Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

35.2 Stepped or Cascade Spillways (Fig. 35.4)

Recent advances in technology have led to the construction of large dams, reservoirs
and channels. This progress has necessitated the provision of adequate flood disposal
facilities and safe dissipation of the energy of the flow, which may be achieved by
providing steps on the spillway face. Stepped channels and Spillways are used since
more than 3000 years. Stepped spillway is generally a modification on the downstream
face of a standard profile for an uncontrolled ogee spillway. At some distance in the
downstream of the spillway crest, steps are fitted into the spillway profile such that the
envelope of their tips follows the standard profile down to the toe of the spillway. A
stepped chute design increases higher energy dissipation and thus reduces greatly the
need for a large energy dissipator at the toe of the spillway or chute.

Spillway

Stepped Spillway
Step height Sh
Length of the step ls

Figure 35.4 - Definition Sketch of a Stepped Spillway

Stepped spillway was quite common in the 19th century and present practice is
confined to simple geometries ( e.g. flat horizontal steps in prismatic chutes). Generally,
a stepped channel geometry is used in channels with small - slope: for river training, in
sewers and storm waterways and channels downstream of bottom outlets, launder of
chemical processing plants, waste waterways of treatment plants and step -pool
streams.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Detailed investigation into its various elements started only about 1978 with the
comprehensive laboratory tests by Essery and Horner (1978).
During the 19th century and early 20 th century, Stepped waste - waterways ( also
called ' byewash' ) were commonly used to assist with energy dissipation of the flow
(CHANSON 1995, "Hydraulic design of stepped Cascade channels, Weirs and
Spillway", pergamon UK, 292 pages Jan 1995). Now a days stepped spillways are often
associated with roller compacted concrete ( RCC ) dams.
The stepped geometry is appropriate to the RCC placement techniques and enhances
the rate of energy dissipation compared to a smooth chute design. A related application
is the overtopping protection of embankments with RCC overlays ( e.g. ASCE Task
Force Report, 1994.
Alternatives for over topping protection of Dam - Task force Commitee on over topping
protection, 139 pages).

35.2.1 Suitability
Energy dissipation below hydraulic structures is accomplished generally by single -fall
hydraulic jump type stilling basins, roller buckets or trajectory buckets. However, when
the kinetic energy at the toe of the spillway would be high. The tail water depths in the
river are often inadequate. Then first two devices, cannot be used as in the case of high
head dams.

In narrow curved gorges consisting of fractured rocks, buckets cannot be used. In such
situations, a system of cascading falls down the side of a valley, with a stilling basin in
the downstream, can be used as an alternative spillway. Cascade spillways can be
used for any type of dam irrespective of the material of construction.
The only disadvantage with stepped spillway is that at large discharges, as the jet is not
aerated for some distance downstream of the spillway, low pressure may occur and
lead to cavitation damage.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

35.2.2 Physical Modelling of Stepped Spillway

Free surface flows are commonly modelled using Froude similitude. The various flow
elements,
(1) the role of the steps in enhancing turbulent dissipation as well as their interaction
with other adjacent steps and,
(ii ) the effect of aerated flow make it difficult to model.

35.2.3 Classification of Flow

The concept of stepped spillway was used as early as 1892 - 1906 in New Croton dam.
Lombardi and Marquenent were first to consider stepped spillway consisting of concrete
drop spillway and intermediate erodible river reaches. The slopes of these reaches were
such that a hydraulic jump occurred at the base of each drop. However, the
experimental studies revealed three types of flows over a stepped spillway, namely,
nappe flow, partial nappe flow (intermediate(transition)) and skimming flow.
A stepped chute consists of a open channel with a series of drops in the invert. For a
given chute profile, the flow patten may be either nappe flow at low flow rates, transition
flow for intermediate discharges or skimming flow at larger flow rates.

Nappe Flow
This type of flow occurs for small discharges. The flow cascades over the steps, falls in
a series of plunges from one step to another in a thin layer that clings to the face of
each step, with the energy dissipation occurring by breaking of the jet in the air, impact
of jet on the step, mixing on the step, with or without the formation of a partial hydraulic
jump on the step. The step height sh must be relatively large for nappe flow. This
situation may apply to relatively flat stepped channels or at low flow rates.
The depths can be determined from the expressions,
Following equations to be checked for notations:

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

y1

Sh 1
y1

Sh 1

q2
= 0.54 3
gSh

0.425
(35.1)

0.27

0.22
yc q2

=
Sh1 gS3h
1

q2
= 1.66 3
gS h

(35.2)

(35.3)

However, the steps for a nappe flow or plunge pool type of flow need to be relatively
large. In otherwords, tread requires to be larger than the depth of flow. This requires
downstream slope of dam face to be relatively flatter. Chanson observes that if slope of
downstream face is greater than 1 : 5, the nappe flow system becomes uneconomical
except in case of embankment type structure or steep rivers.

Partial Nappe Flow (Fig.35.5)

In this type of flow, the nappe does not fully impinge on the step surface and it
disperses with considerable turbulence. Flow is super - critical down the length of the
spillway.

yc

yp

yp

Figure 35.5 - Partial nappe flow

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

For a given step geometry, an increase in flow rate may lead to intermediate flow patten
between nappe and skimming flow - the transition flow regime also called a partial
nappe flow. The transition flow is characterised by a pool of circulating water and often
accompanied by a very small air bubble (cavity), and significant water spray and the
deflection of water jet immediately downstream of the stagnation point. Downstream of
the spray region, the supercritical flow decelerates upto the downstream step edge. The
transition flow pattern exhibits significant longitudinal variations of the flow properties on
each step. It does not present the coherent appearance of skimming flows.

Skimming Flow (Fig. 35.6)

In skimming flow regimes, the water flows down the stepped face as a coherent stream,
skimming over the steps and cushioned by the recirculating fluid trapped between them.
The external edges of the steps form a pseudobottom over which the flow skims.
Beneath this, recirculating vortices form and are sustained through the transmission of
shear stress from the water flowing past the edge of the steps. At the upstream end, the
flow is transparent and has glossy appearance and no air entrainment takes place. After
a few steps the flow is characterised by air entrainment similar to a self -aerated flow
down a smooth invert spillway. In case of the skimming flow, at each step, whether air
entrainment occurs or otherwise, a stable vortex develops and the overlying flow moves
down the spillway supported by these vortices, which behave as solid boundary for the
skimming flow, and the tips of the steps. There is a continous exchange of flow between
top layer and vortices formed on steps. The flow rotates in the vortex for a brief period
and then returns to the main flow to proceed on down the spillway face. Similarly, air
bubbles penetrate and rotate with the vortex flow, when aeration takes place.
Transition from one type of flow to another is gradual and continuous, as a result both
the nappe flow and the skimming flow, appear simultaneously in a certain range, one of
them on some steps and other on the remaining, both changing spatially and
temporarily.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

sh
l

yc

Recirculating
flow

V0

Figure 35.6 - Fully developed skimming flow

35.2.4 Transition from Crest to Initial Steps
Sorensen found the free surface jet to be smooth down to the point of inception of air
entrainment. This point of inception moves progressively upstream as the discharge
decreases. However, for very small discharge, the jet after striking the first step was
redirected outward and skips several steps before it strikes the spillway face again
several steps further down. This could be overcome by introducing few smaller steps on
upper reaches of the spillway.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

35.2.5 Basic Equation for Skimming Flow

Consider a skimming flow in which dominant feature is the momentum exchange
between the free stream and the cavity flow within the steps. Basic dimensional analysis
yields ( Figure 35.6 ),

f1 ( V , y , Sh , ls , ks , g, , , )= 0
1
for horizontal steps, = tan -1 (S / l ).

h1

(35.4)

Using Buckingum pi- theorem equation can be written as

V

V y Sh k
f2 , , 1 , s , = 0

ls Sh
gy

(35.5)

__

V0
y0

Velocity Distribution

Mixing layer

Shear layer edges

sh
ls
Cavity (bubble)
Figure 35.7 - Hydrodynamic feature of a skimming flow
While deriving the above equation the interaction of adjacent steps and the effect of air
entrainment has not been taken into account. Hence, Froude number similitude alone
cannot describe the complexity of stepped spillway flows completely.
Chanson showed that Froude number has no effect on flow resistance and that
Reynolds number might not have a substantial effect and that the form drag was related
primarily to step cavity geometry. It was also reported that in case of small scale models
the developing flow regimes and flow resistance were not correctly reproduced.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

35.2.6 Onset of Skimming Flow

Onset of skimming flow occurs when the space between the water surface at the two
consecutive edges of the steps is filled up with water, there by, creating a smooth
surface of water parallel to the average slope of the spillway face - the condition very
difficult to establish analytically. Therefore, empirical equations have been proposed by
many investigators for the delineation of the skimming flow from nappe flow over
stepped spillway.

Essery and Horner reported that it is very difficult to distinguish between nappe and
skimming flow for flatter slopes having S h1 / ls < 0.4 .

Based on available data Rajaratnam found the skimming flow to occur for yc / S h1 > 0.8 .
On the other hand, Stephenson introduced a term called Drop number, D= q 2 / gS h31

to distinguish between nappeflow [ D< 0.6 ] and skimming flow [ D > 0.6]
Peyras, et al. studied gabion dams consisting of four step element each 0.2 m high.
It was found that the transition from nappe to skimming flow occurs for a discharge of
approximately 1.5 m3 / s /m or at yc / S h1 < 0.5 while Degoutte found the onset of
skimming flow on gabion steps to occur at yc / S h1 = 0.74 for S h1 / ls = 0.33 and at 0.62 for
S h1 / ls = 1.0 . Based on the available data, Chanson developed a regression equation

for the onset of skimming flow, namely.

yc
>
sh

In which k1 = 1 +

1
Fb2

Fb2 / 3 k1
cos b
1 + 2Fb2 (k1 )3/ 2 1

k1

, Fb is the Froude number at the brink of the step and

b is the

streamline angle with the horizontal. This equation is applicable to the accelerated flow
and may predict jet deflection at the first step of the cascade.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

1.40
Skimming Flow

1.20

Essery and Horner

PEYRAS et al.
STEPHENSON
BEITZ and LAWLESS
MONTES
KELLS
RU et al. (1994)
HORNER (1969)
ELVIRO and MATEOS

1.00

0.80
yc / sh
0.60

-20% Band
+20% Band
Transition fully / partially developed jump
HORNER [NA1/NA2]

0.40

0.20

Nappe Flow

0.00
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

sh / ls

Figure 35.8 - Onset of skimming / Nappe flow

35.2.7 Prediction of the flow regime
The type of stepped flow regime is a function of the discharge and step geometry.
Chanson has reanalysed a large number of experimental data related to change in flow
regimes. Most of the data were obtained with flat horizontal steps .
Overall the result suggest that the upper limit of nappe flow may be approximated as:
y

c =0.89 - 0.4 Sh
(35.6)
ls
Sh
in which y c is the critical depth, Sh is the step height, and
ls is the step length. The above equation indicates the transition
of flow from nappe to transition flow regime.
While the lower limits of skimming flow may be estimated as.
y

c = 1.2 0.325 Sh
Sh
ls
on set of skimming flow is given by
y

(35.7)

c > 1.057 0.465 Sh

ls
Sh
Further the equation 2 indicates the change of flow from
transition flow to skimming flow region.
Two issues must be clearly under stood.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 were fitted for flat horizontal steps with Sh/ls ranging from 0.05 to
1.7

( i.e 3.4 < < 60o ); there is no information on their validity outside of that range

and their accuracy is no better than 10 %; Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 characterise a
change in flow regime for uniform or quasiuniform flows only.

For rapidly varied flows, the results are not valid. For example, at the upstream end of a
stepped chute, the accelerating water may flow as thick free falling nappes before
changing to a skimming flow regime further down stream. However, Peyras et al. data,
which are for gabion (which is pervious in nature) stepped spillway, and may have
different characteristic of flow, which requires to be established. Later on, Chanson also
presented an analytical approach for the prediction of the onset of skimming flow
expressing yc / S h1 as a function of Froude number at brink of the step angle of striking
jet on the tread of the step assuming that the angle of striking jet is equal to the
downstream slope of spillway at the onset of skimming flow. However, no guidelines for
prediction of Froude number at the step edge has been provided which renders the
estimation of yc / S h1 difficult.

Tatewar and Ingle studied the energy dissipation capacity of an inclined spillway and
developed the following regression equation using available data
with range of S h1 / ls from 0.4 to 0.85 and 0 from 0o to 20o to , to distinguish between
nappe and skimming flow.
Sh
yc
= 0.888 0.00385 0 0.01195 1
(35.8)
Sh1
ls
They found that for slopes steeper than 0.9, the possibility of nappe flow reduces considerably.
All the data when plotted in terms of Z = [(

yc
) + 0.00385 0 ] and
Sh1

region of skimming flow as shown in Figure 35.9.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Sh1

represented the
ls

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

0.9
Tatewar and Ingle
0.8
Chanson

Rajaratnam
0.7

0.6
0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

sh1/l
Figure 35.9 - Onset of skimming flow

35.2.8 Coefficient of Friction

Noori studied in detail stepped steep open channel flows and reported a drag coefficient
of 0.19 for ( S h1 / ls = 0.2 and
M = 62 [ { y + ( S h1 / 2 ) for S h1 > 6 ] and, 0.17 for ( S h1 / ls ) = 0.1 and M= 100 [ { y + ( S h1 /
2 ) for S h1 > 10 ].
In this, the value of y can be estimated at any point on the spillway as,
y=

0.5

[ 2g(z -H)]

in which z is the vertical distance below the crest measured to the water surface at the
point where y is to be determined.
The value of for a stepped block was found to be considerably smaller than that for
smooth spillway for large value of (ls/ yc);

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

S h1 is the length of the step) and slope of the spillway, and hence, a considerable

energy loss at the toe of the stepped spillway.

Based on the avilable data, Rajaratnam suggested the following equation for the
variation of coefficient of friction, c f , for aerated skimming flow.

cf =

2y03 gs0
q2

The value of c f was found to be 0.18 as compared to 0.0065 for smooth spillway, while
Christodoulou (1993) found c f to vary from 0.076 to 0.89 and , c f being higher down
the steps.
Tozzi evaluated the friction factor on stepped chutes of slope 1:2 ( V: H ) by analysing
the energy loss of air flowing in a closed conduit with roughness elements designed to
simulate the slope,
The value of is found to be f = 0.09. It was noted that the value is overestimated if
uniformly aerated flow conditions are not attained. Matos and Quentela concluded that a
value of f = 0.1 can be safely considered for the preliminary hydraulic design of stepped
spillway for slopes around 1 : 0.75 ( V: H ), typical of concrete gravity dams.

35.2.9 Energy Loss on Stepped Spillway

When an overflow is smoothly directed to an outlet structure by the chute where a
concentrated energy dissipation takes place, the cascade corresponds to a distributed
dissipator. Hence, the terminal structure has only smaller area of energy to dissipate,
and would be significantly smaller. A quantitative comparison between the conventional
system chute - stilling basin and the spillway cascade is shown in figures. The latter
type is suited for small and medium discharges and has recently gained some
popularity with Roller Compacted Concrete dams.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

boundary layer

Point of
inception

Growth of boundary layer

Energy Line

PI
RVF

UAF

PHJ

GVF
DZ

PI = Point of Inception
RVF = Rapidly Varied Flow
GVF = Gradually Varied Flow
DZ = Developing Zone
UAF = Uniformily Aerated Flow Region
PHJ = Pre-entrained Hydraulic Jump

Skimming Flow
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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

The typical geometry of the stepped spillway with the standard crest geometry and
increasing step height up to the point of tangency T are shown in the above figure.
The free surface profile is smooth upto crest inspite of the development of vortex in
each step. The transition to rough surface flow occurs beyond point A where the air
entrainment is initiated. The hydraulic features of the cascade spillway as compared to
chute flow are:

the flow depth is much larger than in a chute due to the highly turbulent cascade
flow, and higher sidewalls are required,

more air is entrained and the spray action may become an important issue.

abrasion can be a serious problem for flows with sediment or with floating debris.
In cascade spillways two flow types may occur as shown in Figure.

Nappe flow: is the flow from each step hits the next step as a falling jet;

Skimming flow: the flow remains coherent over the individual steps.

The onset of skimming flow occurs for yc /sh > 0.8, where yc is the critical depth
and sh is the height of the step. When uniform cascade flow occurs in long
channels, skimming flow dissipates more energy than nappeflow. However,
nappe flow is more efficient for a short cascade than skimming flow (Chanson,
1994) the energy dissipated hf relative to the drop height Hodepends on the drop
Froude number and the slope of the spillway.

Stephenson ( 1991 ) expressed the relative energy loss as

H 0.84 -1/3
=
F
H0 0.25

(1)

in which H is the energy loss over a height H0, F0 is the

0.5

q
Froude Number = 3 , and is expressed in degrees in the above equation.
gH 0
The energy dissipated H relative to the drop height H0 depends on the drop Froude
number Fo = q

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( gH )
3
o

and slope of the spillway.

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Accordingly, the effect of slope is small, where as the dam height has considerable
influence on the head loss. Christodoulou (1993) studied the effect of number of steps N
on the energy dissipation H / H0. He introduced the parameter hc= yc / ( Nsh ) with yc =
(q2 /g) 1 / 3 as critical depth sh as the step height and found for hc < 0.25

H
= exp(30 h2c )
(2)
H
By Increasing the number of steps the energy dissipation can be increased and hence
the performance of the stepped spillway.

For a long cascade, above 90% of mechanical energy is dissipated along the cascade
and only a small Portion of energy must be dissipated in the stilling basin.
According to Stephenson ( 1991 ) the efficiency of the cascade spillway depends mainly
on its height and the specific discharge and marginally on the slope.
The cascade flow may reach a state of nearly uniform flow (subscript n) which may be
approximated with ls , as step length ( Vischer and Hager. 1995).
h n = 0.23 [l 4s q6 / ( sh g 3 )]1 / 2

(3)

Diez-Cascon et al. (1991) conducted experimental investigation on a cascade spillway

of step size ls / sh = 0.75 and slope = 53, followed by a horizontal stilling basin . The
sequent depth ratio varied with the approach Froude number F1 as

Yr = 2.9 F12 /3
The resulting tailwater depth is higher than for the classical hydraulic jump, however,
the value F 1 for cascade flow is much smaller. The above equation is valid for uniform
approach flow. One may derive the following equation.

Fn2 / 3 = 7. 3 ( hn / l s )1/ 3
and Yr = 21.1 ( hn / ls )1 / 3

(4)

The sequent depth ratio varies slightly with the uniform flow depth relative to the step
height.

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

According to Chanson ( 1994) the onset of nappe flow occurs for y c > y c where
y*c
s
= 1.057 0.465 h
sh
ls
In the transitional regime between nappe and skimming flow hydraulic instability occurs
*

which should be avoided to prevent the problems with vibration of structures.

For skimming flow, the resistance characteristics are governed by the distance between
two adjacent step edges, protruding into the flow. Even though Chanson (1994)
analysed the hydraulics of skimming flow, there is inadequate data to describe uniform
cascade flow. A basic investigation is needed to obtain further information.
Though, it was clearly stated as early as 1970 that the adavantage of steps is to
dissipate energy a little at a time but this is true only at low flow rates.
Where as, the energy dissipation occurs due to jet breakup in the air, jet mixing on the
step, with or with out the formation of a partial hydraulic jump on the steps in case of
nappe flow; the energy dissipation in skimming flow occurs due to the momentum
transfer to the recirculating fluid. Hence, the methods required for estimation of the
energy loss need to be different for the two types. In general, about 88% to 94 %
reduction in kinetic energy was noted from the velocity measurements at the spillway
toe without and with steps. For isolated nappe flow, Peyras et al., presented an
equation (see table) for determining the energy loss below the stepped gabion

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Authors
Peyras et al.
(1992)

Remarks
Isolated
nappe

Rajarathnam,
1990
Tatewar and
Ingle (1999)

skimming
flow
Relative
loss (upper
limit of
energy
loss)
Chamani and Relative
Rajarathnam loss

Energy loss equation

q2
E = Ns h + 1.5 yc -
2gy 2

1
88.89 % of self aerated flow
E
=
E0

yc
1 + 1.25 Cd2

H dam + Head over spillway

yc N 1
+ 1 fi
(1 f ) 1 + 1.5

s h i =1
E

= 1

E0

yc

N + 1.5 s

in which f is the proportion of energy loss per step a function

s
y
of c and h
sh
ls

Tatewar and
Ingle (1966)

Regression
analysis for

f = -0.1169 - 0.8221 log

f
Chanson

in terms of
friction
factor f

1/ 3

8 sin
E0 E

=1E0

yc
s
+ 0.0675 log - 0.5481 log h
sh
ls

f
cos + 0.5

8 sin
H dam
15 +
yc

2/3

It was found that actual dissipation could be 10 % more in case of gabions as compared
to concrete steps due to factors like infiltration in to the gabions, difference in surface
roughness and spillway slope. It was also found that their equation is valid within 10% in
case of partial nappe flow.

Rajaratnam, found the ratio of energy dissipation by skimming flow to the energy
contained in the flow down a smooth spillway is about 89%. He has assumed that the
flow is uniform skimming flow which implies a high spillway,
with many steps. The residual energy varies from 9 % to 12 % depending on the
discharge. Christodoulou in 1993 studied the effect of number of steps on energy
dissipation in case of skimming flow.

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Using his own data for S h1 / ls = 0.7 and for N = 15 (number of steps) as well as the
avilable data for hc < 25, where hc = ( yc / NSh ), he showed for the same discharge the
energy dissipation increases with the increase in the number of steps. The dissipation
may be significantly less on moderately stepped spillway when compared to the uniform
flow on high spillway. As he has not consider the effect of ls / S h1 and, the energy loss
by the steps in the curved portion is likely to be more, the results of Christodoulou is not
applicable to prototype. Using the weir formula to express discharge over the spillway in
terms of head over the spillway including velocity of approach head, Tatewar and Ingle
derived a simplified expression for energy loss (upper limit of energy dissipation) using
the equation for the discharge over the weir and is given by

E
E0

yc
9
1 + Cd2

8
H dam + H

Chamani and Rajaratnam established a relation for the energy dissipation in jet flow.
Tatewar and Ingle based on regression analysis fitted an equation for the proportion of
energy per step for the range of from 5 to 20 Sh / ls from 0.421 to 0.842 and
1
(

yc
) from 0.05 to 0.833.
Sh
1

They concluded that energy dissipation is more in case of inclined steps and f
increases marginally for steeper slope and that the increase of f is comparatively
larger for flatter slopes.

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1.00

=5
= 10
= 15
= 20
0

0.90

Inclined steps

0.80
0.70
X

0.60

=0
Horizontal steps
0

0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.15
0.05

0.1

yc/sh1

0.5

Variation of X with yc/sh1

35.2.10 Effect of Air Entrainment

For higher discharges the point of inception of air entrainment occurs past the end of
the spillway section and move progressively up as the discharge decreases.
Typically, the depth decreases from the crest inception point, beyond which, owing to
the bulking of the flow, the depth continuously
increases towards the spillway toe. At very low Reynolds number, the nappe does not
break and energy loss is affected.

Aeration of cascades
The Quality of waters of rivers, streams, creeks etc is often expressed in terms of the
dissolved oxygen content ( DOC). Low dissolved oxygen value often does not allow the
development as well may cause the death of aquatic life forms and indicates some form
of pollution associated with excessive waste water inflows. In natural streams, obtain
the DOC from the aeration of the free surface.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

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Stepped cascades are characterised by a large amount of self aeration and it may be
used to reoxygenate depleted waters. In rivers, artificial stepped cascades and weirs
have been built to enhance the DOC of polluted or eutrophic streams.
Stepped cascades are also built in the downstream reach of large dams to re-oxygenate
water.

Example: Labyrinth weir crest length of 640 m, single drop 2.3 m, design discharge 14
to 68 m3/s at South Houlston weir, USA and the two-step labyrinth drop structure (2
drops of 2 m height and design discharge of 110 m3/s) of 640 m buit by the French
Electricity Commission downstream of the Petit -Saut Dam ( the Petit-Saut Dam is a
RCC construction) installed with an overflow stepped spillway. The downstream
stepped cascade is designed to re- oxygenete the tailrace waters of power station (
depleted in oxygen ). Further, there is a series of five aeration cascades built along the
Calumet waterway in Chicago. The waterfalls are designed to re-oxygenate the polluted
canal and combine flow aeration and aesthetics to create recreation parks.
Stepped cascades could be used to reduce the dissolved nitrogen content also.
In the treatment of drinking water, cascade aeration is used to remove dissolved gases (
e.g. chlorine).

35.2.11 Air entrainment in Nappe Flow Regime

Typical air concentration profiles based on the experimental investigation by Chanson
and Toombes are shown in the figure.

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Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Impact Point

Spray Rebound Reattachment

Air Cavity

90 %

50 %

Longitudinal Variation of Air Concentration (isocons) along the nappe

Centre line of Step 2 qw = 0.150 m2/s after Chanson and Toombes,
June - 1997
The un-ventilated air cavity, the impact point and the spray region are also indicated.
The main features of the air - water flow on step for q = 0.15 m2s-1 are:

the large air-cavity beneath the nappe,

the sidewall standing waves and the spray ( i.e. rebounding waters ),

the large amount of flow aeration in the spary region,

the de- trainment at the spray re-attachment, and

the substantial free-surface aeration at the end of the step ( i.e. C = 19% )

The flow patterns of the air - water flow on a down stream step : for the same flow rate
at the cascade ( step No.9). (Sh = 0.143, ls = 2.4 m, = 3.4, 10 steps over 25 m long
flume of 0.5 m width. In the absence of steps = 4.0 ).

in the absence of ventilation the air cavity had disappeared completely and
recirculating water occupies the space beneath the nappe,

the introduction of a splitter ( into the nappe ) ventilates the nappe and induces
the formation of a sizeable air cavity; as a result the nappe trajectory increases,

the spray region is important,

the amount of entrained air is basically identical at the upstream and downstream
ends of the step ( i.e. C = 17% to 19%); the mean air content is maximum at the
downstream of the nappe impact ( in the spray region ) and minimum at the
downstream end of the step . An interesting difference is the presence of a small
bubble (cavity) between the nappe and the re - circulating water . The

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Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

introduction of a splitter helps in occurance of larger air cavity and enlarges the
nappe trajectory.
In comparison the mean air content at the downstream end of the smooth chute was
about 0.08 and the maximum mean air concentration was about 0.12 at a section
located 4 m downstream.
Overall the stepped chute flow is significantly has higher aeration than the smooth chute
flow for the same flow rate. The air - water flow with the stepped channel is three dimensional in nature unlike the smooth chute flow which is two - dimensional.

35.2.12 Air Entrainment in Skimming Flows

Modern concrete stepped spillways operate in a skimming flow regime. at the upstream
end, the free surface is clear and transparent.
However, a turbulent boundary layer develops along the chute invert.
When the outer edge of the boundary layer emerges to the free surface, air entrainment
commences.
The distance to the inception point of air entrainment and the flow depth at inception are
correlated by :
The location where free surface aeration occurs is called the inception point of air
entrainment. Its characteristics are the distance Li from the crest
(measured along the invert) and the flow depth yi measured normal to the channel
invert.
Model and prototype data were re - analysed by Chanson in 1994.
The dimensionless distance Li/ ks and depth yi /ks are plotted as functions of the
dimensionless discharge.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

k s is the step depth per unit width ( normal to the flow direction ), s h is the step height.
empirical correlations for stepped chutes:
- The dimensionless distance from crest Li / K s and flow depth
y I / ks increase with increasing dimensionless discharge F * =
ks can be written as ( sh cos
Thus F

qw
g sin ( ks )

LI
0.0796
= 9.719 ( sin )
( F * )0.713
ks
yI
0.4034
=
( F * )0.592
0.04
k s ( sin )

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qw
g sin ( sh cos

)3

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

1000

BaCaRa [1:10] (53 deg.)

500

BEITZ and LAWLESS (50 deg.)

BINDO (51 deg.)

100

FRIZELL (27 deg.)

50
LI / ks

HORNER (36.4 deg.)

Trigomil dam

20

TOZZI (53.1 deg.)

10
5
2
1
1.00

SORENSEN (52 deg.)

LI
0.0796
___
9.719(sin )
(F*)0.713
ks =

Given equation for 52 deg.

Trigomil (51.3 deg.)
PROTOTYPE

Inception on smaller steps

10.00

ZHOU (51.3 deg.)

100.00

F*
Normalised Inception length as a function of dimensionless discharge
after (Chanson and Toombes)

10.00
BaCaRa [1/10 \ 53 deg. ]
BINDO (51 deg.)
yI
___
ks

FRIZELL (27 deg.)

SORENSEN (52 deg.)

1.00

HORNER (36.4 deg.)

TOZZI (53.1 deg.)

yI _______
___
0.4034 (F*)0.592
ks = (sin )0.04

ZHOU (51.3 deg.)

Given equation (52 deg.)

0.10
1.00

10.00

100.00

F*
Normalised Inception depth (yI ) as a function of dimensionless discharge
after (Chanson and Toombes)

boundary layer growth rate is grater on stepped channels than on smooth chutes.
Chanson in 1995 based on the reanalysed data, concluded that the experimental results
are basically independent of the type of crest profile.
The re- analysed data included the types of crest profile were included smooth ogee
crest profiles follows by stepped chute ( with or without smaller first steps) and broad crests followed by stepped chute.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Above Equations may be used for estimating Li and yi. It may be noted that one
prototype observation (Trigomil dam) fills the equation 1.

35.2.13 Aeration in Fully - Developed Skimming Flow

Downstream of the inception point of air entrainment, the flow becomes fully -developed
and a layer containing a mixture of both air and water extends gradually through the
fluid. Far downstream the flow becomes uniformly aerated. This region is defined as the
uniform equilibrium flow region. The air concentration profiles are compared with a
simple diffusion model by CHANSON 1995 and validated with prototype and model
smooth - chute data . The following equation describes the air concentration distribution.

y
C = 1 tanh2 K

2 D y 90

in which C is the air concentration, D' is a dimensionless turbulent diffusivity and K ' is
constant of integration. D' and K' are functions of the mean air concentration C , y90 is
the distance from bed at which 90% air concentration occurs.

Measurements at Brushes Clough dam spillway (BAKER 1994) Inclined downward steps (Sh = 0.19 m, is = - 5.6 deg.), = 18.4 degrees

__
C = 0.235 - Step 50
__
C = 0.178 - Step 30
__
C = 0.15 - Step 10
__
C = 0.20 - Step 73
__
Theory: C = 0.15
__
Theory: C = 0.235

0.8
y
__
y90

0.6

0.4
after BAKER (1994)

0.2

Brushes Clough dam spillway

0.2

0.4

0.6

Air concentration 'C'

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0.8

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

after RUFF AND FRIZELL (1994)

0

(qw = 2.6 m2/s, =26.6 , inclined downward steps, Sh = 0.154 m )

x is the distance

0.8

__
x = 14.8 m - C = 0.25
__
x = 13.8 m - C = 0.31
__
x = 26.8 m - C = 0.33
__
Theory: C = 0.25
__
Theory: C = 0.33

y
__
y90 0.6
0.4

0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Air concentration 'C'

Air concentration distribution in prototype observation after Baker and Ruff and Frizell (Chanson 1994)

Table: Variation of the turbulent diffusivity and constant of integration with C .

D'
(2)
0.007
0.037
0.073
0.110
0.146
0.223
0.311
0.423
0.587
0.878

C
(1)
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70

C=

K'
(3)
68.70
14.00
7.16
4.88
3.74
2.57
1.93
1.51
1.18
0.90

y 90

C dy
y 90 0
The analysis of model and prototype data showed that the air concentration profiles in

skimming flows down a stepped chute have similar shape as those in smooth chute
flows. Further the observed values of mean air concentration over stepped chute flow
are very nearly same as the mean air concentration of the fully developed flow over

( )e

smooth chutes : i.e., C = 27% and 36% respectively for = 18.4o and 26.6o.

The data of Baker (1994) yielded C ranging between 15% and 23% with 18.4o slope
and the data of Ruff and Frizell indicate C of 33% at the end of the 26.6o slope channel.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Free-surface aeration causes the bulkage of the flow and thus reducing the risks of
cavitation damage and enhanaces the air -water gas transfer (e.g. re- oxygenation of
the water). Futher, the presence of air nearer to the bed induces a reduction of drag and
results in decrease in friction factor . The drag reduction effect and the associated
reduction in flow resistance may have a significant impact on the rate of energy
dissipation on stepped spillway. The above analysis [ of energy dissipation ] by chanson
neglects the effects of air entrainment. The friction factor and the energy dissipation are
affected significantly by the rate of free- surface aeration. The effects of air entrainment
on the residual energy cannot be neglected for [ channel ] slope larger than 30 degrees
" and " the residual energy is strongly underestimated if the effect of air entrainment is
neglected. It is most important that design engineers to take into account aeration of
flow to estimate the residual enegy and to dimension stilling basins downstream of
stepped chutes".

35.2.14 Rapidly Varied Flow at the Inception Point

The flow properties rapidly vary next to and immediately downstream of the inception
point obervations suggest that some air is entrapped in the step cavity (ies).
Immediately upstream the flow is extremely turbulent and the free surface is oscillating.
At irregular time intervals, a water jet impinges on the horizontal step face and air is
trapped in the step cavity. An instant later, a rapid unsteady flow bulking is observed
downstream. Velocity measurements indicate that, immediately upstream of the
inception point, the turbulent velocity fluctuations are large, with dimensionless
fluctuations u' / V of about 15 - 18 % and normal longitudinal and lateral components of
turbulent velocity, respectively. Observed values of u' = 0.14 m /s next to the free
surface are large enough to initate air bubble entraiment. Immediately downstream of
the inception point, time-averaged air concentration data showed an increased aeration.
For example, increase in mean air concentration C = 25% along a distance x = 6.5 yc
down a 30o slope for yc / sh = 5.2 ; an increase in mean air concentration C = 55 % in
18 step heights down a 53o slope for yc / sh < 2 ; an increase in mean air concentration

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

C = 32% in 2 step heights down a 22o slope for yc / sh = 1.1, (where C is the mean

air concentration).
Table : Increase in Mean Air Concentration Over Stepped Spillway
Increase in
concentration
C%
25
55
32

Bed slope S0
(in degree)

yc
sh

6.5 yc
*
*

30
53
22

5.2
< 2.0
1.1

Remarks

* Over 18 steps
Over 2 steps
heights

Reference
1. BaCaRa, "Etude de la dissipation d' energie sur les evacuateurs a marches", (study
of the energy dissipation on stepped spillways) Rapport d' Essais, Project National
BaCaRa, CEMAGREF-SCP, Aix -en-provence, France, October 1991, 111 pages.
2. BaCaRa. "Roller compacted concrete: RCC for dams. "Presses de l' Ecole Nationale
des Ponts et Chausse'es, Paris, 1997.
3. Baker, R. "Brushes clough wedge block spillway - progress report no. 3" SCEL Proj.
Rewp. No. SJ542-4, University of Saford, U.K, 1994.
4. Boes R.M, "Physical model study on two - phase cascade flow" , Proc 28th IAHR
Congress, Graz, Austria, Session S1, 6 pages, 1991.
5. Chamani, M.R., and Rajaratnam N. "characteristics of skimming flow over stepped
spillways". J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 125 (5), 1999, 500 - 510. Discussion by
Robert M. Boes; Chanson H; Jorge Matos; Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi; Tatewar
S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D and closure, ibid, November 2000, page 860 - 873.
6. Chanson H and Toombes Luke "Flow aeration at stepped cascades", Research
report number CE155, Department of Civil Engineering, Research Report series,
University of Queensland, June 1997.
7. Chanson, H. "stepped spillway flows and air entrainment" Can. J. Civil Engineering,
Ottawa, 20 (3), 1993, 422 - 435.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

8. Chanson, H. "Discussion of model study of a roller compacted concrete spillway", J.

Hydraulic Enginnering, ASCE, 123 (10), 1997b, 931 - 933.
9. Chanson, H. "Hydraulics of Nappe flow regime above Stepped chutes and Spillways",
Aust. Civil Engineering Trans., I.E. Aust., Vol. CE36, No. 1, Jan., 1994, pp.69-76.
10. Chanson, H. "Hydraulic Design of Stepped cascades, Channels, Weirs and
Spillways", Pergamon, Oxford, UK, Jan., 292 pages, 1995 .
11. Chanson, H. "Air Bubble Diffusion in super critical open channel flow, Proc. 12th
Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference AFMC, Sydney Australia, R.W. Bilger Ed.,
Vol. 2, 1995 , pp. 707 - 710.
12. Chanson, H. " Prediction of the transition nappe / skimming flow on a stepped
channel", Jl of Hydraulic Res., IAHR, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1996, pp. 421 - 429.
13. Chanson, H. "Air bubble entrainment in free surface turbulent shear flows",
Academic Press, London, UK, 1997, 401 pages.
14. Chanson, H., and Whitmore, R.L. "Investigation of the gold creek dam spillway,
Australia. "Research Report No. CE153, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Queensland, Australia, 1996, 60 pages.
15. Chanson H. "Stepped Spillways Parts 1 and 2", Journal of Physcial Science and
Engineering Periodical, TA1 17526, Volume 5, No. 4, December 1997, Engineering
update, technical paper number 10, page no. 7 to 12 and Journal of Physcial Science
and Engineering Periodical, TA1 17256, Volume 6, No. 1, January - March 1998,
Engineering update, Technical paper No. 2, page no. 9 to 14.
16. Geoffrey G.S. Pegram, Andrew K. Officer and Samule R. Mottram, "Hydraulics of
skimming flow on Modeled Stepped Spillways", Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, May
1999, Volume 125, No. 5, Paper 3557, Discussion by Robert M. Boes; Jorge Matos;
Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi M; Tatewar S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D; ibid, and
closure December 2000, page 947 - 953.
17. Goubet, A. "Evacuateurs de Crues en Marches d' Escalier" (stepped spillways) La
Houille Blanche, No. 2/3, pp. 247 - 248 , 1992.
18. Hans - Erwin Minor and Willi Hager editors "Hydraulic of Stepped Spillways",
Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2000; 201 pages.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Hydraulics

Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

19. Houston, K.L. "Hydraulic Model Studies of Upper Stillwater Dam stepped Spillway
and Outlet works". Report No. REC - ERC - 87 - 6, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver
Co, USA, 1987.
20. Ruff. J.F. and Frizell, K.H, "Air concentration measurements in highly turbulent flow
on a steeply sloping chute", Proceeding Hydraulic Engineering Conference, ASCE, New
York, Vol. 2, 999 - 1003.
21. Stephenson, D. "Energy dissipation down stepped spillways" Water Power and Dam
construction, September, 27 - 30, 1991.
22. Tatewar S.P. Ingle R.N., Nappe Flow on Inclined Stepped Spillways, Journal of The
Institution of Engineers (India), Volume - 79, Page- 175 - 179, Feb. 1999.
23. Tatewar S.P., and Ingle R.N, Resistance to skimming flow over stepped spillway,
Proceeding International Seminar on Civil Engineering Practices in 21st Century,
Roorkee, India, 1039 - 1048.
24. Tozzi, M.J. "Residual energy in stepped spillways. "International water Power and
Dam construction, 1994, 46 (5), 32 - 34.
25. Virender Kumar, Stepped Spillway - a State of the art, Journal of The Institution of
Engineers (India), Volume - 82, Page- 217 - 223, Feb. 2002.
26. Vischer D.L. and Hager W.H. "Dam Hydraulics", John Wiley and Sons, 1997.
27. Yildiz, D., and Kas, I, "Hydraulic performance of stepped chute spillways",
Hydropower and Dams, 1998, 5 (4), 64 - 70.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras