Biasing of BJT PDF

1
BJT
Biasing
Chapter Objectives
X Understand construction and operation of
BJT.
X Sketch input and output characteristics
of common-base, common-emitter and
common-collector congurations.
X Discuss the need for biasing in BJT circuits
and draw DC load line and quiescent point.
X Analyze xed bias, collector to base
bias and voltage-divider bias circuits to

determine Q-point and comment on
stability.
X Compare the dierent biasing circuits.
X Discuss bias compensation method.
1.1INTRODUCTION
Transistor was invented by Walter H. Brattain and John Bardeen at Bell Laboratories in 1947.
Transistor replaced vacuum tubes due to smaller size, light weight, less power consumption,
lower operating voltages, etc. Transistors can perform the function of current amplification
and voltage amplification as well as power amplification. The amplification in transistor is obtained by passing the weak signal from low-resistance region to high-resistance region. Hence,
the device is named transistor (transfer resistor).
1.2BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device containing two pn
junctions. When a p-type layer is placed between two n-type layers, an npn transistor is formed.
Similarly, when an n-type layer is placed between two p-type layers, a pnp transistor is formed.
In each type of transistor, the middle region is called base of the transistor and other two
regions are called emitter and collector. The physical size of the collector is greater than both
emitter and base. The emitter is heavily doped while the base is lightly doped. The doping of
the collector is in between that of emitter and base. The pn junction joining the base region and
the emitter region is called the emitter-base junction. The pn junction joining the base region
and the collector region is called collector-base junction. The term bipolar refers to the use
of both holes and electrons as charge carriers in the transistor structure. Figure 1.1 shows the
transistor types and its symbols.
M01_XXXXXXXX_XX_C01.indd 1
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.2 Electronic Circuits I

C
E
npn Transistor and Its Symbol
C
E
pnp Transistor and Its Symbol
Fig. 1.1Transistor Types and Symbols
In the symbols shown in Fig. 1.1, the arrowhead in the emitter indicates the direction of conventional current which is opposite to the flow of electrons. In the npn transistor, conventional current
flows out of emitter, while in the pnp transistor, the conventional current flows into the emitter.
1.3BJT OPERATION
For proper working of BJT, the emitter-base junction is forward biased by the voltage VEE and
collector-base junction is reverse biased by the voltage VCC. The forward bias from the base to
the emitter narrows the emitter-base depletion region and the reverse bias from the base to the
collector widens the collector-base depletion region. Figure 1.2 shows the BJT operation with
direction of conventional currents.
n
VEE
VCC
Fig. 1.2BJT Operation
When the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the large number of majority carriers, i.e.
electrons from the n-type emitter, will get pushed towards the base junction. If the forwardbiased voltage is more than the cut-in voltage (0.7 V for the silicon transistor and 0.3 V for the
germanium transistor), electrons will be diffused into the base junction. Since the base region
is very thin and lightly doped, a very few of the electrons injected into the base recombine
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.4Common-base Configuration 1.3
with holes. This constitutes the base current IB. These diffused electrons are minority carriers
in the base region. The minority carriers can easily cross the reverse-biased junction. Hence,
most of the electrons diffuse to the reverse-biased collector-base junction and are swept across
that junction under the influence of the electric field established by VCC. This constitutes the
collector current IC. Applying Kirchhoffs current law to the transistor, IE = IB + IC which is
graphically depicted in Fig. 1.3.
IE
IC
p IB
VEE
VCC
Fig. 1.3Graphical Depiction of the Relationships Among the Emi er, Base and Collector Currents
BJT can be operated in three regions:

(i) Cut-off: In this region, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions are reverse
biased.
(ii) Active: In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collectorbase junction is reverse biased.
(iii) Saturation: In this region, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward
biased.
1.4COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
Most of the circuits employing BJT are two-port networks. Since a two-port network has four
terminals and BJT has three terminals, one of the terminals of BJT is made common to input
and output circuits.
In common-base configuration, input is applied between the emitter and the base and output
is taken from the collector and the base. Thus, the base is common to both input and output
circuits as shown in Fig. 1.4.
E
Input
Output
Fig. 1.4Common-base Configuration
Figure 1.5 shows the experimental set-up to draw input and output characteristics in
common-base configuration.
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VEE
IE
IC
mA
mA
V VBE
V VCB
IB
VCC
Fig. 1.5Experimental Set-up to Draw Input and Output Characteristics
1.4.1Input Characteristics
The input characteristics show the relation between input current IE and input voltage VBE for
different values of output voltage VCB. For a given VCB, the input characteristic resembles the
characteristic of forward-biased diode. Input current IE increases as input voltage VBE increases
for a fixed value of VCB. For a given value of VBE, IE increases with increase in VCB due to early
effect.
As VCB increases, the width of the depletion layer in the base increases. Hence, the width
of the base available for conduction decreases. The reduction in the width of the base due to
increase in reverse bias is known as Early effect. Due to Early effect, the chance of recombination of electrons with the holes in the base decreases. The base current decreases but more
electrons can travel from emitter to collector terminals. Hence, collector current increases with
increase in emitter current IE.
As reverse-biased voltage VCB further increases, at one stage the depletion region completely occupies the base at which the collector-base junction breaks down. This phenomenon is known as punch-through. Figure 1.6 shows the input characteristics of common-base
configuration.
IE (mA)
VCB = 10 V
5
VCB = 20 V
VCB = 0 V
4
3
2
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
VBE (V)
Fig. 1.6Input Characteristics
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1.4Common-base Configuration 1.5
1.4.2Output Characteristics
The output characteristics show the relation between output current IC and output voltage VCB
for different values of input current IE. There are three different regions in output characteristics
as shown in Fig. 1.7.
(i) Cut-off region: In this region, both the junctions are reverse biased. When the
emitter-base junction is reverse biased, the current due to majority carrier, i.e. IE, is
zero. Since the collector-base junction is reverse biased, current due to minority carriers flows from the collector to the base which is represented as ICBO. The current ICBO
is so small (microamperes) in magnitude compared to the vertical scale of IC that it
appears on the same horizontal line as IC = 0.
(ii) Active region: In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. Once VCB reaches a value large enough to ensure
a large portion of electrons enter the collector, collector current IC remains constant as
shown by horizontal lines. As IE increases, IC increases.
(iii) Saturation region: In this region, both the junctions are forward biased. When VCB
is negative, the collector-base junction is actually forward biased. Thus, graphs are
drawn on the negative side of VCB. In this region, there is large change in collector current with small increase in voltage VCB.
IC (mA)
Saturation
region
Active region
IE = 5 mA
5
IE = 4 mA
4
IE = 3 mA
3
IE = 2 mA
2
IE = 1 mA
1
0
IE = 0 mA
2
8
Cut-off region
VCB (V)
Fig. 1.7Output Characteristics
Current amplification factor (): It is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to
the change in emitter current at constant collector-base voltage VCB.
AC =
IC
IE
VCB = constant
If only DC values are considered,

DC =
IC
IE
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1.5COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION
In common-emitter configuration, input is applied between the base and the emitter and output
is taken from the collector and the emitter. Thus, the emitter is common to input and output
circuits as shown in Fig. 1.8.
C
B
Input
Output
Fig. 1.8Common-emi er Configuration
Figure 1.9 shows the experimental set-up to draw input and output characteristics in commonemitter configuration.
IC
mA
IB
A
V VCE
VBB
VCC
V VBE
IE
The input characteristics show the relation between input current IB and input voltage VBE for
different values of output voltage VCE. It resembles the characteristics of the forward-biased
diode. Input current IB increases as input voltage VBE increases for fixed value of VCE.
Figure 1.10 shows the input characteristics of common-emitter configuration.
As reverse-biased voltage VCE increases, the depletion region in the collector base increases
which decreases the width of the base available for conduction. Hence, IB decreases due to
early effect and the graph shifts towards the X-axis.
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1.5Common-emi er Configuration 1.7

IB (A)
VCE = 10 V
50
VCE = 20 V
VCE = 0 V
40
30
20
10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
VBE (V)
The output characteristics show the relation between output current IC and output voltage VCE
for different values of input current IB. The output characteristic has three different regions as
shown in Fig. 1.11.
IC (mA)
Saturation region
Active region
IB = 50 A
5
IB = 40 A
IB = 30 A
IB = 20 A
IB = 10 A
IB = 0 A
0
VCE (V)
Cut-off region
(i) Cut-off region: In this region, both the junctions are reverse biased. When the emitter-base junction is reverse biased, the current due to majority carrier, i.e. IB, is zero.
Since the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the current due to minority carriers
flows from the collector to the emitter which is represented as ICEO.
(ii) Active region: In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. As IB is maintained constant, current IC increases
as reverse-biased voltage VCE increases.
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(iii) Saturation region: In this region, both the junctions are forward biased. When VCE is
reduced to a small value such as 0.2 V, the collector-base junction is actually forward
biased (VCB = VCE VBE = 0.2 0.7 = 0.5 V). In this region, there is large change in
collector current IC with small change in VCE.
Current amplification factor ( ): It is defined as the change in collector current to the
change in base current at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
AC =
IC
IB
VCE = constant

Relation between and
DC =
IC
IB
IE = IB + IC
Also,
DC =
=
IC
IB
IC
I E IC
IC
IE
=
I
1 C
IE
=
DC
1 DC
IC
DC = I
If subscript DC is ignored,
=
Collector current IC
Applying Kirchhoffs current law to the transistor,
IE = IB + IC
The collector current IC has two components:
(1.1)
(i) the current due to majority carriers, i.e. the fraction of emitter current which reaches
the collector
(ii) the current due to minority carriers, i.e. leakage current which flows due to minority carriers
IC = IC majority + IC minority
= IE + ICO
(1.2)
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1.6Common-collector Configuration 1.9
For general purpose transistors, IC is measured in milliamperes and ICO is measured in

microamperes or nanoamperes. ICO, like a reverse-biased diode, is temperature dependent and
can be neglected in comparison with IC.
Substituting IE in Eq. (1.2),
IC = (IB + IC) + ICO
= IB + IC + ICO
IC(1 ) = IB + ICO
1
IC =
I +
I
1 B 1 CO
= IB + ( + 1)ICO
1.6COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
In common-collector configuration, input is applied between the base and the collector and
output is taken from the emitter and the collector. Thus, the collector is common to input and
output circuits as shown in Fig. 1.12.
E
B
Input
Output
Fig. 1.12Common-collector Configuration
Figure 1.13 shows the experimental set-up to draw input and output characteristics in
common-collector configuration.
IE
mA
IB
A
V VCE
VBB
VEE
V VBC
IC
The input characteristics show the relation between input current IB and input voltage VBC for different
values of output voltage VCE. The input voltage VBC is largely determined by the output voltage VCE.
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Input current IB decreases to 0 as input voltage VCB increases slightly for fixed value of VCE.
For transistor,
VCE = VBE + VBC
VBE = VCE VBC
When VBC is increased keeping VCE constant, VBE decreases which decreases IB. Therefore, if
the value of VBC is allowed to increase to a point where it is near to the value of VCE, the value
of VBE approaches 0, and no base current will flow. Figure 1.14 shows the input characteristics
of common-collector configuration.
IB (A)
100
VCE = 5 V
VCE = 15 V
VCE = 10 V
80
60
40
20
0
10
15
VBC (V)
The output characteristics show the relation between output current IE and output voltage VCE
for different values of input current IB. Since IC is approximately equal to IE, the commoncollector output characteristics are identical to those of common-emitter output characteristics.
Figure 1.15 shows the output characteristics of common-collector configuration.
IE (mA)
Saturation region
Active region
IB = 50 A
IB = 40 A
IB = 30 A
IB = 20 A
IB = 10 A
IB = 0 A
0
VCE (V)
Cut-off region
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1.7Load-line Analysis 1.11
Current amplification factor ( ): It is defined as the ratio of change in emitter current to

the change in base current at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
AC =
IE
IB
VCE = constant

DC =
IE
IB
1.7LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
The basic function of a transistor is to do amplification. The weak signal is given to the transistor and amplified output is obtained from the collector. The process of raising the strength
of weak signal without any change in its general shape is known as faithful amplification. A
transistor must be properly biased to operate as an amplifier.
Figure 1.16 shows a basic common-emitter amplifier. The capacitor CC is a DC-blocking
1
capacitor and couples AC input signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is used to
2
couple AC output of the amplifier to load RL.
+VCC
RB
RC
CC2
Vo
CC1
RS
RL
VS
Fig. 1.16CE Amplifier
DC analysis
For DC, f = 0,
XC =
1
=
2 f C
19 07 12 3:23 PM
The DC equivalent circuit is obtained by replacing all capacitors by open circuits as shown
in Fig. 1.17.
IB
IC
RB
RC
+VCC
+
+
VBE
VCE
Fig. 1.17DC Equivalent Circuit
Load line
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-emitter circuit,
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
IC =
V
1
VCE + CC
RC
RC
This equation represents a DC load line with slope of

When IC = 0, i.e. the transistor is in the cut-off region,
V
1
and y-intercept of CC .
RC
RC
VCE = VCC
When VCE = 0, i.e. the transistor is in saturation region,
IC =
VCC
RC
V
Thus two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0, CC . A line passing through these points is called
RC
DC load line as the slope of this line depends on the DC load RC.
Quiescent point
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
V VBE
IB = CC
RB
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.7Load-line Analysis 1.13
This equation gives the value of base current. For this value of base current, output
characteristic of the amplifier is plotted which intersects the DC load line at Q-point.
Hence, Q-point indicates quiescent (inactive, still) value of collector-emitter voltage VCE
and collector current IC. Figure 1.18 shows the DC load line and Q-point for commonemitter amplifier.
IC
VCC
RC
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC
VCE
Fig. 1.18Load Line and Q-point
Need for biasing

DC biasing is used to establish proper values of IC and VCE called the DC operating point or
quiescent point or Q-point. The basic problem involved in the design of transistor circuits
is establishing and maintaining the proper collector-to-emitter voltage and collector current
in the circuit. This condition is known as transistor biasing. The biasing conditions must
be maintained despite variations in temperature, variations in gain and leakage current and
variation in supply voltages. For faithful amplification, the following conditions must be
satisfied:
(i) Proper zero signal collector current IC
(ii) Proper base-emitter voltage VBE
(iii) Proper collector-emitter voltage VCE
The value of IC and VCE is expressed in terms of operating point or quiescent point Q. For
faithful amplification, Q-point must be selected properly. The fulfilment of the above conditions is known as transistor biasing.
While fixing the Q-point it has to be seen that the output of the amplifier is a proper sinusoidal
waveform for sinusoidal input without distortion. If an amplifier is not biased properly, it can
go into saturation or cut-off when an input signal is applied. By fixing the Q-point at different
positions, we can observe the variation in collector current and collector-emitter voltage
corresponding to a given variation of base current.
When the Q-point is located in the middle of the DC load line as shown in Fig. 1.19,
sinusoidal waveform without distortion is obtained at the output.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
IBQ
IC
ICQ
VCC
VCE
VCEQ
Fig. 1.19Q-point in the Active Region
When the Q-point is located near the saturation region as shown in Fig. 1.20, the collector
current is clipped at the positive half cycle because the transistor is driven into saturation.
IBQ
IC
ICQ
VCC
VCE
VCEQ
Fig. 1.20Q-point Near Saturation Region
When the Q-point is located near the cut-off region as shown in Fig. 1.21, the collector current is clipped at the negative half cycle because the transistor is driven into cut-off.
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1.8Factors Aecting Stability of Q-point 1.15
IC
IBQ
ICQ
Q
0
VCC
VCE
VCEQ
Fig. 1.21Q-point Near Cut-o Region
Hence, values of different resistances and voltages must be selected in such a way that the
Q-point should be:
(i) in active region.
(ii) on DC load line.
(iii) selected in middle of the DC load line to avoid clipping of signals.
1.8FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY OF Q -POINT

The collector current IC depends on reverse saturation current ICO, base-emitter voltage VBE and
current gain . These parameters are temperature dependent; i.e. as temperature changes, these
parameters change. Hence, collector current IC changes. Due to this, the Q-point changes.
Hence, the Q-point has to be stabilized against temperature variation.
(i) ICO: The collector current is given by
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
When a pn junction is reverse biased, there is a small amount of current due to flow
of minority carriers across the junction. Since minority carriers are thermally generated,
reverse saturation current ICO is extremely temperature dependent. The reverse saturation current ICO doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature. The flow of collector current
produces heat at the collector junction. This increases the temperature, therefore reverse
saturation current ICO increases. Hence, collector current IC again increases. This increase
in IC increases the temperature of collector junction which increases ICO again. The effect
is cumulative and at one stage IC is so large which damages the transistor. This process is
known as thermal runaway and is shown in Fig. 1.22.
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T C
PD
ICO
IC
Fig. 1.22Thermal Runaway
(ii) VBE: The base-emitter voltage VBE decreases at the rate of 2.5 mV/oC; i.e. the device
starts operating at lower voltages. Hence, base current IB changes. Since IC = IB,
collector current IC changes. Figure 1.23 shows the variation of VBE with temperature.
IC (mA)
100C 25C 69C
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
VBE (mV)
Fig. 1.23Variation of VBE with Temperature
(iii) : The transistor parameter is temperature and device dependent. increases with
the increase in temperature. The value of is different even for transistors of the same
type. If the transistor is replaced by another transistor even of the same type, the value
of is different. Hence, collector current IC changes. Figure 1.24 shows the variation
of with temperature.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.8Factors Aecting Stability of Q-point 1.17
100C
100
50
25C
55C
IC (mA)
Fig. 1.24Variation in with Temperature
Table 1.1 shows typical parameters of silicon transistor at different temperatures. From this
table, it is clear that as temperature changes, ICO, VBE and change. Hence, collector current IC
changes with the change in temperature.
Table 1.1Typical Parameters of Silicon Transistor
t C
65
ICO, A
1.95 10
25
175
33,000
VBE, V
0.78
0.6
0.225
25
55
100
There are two methods to stabilize variation in IC with these parameters:

(i) Thermal stabilization: In this method, resistive biasing circuits are used which allow
IB to vary so as to keep IC relatively constant with variations in ICO, VBE and . There
are three configurations to bias the BJT:
Fixed bias
Collector-to-base bias
Voltage-divider bias
This process of stabilizing Q-point is called thermal stabilization.
(ii) Bias compensation: In this method, temperature-sensitive devices such as diodes,
transistors, thermistors, sensistors etc. are used which provide compensating voltage
and current to stabilize variations in IC with VBE and ICO.
1.8.1Stability Factors
The rate of change of collector current with respect to collector leakage current ICO at constant
VBE and is called stability factor.
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IC
I CO
S=
=
VBE and constant
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
VBE and constant
The rate of change of collector current with respect to VBE at constant ICO and is called
stability factor S .
IC IC
IC
2
1
=
S=
VBE I and constant
VBE VBE
2
CO
ICO and constant
The rate of change of collector current with respect to b at constant ICO and VBE is called
stability factor S .
IC
S=
=
ICO and VBE constant
I C I C
2
2 1
ICO and VBE constant
The larger the value of stability factor, the more sensitive is the circuit to variations in that
parameter.
The total change in collector current over a specified temperature range is obtained by expressing this change as the sum of individual changes due to three stability factors.
IC = S ICO + S VBE + S
1.9FIXED-BIAS CIRCUIT
Figure 1.25 shows a fixed-bias circuit. It is the simplest transistor DC bias configuration.
+VCC
RB
RC
CC2
Vo
CC1
RS
RL
VS
Fig. 1.25Fixed-bias Circuit
DC analysis
For DC, f = 0,
XC =
1
=
2 f C
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1.9Fixed-bias Circuit 1.19
in Fig. 1.26.
IB
IC
RB
RC
+VCC
+
+
VBE
VCE
Collector current I C
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB
For the base-emitter circuit, the net voltage is VCC VBE and the resistance is RB. When VCC
and RB are selected for a circuit, IB is fixed. Hence, the circuit is called fixed-bias circuit.
IC = IB
V VBE
= CC
RB
The base current is controlled by the value of RB, and IC is related to IB by a constant . But
C is not a function of resistor RC. Change in RC will not affect the value of IB or C in the active
region of the transistor. But change in RC will affect the value of VCE.
Collector-emitter voltage V CE
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
VCE = VCC ICRC
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Load-line analysis
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
IC =
V
1
VCE + CC
RC
RC

When IC = 0, i.e. transistor is in cut-off region,
1
V
RC
RC
VCE = VCC
When VCE = 0, i.e. transistor is in saturation region,
IC =
VCC
RC
V
Thus, two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0, CC . By joining these two end points, a DC
RC
load line is drawn.

From the base-emitter circuit,
IB =
VCC VBE
RB
For this value of base current, we can establish the actual Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.27.
IC
VCC
RC
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC
VCE
VCC
. This is
RC
the resulting current when a short circuit is applied between collector-emitter terminals.
From the Fig. 1.27, it is clear that the saturation current for the circuit is IC sat =
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Stability factors
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB
We know that
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
V VBE
= CC
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB
VCC
VBE
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB
RB
(1.3)
From Eq. (1.3), it is clear that collector current IC is function of ICO, VBE and .
(a) Stability factor S: When ICO changes from ICO1 to ICO2, IC changes from IC1 to IC2.
From Eq. (1.3), at t1C,
I C1 =
VCC
VBE
+ ( + 1)ICO1
RB
RB
(1.4)
I C2 =
VCC
VBE
+ ( + 1)ICO2
RB
RB
(1.5)
At t2C,
Subtracting Eq. (1.4) from Eq. (1.5),

IC2 IC1 = ( + 1)(ICO2 ICO1)
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
=+1
S=
IC
=+1
I CO
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(b) Stability factor S : When VBE changes from VBE1 to VBE2, IC changes from IC1 to IC2.
I C1 =
VBE
VCC
1
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB
RB
(1.6)
IC2 =
VBE
VCC
2
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB
RB
(1.7)
At t2C,

IC2 IC1 =
IC IC
2
VBE VBE
2
S =
(VBE2 VBE1)
RB
RB
IC
=
RB
VBE
(c) Stability factor S: From Eq. (1.3),

IC =
VCC
VBE
+ ICO
RB
RB
(VCC VBE + I CO RB )
RB
[ ( + 1) ]
When changes from 1 to 2, IC changes from 1 to 2.

At t1C,
IC1 =
1 (VCC VBE + I CO RB )
RB
(1.8)
IC2 =
2 (VCC VBE + I CO RB )
RB
(1.9)
At t2C,
IC
IC
2
1
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Subtracting one from both the sides,

IC
1=
IC
IC IC
2
IC
IC IC
2
2 1
S =
2
1
1
2 1
1
IC
1
IC
IC
= 1
1
Example 1.1: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.28, find IC, VCE and S.
+10 V
500 k
3 k
= 100
Fig. 1.28Example 1.1
Solution:
(i) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB
10 0.7
500 103
19 07 12 3:23 PM
= 18.6 A
IC = IB = 100 18.6 106 = 1.86 mA
(ii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-emitter circuit,
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
VCE = VCC IC RC
= 10 1.86 103 3 103
= 4.42 V
(iii) S = + 1 = 100 + 1 = 101
Example 1.2: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.29, find RB and RC with IC = 2 mA, VCE = 6 V,
VCC = 12 V and = 100.
+12 V
RB
RC
Solution:
(i) IB =
IC
2 103
=
= 20 A
100

VCC IB RB VBE = 0
RB =
VCC VBE
IB
12 0.7
20 106
= 566 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VCC IC RC VCE = 0
RC =
VCC VCE
IC
12 6
2 103
= 3 k
Example 1.3: For a fixed-bias circuit shown in Fig. 1.30, determine RB, IC, RC and VCE where
VCC = 12 V, VC = 6 V, = 80 and IB = 40 A.
+12 V
RB
RC
VC
Solution:
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
RB =
VCC VBE
IB
12 0.7
40 106
= 282.5 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(ii) IC = IB = 80 40 106 = 3.2 mA

(iii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-emitter circuit,
VCC IC RC VC = 0
RC =
=
VCC VC
IC
12 6
3.2 103
= 1.875 k
(iv) VCE = VC = 6 V
Example 1.4: Using a CE amplifier with fixed bias, where IB = 20 A, IE = 4 mA, VCE = 7.2 V
and RC = 2.2 k, determine IC, VCC, and RB (Fig. 1.31).
+VCC
RB
2.2 k
Solution:
(i) IE = IB + IC
IC = IE I B
= 4 103 20 106
= 3.98 mA
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
VCC = IC RC + VCE
= 3.98 103 2.2 103 + 7.2
= 15.96 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(iii) =
I C 3.98 103
=
= 199
IB
20 106
(iv) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,

VCC IB RB VBE = 0
V VBE
RB = CC
IB
15.96 0.7
=
20 106
= 762.8 k
Example 1.5: For the fixed-bias circuit, where = 0.98, ICBO = 10 A, RC = 4 k, RB = 820 k,
VCC = 12 V, find IC and VCE (Fig. 1.32).
+12 V
820 k
4 k
Solution:
0.98
=
= 49
1 1 0.98
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
V VBE
IB = CC
RB
(i) =
12 0.7
820 103
= 13.78 A
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICBO
= 49 13.78 106 + (49 + 1) 10 106
= 1.17 mA
=
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VCC IC RC VCE = 0
VCE = VCC IC RC
= 12 1.17 103 4 103
= 7.3 V
Example 1.6: Determine the percentage change in IC and VCE for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.33
when changes from 90 to 135.
+16 V
470 k
2.7 k
Solution:
(a) For = 90
VCC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB
16 0.7
470 103
= 32.55 A
IC = IB = 90 32.55 106 = 2.93 mA

VCC IC RC VCE = 0
VCE = VCC IC RC
= 16 2.93 103 2.7 103
= 8.09 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(b) For = 135

IB = 32.55 A
IC = IB = 135 32.55 106 = 4.39 mA
VCE = VCC IC RC
= 16 4.39 103 2.7 103
= 4.15 V
(i) % IC =
4.39 103 2.93 103

100
2.93 103
= 49.83%
(ii) % VCE =
4.15 8.09
100
8.09
= 48.70%
When increases by 50%, IC increases by 49.83% and VCE decreases by 48.70%.
Example 1.7: For the fixed-bias configuration of Fig. 1.33, determine (i) S, (ii) S, (iii) S
when increases by 25% and (iv) the net change in IC if a change in operating conditions
results in ICO increasing from 0.2 A to 10 A, VBE drops from 0.7 V to 0.5 V, and increases
by 25%.
Solution:
1 = 90
2 = 25% more than 1 = 112.5
IC1 = 2.93 mA (from Example 1.6)
(i) S = 1 + 1 = 90 + 1 = 91
(iii) S =
1
90
=
= 1.91 104
3
RB
470 10
IC
(ii) S =
2.93 103
= 32.56 106 A
90
(iv) IC = S ICO + S VBE + S

= 91 (10 106 0.2 106) + (1.91 104)(0.5 0.7) + (32.56 106)(112.5 90)
= 91 9.8 106 + 1.91 104 0.2 + 32.56 106 22.5
= 1.66 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.10MODIFIED FIXED-BIAS CIRCUIT

The fixed-bias circuit has higher thermal instability. The stability can be improved by using
the emitter resistor RE which is connected between emitter and ground. Figure 1.34 shows a
modified fixed-bias circuit. This circuit is also called an emitter feedback bias circuit.
+VCC
RB
RC
CC2
Vo
CC
RS
RL
RE
VS
CE
Fig. 1.34Modified Fixed-bias Circuit
DC analysis
For DC, f = 0,
XC =
1
=
2 f C
in Fig. 1.35.
IB
IC
RB
RC
+VCC
+
+
VBE
VCE
I
E
RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.10Modified Fixed-bias Circuit 1.31
VCC IB RB VBE IE RE = 0
VCC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IBRE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
The emitter resistor, which is the part of the collector-emitter circuit, appears as ( + 1)RE in
the base-emitter circuit. For the base-emitter circuit, the net voltage is VCC VBE and the total
resistance is the sum of RB and the reflected resistance ( + 1)RE.
IC = IB
VCC VBE
=
RB + ( + 1) RE
VCC IC RC VCE IE RE = 0
VCC IC RC VCE (IB + IC)RE = 0
VCE = VCC IC RC (IB + IC)RE
Load-line analysis
Assuming IE IC,
VCC IC(RC + RE) VCE = 0
IC =
VCC
1
VCE +
RC + RE
RC + RE
VCC
1
and y-intercept of
.
R
+
R
R
+
R
C
E
C
E
VCE = VCC
VCC
IC =
RC + RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VCC
Thus, two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0,
. By joining these two end points, a DC
R
+
R
C
E
load line is drawn.
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC
VCC
RC + RE
ICQ
IBQ
VCEQ
VCC
VCE
From the Fig. 1.36, it is clear that the saturation current for the circuit is IC
sat
VCC
.
RC + RE
This is the resulting current when a short circuit is applied between collector-emitter terminals.
The addition of emitter resistor reduces the collector saturation level below that obtained with
a fixed-bias configuration using the same collector resistor.
Stability of Q-point
VCC IB RB VBE (IB + IC)RE = 0
VCC IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE I C RE
RB + RE
If reverse saturation current ICO increases, collector current IC increases. It will cause
voltage drop across RE to increase which decreases base current IB. As IC depends on
IB, decrease in IB reduces the original increase in IC. Hence, variation in IC with ICO is
minimized and stability of Q-point is achieved.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(ii) From the base-emitter circuit,

IB =
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
Generally,
( + 1)RE >> RB
RE >> RB
IB =
VB VBE
RE
IC = IB
VB VBE
=
RE
=
VB VBE
RE
Hence, IC is independent of the value of . Variation in IC with is minimized and stability

of Q-point is achieved.
Stability factors
VCC IB RB VBE (IB + IC )RE = 0
VCC IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE I C RE
RB + RE
We know that,
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
V VBE I C RE
= CC
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RE
RE
VCC
VBE
IC 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RE RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.10)
19 07 12 3:23 PM
RE
VCC
VBE
=
+ ( + 1)ICO1
IC1 1 +
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.11)
RE
VCC
VBE
IC2 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO2
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.12)
At t2C,
RE
= ( + 1)(ICO2 ICO1)
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
RB + RE
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
S=
IC
=
I CO
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
(b) Stability factor S : When VBE changes from VBE1 to VBE2, IC changes from IC1 to IC2.
VBE
RE
VCC
1
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
IC1 1 +
+
R
R
R
R
+
RB + RE
B
E
B
E
(1.13)
VBE
VCC
RE
2
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
IC1 1 +
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.14)
At t2C,
RE
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
=
(VBE2 VBE1)
RB + RE
RB + RE
VBE VBE
2
RB + RE
=
RE
1+
RB + RE
IC IC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
RB + RE + RE
RB + ( + 1) RE
S =
IC
=
RB + ( + 1) RE
VBE
VCC
VBE
RE
IC 1 +
=
+ ICO
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
[ ( + 1) ]
R + ( + 1) RE [VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
IC B
=
RB + RE
RB + RE
IC =
[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB + ( + 1) RE
When changes from 1 to 2, IC changes from IC1 to IC2.

At t1C,
IC1 =
1[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB ( 1 + 1) RE
(1.15)
IC2 =
2 [VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB ( 2 + 1) RE
(1.16)
At t2C,
IC
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
Subtracting 1 from both the sides,

IC
1=
IC
IC IC
2
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ]
1
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ] 1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
19 07 12 3:23 PM
IC IC
2
2 1
2 RB + 1 2 RE + 2 RE 1 RB 1 2 RE 1 RE
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
2 ( RB + RE ) 1 ( RB + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
( 2 1 )( RB + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
S =
IC
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
IC
RB + RE
IC
= 1
1
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
+10 V
220 k
1 k
= 100
1 k
Solution:
VCC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
10 0.7
220 10 + (100 + 1)(1 103 )
= 28.9 A
IC = IB = 100 28.9 106 = 2.89 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM

= 10 2.89 103 1 103 (28.9 106 + 2.89 103)(1 103)
= 4.19 V
(iii) S =
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
100 + 1
100 1 103
1+
220 103 + 1 103
= 69.53
=
Example 1.9: In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.38, find RC, VCE, RB, VB and RE.
+12 V
VC = 7.6 V
IC = 2 mA
VE = 2.4 V
RB
RC
VC
= 80
VE
VB
RE
Solution:
(i) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector circuit,
VCC IC RC VC = 0
RC =
VCC VC
IC
12 7.6
2 103
= 2.2 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VCC IC RC VCE VE = 0
VCE = VCC IC RC VE
= 12 2 103 2.2 103 2.4
= 5.2 V
(iii) IB =
I C 2 10
=
80
= 25 A

VCC IB RB VBE VE = 0
RB =
VCC VBE VE
IB
12 0.7 2.4
25 106
= 356 k
(iv) VB = VBE + VE = 0.7 + 2.4 = 3.1 V
(v) IE = IB + IC = 25 106 + 2 103 = 2.025 mA
RE =
VE
2.4
=
= 1.185 k
IE
2.025 103
Example 1.10: In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.39, find RC and RB such that VCE = 5 V, IC = 2 mA,
VCC = 10 V, = 100 and RE = 1 k.
+10 V
RB
RC
1 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
I C 2 103
=
= 20 A
100
(i) IB =

RC =
VCC VCE ( I B + I C ) RE
IC
10 5 (20 106 + 2 103 )(1 103 )

2 103
= 1.49 k
(ii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,
=
VCC IB RB VBE (IB + IC)RE = 0
RB =
VCC VBE ( I B + I C ) RE
IB
10 0.7 (20 106 + 2 103 )(1 103 )

20 106
= 364 k
Example 1.11: Determine the percentage change in IC and VCE for the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.40 when changes from 100 to 150.
+20 V
510 k
2.4 k
1.5 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
(a) For = 100
VCC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE = 0
IB =
=
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
20 0.7
510 10 + (100 + 1)(1.5 103 )
3
= 29.18 A
IC = IB = 100 29.18 106 = 2.92 mA
= 20 2.92 103 2.4 103 (29.18 106 + 2.92 103)(1.5 103)
= 8.57 V
(b) For = 150
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
20 0.7
510 10 + (150 + 1)1.5 103
= 26.21 A
=
IC = IB = 150 26.21 106 = 3.93 mA

= 20 3.93 103 2.4 103 (26.21 106 + 3.93 103)(1.5 103)
= 4.63 V
3.93 103 2.92 103
(i) % IC =
100
2.92 103
= 34.59%
4.63 8.57
100
(ii) % VCE =
8.57
= 45.97%
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Example 1.12: For the circuit of the Fig. 1.40, determine (i) S, (ii) S, (iii) S when increases
by 25% and (iv) the net change in IC if a change in operating condition results in ICO increasing
from 0.2 A to 10 A, VBE drops from 0.7 V to 0.5 V, and increases by 25%.
Solution:
1 = 100
2 = 25% more than 1 = 125
IC1 = 2.92 mA (From Example 1.11)
(i) S =
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
100 + 1
100 1.5 103
1+
510 103 + 1.5 103
= 78.1
RB + ( + 1) RE
100
510 10 + (100 + 1)(1.5 103 )
3
= 1.512 104
(iii) S =
IC
(ii) S =
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
2.92 103
510 103 + 1.5 103
100
510 103 + (125 + 1)(1.5 103 )
= 21.37 106 A
= 78.1(10 106 0.2 106) + (1.512 104)(0.5 0.7) + (21.37 106)(125 100)
= 78.1 9.8 106 + 1.512 104 0.2 + 21.37 106 25
= 1.33 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.11COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS CIRCUIT

The stability can be improved if the resistor RB is returned to the collector terminal rather than to
the battery terminal. Figure 1.41 shows a collector-to-base bias circuit. In this method, resistor
RB is connected between the base and the collector. Hence, the circuit is called collectorto-base bias circuit. Although the Q-point is not totally independent of , the sensitivity to
changes in or temperature variations is normally less than encountered for fixed-bias or
modified fixed-bias or emitter feedback bias configurations.
+VCC
RC
CC2
RB
Vo
CC1
RS
RL
VS
Fig. 1.41Collector-to-base Bias Circuit
DC analysis
For DC, f = 0,
XC =
1
=
2 f C
in Fig. 1.42.
+VCC
RC
IB
IB + IC
RB
IC
+
VCE
+
VBE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.11Collector-to-base Bias Circuit 1.43
VCC (IB + IC)RC IB RB VBE = 0
VCC ( +1)IB RC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
The collector resistor, which is the part of the collector-emitter circuit, appears as ( +1)RC
in the base-emitter circuit. For the base-emitter circuit, the net voltage is VCC VBE and the total
resistance is the sum of RB and the reflected resistance ( +1)RC.
IC = IB
VCC VBE
=
RB + ( + 1) RC
VCC (IB + IC)RC VCE = 0
VCE = VCC (IB + IC)RC
Load-line analysis
Assuming IB + IC IC,
VCC IC RC VCE = 0
IC =
V
1
VCE + CC
RC
RC
1
V
RC
RC
VCE = VCC
IC =
VCC
RC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
V
Thus two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0, CC . By joining these two end points, a DC load
RC
line is drawn.
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
IC
VCC
RC
Q
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC
VCE
Fig. 1.43Load line and Q-point
VCC
. This is
RC
the resulting current when a short circuit is applied between collector-emitter terminals.
VCC IB RC IC RC IB RB VBE = 0
VCC VBE I C RC
IB =
RB + RC
voltage drop across RC to increase which decreases base current IB. As IC depends on IB,
decrease in IB reduces the original increase in IC. Hence, variation in IC with ICO is minimized and stability of Q-point is achieved.
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Generally,
( + 1)RC >> RB
RC >> RB
IB =
VB VBE
RC
IC = IB
VB VBE
=
RC
=
VB VBE
RC

Stability factors
VCC IB RC IC RC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
We know that,
VCC VBE I C RC
RB + RC
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
V VBE I C RC
= CC
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RC
RC
VCC
VBE
IC 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RC RB + RC
RB + RC
(1.17)
VCC
VBE
IC1 1 + RC
=
+ ( + 1)ICO1
RB + RC
RB + RC
RB + RC
(1.18)
19 07 12 3:23 PM
At t2C,
RC
VCC
VBE
IC2 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO2
RB + RC
RB + RC
RB + RC
(1.19)
RC
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
= ( + 1)(ICO2 ICO1)
RB + RC
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
S=
+1
RC
1+
RB + RC
IC
=
I CO
+1
RC
1+
RB + RC
(b) Stability factor S: When VBE changes from VBE1 to VBE2, IC changes from IC1 to IC2.
VBE
RC
VCC
1
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
IC1 1 +
+
+
R
R
R
R
R
R
+
B
C
B
C
B
C
(1.20)
VBE
VCC
RC
2
IC2 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RC
RB + RC
RB + RC
(1.21)
At t2C,
RC
=
(V VBE1)
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
RB + RC
RB + RC BE2
VBE VBE
2
RB + RC
=
RC
1+
RB + RC
IC IC
RB + RC + RC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
S =
RB + ( + 1) RC
IC
=
RB + ( + 1) RC
VBE
RC
VCC
VBE
=
+ ICO
IC 1 +
RB + RC
RB + RC
RB + RC
[ ( + 1) ]
R + ( + 1) RC
[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC )]
IC B
=
RB + RC
RB + RC
IC =
[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC )]
RB + ( + 1) RC

At t1C,
IC1 =
1[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC )]
RB ( 1 + 1) RC
(1.22)
IC2 =
2 [VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC )]
RB ( 2 + 1) RC
(1.23)
At t2C,
IC
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RC ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]

IC
1=
IC
IC IC
2
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RC ] 1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
2 RB + 1 2 RC + 2 RC 1 RB 1 2 RC 1 RC
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RC ]
1
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
19 07 12 3:23 PM
IC IC
2
2 1
2 ( RB + RC ) 1 ( RB + RC )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
( 2 1 )( RB + RC )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RC ]
S =
IC
RB + RC
RB + ( 2 + 1) RC
IC
RB + RC
IC
= 1
1
RB + ( 2 + 1) RC
Example 1.13: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.44, determine IC, VCE and stability factor S.
+10 V
3 k
500 k
= 100
Solution:
VCC ( + 1)IB RC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
10 0.7
500 10 + (100 + 1)(3 103 )
= 11.58 A
IC = IB = 100 11.58 106 = 1.158 mA
=

= 10 (11.58 106 + 1.158 103) (3 103)
= 6.49 V
(iii) S =
+1
RC
1+
RB + RC
100 + 1
100 3 103
1+
500 103 + 3 103
= 63.26
Example 1.14: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.45, find RC and RB.
+12 V
RC
RB
VCE = 6 V
IC = 2 mA
= 100
Solution:
(i) IB =
I C 2 103
=
= 20 A
100
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VCC ( + 1)IB RC VCE = 0
RC =
=
VCC VCE
( + 1) I B
12 6
(100 + 1)(20 106 )
= 2.97 k
(ii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,
RB =
=
VCC VBE ( I B + I C ) RC
IB
12 0.7 (20 106 + 2 103 )(2.97 103 )
20 106
= 265.4 k
+22 V
9.1 k
470 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
(a) For = 90
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the baseemitter circuit,
VCC ( + 1)IB RC IB RB VBE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
22 0.7
470 10 + (90 + 1)(9.1 103 )
= 16.41 A
=
IC = IB = 90 16.41 106 = 1.48 mA

= 22 (16.41 106 + 1.48 103) (9.1 103)
= 8.38 V
(b) For = 135
IB =
=
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
22 0.7
470 10 + (135 + 1)(9.1 103 )
3
= 12.47 A
IC = IB = 135 12.47 106 = 1.68 mA
= 22 (12.47 106 + 1.68 103) (9.1 103)
= 6.6 V
(i) % IC =
1.68 103 1.48 103

100
1.48 103
= 13.51%
19 07 12 3:23 PM
6.6 8.38
100
8.38
= 21.24%
(ii) % VCE =

Example 1.16: For the collector-to-base bias configuration of the Fig. 1.46, determine (i) S,
(ii) S, (iii) S when increases by 25% and (iv) the net change in IC if a change in operating
condition results in ICO increasing from 0.2 A to 10 A, VBE drops from 0.7 V to 0.5 V, and
increases by 25%.
Solution:
1 = 90
2 = 25% more than 1 = 112.5
+1
RC
1+
RB + RC
(i) S =
90 + 1
90 9.1 103
1+
470 103 + 9.1 103
= 33.59
RB + ( + 1) RC
90
470 10 + (90 + 1)(9.1 103 )
3
= 6.93 105
(iii) S =
=
IC
(ii) S =
RB + RC
RB + ( 2 + 1) RC
470 103 + 9.1 103

1.48 103
90
470 103 + (112.5 + 1)(9.1 103 )
= 5.24 106 A
= 33.59(10 106 0.2 106) + (6.93 105)(0.5 0.7) + (5.24 106)(112.5 90)
= 33.59 9.8 106 + 6.93 105 0.2 + 5.24 106 22.5
= 0.45 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.12Modified Collector-to-base Bias Circuit 1.53
1.12MODIFIED COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS CIRCUIT

Figure 1.47 shows a modified collector-to-emitter bias circuit. Emitter resistor RE is connected
in the emitter terminal.
+VCC
RC
CC2
RB
Vo
CC1
RS
RL
RE
VS
CE
Fig. 1.47Modified Collector-to-base Bias Circuit
DC analysis
For DC, f = 0,
1
=
2 f C
in Fig. 1.48.
XC =
+VCC
RC
IB
IB + IC
RB
IC
+
VCE
+
VBE
IE
RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VCC (IB + IC)RC IB RB VBE IE RE = 0
VCC ( +1)IB RC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
The collector and emitter resistors, which are the part of the collector-emitter circuit, appear
as ( + 1)(RC + RE) in the base-emitter circuit. For the base-emitter circuit, the net voltage is
VCC VBE and the total resistance is the sum of RB and the reflected resistance ( + 1)(RC + RE).
IC = IB
VCC VBE
=
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
VCC (IB + IC)RC VCE IE RE = 0
VCC (IB + IC)RC VCE (IB + IC)RE = 0
VCE = VCC (IB + IC)(RC + RE)
Load-line analysis
Assuming IB + IC IC,
IC =
VCC
1
VCE +
RC + RE
RC + RE
VCC
1
and y-intercept of
.
RC + RE
RC + RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VCE = VCC
IC =
VCC
RC + RE
VCC
Thus, two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0,
RC + RE
load line is drawn.
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
For this value of the base current, we can establish the actual Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.49.
IC
VCC
RC + RE
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC
VCE
VCC
.
RC + RE
The addition of the emitter resistor reduces the collector saturation level below that obtained
with a collector-to-base bias configuration using the same collector resistor.
VCC (IB + IC)RC IB RB VBE (IB + IC)RE = 0
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VCC IB RC IC RC IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
IB =
VCC VBE I C ( RC + RE )
RB + RC + RE
voltage drop across (RC + RE) to increase, which decreases base current IB. As IC depends
on IB, decrease in IB reduces the original increase in IC. Hence, variation in IC with ICO is
minimized and stability of Q-point is achieved.
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
Generally,
( + 1)(RC + RE) >> RB
(RC + RE) >> RB
IB =
VB VBE
( RC + RE )
IC = IB
VB VBE
=
( RC + RE )
=
VB VBE
RC + RE

Stability factors
VCC IB RC IC RC IB RB VBE (IB + IC)RE = 0
VCC IB RC IC RC IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
19 07 12 3:23 PM
IB =
VCC VBE I C ( RC + RE )
RB + RC + RE
We know that
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
V VBE I C ( RC + RE )
= CC
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RC + RE
VCC
VBE
( RC + RE )
IC 1 +
+ ( + 1)ICO
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE RB + RC + RE
(1.24)
(a) Stability factor S: When ICO changes from ICO to ICO , IC changes from IC to IC .
1
2
1
2
VBE
VCC
( RC + RE )
IC1 1 +
+ ( + 1)ICO1
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
(1.25)
At t2C,
( RC + RE )
VCC
VBE
+ ( + 1)ICO2
IC2 1 +
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
(1.26)
( RC + RE )
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
= ( + 1)(ICO2 ICO1)
RB + RC + RE
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
S=
IC
=
I CO
+1
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
+1
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VBE
( RC + RE )
VCC
1
+ ( + 1)ICO
IC1 1 +
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
(1.27)
At t2C,
VBE
( RC + RE )
VCC
2
IC2 1 +
+ ( + 1)ICO
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
(1.28)

(IC2 IC1) 1 +
( RC + RE )
=
(V VBE1)
R
+
R
+ RE BE2
RB + RC + RE
B
C
IC IC
2
VBE VBE
2
S =
RB + RC + RE
=
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE + RC + RE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
IC
=
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
VBE
VCC
VBE
( RC + RE )
IC 1 +
= R + R + R R + R + R + ICO
B
C
E
B
C
E
RB + RC + RE
[ ( + 1) ]
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE ) [VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC + RE )]

IC
=
RB + RC + RE
RB + RC + RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC + RE )]
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
IC =

At t1C,
IC1 =
1[VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC + RE )]
RB + ( 1 + 1)( RC + RE )
(1.29)
IC2 =
2 [VCC VBE + I CO ( RB + RC + RE )]
RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )
(1.30)
At t2C,
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1)( RC + RE )]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
IC

IC
1=
IC
IC IC
2
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1)( RC + RE )]
1
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1)( RC + RE )] 1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
2 RB + 1 2 RC + 1 2 RE + 2 RC + 2 RE 1 RB 1 2 RC 1 2 RE 1 RC 1 RE
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
IC IC
2
2 1
2 ( RB + RC + RE ) 1 ( RB + RC + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
( 2 1 )( RB + RC + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )]
S =
IC
RB + RC + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )
IC
RB + RC + RE
IC
= 1
RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )
1
19 07 12 3:23 PM
+10 V
2.5 k
220 k
= 100
1 k
Solution:
VCC ( + 1)IB RC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE = 0
IB =
=
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
10 0.7
220 10 + (100 + 1)(2.5 103 + 1 103 )
3
= 16.21 A
IC = IB = 100 16.21 106 = 1.621 mA
= 10 (16.21 106 + 1.621 103)(2.5 103+ 1 103)
= 4.27 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(iii) S =
+1
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
100 + 1
100(2.5 103 + 1 103 )
1+
220 103 + 2.5 103 + 1 103
= 39.36
=
Example 1.18: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.51, determine IC, VC, VE and VCE.
+30 V
6.2 k
690 k
= 100
1.5 k
Solution:
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
30 0.7
690 10 + (100 + 1)(6.2 103 + 1.5 103 )
= 19.9 A
IC = IB = 100 19.9 106 = 1.99 mA
=
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(ii) VC = VCC (IB + IC)RC

= 30 (19.9 106 + 1.99 103)(6.2 103)
= 17.5 V
(iii) VE = (IB + IC)RE
= (19.9 106 + 1.99 103)(1.5 103)
= 3.02 V
(iv) VCE = VC VE
= 17.5 3.02
= 14.48 V
+22 V
9.1 k
470 k
9.1 k
Solution:
(a) For = 90
IB =
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
19 07 12 3:23 PM
22 0.7
470 10 + (90 + 1)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103 )
3
= 10.02 A
IC = IB = 90 10.02 106 = 0.9 mA
= 22 (10.02 106 + 0.9 103)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103)
= 5.44 V
(b) For = 135
IB =
=
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
22 0.7
470 10 + (135 + 1)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103 )
3
= 7.23 A
IC = IB = 135 7.23 106 = 0.98 mA
= 22 (7.23 106 + 0.98 103)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103)
= 4.03 V
(i) % IC =
0.98 103 0.9 103

100
0.9 103
= 8.89%
(ii) % VCE =
4.03 5.44
100
5.44
= 25.92%
Example 1.20: For the circuit of the Fig. 1.52, determine (i) S, (ii) S, (iii) S when increases
by 25% and (iv) the net change in IC if a change in operating condition results in ICO increasing
from 0.2 A to 10 A, VBE drops from 0.7 V to 0.5 V, and increases by 25%.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
1 = 90
2 = 25% more than 1 = 112.5
(i) S
+1
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
90 + 1
90(9.1 103 + 9.1 103 )
1+
470 103 + 9.1 103 + 9.1 103
= 20.89
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
(ii) S =
90
470 10 + (90 + 1)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103 )
= 4.23 105
(iii) S =
=
IC
RB + RC + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )
0.9 103
470 103 + 9.1 103 + 9.1 103
90
470 103 + (112.5 + 1)(9.1 103 + 9.1 103 )
= 1.93 106 A
= 20.89(10 106 0.2 106) + (4.23 105)(0.5 0.7) + (1.93 106)(112.5 90)
= 20.89 9.8 106 + 4.23 105 0.2 + 1.93 106 22.5
= 0.26 mA
1.13VOLTAGE-DIVIDER BIAS CIRCUIT (SELF-BIAS CIRCUIT)

In the previous configurations, the bias current IC and voltage VCE depend on the current gain
of the transistor. Figure 1.53 shows a voltage-divider bias circuit. Resistors R1 and R2 form
a voltage-divider circuit. In this configuration, the sensitivity to changes in is quite small.
If the circuit parameters are properly chosen, the bias current IC and voltage VCE are almost
independent of .
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.13Voltage-divider Bias Circuit (Self-bias Circuit) 1.65

+VCC
R1
RC
CC2
Vo
CC
RS
RL
R2
RE
VS
CE
Fig. 1.53Voltage-divider Bias Circuit
1.13.1Exact Analysis
DC Analysis
For DC, f = 0,
XC =
1
=
2 f C
in Fig. 1.54.
+VCC
R1
RC
R2
RE
The base circuit can be converted into Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.55.
VTh = VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
RTh = RB = R1 || R2 =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
19 07 12 3:23 PM
As R1 and R2 divide the voltage VCC at the base, the circuit is called voltage-divider bias.
+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE
Fig. 1.55Thevenins Equivalent Circuit
VB IB RB VBE IE RE = 0
VB IB RB VBE ( + 1) IB RE = 0
IB =
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
The emitter resistor, which is the part of the collector-emitter circuit, appears as ( +1)RE
in the base-emitter circuit. For the base-emitter circuit, the net voltage is VB VBE and the total
resistance is the sum of RB and the reflected resistance ( + 1)RE.
IC = IB
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Load-line analysis
Assuming IE IC,
IC =
VCC
1
VCE +
RC + RE
RC + RE
VCC
1
and y-intercept of
.
RC + RE
RC + RE
VCE = VCC
IC =
VCC
RC + RE
VCC
Thus two end points are (VCC, 0) and 0,
RC + RE
load line is drawn.

IB =
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC
VCC
RC + RE
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC
VCE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VCC
.
RC + RE
VB IB RB VBE (IB + IC)RE = 0
VB IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
IB =
VB VBE I C RE
RB + RE
If reverse saturation current ICO increases, collector current IC increases. It will cause voltage drop across RE to increase, which decreases base current IB. As IC depends on IB, decrease
in IB reduces the original increase in IC. Hence, variation in IC with ICO is minimized and stability of Q-point is achieved.
Stability factors
VB IB RB VBE IB RE IC RE = 0
IB =
VB VBE I C RE
RB + RE
We know that
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
VB VBE I C RE
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RE
VB
VBE
RE
IC 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RE
RB + RE RB + RE
(1.31)
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VBE
RE
VB
IC1 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO1
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.32)
VB
VBE
RE
=
+ ( + 1)ICO2
IC2 1 +
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.33)
At t2C,
RE
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
= ( + 1)(ICO2 ICO1)
RB + RE
IC IC
2
I CO I CO
2
S=
IC
=
I CO
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
VBE
RE
VB
1
IC1 1 +
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.34)
VBE
RE
VB
2
=
+ ( + 1)ICO
IC2 1 +
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
(1.35)
At t2C,
RE
(IC2 IC1) 1 +
(V VBE1)
=
R
R
+
RB + RE BE2
B
E
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VBE VBE
2
S =
RB + RE
=
RE
1+
RB + RE
IC IC
RB + RE + RE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC
=
RB + ( + 1) RE
VBE
VB
VBE
RE
=
+ ICO
IC 1 +
RB + RE
RB + RE
RB + RE
[ ( + 1) ]
R + ( + 1) RE [VB VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
IC B
=
RB + RE
RB + RE
IC =
[VB VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB + ( + 1) RE

At t1C,
IC1 =
1[VB VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB + ( + 1) RE
(1.36)
IC2 =
2 [VB VBE + I CO ( RB + RE )]
RB + ( + 1) RE
(1.37)
At t2C,
IC
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]

IC
IC
1=
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ]
1
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
19 07 12 3:23 PM
IC IC
2
IC
2 [ RB + ( 1 + 1) RE ] 1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
2 RB + 1 2 RE + 2 RE 1 RB 1 2 RE 1 RE
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
2 ( RB + RE ) 1 ( RB + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
( 2 1 )( RB + RE )
1[ RB + ( 2 + 1) RE ]
IC IC
2
2 1
S =
IC
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
IC
RB + RE
IC
= 1
1
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
1.13.2Approximate Analysis
The input section of the voltage-divider bias circuit can be represented by the circuit shown
in Fig. 1.57. The equivalent resistance between the base and the ground is ( + 1)RE. If the
resistance ( + 1)RE is much larger than the resistance R2, the current IB will be much smaller
than I2. If IB 0, then I1 = I2.
+VCC
I1
R1
IB
VB
I2
R2
( + 1) RE
Fig. 1.57Input Section
The voltage across R2 can be found using the voltage-divider rule.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
Generally ( + 1)RE RE. If RE is at least ten times the value of R2, the approximate analysis can be used with a high degree of accuracy.
RE 10R2
VE = VB VBE
IE =
V VBE
VE
= B
RE
RE
IC IE
Hence, IC is independent of the value of .
VCE = VCC IC RC IE RE
= VCC IC(RC + RE)
( IC IE)
Hence, VCE is independent of the value of .

Thus, Q-point is independent of the value of .
Example 1.21: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.58, find IC and VCE by approximate analysis.
Compare the result with exact analysis.
+18 V
39 k
3.3 k
= 120
8.2 k
1 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
If RE 10R2, the approximate analysis can be used with a high degree of accuracy.
RE = 120 1 103 = 120 k
10R2 = 10 8.2 103 = 82 k
Since RE > 10R2, approximate analysis is used.
(i) VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
8.2 103
=
18
39 103 + 8.2 103
= 3.13 V
VE = VB VBE = 3.13 0.7 = 2.43 V
IE =
VE
2.43
=
= 2.43 mA
RE
1 103
( IC IE)
IC = 2.43 mA
= VCC IC(RC + RE)
( IC IE)
= 18 (2.43 103) (3.3 103 + 1 103)

= 7.55 V
Exact analysis
(i) Replacing the base circuit by its Thevenins equivalent (Fig. 1.59),
VB = 3.13 V
RB =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
19 07 12 3:23 PM
39 103 8.2 103

39 103 + 8.2 103
= 6.78 k
+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE
Fig. 1.59Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit

VB IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE = 0
IB =
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
3.13 0.7
6.78 10 + (120 + 1)(1 103 )
3
= 19.02 A
IC = IB = 120 19.02 106 = 2.28 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
= 18 2.28 103 3.3 103 (19.02 106 + 2.28 103) (1 103)

= 8.18 V
Example 1.22: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.60, find IC, VCE and stability factor S.
+30 V
90 k
5 k
= 100
10 k
5 k
Solution:
(i) Replacing the base circuit by its Thevenins equivalent (Fig. 1.61),
VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
10 103
30
=
90 103 + 10 103
= 3V
RB =
=
R1 R2
R1 + R2
90 103 10 103
90 103 + 10 103
= 9 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM

+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE

IB =
=
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
3 0.7
9 10 + (100 + 1) (5 103 )
3
= 4.47 A
IC = IB = 100(4.47 106) = 0.447 mA
= 30 0.447 103 5 103 (4.47 106 + 0.447 103)(5 103)
= 25.5 V
(iii) S =
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
100 + 1
100 5 103
1+
9 103 + 5 103
= 2.75
=
Example 1.23: Find RC, R1 and R2 of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.62, if IC = 1 mA, RE = 1 k,
VCC = 10 V, = 100, S = 10 and VCE = 5 V.
+10 V
R1
RC
R2
1 k
Solution:
(i) IB =
I C 1 103
=
= 0.01 mA
100

RC =
=
VCC VCE ( I B + I C ) RE
IC
10 5 (0.01 103 + 1 103 )(1 103 )
1 103
= 3.99 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(ii) S =
10 =
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
100 + 1
100 1 103
1+
RB + 1 103
RB = 9.98 k
Replacing the base circuit by its Thevenins equivalent (Fig. 1.63),
+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE

VB = IB RB + VBE + (IB + IC)RE
= 0.01 103 9.98 103 + 0.7 + (0.01 103 + 1 103) (1 103)
= 1.71 V
VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
Multiplying both the sides by R1,

R1VB =
R1 R2
V = RB VCC
R1 + R2 CC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
R1 =
=
RBVCC
VB
9.98 103 10
1.71
= 58.36 k
(iii) RB =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
9.98 103 =
58.36 103 R2
58.36 103 + R2
R2 = 12.04 k
Example 1.24: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.64, find RE, R1 and R2.
+16 V
R1
1.5 k
VCE = 8 V
IC = 4 mA
= 50
S = 10
VBE = 0.3 V
R2
RE
Solution:
(i) IB =
I C 4 103
=
= 0.08 mA
50

RE =
VCC VCE I C RC
I B + IC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
16 8 4 103 1.5 103

0.08 103 + 4 103
= 0.49 k
(ii) S =
10 =
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
51
50 0.49 103
1+
RB + 0.49 103
RB = 5.49 k
+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE

VB = IB RB + VBE + (IB + IC)RE
= 0.08 103 5.49 103 + 0.3 + (0.08 103 + 4 103) (0.49 103)
= 2.53 V
VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Multiplying both the sides by R1,

R1 R2
R1 VB =
V
R1 + R2 CC
= RB VCC
R1 =
=
RBVCC
VB
5.49 103 16
2.53
= 34.72 k
(iii) RB =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
5.49 103 =
34.72 103 R2
34.72 103 + R2
R2 = 4.74 k
Example 1.25:Determine the percentage change in IC and VCE for the circuit shown in
+18 V
33 k
1.2 k
12 k
1 k
Solution:
VB =
R2
V
R1 + R2 CC
19 07 12 3:23 PM
12 103
=
18
33 103 + 12 103
= 4.8 V
R1 R2
RB =
R1 + R2
33 103 12 103
33 103 + 12 103
= 8.8 k
=
+VCC
IC
RC
IB
RB
VCE
+
VBE
VB
IE
RE
(a) For = 100

IB =
=
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
4.8 0.7
8.8 10 + (100 + 1)(1 103 )
3
= 37.34 A
IC = IB = 100 37.34 106 = 3.73 mA
IE = IB + IC = 37.34 106 + 3.73 103 = 3.77 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM

= 18 3.73 103 1.2 103 3.77 103 1 103
= 9.75 V
(b) For = 150
IB =
=
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
4.8 0.7
8.8 10 + (150 + 1)(1 103 )
3
= 25.66 A
IC = IB = 150 25.66 106 = 3.85 mA
IE = IB + IC = 25.66 106 + 3.85 103 = 3.88 mA
= 18 3.85 103 1.2 103 3.88 103 1 103
= 9.5 V
(i) % IC =
3.85 103 3.73 103

100
3.73 103
= 3.22%
(ii) % VCE =
9.5 9.75
100
9.75
= 2.56%
Example 1.26: For the circuit of the Fig. 1.66, determine (i) S, (ii) S, (iii) S when 2 is 25%
more than 1 and (iv) the net change in IC if a change in operating condition results in ICO increasing from 0.2 A to 10 A, VBE drops from 0.7 V to 0.5 V, and increases by 25%.
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
1 = 100
2 = 125
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
(i) S =
100 + 1
100 1 103
1+
8.8 103 + 1 103
= 9.01
(ii) S =
RB + ( + 1) RE
100
8.8 10 + (100 + 1)(1 103 )
3
= 9.11 104
(iii) S =
IC
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
3.73 103
8.8 103 + 1 103
=
100
8.8 103 + (125 + 1)(1 103 )
= 2.71 106 A
= 9.01(10 106 0.2 106) + (9.11 104)(0.5 0.7) + (2.71 106) (125 100)
= 9.01 9.8 106 + 9.11 104 0.2 + 2.71 106 25
= 0.33 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.13Voltage-divider Bias Circuit (Self-b ias Circuit) 1.85
SUMMARY OF BJT BIASING CIRCUITS

Configuration
Fixed bias
Circuit
Equation
+VCC
IB =
RB
RC
Load line and Q-Point

IC
VCC VBE
RB
V VBE
IC = CC
RB
VCC
RC
Q
ICQ
IBQ
VCE = VCC ICRC

VCEQ
S = + 1
RB
S' =
S" =
Modified
fixed bias
+VCC
IB =
RB
RC
IC

S =
VCC
RC + RE
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC VCE
+1
RE
1+
RB + RE
S' =
S" =
IC
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC = VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
RE
VCC VCE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
(Continued )
7/20/12 3:40 PM
SUMMARY OF BJT BIASING CIRCUITS (Continued)

Configuration
Collector-tobase bias
Circuit
Equation
+VCC
RC
VCC VBE
IC =
RB + ( + 1) RC
S=
+1
RC
1+
RB + RC
S' =
S" =
Modified
collectorto-base bias
+VCC
RC
VCC
RC
Q
ICQ
IBQ
VCC VCE
VCEQ
RB + ( + 1) RC
IC
RB + RC
RB + ( 2 + 1) RC
IC
VCC VBE
IB =
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
VCC VBE
IC =
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
RB
IC
VCC VBE
RB + ( + 1) RC
IB =
RB
VCC
RC + RE
ICQ
IBQ

S =
RE
+1
( RC + RE )
1+
RB + RC + RE
S' =
S" =
VCEQ
VCC VCE
RB + ( + 1)( RC + RE )
IC
RB + RC + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1)( RC + RE )
(Continued )
7/20/12 3:40 PM
1.14Miscellaneous Bias Circuits 1.87

Configuration
Voltagedivider bias
Circuit
Equation
+VCC
IB =
R1
RC

IC
VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
VB VBE
IC =
RB + ( + 1) RE
VCC
RC + RE
+1
S=
RE
1+
RB + RE
R2
RE
S' =
S" =
ICQ
VCEQ
IBQ
VCC VCE
RB + ( + 1) RE
IC
RB + RE
RB + ( 2 + 1) RE
1.14MISCELLANEOUS BIAS CIRCUITS

There are many bias circuits that do not match the basic models discussed so far. These circuits
are discussed in this section. For each circuit, first base current has to be calculated. Then collector current and output voltage can be determined to locate Q-point.
Example 1.27: In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.68, find RB and VCE.
+18 V
4 k
= 50
IC = 2 mA
RB
200
4 V
7/20/12 3:40 PM
Solution:
DC equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.69)
+VCC
IC
RC
+
VCE
+
IB
VBE
RB
IE
RE
VEE
I C 2 103
(i) IB =
=
= 40 A
50
IE = IB + IC = 40 106 + 2 103 = 2.04 mA

IB RB VBE IE RE + VEE = 0
RB =
VEE VBE I E RE
IB
4 0.7 2.04 103 200

=
40 106
= 72.3 k
VCC IC RC VCE IE RE + VEE = 0
VCE = VCC + VEE IC RC IE RE
= 18 + 4 2 103 4 103 2.04 103 200
= 13.59 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Example 1.28: Determine IB and VE for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.70.
+6 V
330 k
= 120
VE
1.2 k
6 V
Solution:
+VCC
IE
RB
+
VBE
VE
RE
VEE

VCC IB RB VBE IE RE + VEE = 0
VCC IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB IE + VEE = 0
V + VEE VBE
IB = CC
RB + ( + 1) RE
6 + 6 0.7
330 10 + (120 + 1)(1.2 103 )
= 23.72 A
=
(ii) IE = ( + 1)IB
= (120 + 1) (23.72 106)
= 2.87 mA
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the emitter circuit,

VE IE RE + VEE = 0
VE = IE RE VEE
= 2.87 103 1.2 103 6
= 2.547 V
Example 1.29: Determine IE, VCE and VC in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.72.
+10 V
1.8 k
2.2 k
8 V
Solution:
+VCC
IC
RC
VC
IB
VCE
+
VBE
IE
RE
VEE
19 07 12 3:23 PM

VBE IE RE + VEE = 0
IE =
VEE VBE
RE
8 0.7
2.2 103
= 3.318 mA
IE IC = 3.318 mA
VCE = VCC + VEE (RC + RE)IC
( IE IC)
= 10 + 8 (1.8 103 + 2.2 103) (3.318 103)

= 4.73 V
(iii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-emitter circuit,
VC VCE IE RE + VEE = 0
VC = VCE + IE RE VEE
= 4.73 + 3.318 103 2.2 103 8
= 4.03 V
Example 1.30: Determine IE and VCE for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.74.
= 90
240 k
2 k
20 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
+
VCE
IB
+
VBE
IE
RB
RE
VEE

IB RB VBE IE RE + VEE = 0
IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE + VEE = 0
IB =
=
VEE VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
20 0.7
240 10 + (90 + 1)(2 103 )
3
= 45.73 A
IE = ( + 1)IB
= (90 + 1) (45.73 106)
= 4.16 mA
VCE IE RE + VEE = 0
VCE = VEE IE RE
= 20 4.16 103 2 103
= 11.68 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Example 1.31: Find RC and R1 for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.76.
+16 V
RC
R1
VBE = 0.2 V
IE = 2 mA
= 0.985
VCE = 6 V
30 k
1 k
Solution:
(i) V2 = VBE + IE RE
= 0.2 + 2 103 1 103
= 2.2 V
+VCC
RC
IC + I1
I1
R1 V1
I2
IC
IB
+
VCE
IE
+
R2 V2
RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
I2 =
V2
2.2
=
= 73.3 A
R2 30 103
0.985
=
= 65.66
1 1 0.985
IB =
IE
2 103
=
= 30 A
+ 1 65.66 + 1
IC = IE IB = 2 103 30 106 = 1.97 mA

I1 = I2 + IB = 73.3 106 + 30 106 = 103.3 A
VCC (IC + I1)RC VCE IE RE = 0
RC =
VCC VCE I E RE
I C + I1
16 6 2 103 1 103
1.97 103 + 103.3 106
= 3.859 k
VCC (IC + I1)RC R1I1 V2 = 0
R1 =
VCC V2 ( I C + I1 ) RC
I1
16 2.2 (1.97 103 + 103.3 106 )(3.859 103 )
103.3 106
= 56.15 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Example 1.32: Determine IB, IC, VE and VCE for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.78.
+18 V
9.1 k
510 k
VC
+
VCE
+
VBE
510 k
= 130
VE
6.8 k
18 V
Solution:
+VCC
+VCC
RC
IC
R1
IB
+
VCE
RB
VB
+
VBE
VC
IE
R2
VE
VB
RE
VEE
VEE
(a)(b)
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the circuit,

VCC I(R1 + R2) + VEE = 0
I=
VCC + VEE
R1 + R2
19 07 12 3:23 PM
18 + 18
510 103 + 510 103
= 35.29 A
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the lower part of the circuit of Fig. 1.79(a),
VB I R2 + VEE = 0
VB = VEE + I R2
= 18 + 35.29 106 510 103
= 2.1 V
RB =
=
R1 R2
R1 + R2
510 103 510 103
510 103 + 510 103
= 255 k
(i) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the base-emitter circuit of Fig. 1.79(b),
VB IB RB VBE IE RE + VEE = 0
VB IB RB VBE ( + 1)IB RE + VEE = 0
IB =
=
VEE VB VBE
RB + ( + 1) RE
18 2.1 0.7
255 10 + (130 + 1)(6.8 103 )
3
= 13.27 A
(ii)
IC = IB = 130 13.27 106 = 1.73 mA
(iii)
IE = IB + IC = 13.27 106 + 1.73 103 = 1.74 mA

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the emitter circuit,
VE IE RE + VEE = 0
VE = IE RE VEE
= 1.74 103 6.8 103 18
= 6.17 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
(iv) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-emitter circuit of Fig. 1.79(b),
VCE = VCC + VEE IC RC IE RE
= 18 + 18 1.73 103 9.1 103 1.74 103 6.8 103
= 8.43 V
Example 1.33: Determine the currents IE and IB and the voltages VCB and VCE for the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.80.
4.7 k
3.6 k
= 75
5V
8V
Solution:
IE
VCE
RE
IC
+
+
VBE
VCB
+
VEE
RC
VCC
(i) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the emitter-base circuit,

VEE + IE RE + VBE = 0
IE =
VEE VBE
RE
19 07 12 3:23 PM
5 0.7
4.7 103
= 0.91 mA
IB =
(ii)
=
IE
+1
0.91 103
75 + 1
= 11.97 A
(iii) IC = IB = 75 11.97 106 = 0.9 mA

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-base circuit,
VCC IC RC VCB = 0
VCB = VCC IC RC
= 8 0.9 103 3.6 103
= 4.76 V
(iv) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the entire outside perimeter of the circuit,
VEE + IE RE + VCE + IC RC VCC = 0
VCE = VEE + VCC IE RE IC RC
= 5 + 8 0.91 103 4.7 103 0.9 103 3.6 103
= 5.48 V
Example 1.34: Find RE and RC for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.82.
RE
4V
RC
= 0.99
IE = 1.1 mA
VCE = 7 V
12 V
19 07 12 3:23 PM
Solution:
IE
VCE
RE
IC
+
+
VBE
VCB
+
VEE
RC
VCC
(i) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the emitter-base circuit,

VEE + IE RE + VBE = 0
RE =
VEE VBE
IE
4 0.7
1.1 103
= 3
(ii) Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law around the transistor terminal,
VCE = VCB + VBE
VCB = VCE VBE = 7 0.7 = 6.3 V
IC = IE = 0.99 1.1 103 = 1.089 mA
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector-base circuit,
VCC IC RC VCB = 0
RC =
=
VCC VCB
IC
12 6.3
1.089 103
= 5.234 k
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.15BIAS COMPENSATION
The biasing circuits provide stability of Q-point against variations in ICO, VBE and . The
collector-to-base bias circuit and voltage-divider bias circuit use negative feedback to stabilize
Q-point which reduces the amplification of the signal. If this reduction in gain is intolerable,
compensation techniques are used. In this method, temperature-sensitive devices such as
diodes, transistors, thermistors and sensistors etc. are used which provide compensating voltage and current to stabilize variations in IC with VBE and ICO.
1.15.1Diode Compensation for V BE

A circuit utilizing the voltage-divider stabilization technique and diode compensation is shown
in Fig. 1.84.
+VCC
+VCC
R1
RC
RC
IB
IC
RB
+
VBE
RE
RE
R
R2
D
VB
V
VD
Fig. 1.84Diode Compensation for VBE
The diode is forward biased by the voltage V and current-limiting resistor R. We know
that VBE decreases by 2.5 mV/oC; i.e. the device starts operating at lower voltage which
changes IB and IC and hence, Q-point. If the diode is of the same type and material as
the transistor, the voltage across the diode will have the same temperature coefficient
(2.5 mV/oC) as the base-emitter voltage VBE. The variation in VBE and voltage across the
diode will be equal and opposite. Hence, they cancel out and IB and IC become independent of VBE.
VB IB RB VBE IE RE + VD = 0
VB = IB RB + IE RE
( VBE = VD = 0.7 V)
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.15Bias Compensation 1.101
IE RE
( IE >> IB)
IE IC =
VB
= constant
RE
1.15.2Diode Compensation for I CO

For germanium transistors, changes in ICO with temperature play the important role in
collector current stability. A circuit utilizing the voltage-divider stabilization technique
and diode compensation for ICO is shown in Fig. 1.85. In this circuit, the diode is kept
in reverse-biased condition. The diode D is connected in place of resistance R2. If the
diode and the transistor are of the same type and material, the reverse saturation current
IO of the diode will increase with temperature at the same rate as the transistor saturation
current ICO.
+VCC
I
RC
R1
IC
IB
+
Io
VBE
Fig. 1.85Diode Compensation for ICO
From Fig. 1.85,

I=
VCC VBE
R1
For germanium transistor VBE = 0.2 V which is very small and can be neglected.
I
VCC
= constant
R1
IB = I IO
19 07 12 3:23 PM
We know that
IC = IB + ( + 1)ICO
Substituting the value of IB,
IC = (I IO) + ( + 1)ICO
= (I IO) + ICO
[ ( +1) ]
= [(I (IO + ICO)]

As temperature increases, IO and ICO will change by the same amount.
I C = IO
( IO = ICO)
As I is constant, IC remains essentially constant. Thus, changes in ICO with temperature are
compensated by the diode.
1.15.3Thermistor and Sensistor Compensation

In this method of transistor compensation, temperature-sensitive resistive elements are used
instead of diodes or transistors. A circuit utilizing the voltage-divider stabilization technique
and thermistor is shown in Fig. 1.86 to minimize the increase in collector current due to changes in ICO, VBE and .
+VCC
R1
RC
RT
R2
RE
Fig. 1.86Thermistor Compensation
Thermistor RT has a negative temperature coefficient. It is a temperature-sensitive resistor

whose resistance decreases exponentially as temperature increases. When temperature increases,
19 07 12 3:23 PM
1.15Bias Compensation 1.103
ICO and IC increase. But with rise in temperature, resistance of the thermistor decreases. Hence,
increased collector current flows through thermistor into RE. Hence, voltage drop across RE
increases. This voltage drop provides negative feedback such that IB decreases and hence, IC
decreases.
An alternative compensation technique using thermistor is to place RT in place of R2 as shown
in Fig. 1.87. When temperature increases, ICO and IC increase. But with rise in temperature,
resistance of the thermistor decreases. The voltage drop across RT decreases, which decreases
the forward-biasing base voltage. Hence, IB and IC decrease.
+VCC
R1
RT
RC
RE
Fig. 1.87Thermistor Compensation
Instead of a thermistor, it is possible to use a temperature-sensitive resistor with a positive

temperature coefficient, i.e. sensistor. Its resistance increases exponentially as temperature
increases. It is connected in place of R1 in voltage-divider bias circuit as shown in Fig. 1.88.
+VCC
RT
R2
RC
RE
Fig. 1.88Sensistor Compensation
19 07 12 3:23 PM
When temperature increases, ICO and IC increase. But with rise in temperature, resistance of
the sensistor increases, which decreases current flowing through it. Hence, current through R2
decreases, which reduces the voltage drop across it. This decreases the forward-biasing base
voltage. Hence, IB and IC decrease.
19 07 12 3:23 PM

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1

bias and voltage-divider bias circuits to

1.2BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.2 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.1Transistor Types and Symbols

Fig. 1.2BJT Operation

1.4Common-base Configuration 1.3

BJT can be operated in three regions:

Fig. 1.4Common-base Configuration

1.4 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.5Experimental Set-up to Draw Input and Output Characteristics

Fig. 1.6Input Characteristics

1.4Common-base Configuration 1.5

Fig. 1.7Output Characteristics

If only DC values are considered,

1.6 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.8Common-emi er Configuration

Fig. 1.9Experimental Set-up to Draw Input and Output Characteristics

1.5Common-emi er Configuration 1.7

Fig. 1.10Input Characteristics

Fig. 1.11Output Characteristics

1.8 Electronic Circuits I

If only DC values are considered,

1.6Common-collector Configuration 1.9

For general purpose transistors, IC is measured in milliamperes and ICO is measured in

Fig. 1.12Common-collector Configuration

Fig. 1.13Experimental Set-up to Draw Input and Output Characteristics

1.10 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.14Input Characteristics

Fig. 1.15Output Characteristics

1.7Load-line Analysis 1.11

Current amplification factor ( ): It is defined as the ratio of change in emitter current to

If only DC values are considered,

Fig. 1.16CE Amplifier

1.12 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.17DC Equivalent Circuit

This equation represents a DC load line with slope of

1.7Load-line Analysis 1.13

Fig. 1.18Load Line and Q-point

Need for biasing

1.14 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.19Q-point in the Active Region

Fig. 1.20Q-point Near Saturation Region

1.8Factors Aecting Stability of Q-point 1.15

Fig. 1.21Q-point Near Cut-o Region

1.8FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY OF Q -POINT

1.16 Electronic Circuits I

Fig. 1.22Thermal Runaway

Fig. 1.23Variation of VBE with Temperature

1.8Factors Aecting Stability of Q-point 1.17

Fig. 1.24Variation in with Temperature

There are two methods to stabilize variation in IC with these parameters:

1.18 Electronic Circuits I

VBE and constant

ICO and constant

ICO and VBE constant

Fig. 1.25Fixed-bias Circuit

1.9Fixed-bias Circuit 1.19

Fig. 1.26DC Equivalent Circuit

1.20 Electronic Circuits I

This equation represents a DC load line with slope of

load line is drawn.

Fig. 1.27Load Line and Q-point