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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Free convection
Transport Phenomena
Heat Transfer
Transport Phenomena
2.
3.
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction
Heat conduction
Direction of
heat transfer
T1
T0
crosssection
area A
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
q =
dT
dz
T1 T0
k
Temperature gradient
Pointwise:
q = k
Transport Phenomena
dT
dz
Thermal conductivity at
the plane A, k
PLANE A
q = k
Fouriers law
dT
dz
q = k T
qy
where
q = qx i + qy j + q z k
T
qx
and
i+
j+ k
x y z
grad operator
q x = k x
dT
dT
dT
; q y = k y ; q z = k z
dx
dy
dz
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Momentum vs Heat ?
qy
= ky
dT
dy
property of
material
2. Units: W/m/K
3. In general, ksolid > kliquid > kgas
driving force
yx
dv x
dy
Transport Phenomena
Thermal conductivity
Materials
Hydrogen @ 100K
Water @ 293K
Liquid sodium @373K
Aluminum
Thermal conductivity
0.067
0.600
83.70
206.0
Transport Phenomena
Thermal conductivity
1.00
0.60 - 1.00
0.07
5. Temperature dependence:
Gas
Liquid
mass = m
Temperature
Transport Phenomena
1
3
mv 2T = T
2
2
Boltzmann constant
3
d 1
2
mv T = R
2
dT 2
Transport Phenomena
v=0
d. Results of kinetics theory of gas
y
mean molecular
thermal velocity
mean free path
wall collision
frequency per
unit area
T(y+a)
Temperature
profile
y-a
T(y)
T(y-a)
Transport Phenomena
8T
m
1
2d 2 n
Z=
1
nv T
4
a=
3
the molecules reaching
any plane,
on the average,
had their last collision
at a distance a from that
plane
y+a
y
vT =
Transport Phenomena
q y = Z mv T2
2
T y+ a = T y +
y= y a
Z mv T2
2
T y a = T y
y= y + a
2 dT
3 dy
2 dT
3 dy
dT
1
q y = nv T
dy
2
kinetic energies of
molecules that cross
in the negative
direction
kinetic energies of
molecules that cross in
the positive direction
qy =
3
Z T y a T y + a
2
Transport Phenomena
q y = k
1
1
k = nv T = 2
2
d
dT
dy
3T
3m
compared with
=
2
3 3/ 2
m T
d2
10 4
k = 19891
.
T/M
2 k
collision integral
cal/cm/sec
Angstrom
g/cm/sec
Angstrom
= 2 .6693 10 5
k = Cp +
4 M
heat capacity at
constant pressure
MT
2
collision integral
5 R
k=
2 M
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction in
heterogeneous media
pure component
thermal conductivity
mole fraction
k mix =
i =1
xi k i
n
x
j
ij
j= 1
M
1
1 + i
ij =
Mj
8
1 / 2
1/ 2 M 1/ 4
1 + i j
j M i
pure component
viscosity
Transport Phenomena
q = - ke dT/dr
molecular weight
Transport Phenomena
effective
thermal
conductivity
ke
= (1 )
kf
k
f + s (1 f )
kf
ke ks
=
kf kf
k
+0 .280 0 .757 log 0 . 057 log s
kf
k
1 (1 f ) + s (1 f )
kf
2
k
k
2 s (1 ) + (1 + 2 ) s
kf
kf
k
( 2 + ) s + (1 )
kf
where
f = 0.8 + 0.1
1
2 k
2 + 4.63( 0.26)( 1 2 ) + s
3 kf
and
0 < < 0.0827
log
= -4.898
Transport Phenomena
log
= -1.084 -6.778(-0.298)
Transport Phenomena
Procedure of transport
phenomena analysis
First principles
ke
1
=1
+
1/ 2
kf
1
( )
ks
B
1/ 2
kf
2(1 )
1
ln
2
ks
ks
k
s
1 B 1 +
B
B
kf
k f
kf
B+1 B1
ks
2
B
1
kf
where
1
B = 1.25
10 / 9
+
=
of energy
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Boundary conditions:
1. At the bounding surface, the
temperature is specified. This is
called boundary condition of the
first kind (Dirichlet BC)
2. At the bounding surface, the heat
flux equals to the flux supplied.
Boundary condition of the second
kind (Neumann BC)
3. At the bounding surface, the heat
flux entering the domain equals the
heat flux across the thin film
surrounding the object. BC of the
third kind (Robin BC).
Concept of heat transfer coefficient
4. At the interface between the two
domains, the temperatures and the
heat fluxes of those domains are
continuous. BC of the fourth kind.
Transport Phenomena
What to follow
1. Steady state heat conduction in slab
1a. Constant k
1b. Temperature-dependent k
constant
cross section
area, A
energy in
energy out
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
z + z
thin shell
steady state
q = k
Aq
Aq
z + z
0 =
no heat
production
dT
dz
dq
=0
dz
d dT
k = 0
dz dz
k is temperature
dependent
d 2T
k 2 =0
dz
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d
dT
=0
k
(
T
)
dz
dz
T(0)=T0
T(L)=TL
z
0
L
Step 8: Temperature distribution
T( z) T0 z
=
TL T0
L
Fourier law
dT ( z)
q ( z) = k
dz
T TL
q = k 0
Transport Phenomena
T( z) T0 z
=
TL T0
L
2
(T( z) T0 )
z
2
=
L
(TL T0 ) + (TL T0 )2
2
(T(z) T0 ) +
k
>0
Transport Phenomena
dT
d dT d
=0
k 0 1 + (T T0 )
k =
dz
dz dz dz
z = L; T = TL
k = k 0 1 + (T T0 )
T0
TL
Transport Phenomena
>0
T0
=0
<0
q = k 0 1 + (T T0 )
TL
q = k0
T0
dT
] dz
k
z=L
z=0
2
(T( z) T0 )
z
2
=
L
(TL T0 ) + (TL T0 )2
2
(T(z) T0 ) +
(T0 TL )
2
(T0 TL )
2
L
independent of z,
as one would
expect physically
lower k; thus
higher gradient
z=0
Transport Phenomena
TL
z=L
Transport Phenomena
k avg =
TL
TL
T0
T0
k (T)dT
TL
k [1 + (T T )]dT
0
dT
TL
dT
= k 0 1 (T0 TL )
2
T0
T0
q = k avg
(T0 TL )
L
Transport Phenomena
k is constant
d 2T
k 2 =0
dz
k is temperature
dependent
d
dT
=0
k
(
T
)
dz
dz
Transport Phenomena
T0
unknown
T(L)
T( z) T(0) z
=
T( L) T(0) L
Note: T(0) and T(L) are yet known, but
we proceed anyway.
this is the flux
through the slab
dT
dz
z = L; h L [T( L) TL ] = k
h=
Transport Phenomena
z=0
dT
dz z = L
T ( 0) T ( L) ]
[
q=k
L
kf
f (Re, Pr )
L
Transport Phenomena
[T(0) T( L)] = h
L
[T( L) TL ]
T0 T (0) T (0) T ( L) T ( L) TL
=
=
L
1
1
k
hL
h0
a
c e a + c+ e
= = =
b d f
b+d + f
q=
(1 + Bi
k
1
0
+ Bi L
T0 TL
L
h0 L
;
k
Bi L =
hL L
k
q=
T0 TL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Bi and Nu
Their definitions:
Bi =
Nu =
Transport Phenomena
q=
T0 T (0) T (0) T ( L) T ( L) TL
=
=
L
1
1
k
hL
h0
T0 TL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
we get
T(0) = T0
T( L) = TL +
1
h0
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
1
hL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
Transport Phenomena
(T0 TL )
(T0 TL )
dT
d dT d
=
+
=0
k
T
T
k
1
(
0
0)
dz
dz dz dz
dT
dz
T ( 0) T ( L )
L
where
q = k avg
z=0
dT
z = L; h L [T( L) TL ] = k
dz z = L
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
[T(0) T( L)] = h
L
[T( L) TL ]
Thus, we get
q=
So far
T0 TL
1 L 1
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
Heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k
T( 0) = T0
1
h0
1 L 1
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
(T0 TL )
1
hL
T(L) = TL +
(T0 TL )
1
1
L
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
Transport Phenomena
T1
T2
T3
q = h 0 (T0 T1 ) = k 1
T1 T2
T T3
T TN +1
= k2 2
= = k N N
= h N +1 (TN +1 TN + 2 )
L2
LN
L1
T4
or writing in the ratio form, we get
q=
(T0 T1 ) =
1
h0
T TN + 1 (TN + 1 TN + 2 )
T1 T2 T2 T3
=
=
= = N
L1
L2
LN
1
kN
h N +1
k1
k2
Thus
q=
k1
L1
k2
k3
L2
L3
Let deal with constant k, and N layers.
Transport Phenomena
(T0 TN + 2 )
1 N Lj 1
+ +
h
k
h
0 j= 1 j N + 1
Transport Phenomena
Step 5:
no heat generation
incoming
area
incoming
flux
R1
R2
outgoing
area
outgoing flux
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
=0
[(2r)q ( r )]
r=r
[(2r )q ( r ) ]
r = r + r
=0
Define
f ( r ) = 2r q ( r )
d
[rq ( r ) ] = 0
dr
First-order
ODE wrt q
Step 6:
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r = 0
q (r) = k
Divide by r:
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r
r
d
dT
=0
r
k
dr
dr
=0
lim
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r
r 0
Transport Phenomena
dT
dr
df ( r )
=0
dr
If k is constant
d dT
r = 0
dr dr
Transport Phenomena
If k is a function of
temperature
d
dT
=0
rk
dr
dr
r=R1; T=T1
r=R2; T=T2
T( r ) T2
=
T1 T2
r
ln
R2
always associated
with cylindrical
geometry
R1
ln
R2
Fouriers law
q (r) = k
q(r) =
Lets start with boundary
conditions of the first kind
dT
dr
k(T1 T2 )
R
r ln 2
R1
Transport Phenomena
heat flux
small
large
large
small
area
small
large
Heat flow =
flux area
the same
the same
Cylinder
A
Q = k(T1 T2 )
2L
Q=
k T T2 )
R ( 1
2
ln
R1
Heat flow:
Q = (2rL)q ( r ) =
2. temperature difference
2Lk
(T1 T2 )
R
ln 2
R1
constant as expected
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d
dr
dT
1
r
k
T
T
+
(
)
1
=0
1
dr
T = T1
r = R2 ;
T = T2
Q.E.D.
r
2
ln
(T T1 ) + (T T1 )
R1
2
=
2
(T2 T1 ) + (T2 T1 ) ln R 2
2
R1
k = k 1[1 + ( T T1 ) ]
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
q( r ) =
k1
T
T
T
T
(
)
(
)
1
2
2
2 1
R 2
r ln
R1
dr
Heat flow
r
2Lk 1
2
T
T
T
T
Q=
( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 )
2
R 2
ln
R1
shell
which is independent of r.
Boundary condition
r=R; T = T0
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d
dr
2 dT
r k dr = 0
q = h (T0 - T)
fluid thermal
conductivity
r = R;
r ;
T = T0
T = T
h(2R )
k
k
q R = (T0 T )
R
hD
=2
k
known as the
Nusselt number
T ( r ) T R
=
T0 T
r
Nu = 2 + a Re n Pr m
therefore, comes as no surprise.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Cylinder
Sphere
d dT
k
=0
dr dr
d
dr
d
dr
1.
dT
=0
r
k
dr
2 dT
r k dr = 0
d
dr
s dT
r k dr = 0
dQ
=0
dV
that is the rate of change of energy per
unit volume is zero.
4Rk(T T0 ) = 4RD(C 0 C )
Therefore, the drop in temperature is:
T0 = T
HD
(C 0 C )
k
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Thermal diffusivity
Transport Phenomena
Engine Oil
Air layer
Transport Phenomena
Answer:
Transport Phenomena
ability to conduct
k
C p
ability to absorb
Cp
k
Oil system
848 kg/m3
2130 J/kg/K
0.14 W/m/K
7.75 10-8 m2/sec
Transport Phenomena
Air system
1.1 kg/m3
928 J/kg/K
0.03 W/m/K
2.94 10-5 m2/sec
Heat conduction in a
semi-infinite slab object
Aq
x + x
+ 0 = ( A x) C p
T
t
accummulation
of energy
Ts
x)-surface
energy out at (x+
time
energy in at x-surface
x
x and take
divide by A
the limit when x 0
Transport Phenomena
q
T
= C p
x
t
thermal diffusivity
evolves naturally
Transport Phenomena
Fouriers law
q (r) = k
2 T T
2 =
t
x
dT
dr
Temperature distribution
t = 0;
x = 0;
x ;
T( x, t ) Ts
x
= erf
4t
T0 Ts
T = T0
T = Ts
T = T0
special
combination
of x and t
2
2
erf (z) =
e x dx
Solution method:
Combination of variables: The essence of this
method is that the temperature behaves with
respect to x and t in a special way
(MATCHING OF CONDITIONS).
Transport Phenomena
d
2 z2
erf (z ) =
e
dz
2.
x
0
0.01
0.1
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Transport Phenomena
erf(x)
0
0.01128
0.11246
0.52049
0.84270
0.96610
0.99532
at a given time
Ts
heat penetration front
T(x,t)
k
=4 t =4
t
C p
The penetration front is proportional to
1
T0
x
The heat penetration front can be defined
as the front at which the temperature
is such that:
T( , t ) Ts
= erf
= 0.995
4t
T0 Ts
=4 t
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux:
Answer:
q ( x, t ) =
k (Ts T0 )
t
x2
exp
4t
2.
Q ( t ) = A q ( 0, t )dt =
0
q ( 0, t ) =
k (Ts T0 )
t
Transport Phenomena
2 Ak (Ts T0 )
or
Q( t ) =
2 A(Ts T0 )
k C p t
2.
Transport Phenomena
T(x , t ) Ts
x
= erf
+
4t
T0 Ts
x
hx h 2 t
h t
+
+ 2
exp
1 erf
k
k
k
4 t
x = 0;
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T
= qs
x
x
q ( x , t ) = q s 1 erf
4
t
q
T ( x , t ) = T0 + s
k
x2
4 t
exp
4
t
qsx
x
1
erf
k
4 t
Heat conduction in a
finite slab object
center
shell
T1
time
T (0, t ) = T0 +
qs
k
4 t
Transport Phenomena
x=L
x=0
Solution method:
Either by
2 T T
2 =
t
x
Temperature distribution:
The Laplace solution is:
T = T0
T
=0
x
T = T1
symmetry at
center
T
= h T x = 0 T1
x
cosh L
no film resistance. If
there is the new BC is
x = L; k
T0 (T1 T0 )
+
s
s
cosh x
sin
( n ) x 2 t
T1 T(x, t )
= 2
cos n exp n 2
n
T1 T0
L
L
n=1
n = n
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T
x
= 2 k
x=L
(T1 T0 )
L
exp
n =1
2
n
L2
n 2
t
L
Q( t ) = A q ( t ) dt = 2 ALC p (T1 T0 )
2n
n =1
0
Q=A
k(T1 T0 )
s 3 / 2
Q=
2 A(T1 T0 )
) = AL
Cp (T1 - T0)
Q(
This is physically expected as this is the
sensible heat required to bring the
object from T0 to T1.
Transport Phenomena
k C p t
WHY?
Transport Phenomena
Answer:
Because for short time the heat does
not penetrate far into the object,
and hence the center is not yet felt
by the heat front.
Thus, the object behaves just like a
semi-infinite object.
1 s T T
x
=
s
x x
x t
with
1. s = 0 for slab
2. s = 1 for cylinder
We have learnt that the solutions for
the semi-inifinite object are simpler
than the finite object. They are
recommended for the description of
the system under study during the
initial stage of transfer.
3. s = 2 for sphere
The same set of initial and boundary
conditions:
t = 0;
x = 0;
x = L;
T = T0
T
=0
x
T = T1
symmetry at
center
no film resistance. If
there is the new BC is
x = L; k
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T
= h T x = 0 T1
x
T1 T(x, t )
t
= a n K n ( x) exp 2n 2
T1 T0
L
n =1
sin( n )
n
2
n J 1 ( n )
2
Kn(x)
an
cos( n )
n
Transport Phenomena
cos n
x
J0 n
L
sin n
x
L
J 0 () = 0
2 k (T1 T0 )
L
2 t
exp
n 2
L
n =1
Q( t ) = 2(1 + s) Vobject C p
)]
1 exp 2n 2
L
(T1 T0 )
2n
n =1
Transport Phenomena
Solution method:
1. Laplace transform or
2. Separation of variables
Ts
Temperature distribution
time
T0
x=0
x=L
2 T T
2 =
x
t
The initial and boundary conditions are:
t = 0;
x = 0;
T = T0
T = Ts
x = L;
T = T0
Transport Phenomena
Ts T ( x, t ) x
= +
Ts T0
L
x
2 1
2 2 t
sin
n
exp
n 2
n =1 n
L
L
Transport Phenomena
steady state
heat flux
q0 =
qL =
k(Ts T0 )
L
k(Ts T0 )
L
+
+
2 k(Ts T0 )
L
2k(Ts T0 )
L
exp n
n =1
Q0 =
L2
t+
L
(Ts T0 )ALC p
3
n
n=1
6
2
2 2 t
1 exp n L2
and
cos(n) exp n
n =1
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
QL =
Ak(Ts T0 )
L
t+
2 cos(n )
2 2 t
exp
1
n 2
2 2
n
L
n =1
(Ts T0 )ALC p
Transport Phenomena
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
Q0 =
t +
L
3
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
QL =
t
L
6
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction in a
finite environment
Question: Cooling or heating time of a
collection of solid objects in a finite
environment.
QL
L2/6
time
This is called the lag time,
which is the time required
for the heat to penetrate
the medium
Transport Phenomena
time t <0
Transport Phenomena
time t > 0+
Solution method:
Laplace transform.
1 2 T T
x
=
x 2 x x t
B=
dTf
3 m
= P
dt
R P
T
k
x
x =R
T = T0 ; Tf = T1
T
=0
x
T = Tf
Transport Phenomena
Vf f C pf
mp C p
Vf f C pf
Tf T0
B
1
2 t
=
+ 6B
exp
n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
where
B
cot( ) = 1 + 2
3
t
T T0
B
1
=
6B2
exp 2n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
Transport Phenomena
Parameter determination
Tf T0
t
B
1
=
+ 6B
exp 2n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
Heat convection
So far, we deal with heat conduction
whereby the driving force is the
temperature gradient
function of only
heat capacities
experimentally measured
contain dynamic parameters:
thermal conductivity
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Forced convection
velocity
temperature
object
Forced convection by
forced stream of air
Flow pattern: by
external force
object
Free convection by
heated air which rises
Nu = f(Gr, Pr)
C p
gD3
hD
uD
; Re =
; Pr =
; Gr =
Nu =
2
kf
kf
Transport Phenomena
2.
Transport Phenomena
out by
convection &
conduction
r
r
In by
conduction
z+
z
Energy
In
(2rz)q r ( r, z) r +
(2rr)q z ( r, z) z +
=
C p v z ( r )( 2rr ) ( T T0 ) z
and
(2rz)q r ( r, z) r+ r +
(2rr)q z ( r, z) z+ z +
Energy
=
Out
C p v z ( r )( 2rr ) ( T T0 ) z+ z
r
z
T z + z T z
+0 =0
r C p v z ( r )
z
no heat production
in the tube
C p v z (r )
T
1
(rq r ) q z
=
z
z
r r
q r = k
T
;
r
T
z
we get
1 T 2 T
T
= k
C p v z (r )
r
+ 2
z
r r r z
Usually
T
2T
C p v z ( r )
>> 2
z
z
R
z
r
r
r
steady state
Transport Phenomena
q z = k
Transport Phenomena
eigenvalue
r=0
r=0; T/
T( r , z) Tw
=
T0 Tw
kz
A
K
r
exp
(
)
n
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
Transport Phenomena
Enthalpy = R 2 v C p (Tm T0 )
average velocity
mixing cup temperature
Transport Phenomena
vz(r)
dr
T ( r , z )
r
r=R
k ( T0 Tw )
R
kz
'
A
Y
(
)
exp
1
n n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
kz
E n exp n 2
R
C
v
n =1
p max
qR(z)
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
An
En
Yn(1)
1
2
3
4
5
2.70436
6.67903
10.6734
14.6723
18.5149
+1.4764
-0.8061
+0.5888
-0.4764
+0.3591
0.81905
0.09753
0.03250
0.01547
0.00703
-0.10443
+1.3429
-1.5723
+1.7479
-1.6766
Transport Phenomena
Tm ( z) Tw
kz
= E 1 exp 1 2
lim
z l arg e
T0 Tw
R C p v max
kL
1 1 Tm ( L ) Tw
= 2 ln
1 E 1 T0 Tw
R 2 C p v max
Transport Phenomena
L = 0.29
R 2 v max C p
k
FC p
.
L = 0185
k
An amazing simple result.
T ( r , z )
r
r=R
k ( T0 Tw )
R
kz
'
A
Y
(
)
exp
1
n n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
and
Tm ( z) Tw
=
T0 Tw
kz
E
exp
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
q R ( z ) = h ( z ) (Tm Tw )
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
kz
R
C
v
n =1
k
p max
h ( z) =
D
2
kz
E n exp n 2
R
C
v
n =1
p max
Nu ( ) =
kz
Nu ( z) = Nu( )1 + 0.583 exp 37.3 2
R
C
v
p max
kz
n =1
p max
Nu ( z) =
2A 1 Y '1 (1)
= 3.76
E1
kz
exp
E
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
full solution
two-term
solution
Nu
3.76
z
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Tm ( z) Tw
kz
E 1 exp 21 2
T0 Tw
R
C
v
p max
=
2
R
v
R
C
R C p v max
max
p
1
z
=
R Re Pr
R
z
r
r
r
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
@ z = 0;
T = T0
By defining
@ r = 0;
r = 0
T/
@ r = R;
- k
T/
r = q1
T T0
;
(q 1 R / k )
x=
r
;
R
kz
C p v max R 2
1 x2
1
=
x
x x x
@ = 0;
=0
@ x = 0;
/
x = 0
@ x = 1;
/
x = -1
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
( x , ) = C 0 + ( x)
=0
d
2
x
x
dx
1
x
x
d 0
1
d
2
dx = 1
x
1
x
d 0
dx =
x
1
x
Transport Phenomena
x
x
x =1
Transport Phenomena
x=0
Summary
Thus, the long distance solution
( x , ) = C 0 + ( x)
must satisfy the differential heat balance
equation
1
=
x
(1 x )
x x x
2
/
x = 0
@ x = 1;
/
x = -1
x(1 x )dx =
2
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
x4
7
( x , ) = 4 +
x2 +
4
24
h TT
)=q
surface temperature
cup-mixing temperature
Surface temperature:
(1, ) = 4
Rearrange:
11
24
[(
) (
h T T0 T R T0
q 1R
Center temperature:
( 0, ) = 4 +
7
24
h 1 =
( ) =
x(1 x
) dx
k
R
Hence
= 4
Nu =
hD 48
=
= 4.36
11
k
Transport Phenomena
that is:
Cup-mixing temperature:
2
x
(
1
x
) dx
)]
Transport Phenomena
q1
q 1R
Length required
To determine the length required to heat
the fluid to some desired temperature,
we use the solution:
( ) = 4
Rewrite the equation in dimensional
quantities, we get:
T T )R C v
(
L=
0
max
Free convection
What we have dealt with so far:
1. Various problems of heat
conduction, steady state as well as
un-steady state.
2. Combined heat conduction and
heat convection.
4( q 1 )
T T )C F
(
L = 0.16
0
R ( q 1 )
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T2
T1
vz(y)
@ y = -b;
T = T2
@ y = +b;
T = T1
z
y
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d 2 v z ( y)
dp
=
+ g
dy 2
dz
In this equation, we will assume the
viscosity is a constant, and the
density to follow Taylor expansion:
( T) ( T0 ) +
T0
(T T0 )
d 2 v z ( y ) dp
=
+ g ( T0 )
2
dy
dz
g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
If the pressure gradient is solely due to
the weight of the fluid, then:
dp
= g ( T0 )
dz
The momentum equation is:
d 2 v z ( y)
= g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
dy 2
1
T
=
T0
( T) ( T0 ) ( T0 ) (T T0 )
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Summary:
The governing equations are:
d2T
=0
k
2
dy
@ y = -b;
T = T2
@ y = +b;
T = T1
T ( y ) = Tm
T
2
where
T1 + T2
;
2
Tm =
T = T2 T1
and
d 2 v z ( y)
= g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
dy 2
( T0 ) g b 2 T
v z ( y) =
12
@ y = -b;
vz =0
@ y = +b;
vz =0
3
2
y
y
y
A + A
b
b
b
where
A =
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
6 (T m T0 )
T
( y ) dy = 0
Equation of change
You have seen the analysis of a number
of simple heat transfer problems by
using the first principles on shell
elements.
A=0
that is the reference T0 used in the
Taylor series expansion for density
is equal to the mean temperature,
Tm.
The velocity distribution now is:
3
( T0 ) g b 2 T y
y
v z ( y) =
b
b
12
Transport Phenomena
NOW
You will learn how to generalize the
shel energy balance to obtain the
equation of energy, which describe
energy transport in homogeneous
fluid or solid.
The advantage of using this equation of
energy is that we do not need to set
up shell balance every time we solve
a problem
Transport Phenomena
Equations of energy
z
(x,y,z)
x
y
of int ernal and kinetic = and kinetic energy and kinetic energy +
done by system
addition by
on surroundings
conduction
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
of int ernal and kinetic = and kinetic energy and kinetic energy +
done by system
addition by
on surroundings
conduction
and
kinetic
energy
and
kinetic
energy
(yz) vx U+
1 2
^ 1
v v x U + v 2
x
2
2
x
z
(
) vy U+
(xy) vz U+
1 2
^ 1
v v y U + v 2
y
2
2
+
y + y
1 2
^ 1
v v z U + v 2
z + z
z
2
2
Term 4: Conduction
Term 1: Accummulation
= (yz) q x
by conduction
Rate of accummulation
^ 1 2
of
int
ernal
and
kinetic
x
y
z
(
)
U+ v
t
2
energy
^
(xz) q y y q y y + y
qx
] + (xy)[q
z z
x + x
qz
Transport Phenomena
+
x + x
Transport Phenomena
]+
z + z
= (xyz) v x g x + v y g y + v z g z
gravity force
of the force
(Work ) = (Force)
The rate of
velocity in the direction
= (Force)
doing work
of the force
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
^
1
2
U + v =
t
2
=
viscous force
(yz) ( xx vx + xy vy + xz vz ) x ( xx vx + xy vy + xz vz ) x + x
]+
(xz)( yx vx + yy vy + yz vz ) y ( yx vx + yy vy + yz vz ) y + y +
(xy) ( zx vx + zy vy + zz vz ) z ( zx vx + zy vy + zz vz ) z + z
Putting all those terms into the shell
energy balance equation, then
dividing by x
y
z, we get the
following energy balance equation
per unit volume:
Transport Phenomena
^
vx U+
x
^
v y U +
vz U+
z
q y
q x
+
+
y
x
1
v 2 +
1
2
v +
2
1
2
v
2
q z
convection
conduction
+ v x g x + v y g y + v zg z
gravity
pv y +
(p v x ) +
(p v z ) pressure
y
z
x
+
v
v
v
xx
x
xy
y
xz
z
x
y x v x + y y v y + y z v z +
y
viscous
v + v + v
z
x
x
z
y
y
z
z
z
z
Transport Phenomena
^ 1 2
U + v =
2
t
^ 1
v U + v 2
( pv)
)
+(v g)
( [ ])
Transport Phenomena
^ 1
^ 1 ^ 1
U + v 2 + v U + v 2 + U + v 2 + ( v) =
2
2
2 t
) (
( [ ])
q + v g ( pv) v
t + ( v) = 0
( [ ])
D ^ 1
U + v 2 = q + v g ( pv) v
2
Dt
) (
D
= + vx
+ vy
+ vz
x
y
z
Dt t
Transport Phenomena
( [
])
v + (: v)
From thermodynamics:
DU
=
Dt
q
^
^
U
d U = ^ d V+
V T
^
p( v)
( : v)
irreversible rate of
internal energy
increase by viscous
Transport Phenomena
p
= p + T
^
U
T
dT
^
^
^
+
d
V
C
v dT
^
V
Cv
DT
p
= q T ^ ( v) (: v)
T V
Dt
Transport Phenomena
Special cases:
Cv
DT
p
= k 2 T T ^ ( v) + v
T V
Dt
2
v y v x
v z v y
v x v z
+
+
+
+
+
z
y
z
x
x
y
2 v x v y v z
+
+
y
z
3 x
p
p
^ =
T V T
Cv
DT
= k 2 T p( v) + v
Dt
d U = pd V + C p dT
Cp
DT
= k 2T
Dt
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Cp
DT
= k 2T
Dt
Cp
T
= k 2T
t
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
stagnant film
hot surface, Tw
HTC:
1. Local heat transfer coefficient: vary
along the direction of flow
2. Overall heat transfer coefficient: a
combination of HTCs of processes
in series
hot object
General definition:
Q=hA(Tw - T0)
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
First definition:
Flow in conduits
Tb,1
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) = h 2 (DL)( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Tb,2
T0,2
T0,1
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) = h 2 (DL)( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h ln (DL)
ln ( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) / ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) + ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h 1 (DL)
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h ln (DL)
ln ( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) / ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T0
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Situation
Free convection
Gases
Liquids
Boiling water
Forced convection
Gases
Viscous liquids
Water
Condensing vapors
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
h (kcal/m2/hr/K)
3 - 20
100 - 600
1000 - 20,000
10 - 100
50 - 500
500 - 10,000
1,000 - 100,000
Q=
T ( r , , z )
0 k r
Rddz
r=R
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 )
we get
L 2
1
T ( r , , z )
h1 =
k
r
(DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) 0 0
Rddz
r=R
DT
= k 2 T + v
Dt
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
NONDIMENSIONLIZE:
By defining
t* =
tV
r
z
; r * = ; z* = ;
R
L
D
T* =
T T0 ,1
Tb ,1 T0 ,1
Cp
h1D
DV
V 2
Nu 1 =
; Re =
; Pr =
; Br =
k
k
k( Tb ,1 T0 ,1 )
2(L / D) 0 0
r *
ddz *
r * =1
DT
Br
1
*2 *
*v
=
+
T
*
Re Pr
Re Pr
Dt
Nu 1 = Nu 1 (Re, Pr, Br , L / D)
If we neglect the viscous dissipation
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Nu ln = 0.026 Re 0.8 Pr 1/ 3 b
0
0 .14
Similarly, we have:
Nu a = Nu a (Re, Pr, L / D )
Nu ln = Nu ln (Re, Pr, L / D )
Nu loc = Nu loc (Re, Pr, z / D)
D
Nu ln = 186
. Re1/ 3 Pr 1/ 3
L
1/ 3
0 .14
D
Nu ln = 1.62 Re1/ 3 Pr 1/ 3
L
1/ 3
Transport Phenomena
b
0
Transport Phenomena
kf
f
1/ 2
1/ 3
Cp
k f
kf
f
0 .6
1/ 3
Cp
k f
Transport Phenomena