Chapter Three

Bipolar Junction Transistors

3.1 Introduction
Transistors are three terminal, three-layered, two-junction electronic devices whose voltage-current
relationship is controlled by a third voltage or current. We may regard a transistor as a controlled voltage or
current source. They were demonstrated by a team of scientists at Bell laboratories in 1947 and they
brought an end to the era of vacuum tube devices.
Advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes:
• Smaller size, light weight
• No heating elements required
• Low power consumption
• Low operating voltages
Areas of application
Used in applications such as signal amplifiers, electronic switches, oscillators, design of digital logics,
memory circuits etc.
Physical structure of a transistor
According to the physics of the device, we can classify transistors into two main classes:
1. Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
2. Field effect transistors (FET) (to be discussed in the next chapter).
BJT: definition, construction, normal operating condition & symbolic representation
Is a diode-based device which is usually blocked unless the control terminals are forward biased (a term
recalled from chapter two). So, the controlling agent is a current and BJT is a current amplifier by nature.
Two types of construction exist namely:
• Thin layer of n-type material sandwiched between two p-type materials (called a PNP
Transistor)
• Thin layer of p-type material sandwiched between two n-type materials (called NPN
Transistor)

Fig 3.1 physical structure and the terminals of BJT

Emitter (E) is heavily doped – supplies charge carriers.
Base (B) is lightly doped – allows most of the charge carriers to pass through it.
Collector is moderately doped(C) – collects the charge carriers.
We can also see that there are two junctions shared between the three terminals:
• Emitter-base junction
• Collector-base junction
For normal operation, E-B junction should be forward biased and C-B junction should be reverse biased.
The following figure shows the symbolic representation of the PNP and NPN transistors. In each case
arrow head represents the direction of current through emitter.

Fig. 3.2: Transistor symbols

3.2 Principles of operation and characteristics

The working principle of NPN transistor is discussed here and that of PNP transistor is similar except the
fact that roles of free electrons and holes are interchanged and current directions are reversed.
Principles of operation of NPN BJT
• EB diode is forward biased. So, depletion region at EB junction is narrow.
• CB diode is reverse biased. So, depletion region at CB junction is wide.
• Free electrons from emitter region cross the junction and reach base region repelled by the negative
potential at the emitter terminal.
• Some of these free electrons combine with the holes in the base region. So, they move towards the base
terminal and form the base current.
• There are very less number of holes available in base. Therefore, most electrons (say, about 99%) coming
from emitter do not combine with holes. They fall down the potential gradient and enter collector region
attracted by the positive potential at the collector terminal. This is how the condition of holes at base
determines the flow from emitter to collector.
• So, emitter emits electrons acting as source of electrons. The collector collects these electrons acting as
absorbent and the naming resulted from this fact.
Directions of three currents are shown in figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Transistor operation & direction of currents

Characteristics of BJT
Applying KCL to Fig. below gives

IE = IB + IC
where IE, IC, and IB are emitter, collector, and base currents, respectively. The BJT can
operate in one of three modes: active, cutoff, and saturation. When transistors operate in
the active mode, typically
VBE = 0.7 V
IC = αIE , where α is called the common-base current gain. , α denotes the fraction of
electrons injected by the emitter that are collected by the collector. Also, IC = βIB, where
β is known as the common-emitter current gain. The α and β are characteristic properties
of a given transistor and assume constant values for that transistor. Typically, α takes
values in the range of 0.98 to 0.999, while β takes values in the range 50 to 1000. From
above ,it is evident that:

These equations show that, in the active mode, the BJT can be modeled as a dependent
current-controlled current source. Thus, in circuit analysis, the dc equivalent model in
Fig. below (b) may be used to replace the npn transistor in Fig. below (a). Since β in Eq.
above is large, a small base current controls large currents in the output circuit.
Consequently, the bipolar transistor can serve as an amplifier, producing both current
gain and voltage gain. Such amplifiers can be used to furnish a considerable amount of
power to transducers such as loudspeakers or control motors.

Figure (a) An npn transistor, (b) its dc equivalent model.

We are still considering an NPN transistor and current directions are opposite to electron-
flow directions. Because of the collective statements we made above we can say that, we
use a small base current to induce a large collector current. This large collector current is
proportional to the base current because of the role of the small number of holes there in
base. So,
IC = ßIB…………………………………………………………………………….3.1

Where, IE is emitter current, IB is base current, IC is collector current.

Current relationship simply obtained as:
IE = I C + I B ……………………………………………………………………..3.2
When emitter circuit is opened, there is no supply of free electrons from emitter to
collector. Even then, there will be small collector current called reverse saturation
collector current ICBO. This is due to thermally generated electron-hole pairs. Even
during normal operation, ICBO is present. So, total collector current is:
I C = αdcIE + ICBO ……………………………………………… .3.3
αdc is fraction of emitter current which flows to collector. Since ICBO is very small
ignoring its effect and rearranging gives:
αdc = I C / IE…………………………………………………………………………3.4
we have also another parameter defined by
βdc = IC / IB…………………………………………………………………………3.5
Dividing eqn 3.2 by IC we have
1/ αdc =1 + 1/ βdc and αdc = βdc /1+ βdc…………………………………………3.6
Generally speaking, since we already know how a PN junction operates, we would expect
the base voltage to be about 0.65 to 0.7 volt positive (forward biased) with respect to the
emitter, and to have electrons move from emitter to base, and leave the device at that
point. With the collector junction reverse biased, we would expect no current to flow
through that junction too. But something happens inside the base region, the forward bias
on this junction does indeed attract electrons from the emitter into the base, but then the
forward momentum of the electrons carries them across most of the base region and into
the depletion region around the collector junction. From there, the higher positive
collector voltage attracts these electrons across the collector junction and into the
collector region.
A small amount of current does still leave the device through the base contact, but most
of the current is diverted through the collector instead. In this way, the small base current
IB controls the much larger collector current IC. IC is proportional to IB. This is known
as the transistor effect.
In the case of a PNP transistor, holes will be drawn from the emitter into the base region
by the forward bias, and will then be pulled into the collector region by the higher
negative bias.
3.3 BJT Configurations
Transistor is 3-terminal device. For applications such as amplifier circuit, four terminals
are required – two for input and two for output. So, one of the three terminals of
transistor should be made common for both input and output in such cases. Accordingly,
we will end up with three types of configurations:
• Common base (CB) configuration
• Common emitter (CE) configuration
• Common collector (CC) configuratio
3.5.1 Common base configuration

Fig. 3.4: Common Base configuration

Base is common, emitter is input terminal, and collector is output terminal. We will
consider two characteristics: input characteristics and output characteristics
Input characteristics
Plot of input current IE versus input voltage VEB for various values of output voltage VCB
is shown in fig 3.5. As VEB is increased, IE increases similar to diode characteristics. If
VCB is increased, then IE increases slightly. This is due to the increase in electric field
aiding the flow of electrons from emitter.

Fig 3.5: CB Input and Output characteristics

Output characteristics
Plot of output current IC versus output voltage VCB for various values of input current IE
also shown in fig 3.5 above.
Three regions can be identified: namely active, cutoff and saturation
Active region:
Region to the right of y-axis, above IE =0 curve, where the curves are linear. IE is positive
nonzero (i.e., E-B diode is forward biased) and VCB is positive (i.e., C-B diode is reverse
biased).
When VCB is increased, IC increases slightly. This is because, when VCB is increased,
depletion region width at C-B junction increases, so effective base width decreases and IB
decreases. Hence IC increases. This effect is known as early effect (also called base width
modulation).
If IE is increased, IC also increases when IE =0, IC = ICBO (reverse saturation Collector
current in common Base with emitter Open). ICBO doubles for every 10 degree
centigrade rise in temperature.
Cutoff region: Region below IE =0 curve.
Here IE is less than zero (E-B diode is reverse biased) and VCB is positive (C-B diode is
reverse biased) .Transistor is said to be in OFF state since IC is zero.
Saturation region: Region to the left of y-axis, above IE =0 curve. Here IE is positive
nonzero (E-B diode forward biased) and VCB is negative (C-B diode is forward biased) IC
decreases exponentially in this region.
Input resistance:
Ratio of change in VEB to corresponding change in IE, with VCB held constant.
Ri=∆ VEB / ∆ IE with VCB constant……………………………….3.7
Output resistance:
Ratio of change in VCB to corresponding change in IC, with IE held constant.
Ro=∆ VCB /∆ IC with IE constant
Current gain:
Ratio of change in collector current to change in emitter current, with VCB held constant
αac= ∆ IC /∆ IE with VCB constant
Voltage gain:
Ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage with IE held constant.
Av=∆ VCB /∆ VEB with IE constant.

Note that αac and αdc are approximately equal. Their value lies between 0.9 and 0.998.

3.5.2 Common emitter configuration

Emitter is common, base is input terminal and collector is output terminal.
Again we get two characteristics: input characteristics and output characteristics.

Fig. 3.6: Common-Emitter configuration

Input characteristics
Plot of input current IB versus input voltage VBE for various values of output voltage VCE
shown in fig 3.7 As VBE is increased, IB increases similar to diode characteristics.
If VCE is increased, then IB decreases slightly. This is due to early effect.
Fig. 3.7: CE Input and Output configurations
Output characteristics
Plot of output current IC versus output voltage VCE for various values of input current IB.
shown in fig 3.7 above. Three regions can be identified again: Active, cutoff and
saturation.
Active region: Region to the right of VCE Sat, above IB =0 curve, where the curves are
linear .Note that VCE = VCB + VBE
If VCE > VCE Sat, then VCB becomes positive (i.e., C-B diode is reverse biased) VCE
Sat is around 0.3V for silicon transistor. If IB > 0, then it means E-B diode is forward
biased. When VCE is increased, IC increases slightly due to early effect. Note that slope
of curve is more than that of CB o/p characteristics. If IB is increased, IC also increases.
When IB =0, IC= ICEO (Collector current in common Emitter with base Open). ICEO is
much more than ICBO of CB configuration.
Cut off region: Region below IB =0 curve
Here E-B diode and C-B diode are both reverse biased. Transistor is said to be in OFF
state since IC is almost zero.
Saturation region: Region to the left of VCE Sat and right of y-axis.
Here E-B diode and C-B diode are both forward biased
Input resistance
Ratio of change in VBE to corresponding change in IB, with VCE held constant.
Ri = ∆VBE / ∆IB with VCE constant
Output resistance
Ratio of change in VCE to corresponding change in IC, with IB held constant.
Ro= ∆VCE / IC with IB constant
Current gain
Ratio of change in collector current to change in base current, with VCE held constant
βac = ∆IC/ ∆IB with VCE constant
Voltage gain
Ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage with IB held constant.
AV= ∆VCE / ∆VBE with IB constant

Note again that βac = βdc = β

3.5.3 Common collector characteristics
Common collector characteristic is similar to that of common emitter, hence not
discussed here.
3.4. BIASING METHODS
3.4.1 Introduction
One of the most common applications of transistor is in amplifiers. For a faithful
amplification we require that transistor be operated in active region throughout the
duration of input signal. To ensure this, proper dc voltages should be applied which result
to a situation called biasing.
3.4.2 Operating point
When no input signal is applied to transistor circuit, and only dc voltages are supplied,
currents IC, IB and voltage VCE will have certain values. If these values are plotted over
the transistor output characteristics, the point we get is called ‘Operating point’. It is also
called ‘Quiescent point’ or just Q-point.

Fig. 3.8: Quiescent point

In above figure, currents IBQ (the value of IB at Q), ICQ and voltage VCEQ are plotted at
point Q. In practice, we have to choose Q-point according to our requirement. If we want
to operate in the middle of active region, we may choose Q as Q-point. For Class A
amplifier (discussed later) we want Q-point to be in the middle of active region. If we
want to operate near saturation, we may choose Q’ (Q prime) as Q-point. If we want to
operate near cutoff, we may choose Q’’ as Q-point. Note that if no biasing is used, Q-
point will be in the origin of the graph. So, biasing is used to fix the Q-point according to
our need.
3.4.3 Types of bias
• Fixed bias
• Voltage divider bias (Self bias)
Fixed Bias
Base resistor RB is connected to Vcc (Instead of VBB) negative terminal of Vcc is not
shown. It is assumed to be at ground.

Fig. 3.9: Fixed bias circuit

Applying KVL to the input side, we get
VCC- IB RB - VBE=0 Rearranging, we get
IB = VCC - VBE / RB …………………………………………………….3.8
VCC is constant, VBE is almost constant (0.7V for silicon). So by selecting proper RB,
we can fix IB as required.
Applying KVL to output side we get:
VCC - IC RC- VCE =0
VCC - IC RC = VCE……………………………………………………….3.9
IC is related to IB by β.
So, VCE can be fixed by selecting proper RC.
eq (3.9) is an equation of straight line with VCE and IC as two variables. This straight
line is called load line. Again, output characteristic is also a function of same two
variables. Intersection of load line and output characteristic for particular IB gives the
common solution. This is nothing but Q-point. Figure 3.10 shows load line superimposed
on output characteristics, with Q-point marked. Now if we vary RB, Q-point moves along
the load line. If RB is held constant, and RC is varied, then slope of load line varies. If RB
and RC are held constant and VCC is varied, then load line shifts, maintaining same
slope. From these graphs we infer that, with everything else held constant, if RB is
increased, transistor goes towards cutoff, if RB is decreased, transistor goes towards
saturation.
With everything else held constant, if RC is increased, transistor goes towards saturation,
if RC is decreased, transistor goes towards active region.
With everything else held constant, if VCC is increased, transistor goes towards active
region, if VCC is decreased, transistor goes towards saturation.
Advantages of fixed bias
• Simple to analyze and design
• Uses very few circuit components
Disadvantages of fixed bias
• Q-point is not stable. i.e., if temperature varies, β will vary, hence IC will vary.
• If transistor is replaced by another transistor having different β then Q-point will
Shift.
Fig. 3.10: Load line variations
Voltage divider bias or Self bias
Uses two resistors R1 and R2 instead of RB. RE is connected between emitter and
ground

Fig. 3.11: Self bias circuit

There are two methods of analysis:
• Exact method
• Approximate method
Exact method
Input side of the above circuit is redrawn below in fig 3.12(a)

Fig 3.12: input side redrawn circuit and its Thevenin’s equivalent

Fig (a) should be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown in fig (b).VTH is the
open circuit voltage between points A & B in fig (a) given by:

VTH = VCC R2 / R1+R2……………………………………………………..3.10

Fig. 3.13: Equivalent circuit

RTH is the resistance seen between A & B with VCC replaced by short circuit. See fig
3.12. RTH = R1//R2 = R1R2/R1+R2………………………………….3.11
Self bias circuit with its input loop replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in
fig3.13.Applying KVL to the input loop we get:
VTH – IB Rth- VBE- IE RE=0……………………………………….3.12

Substituting IE =(β+1) IB
IB= VTH – VBE / Rth + (β+1) RE………………………………3.13
Applying KVL to the output loop, we get
VCC – IC RC- VCE- IE RE =0
Note that, VC= VCC - IC RC where, VC is voltage from collector to ground and, VE= IERE
where, VE is voltage from emitter to ground.
Since β >> 1, we have (β+1) ≈ β. If βRE >> RTH, then equation (3.13) reduces to:
IB = VTH - VBE / β RE…………………………………………..3.14
And IC= βIB = VTH - VBE / RE…………………………………..3.15
Since equation for IC does not contain β, we say that IC is independent of temperature
variation and transistor replacement.
Approximate method
Self bias circuit is redrawn below. From the figure we can see that compared to currents
I1 and I2 (in mA), IB (in µA) is very small.

Fig. 3.15: Self bias circuit

So, neglecting IB, voltage from base to ground is given by voltage divider rule:
VB= VCC R2/R1+R2
VB = VBE+ VE
IE = VE/RE
IC can be calculated if β is given, or else if β is very high then IC ≈IE.
VCE is given by equation (3.22).Here again, IC is independent of β, and hence it is
immune to temperature changes and replacement of transistor.
Approximate method is fairly accurate only if the following condition is satisfied:
βRE>=10R2
Advantages of voltage divider bias
• Collector current, and hence Q-point is independent of β. Hence Q-point is stable
against variation in temperature and replacement of transistor.
Disadvantages of voltage divider bias
• Analysis and design are complex
• More circuit components required
EXERCISE:
1.Find IB, IC, and Vo in the transistor circuit of Fig. below. Assume that the transistor
operates in the active mode and that β = 50.

2.For the BJT circuit in Fig. below, β = 150 and VBE = 0.7 V. Find vo.