I S C BN

(N THI THC S TON HC)

Bi 18. Khng gian vect Euclide
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
Ngy 10 thng 3 nm 2006

Cc khi nim c bn

1.1

Tch v hng v khng gian vect Euclide

nh ngha. Cho V l khng gian vect trn R. Mt tch v hng trn V l mt nh x

h,i : V V R
(, ) 7 h, i
tha cc iu kin sau: vi mi , 1 , 2 V , V vi mi a R,
i) h1 + 2 , i = h1 , i + h2 , i
ii) ha, i = ah, i
iii) h, i = h, i
iv) h, i 0
h, i = 0 khi v ch khi = 0.
Ch rng, do tnh cht i), ii). Khi c nh vect V , tch v hng l mt nh x tuyn
tnh i vi bin th nht. Do tnh cht i xng (giao hon) iii), ta d dng suy ra khi c nh
V , th tch v hng l mt nh x tuyn tnh i vi bin th 2, tc l: , , 1 , 2 V ,
a R ta c:
i) h, 1 + 2 i = h, 1 i + h, 2 i
ii) h, ai = ah, i
nh ngha
Khng gian vect trn R, trong c thm mt tch v hng c gi l khng gian vect
Euclide.
Ch
T tnh cht tuyn tnh ca tch v hng theo tng bin (tnh cht i, ii, i, ii), ta d dng
c cc cng thc sau:
h0, i = h, 0i = 0 vi mi V .
1

 Gi s =

m
X

ai i , =

i=1

h, i =

* m
X

ai i ,

i=1

1.2

n
X

bj j th:

j=1
n
X

+
bj j

j=1

= ai b j

m X
n
X

hi , j i

i=1 j=1

Cc v d

1. Cho V = Rn , = (x1 , . . . , xn ), = (y1 , . . . , yn ) V , ta nh ngha:

h, i = x1 y1 + + xn yn =

n
X

xi yi

i=1

y l mt tch v hng trn Rn v (Rn , h , i) l mt khng gian vect Euclide.

2. Cho V = C[a, b] l khng gian vect cc hm s thc lin tc trn [a, b]. Vi mi f (x),
g(x) thuc C[a, b] ta nh ngha:
Z b
f (x)g(x)dx
hf (x), g(x)i =
a

y l mt tch v hng trn C[a, b] v (C[a, b], h , i) l mt khng gian vect Euclide.

1.3

di v gc

1. nh ngha. Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Vi mi vect E, di ca vect

, k hiu l kk, l s thc khng m, xc nh nh sau:
p
kxk = hx, xi
2. Cc v d
p
(a) E = Rn , x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) Rn th kxk = x21 + + x2n
Z b
(b) E = C[a, b], f (x) C[a, b] th kf (x)k =
[f (x)]2 dx
a

3. Mt vi tnh cht c bn
Trong khng gian vect Euclide E, ta c:
kk = 0 = 0 v a R, kak = |a|.kk
Bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki
, E, |h, i| kk.kk
Du ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi cc vect , ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Chng minh
Nu = 0, bt ng thc hin nhin ng.
Nu 6= 0 th tam thc bc hai:
f (t) = h, it2 2h, it + h, i = h t, ti 0 vi mi t R.
Do , 0f 0 h, i2 h, ih, i 0 |h, i| kk.kk
2

 Bt ng thc tam gic

, E, kk kk k + k kk + kk
Chng minh. p dng bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki, ta c:
k + k2 = h + , + i
= h, i + 2h, i + h, i
kk2 + kkkk + kk2 = (kk + kk)2
Do , k + k kk + kk
Do chng minh trn, ta c:
kk = k( + ) + ()k k + k + k k = k + k + kk
Do , kk kk k + k
4. Gc gia hai vect
Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Ta gi gc gia hai vect khc khng , E
l s thc [0, ] xc nh bi:
cos =

h, i
kk.kk



 h, i 
 1 nn gc gia hai
Cn ch rng do bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki, 
kk.kk 
vet khc khng , E xc nh v duy nht.
Hai vect , E gi l trc giao, k hiu nu h, i = 0.

Nu , 6= 0 th gc gia chng l =
2
Cng thc Pitago
, E, k + k2 = kk2 + kk2
Tht vy, , E, ta c:
k + k2 = h + , + i
= h, i + 2h, i + h, i
= kk2 + kk2 + 2h, i
Do , k + k2 = kk2 + kk2 h, i = 0

2
2.1

H trc giao, h trc chun, c s trc giao, c s trc

chun
Cc khi nim c bn

Ta nhc li rng hai vect , ca khng gian vect Euclide E gi l trc giao, k hiu
nu h, i = 0.
3

 H vect 1 , . . . , m E gi l h trc giao nu chng i mt trc giao, ngha l

i j i =
6 j.
Mt c s ca E m l h trc giao, gi l c s trc giao ca E.
Vect E gi l trc giao vi tp con A E nu trc giao vi mi vect ca A. Khi
ta k hiu A.
H vect 1 , . . . , m E gi l h trc chun nu chng l h trc giao v mi vect i
l vect n v (ngha l di ca i , ki k = 1).
Nh vy, h vect 1 , . . . , m El h trc chun khi v ch khi

0 nu i 6= j
hi , j i = ij =
1 nu i = j
Mt c s ca E m l h trc chun, gi l c s trc chun ca E.
Nu 1 , . . . , m l mt h trc giao, khng cha vect khng ca E th h:
u1 =

1
,
k1 k

u2 =

2
,
k2 k

...,

um =

m
km k

l mt h trc chun ca E.
Php bin i trn ta gi l php trc chun ha mt h vect trc giao.
Nu 1 , . . . , m l c s trc giao ca E th trc chun ha c s , ta s c mt c
s trc chun ca E.
Ch rng, mt h vect trc giao khng cha vect khng th c lp tuyn tnh. Chng
minh iu ny kh n gin, xin dnh cho bn c.

2.2

Trc giao ha mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh (phng php

Gram-Schmidt

Trc giao ha
Trong khng gian Euclide E cho h vect c lp tuyn tnh 1 , 2 , . . . , m . Khi , h
vect:
1 = 1
2 = 2

h2 , 1 i
1
h1 , 1 i

..
.
m = m

m1
X
i=1

hm , i i
i
hi , i i

l h vect trc giao, c lp tuyn tnh trong E, v h1 , . . . , m i = h1 , . . . , m i

Php chuyn t h vect 1 , . . . , m sang h vect trc giao 1 , . . . , m nh trn gi l
php trc giao ha h vect 1 , . . . , m .
Ch
4

 Nu 1 , . . . , m l c s ca khng gian vect con U ca khng gian vect Euclide

E, (U = h1 , . . . , m i), trc giao ha h vect 1 , . . . , m ta c h vect trc giao
1 , . . . , m v U = h1 , . . . , m i = h1 , . . . , m i.
Do , 1 , . . . , m chnh l c s trc giao ca U .
T ch trn, mt khng gian Euclide E lun c c s trc chun.
Tht vy, tm c s trc chun ca E, u tin ta tm mt c s 1 , . . . , m bt
k ca E, sau trc giao ha c s trn ta c c s trc giao 1 , . . . , m ca E.
Cui cng, trc chun ha c s trc giao 1 , . . . , m , ta s c c s trc chun
u1 , . . . , um ca E.
Cng lu bn c rng, trong qu trnh trc giao ha h vect 1 , . . . , m , n gin
cho qu trnh tnh ton, ta c th thay vect i bi mt vect t l vi i . Sau y l
mt v d:
V d
Trong khng gian vet Euclide R4 , cho khng gian vect con U sinh bi cc vect:
1 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
2 = (0, 1, 1, 0)
3 = (1, 1, 1, 1)
4 = (1, 2, 1, 2)
(U = h1 , 2 , 3 , 4 i)
Tm mt c s trc chun ca U .
Gii
tm c s trc chun ca U , u tin ta tm mt c s ca U . H con c lp tuyn
tnh ti i ca 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 l mt c s ca U . T ta c 1 , 2 , 3 l mt c s ca
U.
Tip theo, trc giao ha h vect 1 , 2 , 3 c mt c s trc giao ca U .
Ta c:
1 = 1 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
1
h2 , 1 i
1 = (0, 1, 1, 0) (0, 1, 0, 1) =
2 = 2
h1 , 1 i
2

1
1
0, , 1,
2
2

php tnh tip theo n gin hn, ta c th chn 2 = (0, 1, 2, 1).

h3 , 1 i h3 , 2 i
2
2
3 = 3
1
2 = (1, 1, 1, 1) (0, 1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 2, 1) =
h1 , 1 i h2 , 2 i
2
6

1 1 1
1, , ,
3 3 3

n gin, ta c th chn 3 = (3, 1, 1, 1).

Vy c s trc giao ca U l:
1 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
2 = (0, 1, 2, 1)
3 = (3, 1, 1, 1)
Trc chun ha c s trc giao 1 , 2 , 3 , ta c c s trc chun ca U l:
5


1
1
e1 = 0, , 0,
2
2


1 2 1
e2 = 0, , ,
6 6 6


3
1
1
1
, , ,
e3 =
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3

Hnh chiu trc giao v ng trc giao

3.1

nh l - nh ngha

Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide, v U l khng gian vect con ca E. Khi mi vect
E u vit c duy nht di dng:
= 0 +
trong 0 U v U .
Vect 0 gi l hnh chiu trc giao ca vect ln U , cn = 0 l ng trc giao
h t xung U .
Chng minh
Gi s e1 , . . . , ek l mt c s trc chun ca U . V 0 U nn 0 c dng:
0 = x1 e1 + + xk ek
Ta cn tm x1 , . . . , xk = 0 U .
= 0 U 0 ej , j = 1, 2, . . . , k
h 0 , ej i = 0
h, ej i h0 , ej i = 0
h, ej i


xi ei , ej = 0

i=1

h, ej i xj = 0
xj = h, ej i
Vy vect 0 xc nh duy nht bi
0

k
X

h, ej i.ej

j=1

trong e1 , . . . , ek l mt c s trc chun ca U , cn vect xc nh bi = 0 .

3.2

Cch tm hnh chiu trc giao

Cho khng gian vect Euclide E, v U l khng gian vect con ca E. Cho vect E.
tm hnh chiu trc giao ca vect ln U , ta c th tm bng hai cch sau:
6

1. Cch 1. Tm mt c s trc chun e1 , e2 , . . . , ek ca U . Khi hnh chiu trc giao 0 ca

vect xc nh bi cng thc:
0 = h, e1 i.e1 + h, e2 i.e2 + + + h, ek i.ek
2. Gi s u1 , . . . , uk l c s bt k ca U . V 0 U nn 0 = x1 u1 + + xk uk . Ta cn
tm x1 , . . . , xk vect 0 U .
0 U
0 uj vi j = 1, 2, . . . , k
h0 , uj i = h, uj i
x1 hu1 , uj i + x2 hu2 , uj i + + xk huk , uj i = h, uj i
Ln lt cho j = 1, 2, . . . , k, ta c x1 , . . . , xk l nghim ca h phng trnh sau:

hu1 , u1 ix1 + hu2 , u1 ix2 + + huk , u1 ixk = h, u1 i

hu1 , u2 ix1 + hu2 , u2 ix2 + + huk , u2 ixk = h, u2 i

()
..

hu , u ix + hu , u ix + + hu , u ix = h, u i
1
1 k
2
k
2
k
k
k
k
Nh vy, tm hnh chiu 0 ca ln U , ta cn tm mt c s u1 , . . . , uk ca U , sau
lp h phng trnh (). Gii h () ta s c nghim duy nht (x1 , . . . , xk ). Khi :
0 = x 1 u1 + + x k u k .
V d
Trong khng gian Euclide R4 cho khng gian vect con U sinh bi cc vect:
1 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
2 = (0, 1, 1, 0)
3 = (1, 1, 1, 1)
4 = (1, 2, 1, 2)
(U = h1 , 2 , 3 , 4 i)
Tm hnh chiu trc giao ca vect x = (1, 1, 0, 0) ln U .
Gii
Cch 1 :
u tin ta tm mt c s trc chun ca U . v d trc ta tm c mt c s trc
chun ca U l:


1
1
e1 = 0, , 0,
2
2 

1 2 1
e2 = 0, , ,
6 6 6


3
1
1
1
, , ,
e3 =
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
Do , hnh chiu trc giao ca x l:
x0 = hx, e1 ie1 + hx, e2 ie2 + hx, e3 ie3
1
1
1
= e1 + e2 + e3
2
6
3


=

1 1 1 1
, , ,
2 2 2 2

Cch 2 :
u tin tm mt c s ca U . D thy 1 , 2 , 3 l mt c s ca U . Sau lp h phng
trnh dng ().
Ta c:
h1 , 1 i = 2
h2 , 1 i = 1
h3 , 1 i = 2
hx, 1 i = 1
h2 , 2 i = 2
h3 , 2 i = 2
hx, 2 i = 1
h3 , 3 i = 4
hx, 3 i = 2
Do , h phng trnh () trong trng hp ny c dng:

2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 1
x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 1

2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 2

y l h Cramer, gii h ny ta c x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 =
ca vect x l:

1
x = 01 + 02 + 3 =
2
0

3.3

1 1 1 1
, , ,
2 2 2 2

1
. Do , hnh chiu trc giao
2

nh ngha

Cho U l khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E v l vect thuc E. Khi
gc gia hai vect v hnh chiu trc giao 0 cng c gi l gc gia vect v khng gian
con U .
di ca ng thng trc giao = 0 t n U gi l khong cch t vect
n U .

Php bin i trc giao v php bin i i xng

4.1

Hai khng gian Euclide ng cu

Cho hai khng gian vect Euclide E1 vi tch v hng h , i1 v E2 vi tch v hng h , i2 .
Ta ni E1 ng cu vi E2 , k hiu E1
= E2 nu tn ti ng cu gia hai khng gian vect
f : E1 E2 tha:
, E1 , h, i1 = hf (), f ()i2
Quan h ng cu l mt quan h tng ng v ta c kt qu sau:
nh l. Hai khng gian Euclide ng cu khi v ch khi chng c cng s chiu.

Chng minh
Nu E1
= E2 th theo nh ngha E1 , E2 l cc khng gian vect ng cu nn
dim E1 = dim E2 .
Ngc li, gi s dim E1 = dim E2 = n v 1 , . . . , n (), 1 , . . . , n () ln lt l c
s trc chun ca E1 v E2 . Khi tn ti nh x tuyn tnh f : E1 E2 , f (i ) = i ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n. V f bin c s thnh c s nn f l ng cu khng gian vect. Ta chng minh
hx, yi1 = hf (x), f (y)i2 .
Tht vy, x, y E1 , ta c:
n
X
x=
xi i
i=1

y=

n
X

yi j

j=1

Khi :
hx, yi1 =
=

X
X

xi i ,

yj j

xi yj hi , j i1

i,j

n
X

xi yi

i=1

X

hf (x), f (y)i2 = f (
xi , i ), f (
yj j ) 2
X

X

=
xi f (i ),
yj f (j ) 2
X

X

=
xi i ),
yj j 2
X
=
xi yj hi , j i2
=

n
X

xi yi

i=1

Vy hx, yi1 = hf (x), f (y)i2 v E1

= E2 .

4.2
4.2.1

Php bin i trc giao

Ma trn trc giao

Ma trn vung A gi l ma trn trc giao nu A1 = At (At : ma trn chuyn v ca A).

4.2.2

nh ngha

Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Mt php bin i tuyn tnh f ca E gi l php bin
i trc giao ca E nu f bo ton tch v hng, tc l:
, E,

h, i = hf (), f ()i

D thy, php bin i trc giao l mt song nh v:

f () = 0 hf (), f ()i = 0 h, i = 0 = 0
Tnh cht c bn nht ca php bin i trc giao c cho trong nh l sau.
9

4.2.3

nh l

Cho f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca khng gian vect Euclide E. Khi cc khng nh
sau tng ng:
1. f l php bin i trc giao.
2. f bin c s trc chun ca E thnh c s trc chun ca E.
3. Ma trn ca f trong mt c s trc chun l ma trn trc giao.
Chng minh
1) 2) Gi s e1 , . . . , en l c s trc chun ca E. Khi :

1 nu i = j
hei , ej i = ij =
0 nu i 6= j
V f l php bin i trc giao, nn:

hf (ei ), f (ej )i = hei , ej i = ij =

1 nu i = j
0 nu i 6= j

Do , f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ) l c s trc chun.

2) 3) Ma trn ca f trong c s trc chun e1 , . . . , en theo nh ngha chnh l ma trn i
c s t e1 , . . . , en sang c s trc chun f (e1 ), . . . , f (en ). V ma trn i c s gia hai
c s trc chun l ma trn trc giao (xem bi tp 10) nn ma trn ca f trong c s
trc chun l ma trn trc giao.
3) 1) Gi s e1 , . . . , en
(At = A1 ).

(e) l c s trc chun ca E v A = Af /(e) l ma trn trc giao

Vi , E, = a1 e1 + + an en , = b1 e1 + + bn en
Khi ,
h, i = []t/(e) []/(e)
= []t/(e) I[]/(e)
= []t/(e) A1 A[]/(e)
= []t/(e) At A[]/(e)
= (A[]/(e) )t (A[]/(e) )
= [f ()]t/(e) .[f ()]/(e)
= hf (), f ()i

4.3
4.3.1

Php bin i i xng

nh ngha

Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Php bin i tuyn tnh f ca E gi l php bin i
i xng nu , E : hf (), i = h, f ()i.

10

4.3.2

nh l

Mt php bin i tuyn tnh ca E l php bin i i xng khi v ch khi ma trn ca
f trong mt c s trc chun l ma trn i xng.
Chng minh
Gi s f : E E l php bin i tuyn tnh, ma trn ca f trong c s trc chun
e1 , . . . , en l A = [aij ]. Khi :
n
X
f (ei ) =
aki ek
k=1

Vi mi i, j ta c:
n
n

X
 X
hf (ei ), ej i =
aki ek , ej =
aki hek , ej i = aji
k=1

hei , f (ej )i = ei ,

n
X

k=1

akj ek =

n
X

k=1

akj hei , ek i = aij

k=1

Nu f l php bin i i xng, th hf (ei ), ej i = hei , f (ej )i. Do , aji = aij . Vy ma

trn A l ma trn i xng.
Nu ma trn A i xng, tc l aji = aij th hf (ei ), ej i = hei , f (ej )i i, j.
n
n
X
X
Nu =
xi ei , =
yj ej ca E th:
i=1

j=1

hf (), i =

xi f (ei ),

X
 X
yj ej =
xi yj hf (ei ), ej i =
xi yj hei , f (ej )i
i,j

xi ei ,


yj f (ej )

= h, f ()i
Vy f l php bin i i xng.

11

i,j