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Distance Relays PDF
Distance Relays PDF
DISTANCE RELAYS
Perhaps the most interesting and versatile family of relays is the distance-relay group. In
the preceding chapter, we examined relays in which one current was balanced against
another current, and we saw that the operating characteristic could be expressed as a ratio
of the two currents. In distance relays, there is a balance between voltage and current, the
ratio of which can be expressed in terms of impedance. Impedance is an electrical measure
of distance along a transmission line, which explains the name applied to this group of
relays.
V
=Z=
I
DISTANCE RELAYS
K1
K3
2
K2
K2I
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It is customary to neglect the effect of the control spring, since its effect is noticeable only
at current magnitudes well below those normally encountered. Consequently, if we let K3
be zero, the preceding equation becomes:
Z=
K1
= constant
K2
In other words, an impedance relay is on the verge of operating at a given constant value
of the ratio of V to I, which may be expressed as an impedance.
The operating characteristic in terms of voltage and current is shown in Fig. l, where the
effect of the control spring is shown as causing a noticeable bend in the characteristic only
at the low-current end. For all practical purposes, the dashed line, which represents a
constant value of Z, may be considered the operating characteristic. The relay will pick up
for any combination of V and I represented by a point above the characteristic in the
positive-torque region, or, in other words, for any value of Z less than the constant value
represented by the operating characteristic. By adjustment, the slope of the operating
characteristic can be changed so that the relay will respond to all values of impedance less
than any desired upper limit.
A much more useful way of showing the operating characteristic of distance relays is by
means of the so-called impedance diagram or R-X diagram. Reference 1 provides a
comprehensive treatment of this method of showing relay characteristics. The operating
characteristic of the impedance relay, neglecting the control-spring effect, is shown in
Fig. 2 on this type of diagram. The numerical value of the ratio of V to I is shown as the
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DISTANCE RELAYS
length of a radius vector, such as Z, and the phase angle between V and I determines the
position of the vector, as shown. If I is in phase with V, the vector lies along the +R axis;
but, if I is 180 degrees out of phase with V, the vector lies along the R axis. If I lags V, the
vector has a +X component; and, if I leads V, the vector has a X component. Since the
operation of the impedance relay is practically or actually independent of the phase angle
between V and I, the operating characteristic is a circle with its center at the origin. Any
value of Z less than the radius of the circle will result in the production of positive torque,
and any value of Z greater than this radius will result in negative torque, regardless of the
phase angle between V and I.
At very low currents where the operating characteristic of Fig. 1 departs from a straight line
because of the control spring, the effect on Fig. 2 is to make the radius of the circle smaller.
This does not have any practical significance, however, since the proper application of
such relays rarely if ever depends on operation at such low currents.
Although impedance relays with inherent time delay are encountered occasionally, we
shall consider only the high-speed type. The operating-time characteristic of a high-speed
impedance relay is shown qualitatively in Fig. 3. The curve shown is for a particular value
of current magnitude. Curves for higher currents will lie under this curve, and curves for
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63
lower currents will lie above it. In general, however, the operating times for the currents
usually encountered in normal applications of distance relays are so short as to be within
the definition of high speed, and the variations with current are neglected. In fact, even
the increase in time as the impedance approaches the pickup value is often neglected, and
the time curve is shown simply as in Fig. 4.
Various types of actuating structure are used in the construction of impedance relays.
Inverse-time relays use the shaded-pole or the watt-metric structures. High-speed relays may
use a balance-beam magnetic-attraction structure or an induction-cup or double-loop
structure.
For transmission-line protection, a single-phase distance relay of the impedance type
consists of a single-phase directional unit, three high-speed impedance-relay units, and a
timing unit, together with the usual targets, seal-in unit, and other auxiliaries. Figure 5
shows very schematically the contact circuits of the principal units. The three impedance
units are labeled Z1, Z2, and Z3. The operating characteristics of these three units are
independently adjustable. On the R-X diagram of Fig. 6, the circle for Z1 is the smallest, the
circle for Z3 is the largest, and the circle for Z2 is intermediate. It will be evident, then, that
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DISTANCE RELAYS
any value of impedance that is within the Z1 circle will cause all three impedance units to
operate. The operation of Z1 and the directional unit will trip a breaker directly in a very
short time, which we shall call T1. Whenever Z3 and the directional unit operate, the
timing unit is energized. After a definite delay, the timing unit will first close its T2 contact,
and later its T3 contact, both time delays being independently adjustable. Therefore, it can
be seen that a value of impedance within the Z2 circle, but outside the Z1 circle, will result
in tripping in T2 time. And finally, a value of Z outside the Z1, and Z2 circles, but within
the Z3 circle, will result in tripping in T3 time.
It will be noted that, if tripping is somehow blocked, the relay will make as many attempts
to trip as there are characteristic circles around a given impedance point. However, use
may not be made of this possible feature.
Figure 6 shows also the relation of the directional-unit operating characteristic to the
impedance-unit characteristics on the same R-X diagram. Since the directional unit
permits tripping only in its positive-torque region, the inactive portions of the impedanceunit characteristics are shown dashed. The net result is that tripping will occur only for
points that are both within the circles and above the directional-unit characteristic.
Because this is the first time that a simple directional-unit characteristic has been shown
on the R-X diagram, it needs some explanation. Strictly speaking, the directional unit has
a straight-line operating characteristic, as shown, only if the effect of the control spring is
neglected, which is to assume that there is no restraining torque. It will be recalled that, if
we neglect the control-spring effect, the torque of the directional unit is:
T = K1VI cos ( )
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The centers of all the circles will lie on the dashed line directed from O through M, which
is at the angle of maximum torque. The diameter of each circle will be proportional to the
square of the voltage. At normal voltage, and even at considerably reduced voltages, the
diameter will be so large that for all practical purposes we may assume the straight-line
characteristic of Fig. 6.
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not the practice to try to make the circles go through the origin, and therefore a separate
directional unit is required as indicated in Fig. 9.
Since this relay is otherwise like the impedance-type relay already described, no further
description will be given here.
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69
K3
I2
or
V
K
K3
sin = Z sin = X = 1
I
K2 K2I 2
If we neglect the effect of the control spring,
K
X = 1 = constant
K2
In other words, this relay has an operating characteristic such that all impedance radius
vectors whose heads lie on this characteristic have a constant X component. This describes
the straight line of Fig. 10. The significant thing about this characteristic is that the
resistance component of the impedance has no effect on the operation of the relay; the
relay responds solely to the reactance component. Any point below the operating
characteristicwhether above or below the R axiswill lie in the positive-torque region.
Taking into account the effect of the control spring would lower the operating
characteristic toward the R axis and beyond at very low values of current. This effect can
be neglected in the normal application of reactance relays.
It should be noted in passing that, if the torque equation is of the general form
T = K1I 2 K2VI cos ( ) K 3 , and if is made some value other than 90, a straight-line
operating characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be parallel to the R axis. This
general form of relay has been called an angle-impedance relay.
A reactance-type distance relay for transmission-line protection could not use a simple
directional unit as in the impedance-type relay, because the reactance relay would trip
under normal load conditions at or near unity power factor, as will be seen later when we
consider what different system-operating conditions look like on the R-X diagram. The
reactance-type distance relay requires a directional unit that is inoperative under normal
load conditions. The type of unit used for this purpose has a voltage-restraining element
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DISTANCE RELAYS
that opposes a directional element, and it is called an admittance or mho unit or relay.
In other words, this is a voltage-restrained directional relay. When used with a reactancetype distance relay, this unit has also been called a starting unit. If we let the
control-spring effect be K3, the torque of such a unit is:
T = K1VI cos ( ) K 2V 2 K 3
where and are defined as positive when I lags V. At the balance point, the net torque is
zero, and hence:
K 2V 2 = K1VI cos ( ) K3
Dividing both sides by K2 VI, we get:
V
K
= Z = 1 cos ( )
I
K2
K3
K2VI
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PROBLEMS
1. On an R-X diagram, show the impedance radius vector of a line section having an
impedance of 2.8 + j5.0 ohms. On the same diagram, show the operating characteristics of
an impedance relay, a reactance relay, and a mho relay, each of which is adjusted to just
operate for a zero-impedance short circuit at the end of the line section. Assume that the
center of the mho relays operating characteristic lies on the line-impedance vector.
Assuming that an arcing short circuit having an impedance of 1.5 + j ohms can occur
anywhere along the line section, show and state numerically for each type of relay the
maximum portion of the line section that can be protected.
2. Derive and show the operating characteristic of an overcurrent relay on an R-X diagram.
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75
3. A current-voltage directional relay has maximum torque when the current leads the
voltage by 90. The voltage coil is energized through a voltage regulator that maintains at
the relay terminals a voltage that is always in phase withand of the same frequency asthe
system voltage, and that is constant in magnitude regardless of changes in the system
voltage.
Derive the equation for the relays operating characteristic in terms of the system voltage
and current, and show this characteristic on an R-X diagram.
4. Write the torque equation, and derive the operating characteristic of a resistance relay.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. A Comprehensive Method of Determining the Performance of Distance Relays, by
J. H. Neher, AIEE Trans., 56 (1937), pp. 833-844, Discussions, p. 1515.
2. A Distance Relay with Adjustable Phase-Angle Discrimination, by S. L. Goldsborough,
A1EE Trans., 63 (1944), pp. 835-838. Discussions, pp. 1471-1472.
Application of the Ohm and Mho Principles to Protective Relays, by A. R. van C.
Warrington, AIEE Trans., 65 (1945), pp. 378-386. Discussions, p. 491.
3. The Mho Distance Relay, by R. M. Hutchinson, AIEE Trans., 65 (1945), pp. 353-360.
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