glazed
ceramics
Most materials
Advantages
X-ray source produces radiation

electrically, by deceleration of
electrons.
Versatile energy
adjustable. Fluoroscopy
available. Image intensification available. Thickness
up to 24 in (600 mm) of steel.
More portable than x-ray.
Lower cost than x-ray.
Thickness up to 10 in (250
mm) steel can be tested.
Gamma () source produces

radiation in decay of radioactive
material.
Ultrasonic
(SAE J428)
Mechanical vibrational waves

Metals,
(frequency range 0.125 MHz) plastics,
are introduced into a test object. ceramics,
glass, rubber,
This energy is reflected and
graphite,
scattered by inhomogeneities or concrete
becomes resonant.
Inclusions, cracks,
porosity, bursts,
laminations, structure,
lack of bond, thickness
measurement, weld
defects.
Information is interpreted from

cathode ray tube or read from
meter.
Table 11-1
Electric power and water

required Equipment
heavy and costly.
Shielded area usually
required.
Government license
required. Energy cannot
be adjusted or turned off.
Source must be replaced.
Orientation affects the
test.
Variety of inspection
Difficulty with complex
elements and circuitry
shapes. Surface
permits selective high senroughness may affect test,
sitivity. High speed test. Can Defect orientation affects
be automated and recorded. test, Comparative
Penetrates up to 60ft (18m) standards only, Requires
steel. Indicates flaw location. couplant.
Access to only one surface
usually needed.
Summary of Non Destructive Testing Methods
Limitations
27 31 December 2009
11.29
Appendix 11-A ISO Standards for NDT Inspection
ISO 4986:1992
Steel castings -- Magnetic particle inspection
ISO 4987:1992
Steel castings -- Penetrant inspection
ISO 4993:1987
Steel castings -- Radiographic inspection
ISO 5579:1998
Non-destructive testing -- Radiographic examination of

metallic materials by X- and gamma rays -- Basic rules
ISO 5948:1994
Ultrasonic acceptance testing
ISO 6933:1986
Magnetic particle acceptance testing
ISO 9302:1994
Seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel

tubes for pressure purposes -- Electromagnetic testing for
verification of hydraulic leak-tightness
ISO 9303:1989

tubes for pressure purposes -- Full peripheral ultrasonic
testing for the detection of longitudinal imperfections
ISO 9304:1989

tubes for pressure purposes -- Eddy current testing for the
detection of imperfections
ISO 9305:1989
Seamless steel tubes for pressure purposes -- Full

peripheral ultrasonic testing for the detection of transverse
imperfections
ISO 9402:1989

tubes for pressure purposes -- Full peripheral magnetic
transducer/flux leakage testing of ferromagnetic steel tubes
for the detection of longitudinal imperfections
27 31 December 2009
11.30
ISO 9598:1989
Seamless steel tubes for pressure purposes -- Full

peripheral magnetic transducer/flux leakage testing of
ferromagnetic steel tubes for the detection of transverse
imperfections
ISO 9915:1992
Aluminum alloy castings -- Radiography testing
ISO 9916:1991
Aluminum alloy and magnesium alloy castings -- Liquid

penetrant inspection
ISO 10049:1992
Aluminum alloy castings -- Visual method for assessing

the porosity
ISO 10124:1994

tubes for pressure purposes -- Ultrasonic testing for the
detection of laminar imperfections
ISO 10332:1994

tubes for pressure purposes -- Ultrasonic testing for the
verification of hydraulic leak-tightness
ISO 10543:1993
Seamless and hot-stretch-reduced welded steel tubes for

pressure purposes -- Full peripheral ultrasonic thickness
testing
ISO 11484:1994
Steel tubes for pressure purposes -- Qualification and

certification of non-destructive testing (NDT) personnel
ISO 11496:1993
Seamless and welded steel tubes for pressure purposes -Ultrasonic testing of tube ends for the detection of laminar
imperfections
ISO 11971:1997
Visual examination of surface quality of steel castings

Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes
ISO 12094:1994
Ultrasonic testing for the detection of laminar

imperfections in strips/plates used in the manufacture of
welded tubes
27 31 December 2009
11.31
ISO 12095:1994
Seamless and welded steel tubes for pressure purposes -Liquid penetrant testing
ISO/TTA 3:2001
Polycrystalline materials -- Determination of residual

stresses by neutron diffraction
ISO 1027:1983
Radiographic image quality indicators for non-destructive

testing -- Principles and identification
ISO 3057:1998
Non-destructive testing -- Metallographic replica

techniques of surface examination
ISO 3058:1998
Non-destructive testing -- Aids to visual inspection -Selection of low-power magnifiers
ISO 3059:2001
Non-destructive testing -- Penetrant testing and magnetic

particle testing - Viewing conditions
ISO 3452:1984
Non-destructive testing -- Penetrant inspection -- General

principles
ISO 3452-2:2000
Non-destructive testing -- Penetrant testing -- Part 2:

Testing of penetrant materials
ISO 3452-3:1998

Reference test blocks
.
ISO 3452-4:1998

Equipment
ISO 3453:1984
Non-destructive testing -- Liquid penetrant inspection -Means of verification
ISO 3999:1977
Apparatus for gamma radiography Specification
ISO 3999-1:2000
Radiation protection -- Apparatus for industrial gamma

radiography -- Part 1: Specifications for performance,
design and tests
27 31 December 2009
11.32
ISO 5576:1997
Non-destructive testing -- Industrial X-ray and gamma-ray

radiology Vocabulary
ISO 5577:2000
Non-destructive testing -- Ultrasonic inspection

Vocabulary
ISO 5580:1985
Non-destructive testing -- Industrial radiographic

illuminators -- Minimum requirements
ISO 9712:1999
Non-destructive testing -- Qualification and certification of

personnel
ISO 9934-1:2001
Non-destructive testing -- Magnetic particle testing -- Part

1: General principles
ISO 9935:1992
Non-destructive testing -- Penetrant flaw detectors -General technical requirements
ISO 10375:1997
Non-destructive testing -- Ultrasonic inspection - Characterization of search unit and sound field
ISO 11537:1998
Non-destructive testing -- Thermal neutron radiographic

testing -- General principles and basic rules
ISO 12706:2000
Non-destructive testing -- Terminology - Terms used in

penetrant testing
ISO 12713:1998
Non-destructive testing -- Acoustic emission inspection -Primary calibration of transducers
ISO 12714:1999
Non-destructive testing -- Acoustic emission inspection -Secondary calibration of acoustic emission sensors
ISO 12715:1999
Ultrasonic non-destructive testing -- Reference blocks and

test procedures for the characterization of contact search
unit beam profiles
27 31 December 2009
11.33
ISO 12716:2001
Non-destructive testing -- Acoustic emission inspection

Vocabulary
ISO 12721:2000
Non-destructive testing -- Thermal neutron radiographic

testing -- Determination of beam L/D ratio
27 31 December 2009

Metallurgy For Non-Metallurgists Training by Khalid Dubai

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metallurgy For Non-Metallurgists Training by Khalid Dubai

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metallurgy for

INSTRUCTOR: DR. WALID JOURI

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

TESTING AND MECHANICAL

Tensile, impact and hardness tests

Fatigue and creep failure

Understand the fundamental bases of mechanical testing

Compare mechanical properties of metals for selection purposes

THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

Solidification crystal growth and structures of metals

Defects in metals during solidification

Understand the solidification process of pure metals

The preparation (Mounting Grinding, Polishing and Etching) of metal specimens

Metallurgical and Electron Microscopes

Understand the use of microscopes for metallurgical examination

Edge Dislocation (line imperfections) in crystals

Softening of metals by annealing

Comparison of Cold and Hot working of Metals

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Understand the phenomenon of dislocations; one of the most fundamental properties,

Gain knowledge in controlling the strength of metals by controlling the movement of

Gain initial knowledge of softening metals by the application of heat (annealing)

BINARY EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

Solubility and cooling curves

Understand temperature/time cooling curves of pure substances.

Gain knowledge of thermal equilibrium diagrams (phase diagrams) and related

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Definitions and classifications and some uses of ferrous alloys including;

Gain an understanding of the nature, properties , classifications and uses of a variety of

HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL

Hardening of carbon steel (by quenching)

Annealing, normalising and tempering

Heat affected zone (HAZ) in welding

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Understand additional processes such as surface hardening of steel

Nickel and cobalt

A selection of metal fabrication methods, including;

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Understand basic metal fabrication techniques

10. CORROSION IN METALS

The electrochemical cell

Types of electrochemical corrosion

Protection against electrochemical corrosion

Gain an fundamental understanding of the nature and types of corrosion

Learn about various methods of protection against corrosion

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

11. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Introduction to a selection of Non Destructive Techniques (NDT), applications and

Gain an understanding in various NDT methods and standards

Be able to determine appropriate NDT techniques for a variety of applications

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

TESTING AND MECHANICAL

THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

BINARY EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

DIFFUSION PROCESS IN METALS

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009

Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists 27 31 December 2009