RPabs - NPPL - Preliminary Study On Effect of Different Feed Combinations On Captive Breeding of Anemonefish Amphiprion Clarkii PDF

Proceedings of the Research Symposium of Uva Wellassa University, December 15-16, 2011
Development of an Egg Based Sausage

M.K.D.K. Attanayake, D.K.D.D. Jayasena
Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka
and
A.N. Lalantha
Keells Food Products PLC, Ja-Ela , Sri Lanka
Introduction
The present trend of demand is for ready to serve or ready to cook food items. Sausages
have been developed as a convenient product but mostly composed of meat. Present
meat and meat based food products may contain various chemicals and preservatives,
which is a cause for cancer (Pearson and Gillett, 1996). Therefore, many people
nowadays are reluctant to buy these products. On the other hand, absence of strong
preservatives in egg-based sausages cuts down health hazards and gives safe access as
foodstuffs. Investigations carried out for development of an egg based sausage by
replacing the meat component of sausages with eggs has not being attempted yet. Thus,
the present study was aimed at producing an egg based sausage for the people who wish
to consume egg based products. Egg-based sausage can reach the optimum
acceptability and nutritional requirements if developed properly and will provide a
balanced diet for the consumer.
Eggs are considered as one of the highly nutritious natural products. Eggs naturally
possess functional properties like good emulsifying, binding, coagulating and
stabilizing abilities, which are essential characteristics in food manufacturing processes
(Stadelman and Cotterill, 1996). Therefore, additives with those properties are not
required to be added artificially to the manufacturing process of egg based sausages,
thus the production cost can be reduced. This study was designed to develop egg based
sausages using whole egg powder, egg white powder and locally available high
nutritious vegetables such as carrot (Daucus carota), leeks (Allium porrum L.), and
mushrooms (Pleurotus species), spices and additives.
Fresh eggs are not suitable in sausage production due to several problems. Fresh eggs
are difficult to transport since they are bulky, fragile and highly perishable. Moreover,
they cause difficulties in stuffing of the sausage mixture into the casing during
processing, due to high juiciness and break when fried. Salmonella incidences are also
high in raw eggs. Eggs in powder form however, provide a near complete solution to
these problems. Dried egg powder could be stored and transported at room temperatures
and is quite stable and has a longer shelf life.
Egg yolk powder is not suitable to be used in sausages because yolk has higher fat
content and low solubility. It also incurs higher import cost and has poor functional
properties such as water activity, which is higher in egg yolk powders than in whole egg
powders (Joel et al., 2010). Therefore, only whole egg powder and egg white powder
could be used in production of egg-based sausages.
The main objective of this study was to develop an egg based sausage as an alternative
product for traditional meat sausages containing preferable characteristics such as
texture, color and taste.
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Methodology
The experiment was carried out at the Keells Food Products (PLC), Ja-Ela. The
preliminary trials were conducted at first to find out the best combination of egg powder
by changing the egg powder ratios. Secondly, the best combination of vegetable oil and
water corresponding to the best egg powder combination was chosen. These two
experiments were done in order to develop the sausage texture. Then experiments were
carried out to determine the best salt level, additive combination and spice combination
to adjust the flavor of the sausage. Subsequently, experiments were conducted to find
out the chopping level and chamber operations suitable in development of egg-based
sausage. Once the satisfactory product was developed, the sensory evaluation,
microbiological analysis and chemical analysis were carried out for the samples made
using the finalized formula.
In order to find out the best recipe which gives better sensory qualities to the sausage,
another three samples (T1, T2 and T3) were prepared by changing only the egg powder
combination in small quantities in the finalized recipe (i.e. whole egg powder; 15%1.5
and egg white powder; 5%1.5), while keeping the other ingredients constant. Then, in
order to select the best percentage combination of whole egg powder and egg white
powder, sensory evaluation was carried out with 30 untrained panelists of Keells Food
Products (PLC). The sensory evaluation analysis was done using the Friedman nonparametric statistical test.
Objective measurements (AOAC, 1995) and proximate analysis (AOAC, 1995) were
conducted for all three treatments. Proximate analysis for the data measurement is a
combination of crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, moisture, total solid and ash.
Objective measurement was done by analyzing shrinkage percentage, acid value, pH
and water holding capacity. For this, samples were taken at regular intervals weekly for
two month storage period. Finally data were analyzed using MINITAB and SAS
statistical packages.
Results and discussion
Based on the results of preliminary studies; the best percentage combination was 20%
of egg powder, 22% of water, 20% of vegetable oil and 1.4% of salt level. The technical
operations of egg-based sausage manufacturing process differed from traditional meatbased sausage. Preferred level of chopping was 6 rounds and the suggested cooking
time was 35 minutes appropriate to the core temperature of 76 C of the sausage.
No significant difference (P>0.05) was observed among samples for color, appearance,
odor, saltiness, and spiciness but texture, taste, juiciness, overall taste and overall
acceptability of the samples varied significantly (P<0.05) among samples and also
among treatments T1, T2 and T3. According to the Pair wise comparison, texture,
juiciness, taste, overall taste and overall acceptability were significantly different
(difference between sum of ranks >18.51) between treatments 1-2 or 2-1, and treatments
2-3 or 3-2. And there were no significant difference (difference between sum of ranks
among treatments < 18.51) between treatments 1-3, or 3-1. For color, appearances,
odour, spiciness and saltiness, there were no significant difference (difference between
sum of ranks among treatments < 18.51) between Treatment 1, Treatment 2 and
Treatment 3. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the egg-based sausage
sample prepared in treatment T3 (whole egg powder with 16.5% and egg white powder
3.5%) had the highest sensory attributes for overall acceptability and overall taste.
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Analysis of variance procedure showed by Duncan group was used for measuring
samples which were significantly different (P<0.05) among treatments T1, T2 and T3
with relevant to protein, fat and moisture percentage. Treatment T1 had the highest mean
value for protein and lowest mean value for crude fat.
Analysis of variance procedure followed by Duncan group showed that treatments from
T1, T2 and T3 were not significantly different (P>0.05) in relation to pH, water holding
capacity and acid value, but each of these three factors showed a significant increase
(P<0.05) with storage duration. The shrinkage percentage was significantly different
(P<0.05) among treatments T1, T2 and T3. Salmonella and Escherichia coli were not
detected during the storage duration. Staphylococcus aureus counts and TPC did not
exceed the specifications in Sri Lankan Standards for the sausage during 60 days. In this
period of shelf life, the product was stored at -18C to -30C of temperature.
Conclusions
According to this research findings, egg based sausages with acceptable characteristics
can be developed successfully by;
a) Maintaining whole egg powder: egg white powder percentage combination at
20% level.
b) Adding 1.4% of salt level into the mixture.
c) Using a combination of 22% of water and 20% of fat.
d) Chopping only six rounds in bawl chopper.
e) Maintaining only cooking operation in the cooking chamber and,
f) Maintaining 76 C/35 minutes as the cooking chamber condition.
With a lower cost, incorporation of vegetables could be easily done not only to enhance
the sensory attributes and nutritional value but also to increase the profit margin of the
developed egg-based sausage. Best treatment in this research was T3 (i.e. 16.5% whole
egg powder and 3.5% egg white powder) due to its low cost; SL Rs.15.06 per sausage
and high sensory attributes.
This product was developed without any age discrimination, as it is more health
conscious, highly nutritious and more convenient food product. And also it expects a
rapid market growth and market stability due to the presence of considerable number of
niche markets in Sri Lanka.
Without adding any chemical or preservative, shelf life of the egg-based sausage was 60
days at -18 C - (-30 C) with respect to microbiological and physicochemical analysis.
References
A.O.A.C. 1995. Official method of analysis, 16th ed. Arlington, Association of Official
Analytical Chemists, Washington.
Joel, N., Udobi., E. Chinweizu, and A. Nuria 2010. Effect of oven drying on the
functional and nutritional properties of whole egg and its components. African
Journal of Food Science 4(5):254- 257.
Pearson, A.M. and T.A. Gillett 1996. Processed Meats, 3rd ed 329- 411.
Stadelman, W.J. and O.J. Cotterill 1996. Egg Science and Technology. 4th ed. The
Haworth press, Binghamton, New Yolk.
81
Development of Ready to Eat Marinated Chicken Parts

M. Laghini, D.K.D.D. Jayasena
A. Kumara and K. Liyanage
Institute of Ceylon Agro Industries Ltd., Seeduwa, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The demand for chicken meat and their products in Sri Lanka is growing rapidly, since
chicken consumption has no religious barriers. Poultry meat is highly suitable as a raw
material for product development due to its light colour and delicate flavour which can
be transformed into a wide range of value added foods. Chicken consumption in Sri
Lanka is expected to increase to 8 kg per person from the current 5 kg next five years
(Cheng Chih Kwong, 2010). Meat items include both ready to eat and ready to cook
products. The busy lifestyle of modern day housewives do not allow them adequate
time for preparation of food at home. Therefore, this study was conducted with an aim
of developing a high quality, safe to eat, marinated chicken parts, which can be stored at
frozen conditions and conveniently cooked by the housewives within a short time.
A marinade usually tenderizes the meat which is stringy and tough and improves the
flavour. Acidic ingredients soften the food, allowing it to absorb the flavours of the
sauce and also increase shelf life. These qualities were used in preparing a ready to eat
marinade chicken.
Materials and methods
Marinated Chicken Parts were produced at Ceylon Agro Industries Ltd. in Seeduwa
through experiments with sensory evaluation and some laboratory analysis which were
conducted at the Uva Wellassa University.
Complete Randomized Block Design was used for the experiment. Chicken parts
(thighs, wings and drumsticks weighing 2 kg), vinegar, yoghurt, lime, garlic powder (2
g), chilli powder (10 g), salt (8 g), Ins 621- flavour enhancer (10 g), black pepper (2 g),
sugar (15 g), mustard cream(1 g), soy sauce (8 g), tomato sauce (2 g), Ins 250preservative (1 g) and water were used to prepare the new product. Preliminary trials
and 06 experiments were conducted to select the best levels of ingredients in the recipe
of the final product. In the preliminary trials, amounts of vinegar, yoghurt, lime,
combination of vinegar and yoghurt, combination of yoghurt and lime and combination
of vinegar and lime were used as the variables respectively keeping the other
ingredients constant. Then six samples from each recipe were selected and sensory
evaluations were conducted to find out the best recipe for marinade. Three experiments
were conducted for this purpose and sensory evaluations were carried out using trained
panelists of Ceylon Agro Industries Ltd.
Then experiments were conducted to select best cooking method using three treatments;
cooked at 85 oC for 20 min, cooked at 85 oC for 20 min and baked at 65 oC for 10 min,
baked at 65 oC for 35 min and best marinating period was tested using 12 hr, 24 hr and
36 hr periods, respectively through a trained panel. Final sample was compared with a
competitive product available in the market through an untrained panel to test the
market demand. Thereafter, the samples were tested for moisture, ash, crude protein,
crude fat, crude fiber. Microbiological analysis, shelf life determination (pH, WHC) and
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cost determination of the final product were also carried out. All samples were
subjected to sensory evaluation and data were analyzed using Friedman analysis in
Minitab ver.14. Results of the experiments were analyzed using two-way ANOVA.
According to the results of first 3 experiments, vinegar incorporated with yoghurt was
selected as the best ingredients for marinating chicken parts. According to the results,
marinated solution containing 18 g of vinegar 8 g of yoghurt and other constant
ingredients are best for marinating 2 kg of chicken parts obtaining highest scores for
texture, taste, aroma, saltiness, pungency, tenderness and overall taste. In the fourth
experiment the baked and cooked (baked at 65 oC for 30 min and cooked at 85 oC for 10
min) method was selected as the best cooking method. The cooking method has scored
higher for colour, texture, taste and overall acceptability. The fifth experiment showed
that 36 hours marinating period was the best which has given better tenderness,
pungency and colour.
Proximate analysis of the final product contained moisture 64.4%, ash 3.2%, protein
23.5%, fat 3.6% and fiber 5.2%. Crude protein and crude fiber contents of marinated
chicken parts were higher than that of the fresh chicken meat since the ingredients in the
marinade have added specific nutrient values to the marinated product.
Table 1: Storage period with pH and WHC
Storage period
Control
1st day
1st week
2nd week
3rd week
4th week
5th week
6
5.95
5.9
5.9
5.8
pH
Final Sample
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.85
Control
0.82
0.85
0.85
0.855
0.855
WHC
Final Sample
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
pH and WHC values in the marinade were better than in the control samples (Table 1).
Value of pH was maintained at the same value until 4th week and thereafter it has
decreased slightly. WHC value was also maintained at a constant level until 4th week
and thereafter showed slightly increased values. Under anaerobic condition, protein
degrades to variety of sulphur containing and non-protein nitrogens components which
emit gasses and result in decrease in pH and WHC.
Table 2: Cost determination for chicken parts
Marinated chicken parts
Final product
Drumstick
Rs.291.00
Thigh
Rs.168.00
Wings
Rs.285.00
Cost per 500 g

Control sample
Rs. 323.00
Rs. 248.00
Rs. 323.00
Cost determination for chicken parts is given in Table 2. And it reveals that the cost for
the new product is less than for what is available in the market.
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Very slight development of total plate count values could be observed with storage time
since product has used effective cooking methods.
Conclusions
Use of vinegar incorporated with yoghurt marinated solution is recommended for
making good quality marinated chicken with high acceptability. Keeping quality was
better in marinated chicken parts than that of raw product under vacuum packaging
conditions. The products are safe for human consumption for more than 6 months under
frozen storage -18 oC.
References
Cheng Chih Kwong, Primus (cited 2011 march 31st), Sri Lankans to eat more chicken
Available from <www.lankajournal.com>.
Sovann Kin, M., and Wes Schilling 2011. Potassium acetate and Potassium lactate
enhance the microbiological and physical properties of marinated catfish fillets.
Journal of Food Science. 4:242-245.
84
Development of a Low Cost Fish Ball Incorporating Yellow Fin Tuna off
Cuts and Deskinned Sword Fish
D.A.B.P. Dasanayaka , D.K.D.D. Jayasena
N. Lalantha
Institute of Keells Food Products PLC, Minuwangoda Road, Ekala, Ja Ela, Sri Lanka
and
S.C. Jayamanne
Introduction
The contribution that fisheries resources make to human nutritional needs is significant
and may represent the only readily available protein source for people in developing
countries. Even small quantity of fish can play a vital role in improving the
predominantly cereal based diets of the developing countries. Fish products are
comparable to meat and dairy products in nutritional quality. Fish has traditionally been
a popular part of the diet in some countries. Today even more people turn to fish as
healthy alternative to red meat (Bender, 2005). A recent study has shown that average
recovery percentage of expensive cuts of yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares) from a
medium scale processing factory is approximately 50%. However every recovery
percentage can be contrasted depending on the quality of the raw material and nature of
the product. The remaining inexpensive off cuts has low market value. Off cuts consists
with whole dark muscles, trimmings of the white muscle, tail cuts, and ventral side of
the tuna. Tuna trimmings can be purchased at Rs. 200 per kg. The profit margin of food
processing companies can be increased while converting these off cuts into value added
products. Fish balls can be produced using any fish but the tuna varieties are preferred
because meat color and flavor stands up well in finished products. Yellow fin tuna
(Thunnus albacares), and Sword fish (Xiphias gladius) are the main species employed.
More than two species of fish are usually blended because tuna flesh alone does not
give sufficient resilience to the product (Amona, 1965).
Experimental work was conducted at the Keells Food Products PLC, Ja-Ela. And the
laboratory analysis was carried out at the Uva Wellassa University. Initially, a survey
was carried out at the main fish market in Ja-Ela area to identify varieties of fish, usable
off cuts, whole sale prices and consumer prices. Subsequent to the preliminary survey
selected off-cuts and deskinned sword fish were analyzed for its nutritional quality, dry
matter, ash content, crude protein content and crude fat content were analyzed via
AOAC methods (AOAC, 2000). Yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares) trimmings
(histamine content below 25 ppm) and deskinned Sword fish (Xiphias gladius) cuts
were obtained from the frozen storage of the Keells Food Products PLC. Frozen fish
packages were thawed for 30 minutes to bring the fish meat accessible for cutting. Fish
bulk was cut in to 3 cm pieces using a vertical band saw. Then the pieces of fish were
minced using a mincer and chopped with a bowl chopper for 2-3 rounds. Chopped fish,
pre emulsion, flour, cereal binder, spices and Monosodium Glutamate were then mixed
for 4 minutes. Fried onions, green chilies, curry leaves and fresh garlic mixture was
85
added to the mixture along with bread crumbs and rusks. The mixture was mixed
further for 2 minutes followed by addition of water and fat. Mixture of fish mass was
formed into balls using meat ball forming machine. Fish balls were then cooked in a
cooking chamber for 40 minutes until the core temperature come to 72 oC (Yu, 1994).
Then the fish balls were chilled in order to separate them and vacuum packed in Linear
Low Density Polyethylene bags and kept in frozen conditions at -18 oC. The proportions
of the ingredients of the fish balls were determined through the preliminary trials by a
taste panel comprising seven panelists. Proportions of ingredients were then assessed
according to the sensory and textural characteristics. Five combinations of tuna
trimmings and sword fish were prepared as given in Table 1 and were tested for color,
odour, flavour, spiciness, juiciness, texture and likelihood of breakage during frying and
cutting.
Based on the preliminary findings, in the final trial, fish balls were formulated with 56%
of fish by increasing the amount of tuna trimmings while maintaining the other
ingredients constant.
Table 1: Percentages of Tuna Trimmings to Sword Fish
Treatment Number
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Tuna Trimmings:Sword Fish

10% : 90%
30% : 70%
50% : 50%
70% : 30%
90% : 10%
A panel of 20 untrained members of Keells Food Products PLC has participated in the
sensory evaluation. A 7 point hedonic scale method with a value of 1 corresponded to
lowest and a value of 7 to the highest intensity were used to evaluate appearance,
colour, odour, spiciness, juiciness, texture, fish taste, after taste and overall
acceptability. The samples were coded with three digit random numbers and the order
of presentation was made using random permutation. The sensory evaluation was
carried out at the Research and Development laboratory of Keells Food Products PLC.
All necessary precautions were taken to ensure that each panelist made an independent
judgment. Physical analysis was done through folding test and biting test (Lanier, 1992)
and cooking loss following Murphy et al. (1975). Objective quality parameters of pH,
Water holding capacity (Anjaneyulu, 1989), TBA value (Tarladgis, 1960) and
Microbial analysis of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and TPC were recorded
thrice a week for twelve consecutive weeks. Moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude
fiber and ash content were determined in accordance with Standard AOAC methods
(AOAC, 2000). The cost of each item used for the preparation of fish balls was
recorded. Statistical Analysis; all measurements were carried out for the experimental
design of Complete Randomized Block Design using three replications. The results
were reported as the mean standard deviation and subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using SAS V.9.1 statistical software. Differences between the means of fish
ball qualities containing different treatments were determined using Duncans multiple
range test (DMRT). All statements of significance are based on the probability level of
0.05 (p<0.05).
86

The highest estimated median value as well as highest ranks were obtained for the
treatment which was having 50% of tuna trimmings and 50% of deskinned sword fish
cuts for; Appearance, Colour, Odour, Texture, Fish Taste, After Taste and Overall
Acceptability. However, its highest score for juiciness was comparatively low for the
seven point hedonic scale. Since the juiciness of above combination is comparatively
low, 0.5% of phosphates were added to enhance the juiciness of the selected treatment.
There was no significant difference between the treatments for water holding capacity,
pH, TBA value.
Water Holding Capacity is basically related with the myofibrilla protein of the fish.
WHC is reduced in the first six weeks and again increased possibly due to increase of
pH which causes more opening to entrap water within myofibrilla proteins. This is a
good sign indicates that there is no freeze denaturation with time There was no signicant
difference between the first six weeks for WHC in all five treatments but there was a
significant difference between first six weeks and ninth week possibly related with
increased pH value.
There were no significant differences between the initial values of the storage period for
pH in the all five treatments. However, a reduction of pH was observed after initial
week possibly due to the presence of lactic acid which is resulted from anaerobic
metabolism of carbohydrates in the product by the psychrophylic bacteria. It is
illustrated that, when the pH increased, the TBA values in all five treatments decreased
at the ninth week and the TBA values increased while pH decreased at the twelfth week.
It has been reported that haemoglobin (Hb) can show strong pro-oxidant activity for
some fish species between pH 6 and pH 7 and it can retard oxidation at pH values above
7 (Richards and Hultin, 2002; Tokur et al., 2004). This may explain why the TBA value
decreased when pH increased and vice versa.
Reduction in lipid content could be attributed to oxidation of poly-unsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA) contained in the fish tissue to produce peroxides, aldehydes ketones and
the free fatty acids. However, the rate of fat deterioration was very gradual (Figure 4.5).
Fish oil has been found to be more liable to spoilage than other oils due to their greater
number of unsaturated fatty acids. The greater the degree of unsaturation, the greater
would be the tendency for fat oxidation (rancidity) (Akkus et.al, 2004). There might be
risks of rancidity during prolonged storage conditions due to the inherent fatty nature of
both tuna and sword fish. The TBA value is widely used as an indicator of the degree
of lipid oxidation. The all treatments of developed fish balls were vacuum sealed and
kept under frozen condition. Therefore oxidation cannot proceed. But the TBA value in
all five treatments increased after sixth week which indicates rancidity of fish balls.
The proximate composition of the selected sample which was having 50% of tuna
trimmings and 50% of deskinned sword fish was; 61.46% of moisture, 12.98% of crude
fat, 15.02% of crude protein, 3.28% of ash and 7.20% of carbohydrates. Cooking yield
was 93.22 %.
With comparison to the market available fish balls, newly developed fish balls showed
higher scores for spiciness, odour and fish taste for its sensory attributes. Scores of
folding test was fair and also it gave a fair bite for biting test.
87
References
Akkus, O., C. Varlk, N. Erkan, and L, Mol 2004. Determination of some quality
parameters of fish balls prepared from raw and boiled fish. Turk. J. Vet. Anim.
Sci. 44:79-85.
Amona, M. 1965. Fish as food. Vol. 3 Academic press, New York.
AOAC, 2000. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Official Methods of
Analysis 17th Ed., Washington, DC.
Anjaneyulu, Y. L. 1989. Quality of low fat meatballs. Meat Sci. 70:99-108.
Bender, 2005. Food Quality and Nutrition. 38:21-30.
Lanier, T.C. 1992. Measurements of surimi composition and functional proteins. IBP
Press 120-130.
Murphy, R.D., G. Serdaroglu, K.J.E Par 1975 . Fish and meat processing technology.
Food Engineer. 73:246-252.
Richards, L. and H. Hultin, 2002. Chemical and sensory quality changes of fish fingers.
Food Chem. 87:523 -529.
Tarladgis, A.J., 1960. The effect of heat on protein-rich foods. Food Res. Int., 32:145149.
88
Microbiological Quality Assessment of Raw Milk to Identify Sources of

Contamination
H.M.G.K.C. Uduwerella, D.C. Mudannayake, A.M.N.L. Abeysinghe
and
C.V. Jayasinghe
Kotmale Dairy Products (Pvt), Patana, Sri Lanka
Introduction:
Bogahawatta area is one of the major milk supplying area to Kotmale Dairy Products
(Pvt) Ltd, Bogahawatta factory. One of the major challenges faced by Kotmale Products
(Pvt) Ltd is the poor microbiological quality of the milk received at the factory. This
research was carried out to find out the contribution of contamination sources for milk
contamination in Bogahawatta area.
Methodology
Thirty small holder cattle farmers participated in this study. Farmers were selected
using a simple random sampling method. Six samples (two milk samples and four swab
samples) were collected from each farmer. Two milk samples (one sample received at
the factory under chilling condition & other one received under room temperature) were
received. Swab samples were collected from udders of cow, skin of cow, hands of
farmer and milking bucket & lid. The time period for receiving milk from farm to the
factory and temperature differences occurred during transportation period were
recorded. The Total Plate Count (TPC) method was used to enumerate the total aerobic
micro organisms present in the samples. Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) Agar method
and Violet Red Bile (VRB) agar method was used for enumeration of E. coli and
Coliforms present in the samples, respectively. Karl Pearson Correlation Coefficient
method and paired t-test was used to identify the relationship between the
contamination sources and contamination of milk.
Results
The TPC counts revealed that all the factors are not significantly affecting for final milk
contamination. According to r values (relationship) of samples, udders of cow is
identified as the most related factor (r = 0.322) for the total aerobic micro organisms
present in milk. It shows positive low correlation to microbial count in final
contaminated milk. Microbial content in milking bucket and lid (r = 0.261) are
identified as the second related factor for contamination of final milk while skin of cow,
time duration for receiving milk and hands of farmers show negligible relationship to
aerobic micro organisms present in final milk.
According to the r values (relationship) of E. coli counts it is observed that, skin of cow
is the highest related factor (r = 0.593) for E. coli in final contaminated milk. It shows
moderate positive relationship to E. coli count in final contaminated milk. Other factors
were not significantly affecting final contamination of milk by E. coli. The second
factor was identified as the famers hands (r = 0.305). Temperature differences occurred
during transportation period showed no relationship to presence of E. coli in final
contaminated milk.
89
Figure 1: Relationships of contamination sources to Final contaminated milk

The Coliform counts showed that all the factors considered had no significant effect on
the contamination of final milk. According to the r values (relationship) of Coliform
counts, the time duration for receiving milk (r = 0.238) was identified as the factor most
related for Coliform development in final milk. It shows positive low correlation to
microbial count in final contaminated milk. Temperature difference occurred during
transportation period was the second related factor (r = 0.177) while the microbial
content in hands of farmer showed no relationship to Coliform presence in final
contaminated milk.
Figure 2: Mean values of microbial counts for contamination sources

According to the numerical values of total aerobic micro organisms present in samples,
skin of cow is identified as the highest contributing source (109650 cfu/mL) for the total
aerobic micro organisms present in milk. Microbial content in milking bucket & lid
(83497 cfu/mL) are identified as the second significant factor contributing for
contamination of final milk. According to the numerical values of E. coli counts it is
seen that, skin of cow is the highest contributor (5543 cfu/mL) for E. coli in final
contaminated milk. The second factor was identified as the udders of cow (2690
cfu/mL). The Coliform counts numerically showed that milking bucket and lid is the
90
highest contributor (3357 cfu/mL) for E. coli in final contaminated milk. The second
factor was identified as the hands of farmer (2580 cfu/mL).
According to the numerical values of total aerobic micro organisms and E. coli
developed during transportation, highest micro organisms development shown as 30
minutes taken for delivering milk to the factory (total aerobic micro organisms - 298600
cfu/ml, E. coli- 29400 cfu/mL). Coliform development shows the highest growth
(20400 cfu/ml) in 10 minutes delivery time.
According to the numerical values of total aerobic micro organisms developed during
transportation, highest total aerobic micro organisms (298600 cfu/mL) development is
shown as 3.9 C0 temperature differences occurred at the delivery. For the highest E.
coli growth (29400 cfu/mL) it shows at 3.7 C0 temperature differences. Coliform
development shows the highest growth (20400 cfu/mL) at 5.6 C0 temperature
differences.
Discussion
According to the results, it shows that presence of E. coli in cow skin significantly
affect for E. coli count in final milk. It happened due to farmers practices at milking
time. E. coli is indicator for fecal contamination. Before milking they only clean the
cow udders not the full body of cow. So the fecal matter can be contaminated to milk.
All other factors are not significantly affecting for the micro organisms development in
milk.
According to the numerical values of each micro organisms present, improper cleaning
of udders of cow causes the development of total anaerobic micro organisms present in
milk. Micro organisms in cow udder can easily contaminate the milk during the milking
time. The numbers of coliforms in milk have increased with the time for receiving milk
to the factory. The temperature difference during transportation period also highly affect
for coliform development. This can be due to the poor transportation facilities.
Conclusions
According to the results factors affecting for total plate count in final milk can be
orderly listed as microbial content in udders of cow, microbial content in milking
bucket & lid and temperature differences incurred during transportation period. For E.
coli growth factors can be listed as microbial content in skin of cow, microbial content
in hands of famer, microbial content in udders of cow, time duration for receiving milk,
microbial content in milking bucket and lid. For Coliform growth, factors are listed as
time duration for receiving milk, temperature differences occurred during transportation
period, microbial content in udders of cow, microbial content in milking bucket and lid
abd microbial content in skin of cow.
References
Bramley, A. J. and C. H. McKinnon 1990. The microbiology of raw milk. Dairy
Microbiology, Ed. R. K. Robinson. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London,
1:163-208.
Jay, J. M. 1927. Modern Food Microbiology. Aspen poblishers, Inc. Gaithersburg,
Maryland, 35-53
91
Kurweil, R. and M. Busse 1973. Total count and microflora of freshly drawn milk.
Milchwissenschaft, 28:427.
Acknowledgment
Our respectful acknowledgment goes to all the academic staff members in Department
of Animal Science, Faculty of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, Uva Wellassa
University, who helped me to achieve research target successfully.
Our thanks are also due to all the workers in Kotmale Dairy Products (Pvt), Patana,
who gave great supervision for us to conduct my research successfully.
92
Development of HACCP Plan for Ice Cream Manufacturing Process at

MILCO (Pvt) Ltd.
P.D.A.I. Karunarathne , D.C. Mudannayake
and
K. Jayarathne
Milco (Pvt) Ltd, Narahenpita, Colombo 05, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach for food safety moves
away from testing of final product, and instead emphasizes on raw materials and
process control. Control is taken out of the laboratory and in to the processing
environment. HACCP provide a structured and systemic approach to the control of
identified hazards, which may be biological (microbiological), chemical, physical or
combination of the three. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a raw material, stage,
practice or operation within the process where a hazard has been recognized and steps
are in place to eliminate, prevent or reduce the possibility of hazard occurring. The
application of the HACCP system cover seven principles including identification of
potential hazards associated with food production at all stages for processing,
manufacture, and distribution until the point of consumption and preventive measures
for their control (SLS 1173: 1998).
The effectiveness of HACCP depends on the correct application of its principles,
combined with other programs (prerequisite programs) such as Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMPs), Good Hygiene Practices (GHPs), Standard Operation Practices
(SOPs) and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs).
Ice cream, a milk-based product, is a good media for microbial growth due to high
nutrient value, almost neutral pH value (pH 6 to 7) and long storage duration (Kanbakan
et al., 2004). The quality of ice cream or any food product, can be defined against
a wide range of criteria, including for example, the chemical, physical,
microbiological and nutritional characteristics. Food or dairy manufacturers aim is to
ensure the safety and quality of their products which will satisfy the expectations of the
consumers.
Considering all above factors, it is critically important to develop a HACCP plan for the
ice cream manufacturing process line in MILCO (pvt) Ltd, Narahenpita which practices
adequate prerequisite programs to ensure a safe product.
Methodology
In preliminary studies, all the existing pre requisite programs were assessed and
improvements needed were identified. The existing pre-requisite programs were
assessed by; preparing an inspection checklist for prerequisite programmes, depth
observations of the factory premises and working practices, studying the past and
present records, discussing with management staff and observing the available facilities
and production equipment. Then ice cream manufacturing process was thoroughly
observed and understood by observing the steps of ice cream manufacturing in the
factory and then the flow diagram was prepared. Each and every step of the process was
93
analysed for potential microbiological, chemical and physical hazards. Identification of

critical control points (CCP) was done using a decision tree and critical limits were
established for each critical control point. Then corrective actions were established for
deviations that observed during monitoring. Finally verification was carried out to
develop the HACCP system.
Four critical control points were identified for the of ice cream manufacturing process at
MILCO (Pvt) Ltd. Those were chilled milk storage in silos, pasteurization, aging and
filling. The details of the identified CCPs are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Identified Critical Control Points (CCP), Potential hazard, established critical
limits and corrective actions were established for deviation that observed during
monitoring
CCPs
Hazard Type
Potential
Hazard
Heat resistant
enzymes (lipase
& protease) and
toxins produced
by bacteria
Critical Limits
Chilled milk
storage
Biological
Pasteurization
Biological
Vegetative
pathogens
Ageing
Biological
vegetative
pathogens and
spores
outgrowth
Temperature
not less than
90 C and
holding time
less than 15
seconds
Temperature
Maintain blow
5
C
and
minimum
holding time
not less than 6
hours
Filling
Biological
Microbial
Cross
contamination
Storage
temperature
below 5 C,
Maximum
storage period
of 72 hours
Microbial
count in the
filling
environment
should be zero
Corrective
actions
Hold the
affected silos
and, Inform
the quality
control
executive and
to decide on
disposition
Inform quality
control
executive and
re-pasteurize
whole batch
Maintain the
temperature to
5
C
by
adjusting the
circulation of
cold water
Microbial
count (yeast &
mould) not be
exceed 180,
Inform the
quality control
executive
Conclusions
Implementation of HACCP system is a best option for further reducing the risk that is
associated with ice cream manufacturing process. Existing pre requisite programs
94
(GMP, SOP, and SSOP) which are already implemented in the factory is not sufficient
and improvement should be done accordingly. According to the study, four critical
control points were identified. Those are chilled milk storage in silos, pasteurization,
aging and filling. Critical limits, monitoring procedures, corrective actions and
verification procedures were developed for each identified critical control point, and
then the HACCP plan was completed.
References
Arbuckle, W.S. 1996. Ice Cream. (Connecticut. AVI publishing company, INC). 7142.
Forsythe, S.J. and P.R. Hays 1998. Food Hygiene, Microbiology and HACCP. 3 rd
Edition (An aspen publication, Gathersburg, Maryland). 236- 300.
Sri Lanka Standard, 1173: 1998. Guidelines for the Application of the Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Point system (HACCP). Sri Lanka Slandered Institution. Sri
Lanka.
Acknowledgment
We offer our profuse thanks to academic staff members of Animal Science degree
program and Faculty of Animal Science and Export Agriculture for giving me great
help to conduct this research.
We owe our thanks to management staff of Milco (Pvt) Ltd., Narahenpita for providing
the necessary facilities to complete this study.
95
Development of Chocolate- Malted Whey Beverage Using Liquid Cheese

Whey
M.W.I.R. Weerasena, D.C. Mudannayake
and
C. Samarasekara
Kotmale Dairy Product Private Limited. Mulleriyawa New Town, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Cheese is one of the most popular milk products which produced by coagulating milk
using rennet enzyme and microorganisms. During the cheese manufacturing yellowish
liquid that contains all of the nutrition of milk except fat and casein is produced as byproduct or waste material. This liquid is called as whey. Approximately ten pounds of
milk are used to produce a pound of cheese and from six to nine pounds of whey is
resulted. The whey contains 6-7% solids about half those in milk (Milk and whey
powder, 1980). At present, whey is causing a huge problem for the cheese industry.
Whey is leading cause for water pollution if whey is discharged to the water source and
ultimately this ends up as a major hazard. If whey is unused, its organic nutrients make
it a costly pollutant in the countrys sewage and waterways. Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) values for cheese whey range from 30,000 to 45,000 milligrams per liter (mg/l)
(Milk and whey powder, 1980). Effective and economical methods of utilizing whey
are essential if cheese plants are to remain competitive with other segments of the
food processing industry. Utilization of whey for beverage production requires few
energy resources. The entire whey is utilized no removal of water is necessary.
Furthermore, whey can be utilized by small cheese plants for beverage production,
since no elaborate or expensive equipment is required. Though the production of
whey beverage is cost effective method of utilization of whey, relatively high content of
minerals in whey are responsible for undesired salty-sour flavor of whey. This
ultimately results with the undesired taste in final product. This can be overcome using
chocolate powder and malt extract, since those compounds import not only desirable
flavor but also help to increase the nutritive value of final product.
The aim of this study was to develop chocolatemalted whey beverage as a solution for
the whey disposing problem. In this research, best sugar percentage and suitable
percentage of malt extract and cocoa powder were determined separately.
Methodology
Cheese whey was weighted and heated up to 60 C by using hot water bath. Cocoa
powder, sugar, full cream milk powder and malt extract was added to the preheated
whey and stirred until all the compounds dissolved completely. The sample was
pasteurized using hot water bath for 90 C for five minutes. Sensory evaluation I was
carried out to select best sugar percentage (T1-9%, T2-8% and T3-7% sugar) while
Sensory evaluation II was carried out to select best combination of cocoa powder and
malt extracts (T1- 0.8% Cocoa powder , 0.4%, Malt Extract , T2- 0.4% Cocoa powder
,0.8% Malt Extract, T3- 0.6% Cocoa powder , 0.6%, Malt Extract) Sensory evaluations
were carried out using 15 semi trained penalties and data from sensory evaluation was
96
analyzed using MINITAB software ver. 14. Friedman statistical method was used to
analyze data at the significance level of 0.05.
The samples were checked for pH changes and microbiological quality changes at 1 day
interval for 10 days during cold storage (4 C).
Results
Beverage sample that prepared using 8% of sugar was selected as the best sample from
sensory evaluation I. In sensory evaluation II, T3 having 0.6% Cocoa powder was
selected as the best treatment under 5% significant level.
pH changes and microbiological qualities were used as quality parameters for
determination of shelf life of final product. Under the microbiological quality total plate
count and Coli form count were taken into consideration. As pH of the final product and
total plate count of the final product begin to reduce steadily at the 7th day. As a result
of that shelf life of product were determined as 7 days under refrigerated conditions.
Nutritional value of the final product is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Nutritional Value of final product
Nutrient
Fat
Crude Protein
Ash
Carbohydrate
Total Solid
Amount g in 100g
1.63
3.45
0.4
14.09
19.57
Conclusions
As a pasteurized product final product has higher shelf life than the commercially
available milk based pasteurized beverages. Shelf life of the final product is 7 days and
can be extended up to 9 days by applying ideal conditions
When the nutritional value of final product is considered, it has nearly equal nutritional
value to the milk based beverage as shown in Table 1.
Sedimentation of cocoa powder was observed with the poor mouth feel in final product
and this can be overcome by using food grade stabilizers. Since it is effective and
economical solution for whey disposing problem stabilizers were not used for this
experiment.
Reference
Atherton, H.V. and Newlander, J.A. 2000 Chemistry and Testing of Dairy products,
Fourth edition, CBS publishers and distributors New Delhi, 395 .
97
Identification of Best Pasteurization Temperature Time Combination for

Retarding Microorganism Counts in Raw Cream as Ingredient of Butter:
Approach to mprove Microbial Quality of Butter
K.A.H.S. Keenavinna, D.C. Mudannayake, A.M.N.L. Abesinghe,
Uva Wellassa University,Badulla, Sri Lanka
and
K. Jayarathne
Milco (pvt) Ltd, No.45, Nawala road, Narahenpita.
Introduction
This paper provides an overview of Best Pasteurization TemperatureTime
Combination (BPTTC) for retarding microorganisms in raw cream as an ingredient of
butter. BPTTC is an indicator of good quality raw cream as an ingredient of butter. Best
pasteurization temperaturetime combination is gaining the idea about good quality raw
cream.
The quality of raw cream is the most important factor in production of butter. If cream
has an increase of microbial count it cant produce butter. In order to determine the
qualitymicrobial count is very important. In this study, different pasteurization
temperature time combinations were used to retard microorganisms count. This test
uses microbial analysis of raw cream by using Total Colony Count (TCC) method and
Yeast and Moulds count methods.
When cream incorporates high intense heat fat separation occurs. It is not good for the
production of quality butter. So when pasteurization temperature time combinations
needs to be critically monitored and identified its temperature time combination them
unhealthy pasteurization temperature time range can be avoided.
An increasing number of people are consuming raw unpasteurized milk. Enhanced
nutritional qualities, taste, and health benefits have all been advocated as reasons for
increased interest in raw milk consumption. However, science based data to substantiate
these claims are limited. People continue to consume raw milk even though numerous
epidemiological studies have shown clearly that raw milk can be contaminated by a
variety of pathogens, some of which are associated with human illnesses and diseases
(Oliver et al., 2009).
Food spoilage is an enormous economic problem worldwide. Milk is a highly nutritious
food that serves as an excellent growth medium for a wide range of microorganisms.
The microbiological quality of milk and dairy products is influenced by the initial flora
of raw milk, the processing conditions, and postheat treatment contamination.
Undesirable microbes that can cause spoilage of dairy products include Gram negative
psychrotrophs, coliforms, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and molds. In addition, various
bacteria of public health concern such as Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia enterocolitica, pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli
and enterotoxigenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus may also be found in milk and
dairy products (University of West Hungary, 2007).
The hygienic production of milk is of the greatest importance for cream, because
although most vegetative cells are easily killed by heat treatment, spores are not, and
some types, such as B. cereus, can be a cause of spoilage (as well as failure in the
98
methylene blue (MB) test). If the spore count of the milk is high (over 100 ml-1), it may
be worthwhile reducing this by high speed centrifugal methods. As aerobic spore
formers tend to form chains, these are more easily removed than single cell (Robinson,
1990).
Most vegetative bacteria cells, yeast and moulds in milk and cream should be killed by
pasteurization. However, thermoduric bacteria will survive pasteurization and lactic
organisms such as Streptococcus thermophillus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Lactococcus lactis are important. Some Micrococcus spp. And some enterococci can
also survive pasteurization. Spore-forming thermoduric bacteria survive pasteurization
and various aerobic and facultatively aerobic Bacillus spp. can be found in pasteurized
milk and cream B. cereus and B. subtilis are proteolytic, whereas B. polymixa is gas
forming. B licheniformis and B. coagulans are also found. Clostridium spp. is the main
anaerobic apore-forming organism found in pasteurized milk and cream, of which C.
butyricum and C. sporogenes are common. Many of the clostridial organisms are
proteolytic and/or saccharolytic and those that grow in milk also form gas. Frazier and
Westhoff (1988) recorded that heat resistant lactic acid bacteria may spoil pasteurized
products through the production of lactic acid, provided the storage conditions are
favourable, i.e. the temperature is high enough. When storage temperatures are
unfavourable for lactic bacteria, coliforms (the result of post-pasteurization
contamination) may produce hydrogen, carbon dioxide, ethanol, formic acid, acetic acid
and some lactic acid. In the absence of competition from lactic acid bacteria Bacillus
spp. and Closridium spp. will causes spoilage, the former mostly producing lactic acid
and the latter often producing butyric acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide (Early, 1998).
Methodology
In this project, milk and milk products move through several hands from production to
consumer. Hence the assessment of overall efficiency of handling and processing of the
products is a criterion in the evaluation of the quality delivered to the consumer. This is
achieved by testing the samples of milk, milk products, water, swabs and rinse of dairy
utensils in the microbiology laboratory. Each pasteurization temperature time
combination were used to five samples (cream) and the micro biological analysis was
done. Also one temperature has two time changes. Good quality raw milk was tested by
using Resazurin test. Total Colony Counts (TCC) and Yeast and moulds
microbiological analysis were done to the find out the best pasteurized cream sample.
In this study, when pasteurization temperature was increased and TCC level and Yeast
and mould counts level were reduced. Also when time period were increased and also
results were obtaining in lowest counts of microorganisms level.
Bulk collection of milk is common practice to be stored in creameries at 5 oC for up to
48 hours and even sometimes longer. The change from churn to bulk milk collection
has resulted in a change in the microflora of raw milk, with an increase in the level of
psychrotrophs. There is normally no problem with milk quality for milk so held,
although psychrotrophs can grow very slowly at below 5 oC. These are generally
biochemically active against fat and protein, but do not usually ferment lactose to lactic
acid. Thus cold stored milk does not sour but can develop taints, and although the
organisms are nearly all killed by pasteurization, they produce enzymes which can
survive pasteurization and continue to produce changes in the pasteurized product
99
(Robinson, 1990). The raw cream is usually held at about the separation temperature
(e.g. 40 oC) during the standardization. Furthermore, the cream may be contaminated by
inadequately disinfected process plant or the skim milk may not be of good quality
(Robinson, 1990). Also high temperature pasteurization fat separation occurs and that
problem mainly caused to the final product quality. So, high intended heat wants to
avoid because of the fat separation. Also high intended heat has economic losses.
Because of heat generating fuel is diesel and high heat wants to get much fuel burning.
It is major threat for production of customer based product. If price is high product also
fails in the market and the customer penetration is reduced. When free fatty acids of the
cream are increased more than 0.37 % then it cant produce butter. So it converts in to
ghee. Low temperature has more free fatty acids level so it pasteurization temperature
time combination cant produce butter. If that pasteurized cream is converted to butter,
its shelf life is reduced and also off flavor is developed. High temperature pasteurization
combinations produce low free fatty acids cream and it is good for production of butter.
All milk and products made from it, such as cream, become contaminated by micro
organisms from the udder, or from the cow, or during the milking process. The
original flora in this sense consists mainly of lactic and other streptococci, micrococci,
corynebacteria, and aerobic and anaerobic spore forming bacteria.
Conclusions
P < 0.05, and all the temperature time combinations were significant with 75 oC 30
minutes pasteurization temperature - time combination. When temperature increases
with more than 75 oC temperature (e.g. 80 oC) fat separation occurs and it can affect the
final product quality. So, the best pasteurization combination is 75 oC 30 minutes.
This best pasteurization combination there have no any fat separation and also
economic viable temperature time combinations.
References
Adams, M.R., M.O. Moss 1996. Food microbiology. 104 112. New Age
International (Pvt) Ltd.
ANON, 2009. Pasteurization definition and methods. IDFA, June 2009.
ANON, 1953. Milk pasteurization. World health organization, Geneva, 1953.
Early, R., 1998. The technology of dairy products. 2nd ed., Blackie academic &
professional, London.
Oliver, S.P., K.J. Boor S.C. Murphy and S.E. Murinda 2009. Food safety hazards
associated with consumption of raw milk. Food borne pathogen and disease. 793
- 803.
Robinson, R.K. 1990. The Microbiology of Milk Products. 2nd ed., Boca Raton, New
York.
Spreer, E. 1998. Mlik and Dairy Product Technology. MARCEL DEKKER INC, New
York.
100
A Study on the Mangrove Crabs in Batticaloa District for Potential Export

Market
A. Krithika and S.C. Jayamanne
Introduction
Mangrove crabs live in association with mangrove forests and belong to many different
species. They have been shown to be ecologically very significant animals which keep
much of the energy within the forest by burying and consuming leaf litter. The edible
mangrove crab Scylla serrata is a well known commercial commodity considered to be
among the tastiest of crab species and have a huge demand in South Asian countries.
Most of the edible crabs belong to the family Portunidae and are swimming crabs but
there are some grapsid crabs which are true dwellers of the mangrove forests that are
edible. Grapsid crab, Episesarma sp. is such a delicacy consumed by the Thai people
and by Chinese people in their cuisines (Ng and Sivasothi, 1999). Some Uca species
and sesarmid crabs such as Perisesarma species which has deep red pincers and
iridescent blue or green band across the face are considered as ornamental animals due
to their beautiful colourations (Nyawira and Methiga, 1834). Sesarma bidens is another
mangrove crab which is bred in aquariums as an ornamental animal
(www.aquaticcommunity.com).
Extensive mangrove forests are found in association with lagoons and estuaries of Sri
Lanka but the studies on their fauna is limited (Priyadarshani, et al., 2008). The crabs
dwelling in these mangrove environments are anticipated to have much potential to be
utilized in various industries if they could be bred in captivity. Crabs with ornamental
value can be bred in captivity and can take up to the ornamental aquaculture markets.
The present study was carried out with an aim of finding the diversity and the export
potential of the mangrove crabs in the Batticaloa District, Sri Lanka.
Methodology
Three mangrove areas in the Batticaloa (7430N, 81420E) district of Sri Lanka
were randomly selected as study sites. The selected mangrove forests are situated in the
Grama Sewaka divisions of Mankerny, Saththurukkondan and Kokkaddicholai. Three
belt transects with a width of 10 m and a length of 50 m were laid perpendicular to the
lagoon shore at each site and were subdivided in to 10x10 m2 plots. Alternate plots
starting from the lagoon shore were selected for detailed studies totaling three sampling
plots of 10 m x 10 m per one belt transect. Each sampling plot had three systematic
sampling units of 1x1 m2 size and all the crabs in such plots were collected, identified
and counted.
The crabs were collected by digging the soil up to the water table until the crabs are
caught and were picked by hand. The crabs were handled with caution to avoid
autotomy which causes difficulties in identification. Soon after the collection the crabs
suitable for taxonomic studies were stored in a freezer. The samples for further
laboratory references were stored under 4 oC to prevent changes in the physical
parameters attributable to the microbial degradation. The crabs were identified to the
species level using the available keys and diagnostic characters described by the former
taxonomists (Ng and Sivasothy, 1999; Priyadarshani, et al., 2008).
101
The environmental variables were analyzed quantitatively to find out the distribution of
crabs in relation to environmental parameters. The physico-chemical parameters; air
and soil and water temperature, conductivity, salinity and pH were measured in each
plot to find out their habitat preference. The crabs species collected from the study sites
were recorded as edible crabs considering their food value, large size and their
acceptance by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) as harmless to human
consumption and as ornamental crabs considering their eye catching attributes and
minor sizes.
The experiment was designed as a complete randomized block design and the data were
analyzed using two- way ANOVA.
Twelve species of brachyuran crabs of which three species belonging to family
Ocypodidae, and nine belonging to family Grapsidae were identified from the three
mangrove forests in the Batticaloa district. The species Episesarma versicolor,
Episesarma mederi and Varuna litterata are accepted as edible species according to
FAO and Uca annulipes, Uca chlorophthalmus, Metapograpsus oceanicus,
Parasesarma plicatum, Perisesarma eumolpe, Metasesarma obesum are identified as
ornamental crabs. The crabs, Cleistostoma merguiense, Metopograpsus thukuhar and
parasesarma sp. were identified as not belonging to above two categories.
None of the crabs show a significant relationship with the salinity while three Ocypodid
crabs, Uca annulipes, Uca chlorophthalmus, Cleistosoma and Metapograpsus thukuhar
have shown a significant negative correlation (P<0.05) with the pH. Episesarma
versicolor showed a positive correlation with the water and air temperature (P<0.05)
while Perisesarma eumolpe showed a negative correlation (P<0.05) with the water and
air temperature. Episesarma mederi and Varuna litterata showed a positive correlation
with the conductivity while Metasesarma obesum showed a negative correlation.
Metapograpsus oceanicus preferred highest mean salinity level (31 ppt) while
Episesarma versicolor preferred low salinity (8 ppt).
Highest abundance of crabs was observed from Mankerny where average abundance
was 59/m2 followed by 24/m2 in Batticaloa and 18/m2 in Kokkaddicholai. Highest
species richness was recorded from Mankerny (10 species) followed by Batticaloa (03
species) and Kokkaddicholai (02). Species diversity in Mankerny was very high (H =
2.14) compared to those of Batticaloa (H=0.72) and Kokaddicholai (H=0.52).
Conclusions
It is evident that crabs of Batticaloa area specially in Mankerni have a good export
market potential with nine out of twelve species have either a food value or ornamental
value. The findings of this research will pave way to emerge various new industries
related to mangrove crab fisheries, culture, breeding and processing. Furthermore, such
investigation will help many further scholarly progressions regarding taxonomy and
diversity. However, accessing of export market has to be done only after the successful
breeding programmes for the crabs have been established, to avoid extinction of these
valuable resources. It is also crucial to establish government regulations regarding use
of mangrove crabs for such purposes.
102
References
Ng, Peter K. L. and N. Sivasothi 1999. A Guide to the Mangroves of Singapore II
(Animal Diversity). Singapore Science Centre. 168.
Nyawira, A. and K.M.F.R.I.Muthiga 1834 Edible crabs of Kenya. Aquatic Bulletin 3:
61-65.
Priyadarshini, S.H.R., S.C.Jayamanne and Y.N. Hirimuthugoda 2008) Diversity of
mangrove crabs in Kadolkele, Negombo eatuary. J. Aquat. Sci. 13:109 121.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to extend their sincere gratitude to Prof. P.K.L. Ng of the National
University of Singapore for the support given in confirming all species and identifying
some species.
103
Development of Ginger Flavoured Pasteurized Milk with Incorporation of

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Extract and Sugar
N.M.P.K. Upananda, A.M.N.L. Abesinghe and D.C. Mudannayake
Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka.
Introduction
The Sri Lankan dairy industry is important and has tremendous potential in developing
the economy in the country. Since centuries, milk is used for direct consumption as well
as for making various products. With the advent of new processing techniques, many
products especially such as pasteurized milk were added. Within this milk types,
flavoured milk remained highly demanded. However, there was no ginger flavoured
milk type among the flavoured pasteurized milk, which has antioxidant, antimicrobial
and anti-tumour effect with many other medicinal values. Therefore, this research has
focused to add value to flavoured milk by incorporating ginger extract.
Methodology
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizomes were washed with water and soaked for 12 hours.
Then, they were sliced (2 3 mm) and grinded. This mixture was heat treated for 5
minutes at 100 oC and filtered to obtain the ginger extract. Then, samples of ginger
flavoured milk were prepared by incorporating ginger extract and sugar in to cow milk.
There were 9 ginger flavoured milk samples by changing the volume of ginger extract
as 8 mL, 10 mL and 12 mL and sugar percentages as 5%, 7.5% and 10%. For the
preparation of each flavoured milk sample, relevant ginger extract volume and sugar %
were added in to 100 mL of milk separately and they were pasteurized at 72 oC for 15
seconds. Plain pasteurized milk samples were used as the control. An evaluation panel
comprising 5 trained panellists and 10 untrained panellists was used for first three
sensory evaluations.
Sensory attributes;
appearance/colour,
aroma/smell,
pungent/ginger flavour, sweet taste, overall flavour and overall acceptability were tested
using 9 point Hedonic scale (from 1-extremely dislike to 9-extreamly like). These
sensory evaluations were conducted by changing the ginger extract volume while
keeping the sugar % constant. With each evaluation, three best combinations were
selected. Selected three samples were produced again using the same procedure and the
best combination was selected by a sensory panel comprising 39 untrained members.
The selected milk sample was packed in LDPE bags and stored below 4 oC for further
analysis. The shelf life was determined by analysing titratable acidity (TA) and
microbiological evaluations (Total Plate Count and E. coli). Proximate analysis was
carried out by measuring the fat%, protein content, moisture% and ash content. Data
obtained from sensory evaluations were analysed by Friedman test.
From the first three sensory evaluations, 8 mL ginger extract volume was selected for
all three sugar %. From the final sensory evaluation, ginger flavoured milk sample with
8 mL ginger extract volume and 7.5 % sugar was selected as the best sample. Results
from microbiological analysis indicated that SPC of ginger flavoured milk sample did
not change (p>0.05) throughout the tested period (11 days). The TA of selected ginger
flavoured milk sample behaves similarly. Milk fat, protein, moisture, total solids and
104
ash content for selected milk were 3.6%, 291.6 mg, 89.9%, 10 % and 0.02 g
respectively.
According to the results obtained from final sensory evaluation (Figure 1), there were
no difference (p>0.05) in appearance/ colour among four samples. This may be due to
the addition of ginger extract and sugar in law quantities which may not contribute to
significant colour variation.
Over
all
acce
ptabi
lity
6
4
Aro
ma/S
mell
2
0
Pung
ent/G
inger
flavo
ur
Over
all
Flav
our
5% sugar
10% sugar
Swee
t
taste
7.5% sugar
Control
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
SPC 103 mL -1
Appe
aranc
e/col
our
8
1
4
6
8 11
Storage period (days)
Ginger incoporated
milk
Control
Figure 3. Variation in the sensory attributes

of milk samples
Figure 4. variation of SPC in ginger

flavored milk and control
Panelists prefer milk samples with sugar percentages as 5%, 7.5% with respect to
aroma/smell than other milk samples. All three ginger incorporated milk samples were
preferred by the panelists than the control. This may be due to the pleasant aroma of
ginger which caused by more than 70 constituents present in steam volatile oil.
According to the findings of Purseglove et al. (1983) sesquiterpene hydrocarbon
zingiberene is predominates in ginger and accounts for 2030% of the volatile oil
obtained from dry ginger.
The most preferred milk sample with respect to pungent/ginger flavour is 7.5% sugar
and 8 mL of ginger extract incorporated milk sample. All three ginger incorporated milk
samples were preferred by the panelists than the control. These results are in accordance
with the findings of Puengphian and Sirichote (2006). He explains that the main
pungent ginger constituents are oleoresins such as 6-, 8- and 10-gingerols and 6shogaol. These constituents are well dissolved in non polar solvents such as milk fat.
105
Milk fat was evenly distributed all over the milk serum after the homogenization.
Therefore, these oleoresins were uniformly distributed in the milk.
Results from microbiological analysis indicate that SPC (Figure 2) of the selected
ginger flavoured milk sample did not change (P>0.05) throughout the tested period (11
days). The TA of selected ginger flavoured milk sample behaves similarly. However,
SPC of the control exceeded the SLS specifications for pasteurized milk (30000
cfu/mL) at 7th day of refrigerated storage. According to the above results, incorporation
of ginger extract enhanced the shelf life of pasteurized milk. This may be due to the
antibacterial effect of ginger.
Malu et al. (2008) found that the antibacterial activity and inhibition activity of ginger
extracts could be due to the constituents such as sesquiterpenoids, zingiberene, sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene, farnesene and trace monoterpenoid fraction, (sesquiphellandrene, cineol and citral). Azu et al. (2007) also described that, these
components have antibacterial and gastrointestinal tract motility effects. Ginger has the
capacity to eliminate harmful bacteria, such as E. coli, responsible for most of the
diarrhoea, especially in children. Ginger eases both diarrhoea and constipation; hence it
should have impact on the growth of Bacillus cereus, which mainly causes diarrhoea
and nausea).
Conclusions
Ginger flavoured pasteurized milk can be produced by incorporation of ginger extract.
Most preferable combination is 8 mL of ginger extract and 7.5% of sugar content for
100 mL of milk. The product shelf life was expanded rather than market pasteurized
milk types. The product might be having some medicinal advantages, which is derived
from ginger.
References
Azu, N. C. and R. A. Onyeagba 2007. Antimicrobial Properties Of Extracts Of Allium
cepa (Onions) And Zingiber officinale (Ginger) On Escherichia coli, Salmonella
typhi And Bacillus subtilis, Internet Journal of Tropical Medicine, 3 (2):15402681.
Gao, D. and Y. Zhang 2010. Comparative antibacterial activities of extracts of dried
ginger and processed ginger. Pharmacognosy Journal 2 (15): 41-44.
Malu, S.P., G.O. Obochi, E.N. Tawo, and B.E. Nyona 2008. Antibacterial activity and
medicinal properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale)., Global Journal of pure and
applied sciences, 15 (3): 65-368 .
Puengphian, C., and A. Sirichote, 2008. [6]-gingerol content and bioactive properties of
ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) extracts from supercritical CO2 extraction.
Asian Journal of Food and Agro industry. 29-36.
Purseglove, J. W., E. G. Brown, C. L. Green, and S. R. J. Robbins 1981. Spices 2: 389421.
Sri Lanka Standard., 1983. Specification for raw and proceed milk (SLS 181:1983).
Bureau of Ceylon standards. 637.141.
106
Application of Green Supply Chain Management Approach for a

Community Based Dairy Factory
S.V.G.A. Samaranayake, D.C. Mudannayake, A.M.N.L. Abesinghe,
and
W.U.S. Alwis
Industrial Development Board, Katubedda, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Introduction
This paper provides an overview of Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM)
approaches for a community based dairy factory. GSCM is an emerging field that out of
the traditional supply chain perspective. Greening the supply chain is one such
innovative idea that is fast gaining attention in the industry. Today green supply chain is
at the heart of the concept of sustainable development.
This concept highly concerns about the environment. Eco-efficiency and
remanufacturing processes are now important assets to achieve best practice
(Srivastava, 2007). This concept is simply to produce more quality (environment
friendly) output from less input. Reducing waste and pollution, and using less energy
and material resources, are obviously good for the environment and evidently, are the
best for supply chain because they cut the operational cost. Waste minimization is being
considered as an important strategy towards attaining a green supply chain. Milk supply
chain is more concerned with controlling the milk quality and supply fluctuations which
are unique to this sector. Here, traditional supply chain is upgraded to highly effective
value system that creates more value to all the partners in the supply chain. The Sri
Lankan supply chain for milk and milk products is affected by wastage and poor
handling. Wastage occurs due to presence of multiple points of handling.
Contamination of milk can lead to huge economical losses. Contamination occurs at
different levels: at farm level, during collection and storage, and at processing centers.
Shortage of cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport equipments lead to
inefficiencies in handling milk and milk products. Thus there is a compelling
requirement for appropriate infrastructure facilities for temperature controlled
warehouses, bowsers, wholesale and retail shops, etc. where storage and transportation
activities are taking place. By practicing improved supply chain management practices,
there will be a significant reduction in the wastages of milk and milk products which in
turn will benefit both the farmers as well as the consumers by means of increased
returns and decrease in prices respectively.
Methodology
In this project, firstly secondary data were collected to get an idea about the dairy
industry in Sri Lanka. Secondary data were obtained from Ministry of Livestock
Development, Central bank, Department of Census and Statistics, Department of
Animal Production and Health Livestock statistics, Mahinda Chinthana, Sri Lanka
customs, National cleaner production center (NCPC), publications of Central
Environmental Authority and Sri Lanka Standard Code of hygienic practice for dairy
industrie, etc. According to the secondary data obtained, there were no doubts about the
huge potential for the expansion of the dairy industry in Nuwara Eliya district in the
107
view of its favoured climate, labour, green pastures and the demand for milk from the
other districts. Therefore, this community based dairy industry has been planned to be
established based on the Kotagala farm which is located closer to the IDB Industrial
Estate in Kotagala. Further, there are possibilities to increase the capacity of the dairy
unit as it has been planned to locate in an area where there are plenty of small scale
dairy farmers who sell their milk through intermediary salesmen. Designed community
based dairy factory is planned to carry out the processing operations based on GMPs.
Arrangements have been made to ensure hygienic conditions in milk processing by
considering each and every aspect of milk processing starting from establishment
designing, equipment purchasing and maintenance, control of operations, cleaning and
sanitation, personal hygiene, transportation, staff training, pest control, waste
management up to packaging and labeling. In here, greening the dairy supply chain,
starting from farm level to distribution of finished products was studied. It includes raw
material extraction, transportation, manufacturing process, wholesaler or retailer and
consumer. Raw materials and energy wastage, underutilization of resources,
environmental impacts and public health risks associated with each step in dairy supply
chain was identified using primary and secondary data. Primary data collection was
carried out using Observational method, Staff interviews and the Check lists were used
to identify pollutes and impact of each pollute. Secondary data were obtained from the
publications of Central Environmental Authority, National cleaner production center
(NCPC) and research publications were used to identify the types of effluents
discharged by the dairies and to find out the ways of maximizing overall environmental
performance of a community based dairy industry. Overall cost effectiveness was
determined by using a feasibility study.
In manufacturing process, the processing factories can apply green concepts by several
methods to reduce energy and resource consumption. This is where the reuse and
recycling have to be concerned. Some practices include reducing energy consumption,
recycling and reuse, using biodegradable and non-toxic materials, minimizing harmful
emissions and minimizing or eliminating waste.
The dairy farm produces the milk and it is collected by a collecting point thereafter
bowser which delivers it to the dairy factory. At the dairy factory the milk is processed
into a variety of dairy products and packaged for the consumer. After that they are
delivered to the retail shops where the products are displayed for consumers on a
refrigerator shelf or in a cold room for selling. A dairy item purchased by a consumer is
transported to the household and stored in the refrigerator before the final consumption.
Each of these activities in the milk chain causes environmental impact. When consider
the dairy chain waste products, those may occur as liquid waste, solid material, volatile
compounds or gasses that are discharged into the air. If this waste is not managed
properly, it will directly affect the environment. Water pollution, soil pollution, air
pollution are major environmental impacts in the supply chain. The major
environmental impact associated with dairy supply chain is the pollution of surface and
ground water. This would contribute to the organic load of the effluent stream (milk
solids, detergents, sanitizers and milk wastes). Discharge of waste water to surface
waters affects the water quality in three ways: 1.The discharge of biodegradable organic
compounds (BOCs) may cause a strong reduction of the amount of dissolved oxygen,
which in turn may lead to reduced levels of activity or even death of aquatic life. 2.
Macro-nutrients (N, P) may cause eutrophication of the receiving water bodies. 3. Agro-
108
industrial effluents may contain compounds that are directly toxic to aquatic life (e.g.
un-ionized ammonia). Milk losses occur as a result of overflowing, spillage, foaming,
leakage, and also during processing and cleaning. The majority of milk wastage occurs
due to residual milk in storage tanks, pasteurizer, homogenizer, pipelines etc, and
improper handling /usage of milk & other raw materials in dairy factory leads to
resource waste. Refrigerant loss in milk cooling was identified as the major way of
energy loss in dairy supply chain. Poor personal hygiene in the factory level is
responsible for the food poisoning outbreaks which is the major public health
significance in dairy supply chain. Financial evaluation of this project indicates a return
on investment (ROI) of 57.14%. This Community based dairy factory will create
employment directly to 21 persons and indirect employment to around 15 -20 farmers.
Conclusions
Application of green supply chain management approaches in dairy industry helps to
achieve environmental friendly operations through resource conservation and waste
management whilst achieving economic benefits. At the same time, this would help to
ensure the quality and safety of the final products. There is a good market potential for
the dairy products in Sri Lanka. This opportunity can be utilized to set up a profitable
community based dairy factory in Kotagala area.
References
Mohanty, R.P., Deshmukh, S.G., 2008. Essentials of Supply Chain Management.
Towards a green supply chain, 274-280.
109
Development of Egg Less Cake Incorporating Yoghurt

T.B. Karunarathna, A.M.N.L. Abesinghe, D.C. Mudannayake
and
D.M.J.N. Danasekara
Lucky Lanka Milk Processing Company, Karagoda, Uyangoda, Kamburupitiya, Sri
Lanaka
Introduction
Cake is a product obtained from a batter containing wheat flour, sugar and eggs or
wheat flour, shortening, sugar, eggs and other ingredients of requisite mass, put into
trays and baked in an oven at suitable temperature for a suitable time (Sri Lankan
Standards, 1995). The most primitive people in the world began making cakes shortly
after they discovered wheat flour. They were described as flour-based sweet foods as
opposed to the description of breads, which were just flour-based foods without
sweetening. Bread and cake were somewhat interchangeable words with the term
"cake" being used for smaller breads. Cakes are five types according to the Sri Lankan
Standard specifications; cakes, butter cakes which contains wheat flour, butter, sugar
and eggs without filling or any coating, fruit cakes that contain wheat flour, shortening,
sugar, eggs, fruits (dry or preserved) and other ingredients, sponge cakes that contain
wheat flour, sugar and eggs and cake with icing which are sandwiched and/or coated
either with dairy or non dairy cream, jam, jelly, marshmellow, caramel, dried fruits or
any other suitable mixture. The term yoghurt can be defined as A fermented milk
product obtained from coagulation of milk specified as, cow or buffalo milk,
standardized milk, skim milk or partially skimmed milk and reconstituted milk and
concentrated milk by the agency of organisms of types Streptococcus thermophillus,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus may be present (Sri Lankan
Standards, 1989). Yoghurt can be broadly categorized in to two types based on method
of production, set yoghurt and stirred yoghurt. There are three types of set yoghurt in
the local market; normal yoghurt, low- fat yoghurt and non-fat yoghurt. Stirred yoghurt
can be found as plain, fruit or flavoured yoghurts (Tamime and Robinson, 2007). This
study was carried out to develop an eggless cake for vegetarians by replacing eggs with
yoghurt which is rejected just before the expiry date and thereby add value to yoghurts
and cakes through product diversification.
Methodology
Cake was prepared using wheat flour, sugar, butter and baking powder. Three cake
samples were prepared by changing wheat flour percentage as 15% (w/w), 20% (w/w)
and 25% (w/w). First, wheat flour and baking powder were mixed in a bowl until well
combined. Then, sugar and butter were measured and added in to the mixture at the
room temperate and mixture was beaten well for 5 minutes using an electric beater to
prepare cake batter. Batter was transferred to the greased trays and baked for 45 minutes
at 180 oC. Baked cake was wrapped with polythene and stored under room temperature.
Optimum wheat flour percentage was selected by a sensory evaluation using 30
untrained panelists at day 01. Wheat flour percentage Selected from above was used to
develop yoghurt incorporated cake. There were three yoghurt incorporated cake
samples by changing yoghurt percentage as 20% (w/w), 25% (w/w) and 30% (w/w).
110
First, wheat flour and baking powder were mixed in a bowl until combined well. Then,
sugar and butter were measured and added in to the mixture at the room temperate and
mixture was beaten well for 5 minutes using an electric beater to prepare cake batter.
Preservatives were added in maximum level to the batter to increase the shelf life.
Finally, yoghurt (4% of fat and 8.5% of SNF and vanilla were added to the batter and
mixed well. Batter was transferred to the greased trays and baked for 45 minutes at 180
o
C. Optimum yoghurt percentage was selected by a sensory evaluation using 30
untrained panelists at day 01. Selected cake sample was wrapped with polythene and
stored under room temperature for further analysis. Sensory evaluations were carried
out using a 7-point hedonic scale (7like extremely, 1 - Dislike very much) and sensory
attributes such as appearance, colour, smell, taste and overall acceptability were
assessed. Shelf life determination for selected cake sample was done by analyzing pH,
yeast and mould count, total plate count, coliform and Escherichia coli at one week
interval for 60 days of storage. Protein content, fat content and moisture content were
analyzed by Kjeldhal method, Soxhelt method and oven dry method respectively as
described in AOAC (2002). Data obtained from sensory evaluation were analyzed by
Friedman rank test in MINITAB 14 software package.
According to the sensory evaluation results of the cake sample with different wheat
flour percentages, 20% (w/w) wheat flour incorporated cake had highest overall
acceptability among three samples. Therefore, with the 20% (w/w) wheat flour, it gives
best sensory characters to the cake. Furthermore, cake sample with 20% wheat flour and
30% yoghurt has highest preference with respect to overall acceptability. Therefore,
20% wheat flour and 30% yoghurt were selected as the best percentages to develop
eggless cake. They can be stored for 60 days under room temperature without any
quality deterioration. Similar to that, there is no growth of coliform, E. coli, yeast and
moulds observed. The moisture content of the product was 26.28% and it fulfills the
requirements of the Sri Lankan Standards for cakes with respect to moisture content.
Considering the nutritional quality of the product, it has 6.13% protein and 7.94% fat.
Fat content of this eggless cake is lower than the fat content of cakes with eggs and
therefore it is more suitable for the people having high cholesterol levels.
Conclusions
Eggless cake can be developed using 20% wheat flour and 30% yoghurt with good
sensory attributes. It can be stored for 60 days without any quality deterioration.
Similarly, the fat content of this cake was lower than the cakes produced with eggs and
therefore, more suitable for people who conscious on dietary fat contents.
References
AOAC. 2002. Official Method of Analysis of AOAC International, 20th ed: Association
of Official Analytical Chemists, Maryland, USA.
Sri Lanka Standards 1074 1989. Specification for cakes. Sri Lanka Standards
Institution, Colombo.
Tamime, A. Y. and R. K. Robinson 2007. Tamime and Robinsons Yoghurt Science
and Technology, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, England.
111
Evaluation of Different Culture Types and Development of a Set Yoghurt

With Cost Optimized Culture Option
S.A.V. Padmaraja , A.M.N.L. Abesinghe , D.C. Mudannayake ,
Animal Science Degree Programme. Uva Wellassa University. Badulla. Sri Lanka
and
M.N.P. Perera
Fonterra Brands Lanka (Pvt) Ltd., Biyagama. Sri Lanka
Introduction
Over the last decade yoghurt and its preparations have developed into one of the most
well-accepted and consumed acidified products. Mild acidic tastes, good digestibility,
variations in taste and high dietetic value as well as stable quality have contributed to
this growth. The starter culture is a critical factor in the production of set yoghurts it
influences the organoleptic properties of the set yoghurt. A few studies have been
conducted on evaluating the potential of using different culture types for yoghurt
production. Kumari (2001) reported about the selection of a starter culture to improve
the texture of plain set yoghurt at reduced total solid levels. Wijesinghe (1997) tested
production of yoghurts using different ratios of Streptococcus thermophilllus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and found that the best ratio of Streptococcus thermophilllus
and Lactobacillus bulgaricus is 1:1.
This study was carried out in one of the dairy factory in Sri Lanka where probiotic
yoghurts are produced using two imported yoghurt starter culture types as base culture
and probiotic culture. Base culture includes S. thermophilus , L. bulgaricus and
Bifidobacterium species. From these three species, first two are considered as authentic
yoghurt starter bacteria whereas the other is a probiotic bacterium. Probiotic culture
includes Bifidobacterium lactis. The viable bacteria count in probiotic yoghurts at the
end of shelf life is 106 cfu mL-1 However, it was found that the probiotic bacteria in
base culture do not contribute much to maintain the viable probiotic bacterial population
in set yoghurt. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to select a suitable nonprobiotic base culture for the existing set yoghurt without changing its organoleptic
properties and thereby optimize the cost of set yoghurt production by selecting suitable
non-probiotic base culture.
Methodology
Set yoghurts were prepared according to the standard procedure. The production
process of set yoghurt includes yoghurt mix preparation, culture solution and skim milk
solution preparation, activation of cultures, inoculation of activated cultures, incubation
of yoghurt cups and transferring to the refrigerator. Selection of suitable base culture
was done through trial and error method. Trials were conducted to compare new
products with current product formulation. Two different multiple species non-probiotic
cultures were used (A and B). The yoghurts prepared with non-probiotic base cultures
were compared with the existing product for its organoleptic characteristics. Culture
type C was the existing probiotic base culture. Both A and B included Streptococcus
thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus whereas C included
Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus and
Bifidobacterium species. Completely Randomized Design (CRD) comprising three
112
treatments in ten replicates was used as the experimental design. Treatments were;
treatment 1 base culture A + probiotic culture, treatment 2 base culture C +
probiotic culture (existing set yoghurt) and treatment 3 base culture type A + B +
probiotic culture. Treatment 3 (existing set yoghurt) was used as the control.
Parametric data analysis was done using ANOVA for significance under =0.05 level
using Minitab 14 statistical software package. Non parametric data analysis was done
by Friedman non - parametric test using Minitab 14 statistical software package. In this
analysis, 95% confidence interval was considered. The sensory evaluation was carried
out with 20 semi trained panelists using nine point hedonic scale to assess sensory
attributes of appearance, flavour, texture and overall acceptability. Three sensory
evaluations were carried out to determine significant differences between sensory
attributes of selected set yoghurt and existing set yoghurt. Shelf life determination was
done by analyzing titratable acidity, pH, yeasts and moulds, coliforms at five days
intervals for 35 days compared with existing set yoghurt (control sample). Incubation
time was measured in final product. Probiotic count was measured during 14, 21, 28
and 34 days under refrigerated storage. Cost analysis for starter cultures was done and
compared with existing set yoghurt production.
Treatment 1, base culture type A and probiotic culture added set yoghurt was rejected
after five repeated trials. According to the preliminary studies of culture types,
treatment 3 (combination of culture type A and B with probiotic culture) was selected as
the best non-probiotic culture for further analysis. There were no significant difference
(p>0.05) between sensory attributes of appearance, flavour, texture and overall
acceptability of non-probiotic set yoghurt and the control set yoghurt. Results revealed
that total coliform, yeast and mould counts, pH and titratable acidity were in conformity
to the Sri Lanka Standards limits. Oraganoleptic characteristics and incubation time of
selected set yoghurt were similar to the control. The probiotic count during the
refrigerated storage is higher than 106 cfu mL-1 in both yoghurts. The cost optimized by
5 cents per set yoghurt using selected culture and it can be stored at 4 C up to 35 days
without reducing the viable probiotic counts than standards.
Treatment 1 was rejected because of ropiness of texture compared to the control.
Treatment 3 was selected after three repeated trials and three sensory evaluations
because there were no difference (p>0.05) between sensory attributes of appearance,
flavour, texture and overall acceptability of non-probiotic set yoghurt and the control set
yoghurt. Coliform count was zero in both yoghurts during 35 days of shelf life period.
This may be due to minimum level of contaminations, strictly maintained hygienic
practices and addition of preservatives to the set yoghurts. The survival of Coliform
bacteria is very low in lactic acid medium. There were zero counts of yeast and mould,
because addition of preservatives to the yoghurt mix inhibited their growth. Similarly,
the pasteurization of yoghurt mix helped to inhibit the growth of these microorganisms.
There was no significant difference (p>0.05) of pH in set yoghurts during incubation
period and the refrigerated storage period. The titratable acidity of selected set yoghurt
was within the range of 0.8 - 1.25% lactic acid (w/w) and it complies to the Sri Lanka
Standard specifications. Therefore, it revealed that, non-probiotic base culture has not
contributed to the post acidification of yoghurt compared to the control. The viable
probiotic counts of the probiotic yoghurt were within the standards (106 cfu mL-1) and it
113
indicates that the elimination of probiotic bacteria from the base culture did not affect
the viable probiotic count during its shelf life. The cost optimized by 5 cents per set
yoghurt due to the usage of non-probiotic base culture and it reduced the cost of
production of set yoghurt by Rs. 3,000,00 per month.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that the combination of non- probiotic base culture A and B with
probiotic culture was selected as the cost optimized culture option for the set yoghurt
production.
References
Kumari, A.A.T.T. 2001. Selection of a starter culture to improve plain set yoghurt
texture at reduced total solid levels, B.Sc. Dissertation. University of Peradeniya,
Sri Lanka.
Wijesinghe, S.A. 1997. Producing yoghurt using different ratios of Streptococcus
thermophillus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus, B.Sc. Dissertation, University of
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
114
Investigation of Genetic Variation in Bmp4 Gene in Local Indigenous and

Jamnapari Crossbred Goats in Damana Veterinary Service Division Sri
Lanka
H.R. Wijesena , P.B.A.I.K. Bulumulla
L.G.S. Lokugalappatti and H.B.S. Ariyarathne
Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal
Science, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
Small ruminants, such as goats (Capra hircus), constitute an important livestock
resource in most countries and are essential for the livelihood of many farmers (Baker et
al., 2003). Application of molecular genetics approaches for the genetic progress of
quantitative economic traits such as growth and reproduction in goats is an effective
way of increasing their production as these methods could lead to finding of genetic
markers useful for improved selection. Molecular genetics approaches have been used
in the world for goat production in the recent past, and these strategies are yet to be
established in Sri Lanka since they require high knowledge and capital investments.
Therefore, this study was conducted as a preliminary step for the application of
molecular genetics approaches in selection of goats for improved production in Sri
Lanka. Single Stranded confirmation Polymorphism (SSCP) analysis is one such
powerful genetic screening method to identify the sequence variation in Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) amplified products. In the present study, we investigated the
PCR-SSCP genetic variation in the intron 2 of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 (BMP4)
gene, which plays a major role in growth and reproduction. The study was focused on
Local types (LT) and Jamnapari crossbred (JC) goats in Damana Veterinary Service
(VS) division in the Ampara district of Sri Lanka.
Venous jugular blood samples were collected from total of 72, LT (18) and JC (54)
goats in 10 farms from the Damana VS division of the Ampara district. Genomic DNA
was extracted using QIAamp DNA Blood Mini Kit and target region was amplified
using
previously
published
(Fang
et
al.
2009)
forward
(5CTGGGGAAATGTTTGGTA 3) and reverse (5-GCTAAGAGTTG GGTGATGAG
3) primers. The PCR cycling protocol was 3 min at 94C, 40 cycles of 94C for 45 sec,
49C annealing for 45 sec, 72C for 1 min, with a final extension at 72C for 30 min.
SSCP method was used to investigate different conformation pattern in the BMP4 gene
with single stranded fragment movements. Aliquots of 3.5 l PCR products were mixed
with equal volume of loading solution (95% formamide deionized, 25 mM EDTA,
0.025% xylene-cyanole and 0.025% bromophenol blue), heated for 4 min at 100C and
chilled in ice immediately. Denatured DNA was subjected to 12% PAGE
(polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) in 1X TBE buffer at a constant temperature of
4C. Amplified fragments were separated initially at 300V for 5 min followed by 130V,
5W and 6mA current for 18 hours. At the end of the electrophoresis gels were stained
with 0.1% silver nitrate. The DNA banding patterns were observed, recorded and
photographed with GeneSys gel documentation system (Syngene). Frequencies of each
conformational pattern were calculated for both LT and JC animals separately.
115
Results
Polymorphisms were detected in intron 2 region of BMP4 gene in both LT and JC goats
in Damana VS division. Altogether three different conformation patterns were observed
and the three patterns were designated as A, B and C (figure 1).
Figure 1: The electrophoresis patterns of PCR-SSCP for intron 2 of goat BMP4 gene.
English letter corresponds to the conformational pattern. First lane indicates the 1kbp
size standard. The area demarcated by line represents the schematic view of each
conformational pattern.
All the three conformational patterns (A, B and C) were found in both Local Indigenous
and Jamnapari crossbred animals. Pattern A was predominantly found in both local
indeginous (66.67%) and Jamnapari crosses (72.22%) in all the ten farms. Next to
pattern A, pattern B has the highest frequency, whereas pattern C was found to be at
lowest frequency in both breeds (Table 1).
Table 1: Frequency distribution of each conformational pattern resulted in PCR-SSCP
of intron 2 of goat BMP4 gene
Breed
Frequency of Conformational Patterns

Pattern A
Pattern B
Pattern C
Locals
66.67%
27.78%
5.56%
Jamnapari Cross
72.22%
18.52%
9.26%
Total frequency of
each pattern
70.83%
20.833%
8.33%
116
Discussion
This study was carried out as a part of a detailed study aiming at genetic
characterization of indigenous goats in Sri Lanka for economically important traits,
mainly growth and reproduction using molecular markers. Several studies have been
conducted on BMP4 gene in different species including human, mice and bovine
worldwide (Fang et al., 2008), and such previous studies conducted in China (Fang et
al., 2009 and Chu et al., 2010), has described three conformational patterns (genotypes)
with two alleles for the same gene fragment in three goat breeds for growth and
reproduction traits. Similarly gene sequencing of the three observed conformational
patterns to identify the genotypes and the alleles present is being pursued in order to
determine whether any of the three conformation patterns observed in the study are
corresponding to the previously reported polymorphism.
According to data obtain from the study, patterns A and B were shown by both local
and Jamnapari crossbred goats. But pattern C was mainly shown by Jamnapari crosses,
except one local goat in farm 4. But pattern C was not identified in farm 10 where only
local goats are being reared. Since pattern C cannot be seen in animals from farm 10
and as it was mainly seen in Jamnapari crosses, we can predict that this pattern may be
inheriting from Jamnapari goats rather than locals. Same time we can predict that the
local goat that showed pattern C in farm 4, may be a Jamnapari cross where Jamnapari
characteristics are not well expressed. But to obtain accurate results and to prove these
predictions, we need to sequence the three patterns. However, these results and
conclusions should be considered as preliminary ones, and further investigations will be
essential for detecting the polymorphism of this gene in all part of the country.
Conclusions
Based on results obtained, it can be concluded that goats in the study area are
polymorphic for the intron 2 of BMP4 gene and possess at least three genotypes, alleles
or allelic groups. However these conclusions were preliminary and sequence variation
based on Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) of these populations is yet to be
analyzed.
References
Baker, R.L., S.Nagda, S.L. Rodriguez-Zas, B.R. Southey, J.O. Audho, E.O. Aduda and
W, Thorpe 2003. Resistance and resilience to gastro-intestinal nematode parasites
and relationships with productivity of Red Maasai, Dorper and Red Maasai
Dorper crossbred lambs in the sub-humid tropics. British Society of Animal
Science. 76:119-136.
Chu, M. X., L. Lu, T. Feng, R. Di, G.L. Cao, P.Q.Wang, L. Fang, Y.H. Ma and K. Li
2010. Polymorphism of bone morphogenetic protein 4 gene and its relationship
with litter size of Jining Grey goats. Mol. Biol. Report.
Xingtang Fang, Haixia Xu, Chunlei Zhang, Hong Chen, Xiucai Hu, Xueyuan Gao,
Chuanwen Gu and Wangping Yue 2009. Polymorphism in BMP4 gene and its
association with growth. Molecular Biology and Reprodcution 36:13391344.
117
Evaluation of the Effect Of Artificial Insemination (Ai) on Hatchability in

Indigenous Chicken at Central Poultry Research Station, Karandagolla
N.D. Andaraweera , N.M.N. Nambapana
Uva Wellassa Univesity Badulla, Sri Lanka
and
G.A. Gunawardana
Institute of Veterinary Research, Gannoruwa,Peradeniya,Sri Lanka
Introduction
The poultry farming is considered as one of the main livestock sector in Sri Lanka
where indigenous chicken farming provides a promising house hold income for people
in rural areas of Sri Lanka. (Buvanendran,1976).They can get high quality and quantity
of day old chicks and eggs for daily consumption by rearing indigenous
chicken.(Kushanthi et al., 2003) Introduction of Artificial Insemination (AI) program
for indigenous chicken can be used for selection, upgrading and development of several
suitable indigenous chickens for back yard poultry farming in Sri Lanka (De Silva,
1964).
This experiment was carried out at the Central Poultry Research Station, Karandagolla
under the supervision of staff of Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa. The study
was conducted to evaluate the effect of the Artificial Insemination on hatchability in
indigenous chicken and to supply increased number of indigenous chicks to farmers by
improving hatchability through AI which is the best method for breeding while
increasing hatchability. .
Methodology
The study was conducted between 6th of March 2011 to 6th of August 2011,at the
Central Poultry Research Station, Karandagolla, Kundasale located in the mid country
intermediate zone in Sri Lanka under the administration of Veterinary Research
Institute. Two samples and two replicates were prepared by conducting Artificial
Insemination for one group and conducting Natural Breeding for one group. For
Artificial Insemination program 6 male birds were used for semen collection and 40
female birds used for receiving semen. For natural breeding program 4 male birds and
40 female birds were used for better mating performance. All the other management
factors feeding, water was given constantly for both groups. After eggs were collected
those were incubated in the same conditions. After 18th day the candling data were
collected and after 21st day hatching data were collected. Incubator parameters were
monitored daily. egg breakout analysis were done after every candling and hatching.
Finally, data were analyzed using SPSS 18 version statistical package. Paired t test was
performed for comparisons of the data considering the difference between the groups at
5% level of significance.
The mean fertility in the Artificial Insemination Program was significantly lower
(25.26) than the mean fertility in Natural breeding program (34.62) (P<0.05).
118
Fertility
Fertility %
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Natural
breeding
AI
program
3
weeks
The mean Flock performance hatchability (27.60) in Natural breeding program is

higher than the mean.
Flock performance hatchability (23.44) in Artificial
Insemination program. There was no significant difference P>0.05 between Flock
performance hatchability in Natural Breeding with the flock performance hatchability in
Artificial Insemination in indigenous chicken.
Flock performance hatchability

40
35
Hatchability %
30
25
20
Natural
Breeding
15
10
5
0
1
3
weeks
.
The mean of the sellable hatchability in the Artificial Insemination Program is 93.74,
while the mean of the sellable hatchability in Natural breeding program is 81.84. There
was a significant difference (P<0.05) between sellable hatchability in Natural Breeding
with the sellable hatchability in Artificial Insemination in indigenous chicken.
119
Natural
Breeding
Selleble Hatchability
120
Aritificial
Inseminati
on
Hatchability %
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
3
weeks
The study revealed that the Natural breeding Program is better than artificial
insemination program for breeding of indigenous chicken. Further studies are needed to
confirm these findings, since Artificial Insemination improves hygienic condition and
also can be used for breeding indigenous chicken in Sri Lanka.
References
Buvanendran, V. 1976. Studies on hatchability of duck eggs, The Ceylon Veterinary
Journal, 15(01):26-32,
De Silva, P.L.G. 1964. Effect of female genotype on fertility and hatchability in
chickens. The Ceylon veterinary journal, 12 (1 and 2).
Kushanthi S.K.C., C.M.B. Dematawewa and D.V.S.de S. Gamage 2003. Evaluation of
semen characteristics and fertility in a ecotypes of indigenous chicken , 11th
Annual student research session, Department of Animal science, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Peradeniya.
Acknowledgment
We express our heartfelt gratitude to all the staff members in Central Poultry Research
Station, Karandagolla and Staff members of Animal Husbandry school, Karandagolla.
120
Study on Effect of Ginger Incorporated Broiler Feed on Body Weight

Gain, Feed Conversion Ratio and Feed Intake of Broiler Chicken
R.M.D.S. Rathnayake
Uva Wellassa Univesity, Badulla, Sri Lanka
G.A.P. Ganegoda
CIC Feed (Pvt)Ltd, P.O.Box 2 ,No.252,Kurunduwatte Road, Ekala,Sri Lanka
and
N. M.N. Nambapana
Introduction
Modern intensive poultry production has achieved phenomenal gains in the efficient
and economical production of high quality and safe chicken meat, eggs and poultry bioproducts (George, 1996). At the same time as making gains in production and
efficiency, the industry had to maximize the health and well-being of the birds and
minimize the impact of the industry on the environment. The use of feed additives has
been an important part of achieving this success. Many additives have been a normal
part of diets for animals and humans. It is only recently that we have come to recognize
and understand their importance in achieving high production and efficiency,
maintaining health and wellbeing, improving product quality.(Windisch et al., 2008)
However, the feed additives have negative impacts on the consumers due to their
residues which mostly remain in the broiler products. Thus, it is important to explore
the potential of natural feed additives to replace the chemical ones.(Scott,2004)
Probiotic and medicinal plants as natural feed additives are recently used in poultry diet
to enhance the performance and the immune response of birds. One of the natural feed
additives is ginger. Ginger contains bioactive substance such as oleoresin and ginger
which give effect to optimize the body organ. Ginger also contains vitamins and
minerals as the peculiar plant. Ginger extracts function as the anti inflammation and anti
bacterial. Ginger is one of natural plants which can be used as phytobiotic to improve
broilers performance. The major component of ginger is Zingiberen and Zingerol that
can stimulate the digestive systems by controlling the digestive pH and the activity of
digestive enzyme and the microbial activity. Ginger extracts could immune the gastric
and improve poultry appetite. (Achyad et al., 2000) Studies show that the ginger spice
has two types of digestive enzymes; one is protease enzyme that is used to break apart
the protein and lipase enzyme that is used to break apart the fat. Both enzymes improve
nutrients digestion and absorption by animals. Ginger is also as bacteria static that
reduce pathogenic microorganisms in the digestive tracts. The gingerol also protect
the liver on it activity, especially on hold the toxic of carbon tetrachloride. The ginger
works as vaccination by stimulate an organ of bursafebrisius to make an antibody of
viral attack such as ND. Ginger as a natural material is good as additive because it has
no residual that threat the body organ and safe for the consumers health. (Peter et al.,
1999)
Methodology
Broiler starter and finisher feed were supplied by CIC feed (Pvt) Ltd, and these feeds
were taken as basal diets. Ginger was taken as feed supplement with basal diet. Raw
121
ginger was brought in the same place to avoid composition variation. Ginger flour was
prepared by washing the ginger under water and then it was slashed and sun-dried for 12 days. Dry ginger was then ground to get ginger flour. The ginger flour was stored in a
plastic container to avoid chemical and microbiological damages. Ninety nine day-old
female Hubbard flex broiler chicks were used for feed trial they were divided into three
treatment groups, consisting 33 birds in each. The initial body weights of the birds were
almost similar in all three treatments and average weight was 0.0484 kg.The chicks
were reared until day seven in electrical brooder which has been divided into three
separate compartments. Each compartment consisted forty watts (40 W) bulbs to
provide heat, and each group was provided with around 6360 cm2 floor spaces.
Artificial light was provided until third day during the day time and night. Thereafter,
the lights were switched off by considering the behavior pattern of the chicks and
environmental conditions to avoid over heating during the day time,. On the day seven,
each treatment was replicated. Each treatment consisted of three replicates, and each
replicate consisted of eleven birds. The experimental poultry house for growing birds
(for day 7 to 42) consisted of nine cages. The replicates were arranged randomly within
the nine cages. Each cage was equipped with separate feeder and drinker. Each cage
provided 13500 cm2 of floor space and the height of the cage was 90 cm. The chicken in
each group were given different feed as treatments. The feed were G-0 (control feed
without ginger), G-1.0, and G-2.0 which were control feed with 1.0, and 2.0% ginger,
respectively. The feed amount was changed according to the mortality. Ginger
supplemented diets were provided separately within treatment groups. Broiler starter
ration was given up to 28th day and the finisher ration was started from the 26th day.
Birds were provided ad libitum clean drinking water throughout the study except in
vaccination protocol. Multi vitamin mixture (Vita light) was given with drinking water
in first five days of the study and after vaccination. The birds were vaccinated with ND
vaccine on 3rd, 14th day and Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease IBD) vaccine on 14th,
21st, 28th day. Mortality and reasons for deaths were recorded throughout the period of
study. During the brooding period (day 1 to 7), daily group feed intakes were recorded
and weekly live body weights were measured on day eight. Following replication, body
weights and feed intakes were recorded on replicate basis. In each replicate, daily feed
intakes were recorded and weekly body weights were recorded on 15th, 22nd, 29th, 36th,
and 43rd day. Average body weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were
calculated using above measurements. Each variable was analyzed using Completely
Randomized Design (CRD). Data were analyzed according to the General Linear Model
(GLM) of ANOVA incorporated in Minitab 14. Three ginger samples were taken from
three lots of ginger powder to prepare composite sample for the analysis. The ginger
sample was subjected to sieve analysis and proximate analysis (crude protein, crude fat,
crude fiber, moisture, and total ash).
Proximate analysis indicated that the feed contained moisture 15.83%, ash 4.9%, crude
protein 16.27%, crude fat 6.79% and crude fiber 6.87%. Weekly body weight gain,
feed intake and FCR of the treatments are given in Table 1.
122
Table 1: Weekly body weight gain, feed intake, and FCR of Broiler birds
Parameter
Body
Weight
Gain (g)
Feed Intake
(g)
FCR
Period
(days)
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
29-35
36-42
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
29-35
36-42
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
29-35
36-42
Basal dietBD
(Control)
152.73
363.28
796.57
1276.18
1660.75
1828.15
121.18
412.39
951.54
1705.11
2660.44
3744.47
0.60
1.00
1.13
1.29
1.56
1.99
BD +
1%
Ginger
149.52
368.49
790.19
1251.52
1666.24
2021.06
114.51
402.17
923.92
1643.20
2558.04
3584.55
58.00
97.00
1.10
1.26
1.49
1.73
BD +
2%
Ginger
152.91
372.14
753.88
1249.94
1679.87
2099.62
114.30
400.59
917.15
1633.27
2550.88
3586.88
0.57
0.95
1.15
1.26
1.48
1.67
The particle size of ginger used in the experiment varied between 16 m and 30 m.
According to the Table 1 the body weight gain of the chicks fed with ginger supplement
diet has started to enhance at 5th week and in the 6th week it has become significantly
different from the control. According to the ANOVA analysis (Table 2), the weight gain
also showed a significant difference (p<0.05) with 2% ginger supplement.
Table 2: Results of ANOVA analysis for weight gain
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Treatment
117082
117082
58541
14.92
0.005
Table 1 shows that the control group had higher feed intake than the groups which were
supplemented with ginger throughout the study. According to the ANOVA analysis
(Table 2), the feed intake indicated a significant difference (p<0.05) with 2% ginger
supplement.
123
Table 3: Results of ANOVA analysis for total feed intake

Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Treatment
50412
50412
25206
43.38
0.000
According to the Table 1 FCR was higher in control group than ginger supplemented
group. The FCR of the chicks t fedwith diet supplemented with ginger has enhanced at
the 6th week and showed a significant difference (p<0.05) with 2% ginger supplement
(Table 3).
Table 4: Result of ANOVA analysis for feed conversion ratio
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Treatment
0.176156
0.176156
0.088078
23.66
0.001
Conclusions
Dietary supplementation of ginger powder into broiler feed improves the Body Weight
Gain, and decreases Feed Intake and Feed Conversion Ratio in an effective manner.
There was different between 1% and 2% ginger supplementation for the effect body
weight gain, total feed intake and FCR.
Based on the research, it can be concluded that adding ginger as the supplement in the
ration of broiler up to 2.0% gave a good effect on feed intake, total body weight gain
and feed conversion. So, using 2% ginger supplement as phytobiotic additives in broiler
diets will give higher body weight gain by consuming lower feed within 42 days.
There is a potential to add value to nationally available ginger through the broiler feed
industry. However, further studies are needed to investigate new phytogenic feed
additives with more available herbs and medicinal plants in Sri Lanka, and
to
investigate the effect of ginger on the meat quality parameters such as color, drip loss,
pH, cholesterol level, microbiological analysis and strength of meat.
References
George, J.M.1996. Poultry Prooduction Technology.The Avian Publication
Company.West concert 34-49.
Windisch, W., K. Schedle, C. Plintzner and A. Kroismayr 2008. Use of phytogenic
product as feed additives for swine and Poultry. J.Anim.sci. 86:140-148.
Scott, T.A. 2004.Cyber extention:Defining a feed additive.(Accessed on
25.05.2011)<http://www.poultryhub.org/index.php/feed_additives>
Achyad., D.E and R. Rasyidah 2000. Jahe (Ginger). Retrived from
http://www.Asiamaya.com/jamu/isi/Jahezingiberoffinale. htm, October 11, 2009.
Peter, K.V. and Kandiannan, K.1999. Ginger.Tropical Horticulture. 1.
124
Reduction of Stress of Female Broiler Breeders During Growing Period to

Maintain the Uniformity Level by Changing Temperature and Stocking
density
H.M.W.G.S.L. Kumara and N.M.N. Nambapana
Introduction:
Although the birds have high genetic potential for faster growth rate, better feed
conversion, and increased meat yield in their progeny, if there is no optimum
environment conditions for growth, the genetic potential does not appear in the
environment. Among the factor for the better performances and health of the poultry
birds, temperature and stocking density are the critical factors for stress of the birds in
the poultry houses (Rosales, 1994). Chicken, unlike most other animals, do not possess
sweat glands to aid in heat loss. The chicken removes excess body heat by radiation
from the skin surface through the air to another object, by conduction to cooler objects
with which the bird is in contact (Doug Grieve, 1990).
Caged birds are more
susceptible to heat stress because they are unable to seek a cooler place and there is less
conductive heat loss in cages. As the environmental temperature approaches the body
temperature of the bird, 41 C (106 F), the efficiency of these heat loss mechanisms
diminish. At this point the evaporation of water from the respiratory tract becomes the
major heat loss mechanism of the birds (Brake, 1987).The term "stress" is commonly
used to describe the detrimental effects of a variety of situations on the health and
performance of poultry. After extended or repeated periods of stress, birds become
fatigued and weak, so they often succumb to starvation and infectious diseases (Rosales,
1994). Since the past, problems in broiler breeders are caused by combinations of
whole house temperature and stocking density. Maintaining a uniform flock during the
growing period of the broiler breeders may facilitate higher egg production during
breeding period. So the broiler breeder farmers have to pay their attention to maintain
over 80% uniform flock with increasing uniformity during both growing and breeding
period for maximum production. The present study, aims to find better combination of
whole house temperature and stocking density of broiler breeders to maintain over 80%
uniform flock with increasing uniformity during growing period.
Methodology
This study was carried out at the NEL Farm & Hatchery that has been established under
Noorani Estate Limited Naththandiya. Total of four hundred and ninety five Hubbard
F15 broiler breeder hens were used from three weeks of age to eighteen weeks of age in
this study. Forty five birds were divided in to nine replicates of five birds each as the
control and remaining four hundred and fifty birds were divided in to nine group under
temperatures of 27 29 C, 29 31 C and 31 33 C with stocking densities of 1 bird/
1.8 ft2, 1 bird/ 2.0 ft2 and 1 bird/ 2.2 ft2. After two weeks of successful brooding period,
the birds were subjected to above conditions from the beginning of third week up to
the end of eighteenth week. The above temperature conditions (27 29 C, 29 31 C
and 31 33 C) were maintained by using three grower cages at the grower farm of
NEL Farm & hatchery. Each cage was partitioned in to three pens according to the
above stocking densities. Cages were numbered as given in Table 1.
125
Table 1: Conditions of the cages

Cage number
Temperature and Stocking

density
conditions/Treatments
27-29 C and 1.8ft
27-29 C and 2ft
27-29 C and 2.2ft
29-31 C and 1.8ft
29-31 C and 2ft
29-31 C and 2.2ft
31-33 C and 1.8ft
31-33 C and 2ft
31-33 C and 2.2ft
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Broiler starter was given during first two weeks and chick starter was given from third
week to end of fourth week. Then grower feed was given from sixth week to eighteen
week. Broiler starter was given as ad libitum and then chick starter and grower feed
were given from second week to eighteen weeks of age as restricted feeding. After
fourth week of age feed restriction was practiced and birds were fed six days for a
week (6/1 feeding programme). Body weights of the birds were recorded weekly in
each cage during experimental period and uniformity of the each pen was calculated
with the help of above weights. BAT 1 Poultry Scale was used to weigh and calculate
the collected data. After sixteenth weeks of age, averages from weekly uniformity
levels, standard deviation and coefficient of variance for each pen were calculated.
Collected data was analyzed by using two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to
analyze the differences between treatment groups using SPSS General Linear Models
procedures.
Two hypotheses were built relevant to the above study as given below.
H0 There is no significant difference between uniformity with temperature
and stocking density combination
H1 There is a significant difference between uniformity with temperature
and stocking density combination
Component
Estimate
Var (VAR00003)
0.000
Var (Error)
0.035
VAR00001 Dependent variable/Uniformity

VAR00002 (Error) Stocking Density
VAR00003 Temperature
126
Uniformit
y
Results of the study revealed that there is a significant difference between uniformity
with temperature (P<0.05) and stocking density (P<0.05) combination. Therefore the
combination of temperature and stocking density affected for highest uniformity level
can be selected as the best combination.
1
0
0.45 0.24 0.24 0.43 0.93 0.42 0.51 0.310.34

1
Treatments
Figure 1.Variation of uniformity in different treatments
According to the Figure 1 treatment no. 5 has given highest uniformity level than the
other eight treatments. Therefore it is the better combination of temperature and
stocking density for the broiler breeders to gain better performance.
In this graph (Cage under 29-31 0C), fluctuation of the uniformity is very low; it has
shown somewhat increasing uniformity level comparatively other cages. According to
the graph, uniformity is over 80% with the 29 31 0C temperature. Under 2.0 ft2
stocking density, fluctuation of uniformity is lowest than the other conditions.
Therefore, the best combination to keep these breeder birds is 29 31 0C temperature
with 2.0 ft2 stocking density.
References
Brake, J.T. 1987. Stress and modem poultry management. Animal Production
Highlights. F.6offman-La Roche and Co., Ltd., 4002 Basle, Switzerland.
Doug Grieve, D.V.M., 1990. Technical Bulletin, A publication of Hy- Line
International.
Rosales, A.G. 1994. Applied Pouluy Science, Managing Stress in Broiler Breeders.
127
Study on Effect of Curry Leaves Supplementation with Broiler Feed on

Growth Performance, Feed Intake and Feed Conversion Ratio of Broiler
chicken
W.W.H.A. Sampath , N.M.N. Nambapana
and
G.A.P Ganegoda
CIC Feed (Pvt)Ltd, P.O.Box 2,No.252,Kurunduwatte Road, Ekala, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The broiler industry has developed all over the world during past few decades. When
considering the production of 79.9 million broiler chicks in Sri Lanka in 2007, there is
an increase in 2008, 2009 and 2010 years (Department of Animal Production and
Health, 2010). The production of poultry meat and other poultry products have been
drastically increased in Sri Lanka within last few years. The world broiler meat
production in 2010 was 73 million metric tons (USDA-FAS, 2010). China, Brazil,
European Union, Mexico are the main Broiler producers in the world (USDA-FAS,
2007). Poultry meat and other poultry products such as eggs, have a higher demand in
Sri Lanka. When considering the consumption pattern of the meat in Sri Lanka, chicken
meat (broiler meat) has the highest demand and broiler meat has been included in the
gazette as an essential food item in Sri Lanka since 2007.
The requirement of nutrients for broilers is higher than the other livestock animals.
Proper nutrition and the better intensive management practices are essentials in poultry
industry. Hence feed cost is major cost component in poultry industry and it is
accounted up to 60%-70% of the total cost of production. The production of feed in
2009 for poultry in Sri Lanka was 454,000 Mt. However the feed price has increased
after 2008 and the profit margin of the industry has gone down (Department of Animal
Product and Health, 2009).
To overcome this limitation in the industry, feed supplementation is done by the
farmers/producers. The supplementation is done using low cost, available feed stuffs
and without affecting the performance of birds and the quality of the meat. Performance
of the animal can be increased by increasing the feed conversion by improving the
internal environment modification. This can be achieved by inclusion of antibiotics into
feed. Antibiotics are the chemicals those which antagonistic towards or destructive of
life (The penguin encyclopedia of nutrition, 1985).
Some of other feed ingredients are used to restrict or avoid the usage of antibiotic
growth promoters (AGPs). Some of those are probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics,
enzymes, acidifiers, antioxidants, phytogenic additives and herbal extracts (Pauline,
2009). The usage of natural plant based materials improves the feed intake, feed
digestibility, feed conversion efficiency, the quality of the meat and reduce mortality
(Hathurusinghe, 2008). Natural herbal materials increase colour lipid oxidation and
reduce gut microbial content (Cross et al., 2007). Essential oils, organic acids and
phytogenic compounds enhance production of gastric secretions, stimulate blood
circulation and reduce level of pathogenic bacteria (Buchaan et al., 2008)
128
This study was done to investigate the effect of curry leaves incorporated broiler feed
on growth performance and feed conversion ratio of broiler chicken under field
condition in Sri Lanka. For the study, the dried, blended curry leaves supplementation
was used. The study hypothesized that dietary supplementation of curry leaves has an
ability to improve the health, performance and reduce the cost of production of broilers.
Methodology
For the experiment, 99 day old male Hubbard flex chicks were divided into three
treatment groups having 33 birds per each group. There were three treatments as control
group who were fed with basal diet, 1% and 2% curry leaf supplementation respectively
with basal diet. Brooding was practiced in first seven days by dividing only as treatment
groups. Then each treatment group was divided into three replicates randomly in day 8th
to 42nd of age. Initial body weights, weekly body weight and daily feed intake were
measured during the experimental period.
Birds were provided ad libitum clean drinking water throughout the study except in
vaccination protocol. Multi vitamin mixture (Vita light) was given with drinking water
in first five days of the study and after vaccination. The birds were vaccinated with ND
vaccine on 3rd, 14th day and Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease IBD) vaccine on 14th,
21st, 28th day. Mortality and reasons for deaths were recorded throughout the period of
study. During the brooding period (day 1 to 7), daily group feed intakes were recorded
and weekly live body weights were measured on day eight. Following replication, body
weights and feed intakes were recorded on replicate basis. In each replicate, daily feed
intakes were recorded and weekly body weights were recorded on 8th,15th, 22nd, 29th,
36th, and 42nd day. Average body weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were
calculated using above measurements. Each variable was analyzed using Completely
Randomized Design (CRD). Data were analyzed according to the General Linear Model
(GLM) of ANOVA (Minitab 14). Three curry leaves samples were taken from three
lots of curry leaf powder to prepare composite sample for the analysis. The curry leaves
samples were subjected to sieve analysis and proximate analysis (crude protein, crude
fat, crude fiber, moisture, and total ash).
Proximate analysis of the curry leave supplemented diet consisted moisture 21.98%, ash
9.92%, crude protein 6.10%, crude fat 1.00% and crude fiber 3.70%.
Results of weekly body weight gain, feed intake, FCR and Results of sieve analysis are
given in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.According to the sieve analysis 08 m and 16
m were the dominating particle size of curry leaf used in the experiment. According to
results of experiment the body weight gain of chicks fed with curry leaves
supplemented diets were higher (P<0.05) than the basal diet.
Final body weight gain of the birds fed basal diet was lower (P<0.05) than that of other
two supplementary groups. These findings of the study agree with the observations of
Hathurusinghe (2008) that states dietary herbal compounds improve the body weight
gain and final body weight of broilers
The feed intake of chicks and FCR in curry leaves supplemented diets were lower
(P<0.05) than that of basal diet but weight gains were high in curry leaves
supplemented diets. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) between 1% and 2%
curry leaves supplemented diets for weight gain, feed intake or FCR.
129
Table 1: Weekly body weight gain, feed intake, and FCR of broiler birds
Parameter
Period
(days)
Body Weight
Gain (g)
Feed Intake (g)
FCR
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
29-35
36-42
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
Basal diet-BD
(Control)
144.87
361.33
769.33
1293.80
1828.68
2028.71
125.26
414.48
955.14
1711.11
BD + 1%
Curry leaves
159.61
381.22
788.66
1288.66
1726.57
2235.40
116.72
404.31
927.56
1659.20
BD + 2%
Curry leaves
150.58
372.66
772.51
1292.00
1788.00
2247.31
116.88
402.29
921.65
1644.89
29-35
36-42
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-28
29-35
36-42
2672.38
3747.32
0.64
1.00
1.16
1.27
1.42
1.80
2567.24
3589.94
0.55
0.93
1.10
1.24
1.44
1.57
2558.74
3583.41
0.58
0.95
1.12
1.22
1.39
1.56
Table 2: Results of sieve analysis
07
Curry leaves Powder

(g)
02
08
10
31.25
10
05
15.62
12
02
06.25
16
07
21.87
30
02
06.25
35
01
03.12
Bottom plate
03
09.37
Mesh Number (m)
Percentage
06.25
Conclusions
Dietary supplement of curry leaves into broiler feed significantly improves the Body
Weight Gain (BWG) and decreases Feed Intake (FI) and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)
in an effective manner. The current study revealed that the curry leaves can replace
dietary antibiotics and since there was no significant difference between 1% and 2%
130
curry leaves supplementation on the BWG, FI and FCR, 1% curry leaf supplementation
is adequate to be used in broiler industry. The study showed that there is a potential to
add value to nationally available curry leaf plant through the broiler feed industry.
However, further studies are needed to investigate new phytogenic feed additives with
more available herbals and medicinal plants in Sri Lanka.
References
Department of Animal Production and Health, Annual Report, 2009. Peradeniya,
Kandy, Sri Lanka.
Department of Animal Production and Health, Annual Report, 2010. Peradeniya,
Kandy, Sri Lanka.
USDA-FAS attach reports. 2010. Official statistics and results of Office Research,
United States Department of Agriculture. USA.
USDA-FAS attach reports. 2007. Official statistics and results of Office Research,
United States Department of Agriculture. USA.
The penguin encyclopedia of nutrition 1985. Penguin books Ltd, Harmondsworth,
Middlesex, England.
Pauline, G. 2009.Cyber extention:Antibiotics and the mode of action.(Accessed on
20.06.2011)Available at <http://ezinearticles.com/?Antibiotics-And-The-Mode Of-action and id =1193644>
Hathurusinghe, H.D.K.C. 2008. Potential use of selected herbs and spices as
alternatives to antibiotics in broilers. Final year research project, Department of
animal science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya.
Cross,D.E., R.M. Devin, K.Hillman and T. Acamovic 2007. The effect of herbes and
their associated oils on performance ,dietary digestibility and gut microflora in
chickens from 7 to 28 days of age. Brit. Poult. Sci. 48:496-506.
Buchaan ,N.P., J.M. Hott, S.E. Cultip, A.L. Rack and A. Asmer 2008.The effect of a
natural antibiotic alternative and a natural growth promoter feed additive on
broiler performance and carcass quality. J. Appl. Poult,17:202-210.
131
Performance Evaluation of Chicks, Obtained Through a Selective Breeding

Programme to Introduce into Backyard Poultry Farming
S.M.C. Weerasinghe , N.M.N. Nambapana
and
G. Gunawardene
Department of Animal Breeding, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Poultry production has increased rapidly and tremendously in the last two decades in Sri
Lanka (Gamage et al., 1993). The Department of Animal Production and Health
(DAPH) Government of Sri Lanka during the past decade through the Central Poultry
Research Station (CPRS), Karandagolla, Kundasale has been distributing upgraded
indigenous chicken among Backyard farmers.
Breeding Indigenous cockerels with Black shaver commercial layer hens is the breeding
program practiced presently (2011) at CPRS to upgrade the Indigenous chicken.
Performance evaluations of resulting chicks obtained through a selective breeding of
Black Shaver hens with Indigenous cockerels is the first step of the project. Program
was carried out at CPRS, Karandagolla.
Methodology
Hundred thirty eight breeder birds at age of twelve months were randomly selected for
the study. Twenty hens and three cockerels were included in each mating group. Three
treatment mating groups; a. Black Shaver hens with indigenous cockerels, b. Black
shaver hens with Black shaver Cockerels and c. Indigenous hens with indigenous
cockerels were maintained in constant conditions. The latter two treatments were
regarded as Control 1 and Control 2. A replicate was maintained for each mating group.
Separately collected, numbered, cleaned and fumigated eggs were set into brooder once
per week. Eggs were candled on 18th day and transferred into Hatcher machine. Chicks
were taken out on 21st day. Wing band was given to each bird for identification.
Data of eggs, birth weights, weekly body weights, average feed intake per day and
mortality were recorded in treatments and two control groups including replicates.
Data were analyzed using Microsoft office excel and SPSS 16.0 analytical software.
Central tendency, Dispersion, One way Analysis of Variance tests were conducted for
the collected data.
According to the eggs data analysis results at the 5% level of significance, there were a
significantly lower number of fertile eggs (p<0.01) in Indigenous group than treatment
group eggs. There were significantly higher number of good chicks in black shaver
group than treatment (p<0.01) and indigenous groups (p<0.01).
132
Feed intake of treatment chicks is significantly lower (p<0.05) in treatment chicks than
black shaver chicks.
There were significantly higher mortality (p<0.01) of treatment chicks than black
shaver chicks and significantly lower (p<0.01) mortality of treatment chicks than
indigenous chicks.
Conclusions
Considering all the results of study, the birth weights and weekly body weights of
treatment chicks were almost similar to that of black shaver and indigenous chickens.
Feed intakes of treatment chicks were lower than black shaver chicks.
Treatment / Resulting chicks of selectively bred group had the better performance than
indigenous chicks when considering most of the evaluated factors. Black shaver chicks
had the best performance out of all three groups. Overall performance of treatment
chicks were in between the black shaver chicks and indigenous chicks.
References
Gamage D.V.S., M.G. Jeyaruban, G.S. Wijekoon and G.G. Podimenike 1993.
Development of local commercial egg laying strains at Central Poultry Research
Station (CPRS) at Karandagolla,Annual report 1993,Sri Lanka Veterinary research
Institute,Gannoruwa,Peradeniya.
133
Effect of Different Pasteurization Temperature-Time Combinations on

Shelf Life of Raw Cream in Relation to its Microbiological, Chemical and
Physical Properties
C.N.P. Gunawardana, D.C. Mudannayake
Uva Wellassa University. Badulla, Sri Lanka
and
M.N.P. Perera
Fonterra Brands Lanka (pvt) ltd. Biyagama. Sri Lanka
Introduction
Cream is a vital ingredient in manufacturing of many dairy products. Cream is a good
substrate for microbial growth due to its high nutritional value. Generally, in dairy
processing factories separated cream is held on a period of time prior to incorporation in
to the dairy products. The spoilage of cream from separation till the production of dairy
products has been a critical problem to producers. The treatments which are given and
the conditions under which cream is held will have a direct effect on its keeping quality.
Shelf life of raw cream currently produced as an ingredient for curd production at
Fonterra Brands Lanka (Pvt) Ltd is estimated to be approximately four days at 4 C.
Therefore a method that could be used to extend the keeping quality of raw cream
beyond four days would be a helpful and economical to the industry. Pasteurization of
raw cream after separation can be done to improve the keeping quality. As there are no
regulations governing heat treatment of cream in Sri Lanka, the time/temperature
combinations used vary widely in practice. This investigation was undertaken to
determine the effective pasteurization temperature/time combinations to improve the
keeping quality of cream.
Methodology
Raw cream (60% fat) sample was obtained from the cream separator (Serial no: 95078,
Frautech, Italy) in the factory. Initially the fat content of the sample was measured
according to the Gerber method described in IDF 152 A: 1997.
4 kg of cream sample was divided in to 1 kg of four samples separately. Each 1 kg of
cream sample was transferred in to Duran bottles aseptically and three bottles were used
for each of the temperature. The cream filled Duran bottles were held in four
temperatures as 72 C (T1), 75 C (T2), 78 C (T3) and 81 C (T4) for 15 seconds in
the water bath (model:Wb29, Memmert, Germany). A thermometer inserted (OAKION,
serial number; 2347890754, England) cream filled Duran bottle was kept along with
samples in each trial to check the accuracy of the pasteurization temperature. Each temp
trial was replicated. A complete randomized design was used to ensure that each
temperature and time held a same position in processing in each three replicate. After
heat treatment samples were cooled by immediate immersion in running cold water at
about 12 C for 10 minutes and then the samples were transferred aseptically in to cups.
As the control sample other 1 kg of cream sample was used. All the cups were kept in
the cold room which has a temperature of 4 1 C.
Initially microbiological (Aerobic plate count, Yeast and Moulds, Coliform), chemical
(pH, titratable acidity) and physical parameters (colour, texture, odour, appearance) of
cream samples were measured by getting three cups from each sample. All above
134
parameters were checked in 3 days interval for 30 days at temperature 4 oC. The pH and
titratable acidity data were analyzed by ANOVA (Analysis of variance) and Duncan
New Multiple Range Test (DNMRT) from the statistical software package SAS 9.0.
APC, Yeast and Moulds, coliforms were tested in cream processing area and handling
equipments as well.
Results
As there are no regulations governing heat treatment of cream in Sri Lanka, the
microbiological limits set out by the Bureau of Indian standards (2006) were used in
this study; APC < 107 CFUg-1 (Raw Cream) and < 6 104 CFUg-1 (Pasteurized Cream),
Coliforms < 100 CFUg-1 (Raw Cream) and < 10 CFUg-1 (Pasteurized cream), Yeasts <
1000 CFUg-1 and Moulds < 10 CFUg-1 (Raw cream), Yeasts < 100 CFUg-1 and Moulds
< 1 CFUg-1 (Pasteurized cream).
APC of control sample exceeds its microbiological limit (The Bureau of Indian
standards, 2006) after the 3rd day of refrigerated storage (4 oC). But APC of treatments
T1, T2, T3 and T4 exceed the microbiological limit (The Bureau of Indian standards,
2006) after the 9th, 12th, 15th, 9th days respectively. T1 and T4 exceed microbiological
limit at the same day (9th day) at refrigerated storage. On the 9th day APC of T1 (6.97
104 CFUg-1) was greater than T4 (6.84 104 CFUg-1).
Yeasts and Moulds were not detected in any treatment sample during the whole period
of storage at 4 oC. After the 3rd day Yeasts and Moulds were increased markedly in
control sample. At the end of the storage (30 days) Yeast and Mould counts detected in
the control sample were 2.8102 CFUg-1 and 2.91102 CFUg-1 respectively.
Throughout the study coliforms were not detected in any of the cream samples.
Initial pH of the treatments (T1, T2, T3, and T4) 6.74, 6.73, 6.75 and 6.72 were
declined with time up to 5.13, 5.79, 5.83 and 5.62. Control sample had the lowest initial
pH value (6.71) compared that of pasteurized samples. pH of the treatments T1, T2, T3
and T4 decreased markedly after 9th, 12th, 15th and 9th days.
Similarly titratable acidity of the treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4 were increased markedly
after 9th, 12th, 15th and 9th day respectively. Titratable acidity of control sample was
rapidly increased after the 3rd day.
Colour of the T4 sample was impaired (turned to yellow colour) after pasteurization
compared to other treatments. In the refrigerated storage, all the cream samples were
thickened and the gelation was occurred and also slight putrefactive odour was
occurred. Mould growth on the surface was observed only in the control sample at 5th
day of refrigerated storage.
Discussion
Adherence to relevant regulatory requirements, not allowing microbial counts to exceed
regulatory limits is important in determining the shelf life of cream. In the T4 (81 oC)
APC was increased significantly after 9th day compared to other treatments. This is an
agreement with Robinson (1999) who stated that a higher temperatures than 80 C may
impair cream quality, possibly through activation of bacterial spores.
135
Yeast and Mould colonies were not observed in treatment samples, while mold growth
was started after 5th day of control sample. These results are due to destruction of Yeasts
and Moulds in cream by the pasteurization.
Throughout the study coliforms were not detected in any of the cream samples. These
observations can be explained by the results of microbiological evaluation of the cream
separation environment and the cream handling equipments in the factory. Coliforms
were not detected in the floor of the cream separation area, neither in containers used to
store cream nor in the cream separator. The results indicated that a high level of hygiene
is maintained throughout the cream separation and storage in the factory.
There was a significant (P< 0.05) difference in pH of pasteurized and the control
samples that is mainly due to pasteurization. According to DNMRT the higher mean
value for pH was in the T3.
After the 30 days of storage at 4 C titratable acidity was very high in the control
sample (0.297) than the treatments (T1-0.179, T2-0.169, T3-0.157, T4-0.218). The
increment of titratable acidity is a reflection of souring activity due to lactic acid
produced by microorganisms. According to Hammer, 1948 acid production by S. lactis
is dominated in raw cream stored in 4 C. The increase of titratable acidity of control
samples during the refrigerated storage can be explained with this statement. There was
a significant difference (P<0.05) in lactic acid development during refrigerated storage
of control and pasteurized cream samples. This could be due to the fact that
pasteurization destroys many of the lactic acid producing microorganisms.
The yellow colour development in T4 was due to the high pasteurization temperature.
According to the Robinson (1999) lipolytic enzymes produced by psychotropic bacteria
can result from long refrigerated storage of pasteurized cream. Psychotroph-derived
proteases may also cause spoilage involving thickening and gelation. According to the
findings of Robinson (1999) the thickening was accompanied by a slight putrefactive
odour.
Conclusions
Pasteurization of raw cream shows a higher shelf life than the raw cream in refrigerated
storage (4 C). pH and titratable acidity of the treatment samples were significantly
differ (P<0.05) compared to control sample. From mean values in DNMRT the highest
pH and the lowest titratable acidity were in the sample that was pasteurized to 78 C for
15 s. According to physical parameters minimum changes during the refrigerated
storage was observed in sample pasteurized to 78 C for 15 s. T1, T2, T3, T4 and
control sample had shelf life of 9, 12, 15, 9 and 3 days respectively according to
microbiological data (The Bureau of Indian standards, 2006). The highest shelf life was
detected in the sample pasteurized to 78 C for 15 s. The overall conclusion is that, it is
possible to extend the shelf life of the raw cream by pasteurization process beyond four
days. The best temperature time combination is 78 C for 15 s.
References
Bureau of Indian standards specifications, 2006. Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi
Codex standards for cream for direct consumption, 2003. Codex Alimentarius
Commission.
Crossley. E.L. 1948. Bacteriological flora and keeping quality of pasteurized liquid
cream. Journal of Dairy Research, 15:261-276
Robinson, R.K. 1999. Modern dairy technology, Aspen publishers, Maryland, 1:61-101.
136
Effects of Supplementation of Nitrogen through Urea Molasses

Multinutrient Block (UMMB) on the Performance of Dairy Cows Fed with
Good Quality Forage Based Diets While Using Rice Straw as Night Feeding
D.R. Jayawickrama , D.C. Mudannayake, D.K.D.D Jayasena
and
W.M.P.B Weerasinghe
Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Introduction
In Sri Lanka, the dairy industry is not well developed but has huge potential for the
development. Among the constraints faced by the dairy industry, poor nutrition status of
the animals has been identified as a major obstacle for the development of dairy
industry in Sri Lanka. In general, animals are fed with poor quality roughages and
concentrate feeding is very limiting thus, animals genetic potential for the milk
production has not been achieved in many cases. Poor quality roughages contain very
little energy and protein, which is responsible for the lower production. Several methods
have been reported in Sri Lanka to improve the nutritive value of low quality
roughages. Among those, UMMB feeding is one of the easier methods.
Hard solid blocks of UMMB provide readily available sources of energy and protein in
the form of molasses and urea together with fiber and minerals (Saddul and Boodoo,
2001). Urea-molasses mineral block (UMMB) licks can improve the utilization of low
quality roughages by satisfying the requirement of the rumen microorganisms, creating
a better environment for the fermentation of fibrous material and increasing production
of microbial protein and volatile fatty acids (Wongnen, 2007). Urea, after hydrolyzing
into ammonia in the rumen, provides a nitrogen source for the rumen microflora for
their microbial protein synthesis. Molasses is a source of readily fermentable energy
(Wongnen, 2007), which assists the growth of rumen microorganisms. It has been
shown that animal performance has improved tremendously after the introduction of
UMMB under field conditions (Kunju, 1986). This improvement was attributed to
supplementary and catalytic effects of UMMB, as UMMB promotes an optimal
ammonia level for efficient microbial activity in the rumen (Kunju, 1986).
Several researchers have previously reported on the use of UMMB licks for
supplementing the crop residue-based diet of large and small ruminants (Leng, 1983;
Sansoucy, 1995) but very few studies have been conducted on the use of UMMB with
good quality forage-based diets. Results of one such study by Weerasinghe et al. (2010)
to evaluate the effects of supplementation of nitrogen through UMMB on the
performance of dairy cows fed with good quality forage based diets, highlighted that
UMMB supplementation significantly increased milk yield and yields of milk fat,
protein, and SNF and UMMB supplemented animals had a significantly higher body
weight than those fed with control diets; it suggests that the improvement of production
and performance could be due to improved digestibility of the basal diet.
However, no information available on the use of straw as night feeding to replace the
amount of grass supplied in the day time. Thus, the objective of this study was to
137
evaluate the effects of supplementation of UMMB to dairy cows fed with good quality
forage based diets while supplying rice straw as night feeding.
Methodology
Ten multifarous crossbred dairy cows in their early lactation were randomly allocated to
two groups (Supplemented and control) based on their milk yield, breed, parity, body
weight, milk fat and protein contents measured in previous three days before feeding
the experimental diets. Both groups were fed with chopped CO3 (Pennisetum
purpureum x Pennisetum americanum; hybrid Napier) ad-libitum and dairy cow
concentrate feed 1 kg/day during the day time and rice straw (5 kg dry matter) was
supplied as night feeding. In addition, the treatment group was supplemented with 300
g/day of crushed urea-molasses multinutrient block at three equal meals (100 g at a
time) during the day. The composition of UMMB was similar to that described
previously by Weerasinghe et al., (2004). Throughout the experiment, the cows were
penned individually and had free access to water.
Cows were milked twice daily at 0700 and 1600 h using a mobile milking machine.
Milk yield was recorded and milk samples were collected once a week throughout the
experimental period (5 weeks) for laboratory analysis. The contents of milk fat, protein,
lactose, and solid non fat were measured using an Ultrasonic Portable Milk analyzer
(LACTOSCAN, SA type). Feed samples (mineral block and rice straw) were analysed
according to the methods described in A.O.A.C. (2000). In addition, straw intake and
weight gain were measured. The data were analyzed as a randomized block design
using Genstat (Discovery Edition).
Supplementation of urea-molasses multinutrient block had no effect (P>0.05) on straw
intake. It can be observed that an increase in dry matter intake (DMI) is significant
generally in studies where the basal diet consists mainly of poor quality roughages
either hay or straw (Badurdeen et al., 1989) and when the quality of the diet improved
with the inclusion of concentrate, the effect diminished. In this study, even though night
feeding is totally based on poor quality roughage (i.e. rice straw), the supplementation
with UMMB had not affected straw intake. This could be due to feeding of concentrate
and, good quality fodder grass (i.e. CO3) ad-libitumly during the day time. Therefore it
can be suggested that those feed might have been adequate in providing optimum
nutrition to the animals, thus the cows were not in the need of extra dry matter intake.
Supplementation of urea-molasses multinutrient block had no effect (P>0.05) on milk
yield. But average milk yield (mean value) had increased numerically in the treatment
group compared with the control diet fed animals. Similarly, UMMB supplementation
had no effect (P>0.05) on contents and yields of milk fat, protein, lactose and solid non
fat. But all those values were numerically high in UMMB supplemented animals
compared to the control group. In addition, milk urea nitrogen content and weight gain
was not affected (P>0.05) by UMMB supplementation.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that nitrogen (in the form of urea) supplied through UMMB
provided with good quality fodder grasses and dairy cow concentrates with provision of
rice straw as night feeding has no effect on production performance of dairy cows. As
basal diet consisted of good quality roughage source and sufficient amount of
138
concentrate feed, nutrients provided through UMMB would not be required by the
animals for their milk production.
Even though not significant, a numerical increment of milk production and quality with
UMMB supplementation suggested that creating low nutrient contents in the diet
through reducing concentrate feed and good quality roughage could be fulfilled through
provision of UMMB and night feeding of rice straw.
References
Kunju, P.J.G. 1986. Urea molasses block lick: a feed supplement for ruminants. 261
274, in: M.N.M. Ibrahim & J.B. Schiere (eds). Rice straw and related feeds in
ruminant rations. Proceedings of an International Workshop, Kandy, Sri Lanka,
2428 March 1986.
Leng, R.A., 1983. The potential of solidified molasses based blocks for the correction of
multinutritional deficiencies in buffaloes and other ruminants fed low quality agro
industrial by-products. In: The Use Nuclear Techniques to Improve Domestic
Buffalo Production in Asia. IAEA, Vienna. 135-150.
Saddul, D. and A.A. Boodoo 2001. Response to urea molasses multinutrient blocks as a
supplement in the diet of goats. Agricultural Research and Extension.
www.gov.mu/portal/sites/ncb/moa/farc/amas2001/pdf/p1.pdf
Sansoucy, R. 1995. New developments in the manufacture and utilization of
multinutrient blocks.. FAO Animal Production and Health paper No.82. Rome,
FAO. 78-83
Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., S.S.P. Silva, A.C.M. Faizal, M.W.C.D. Palliyeguru and N.
Priyankarage 2004. Formulation of cement free urea molasses multinutrient block
for ruminants. Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal 51:(1)28.
Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., S.S.P. Silva, N. Priyankarage, U.L.P. Mangalika and
R.A.T. Chandima 2010. Effects of supplementation of nitrogen through
urea molasses multinutrient block (UMMB) on the perfiormance of dairy
cows fed with good quality forage based diets. Abstracts of the 5th
International Nitrogen Conference, 3-7 December 2010, New Delhi, India. 419.
Wongnen, N. 2007. Feed supplementation of dairy cattle with UMMB in the
northeastern region of Thailand. In: Feed supplementation blocks. Urea-molasses
multinutrient blocks: simple and effective feed supplement technology for
ruminant agriculture; FAO Animal Production and Health Paper (FAO). 111-124.
www.vet.chula.ac.th/~nuclear/symposium44/Narong.htm
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our warmer thanks to all the staff members and laboratory
assistants of the chemistry laboratory of the Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa,
Peradeniya, for providing us with expertise guidance, valuable information and
necessary facilities to carry-out the research.
139
Evaluation of Salmonella Cross Contamination at Retail Chicken Meat

Outlets in Kandy Area
U.S. Alwis , D.C. Mudannayake, D.K.D.D. Jayasena
and
J.K.H. Ubeyarathna
Central Veterinary Investigation Centre, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa,
Sri Lanka
Introduction
Salmonellosis is among the most frequently reported food borne disease worldwide.
While numerous potential vehicles of transmission exist, commercial chicken meat has
been identified as one of the most important food vehicle for Salmonella (Abd El-Malek
et al, 2011). The risk in different countries varies according to the control measures and
the practices implemented along the food chain from primary production to final
preparation of the meat for consumption (FAO/WHO, 2010). The prevalence of
Salmonella contamination in poultry meat obtained at retail grocery stores is a better
indicator of the public health risk. Transportation, handling, storage, additional
processing and re-packaging of raw poultry meat products often occur, after the
products leave the processing plant or after the animal is slaughtered at retail shop itself.
Each of these steps may provide a new opportunity for bacterial contamination or
growth. Salmonella in retail chicken meat outlets could be attributed to lack of proper
cold chains, inadequate power supply and low level of hygiene in retail outlets.
Therefore, the current study aimed at evaluating the Salmonella cross contamination at
retail chicken meat outlets in Kandy area. Furthermore this study focused on making
recommendations to improve quality assurance to mitigate the risk to consumers by
identifying the risk factors associated with Salmonella cross contamination in retail
chicken meat outlets.
Methodology
Samples were collected during the month of April 2011.
Swabbing process
Sterilized swabs were lightly moistened in saline water swabbed along the area of
contact surfaces, utensils to recover the microbes. Swabs were placed in labeled
containers and returned to the laboratory in an iced (at 4 C) Styrofoam box. All swab
samples were processed immediately after reaching the laboratory.
Data collection
Fifteen (15) retail shops were selected to collect data based on their type of sales, sales
scale, type of products, nature of sales, type of meat display, storage conditions of meat,
way of handling meat, source of hygienic condition and etc by using pre prepared
questionnaires.
Salmonella Isolation Protocol
Each swab sample was pre-enriched at 37 C in 5 ml of buffered peptone water (BPW)
and placed in incubator overnight (ISO 6579). 0.1ml of each sample of this stock was
transferred to 10 ml of Rappaport Vassiliadis (RV) medium. The RV media were then
140
incubated at 42C for 24 hours. One loopful of RV media from each sample was
streaked onto Xylose Lysine Deoxycolate (XLD) agar plates and the plates were
incubated at 37 C for 24 hours. Presumptively positive black colonies were subcultured on Brilliant Green (BG) agar plates and incubated at 37 C for another 24
hours. Presumptively positive pink colonies were bio-chemically confirmed with Triple
Sugar Iron (TSI) agar, Simmons Citrate agar, Urease and SIM medium.
Results
Prevalence of Salmonella cross contamination at retail chicken meat outlets in Kandy
area
Out of 57 swab samples collected, 12 swab samples of Salmonella suspected isolates
from selective media were bio-chemically identified as Salmonella. Therefore the
overall prevalence of Salmonella in retail chicken meat outlets was 21% (95% C.I
11.37- 33.88). Weighing scale (33%), Meat containing trays/buckets (27%) and Cutting
board (25%), showed the highest percentage of Salmonella prevalence. Knife (14%)
and showcase (9%) showed relatively low percentage of Salmonella prevalence.
Prevalence of Salmonella cross contamination at retail chicken meat outlets with
slaughtering facilities versus without slaughtering facilities
Two types of retail chicken meat outlets were observed during the study. Retail outlets
without slaughtering facilities represented 60% of the sample and retail outlets with
slaughtering facilities represented 40% of the sample. Retail chicken outlets with
slaughtering facilities had a significantly higher prevalence of Salmonella positive
samples than retail chicken outlets without slaughtering facilities (p <0.05).The retail
outlets which had no cooling facilities for raw chicken meat during display, had a
significantly higher risk of Salmonella prevalence than the other type of retail chicken
meat outlets with cooling facilities during displaying meat (p <0.05). Meat stored at
room temperature during display was 13 times more likely to be contaminated with
Salmonella than meat stored at cooling temperature during display (C.I. 0.88-207.63).
Table 1: Multivariate regression analysis of frequency of cleaning, use of detergents and
use of disinfectant as risk factors for Salmonella contamination at retail chicken meat
outlets
Predictor
Categories
No of outlets
Frequency of
Two times per day
46.7
cleaning
Less than two times
53.3
Use of detergents
Yes
60
No
40
Yes
33.3
No
10
66.6
0.46
Use of disinfectant
Statistically significant at ( =0.05)
141
0.062
Risk analysis for Salmonella cross contamination at retail chicken meat outlets Factors
that were included in the risk analysis were not significantly associated (p > 0.05) with
the Salmonella cross contamination.
Discussion
The present study demonstrated an overall Salmonella cross contamination of 21% for
the retail chicken meat outlets in Kandy area. This level of contamination is lower than
with the recent literature from countries like Vietnam 53.3% (Van et al., 2007), India
65.71% for raw chicken breast and 71.43 for raw chicken thigh (Wilfred and Nadeem,
2011), Canada 30% for raw chicken legs (Bohaychuk et al., 2006), but similar to
Maryand 23% for raw chicken meat (Myint, 2004). The differences in the prevalence of
Salmonella in raw poultry may be due to country of origin, type and size of sample
analyzed, and methodology (Bohaychuk et al., 2006). The differences in the media used
for enrichment, selective enrichment, and isolation can also affect estimates of
prevalence (Myint, 2004).
The different rate of contamination in different countries can also be related to climate
and temperature of storage of raw meat at retail meat outlets. Better equipment in
slaughterhouses, advanced processing practices (including the use of dry chilling of
carcasses), and more effective use of refrigeration in meat transport in developed
countries could also help to reduce cross contamination of meat (Van et al, 2007).
When high moisture niches are present Salmonella may be a significant hazard. The
survival and the growth of microbes in a food processing environment may lead to
contamination of the finished product. Cleaning and disinfecting procedures for
processing, handling, and holding equipment may be critical control points for
prevention of post processing recontamination. The requirements for meat handling at
retail, it is recommended that hygiene measures should be aimed at minimizing cross
contamination between raw chicken and hands, contact surfaces and utensils.
The true incidence of salmonellosis is difficult to evaluate because of lack of an
epidemiological surveillance system in the country. The absence of centralized
slaughter facility and the small volume of retail business, unstable policy, rules and
regulations and the knowledge gap are the hurdles for hygienic production of chicken
meat at retail outlets in the country. The conditions during slaughtering, processing,
transportation, holding at retail outlet, and opportunities for cross-contamination at
retail outlets can result large changes in the risk of salmonellosis to the consuming
public. A greater potential risk is that slaughtering animals at same place where all
evisceration and cleaning take place, is used for handling, packing, and even further
portioning of the final product at the retail grocery store outlet prior to sale to the
consumer.
Conclusions
This higher rate of Salmonella cross contamination at retail chicken meat outlets could
be attributed to lack of proper cold chains, and minimal facilities and poor level of
hygiene in retail outlets. The findings of this study are vital to the public health risk of
the country. Therefore, Sri Lanka needs its own unique model of development to assure
the quality and safety of poultry products at retail outlets.
142
References
Bohaychuk, V. M., G. E. Gensler, R. K.King, K.I. Manninen, L. M. Mcmullen,
O.Sorensen, M. E. Stiles and J. T. Wu 2006. Occurrence of Pathogens in Raw and
Ready-to-Eat Meat and Poultry Products Collected from the Retail Marketplace in
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 69(9):21762182.
Coloe, P.J., T.Istivan, G. Moutafis and T. T. H. Van 2007. Detection of Salmonella spp.
in Retail Raw Food Samples from Vietnam and Characterization of Their
Antibiotic Resistance, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73:68856890.
FAO/WHO. 2010. Proposed draft guidelines for control of Campylobacter and
Salmonella spp in chicken meat, Report of joint FAO/WHO Food standards
programme, Codex committee on food hygiene, 42 Session, Kampala, Uganda, 29
November 3 December 2010.
Hassanein, R., S. F. Hassan Ali 2, A. M. M. A. Abd El-Malek Mohamed and K. I.
Elsayh 2011. Detection and identification of Salmonella species in minced beef
and chicken meats by using Multiplex PCR in Assiut city, Veterinary World,
Vol.4 (1):5-11.
Myint M. S., 2004. Epidemiology of Salmonella contamination of poultry meat
products: knowledge gaps in the farm to store products, Ph.D. Dissertation:
University of Maryland, Maryland, USA. 86-98.
Ruban, S. W. and N. Fairoze 2011. Effect of processing condition on microbiological
quality of market poultry meats in Banglore, India, Journal of Animal and
Veterinary Advances, 10(2):188-191.
143
Establishment of Community Based Fish Factory Through Green Supply

Chain Management Approaches
A.D.Wijenayake
Deepa Gamage
Industrial Development Board, Galle Road, Katubedda
and
S.C.Jayamanne
Introduction
Post harvest loss is one of the main problems in Sri Lankan fish industry. According to
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources there is a 30% of post harvest loss in Sri
Lankan marine fish industry. This may be due to lack of facilities and lack of
knowledge of the fishermen. Under the greening concept the main idea is to increase the
resource utilization by maximizing the output and reduce the environment impact.
Therefore, by applying the greening concept the post harvest losses can be reduced and
the environment effect could be minimized and maximum gain could be obtained from
the existing resources. Establishment of a community based fish processing factory
through green supply chain management approaches is tested here as an option to
minimize the post harvest losses in Sri Lankan fish industry.
Methodology
As secondary data; type and quantity of fish production in each district, import quantity
of the fishery products were collected from the data base of Ministry of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources (MoFAR), Ceylon Fisheries and Harbour Cooperation (CFHC) and
customs reports.
As primary data; supply chain of the fish, Fishing gear, storing condition on boat,
average experience in fishing, temperature after unloading, time period of fishing and
total fish catch were collected by using structural interview method. The raw material
flow and the material balance of the fish canning factory also were identified to get an
idea about the type and the amount of waste and the environmental impact of those
wastes. Then possible solutions were to minimize those effects under the green supply
chain management approaches was established.
After identification of supply chain; regression model was designed to identify the
factors affecting the fish quality. Fish quality was considered as the dependent variable
because if the fish quality is high there may be fewer post harvest losses. Storing
condition on boat, average experience in fishing, temperature after unloading, time
period of fishing and total fish catch were considered as independent variables.
Negombo, Beruwala, Dondra, Trincomalee and Kalpitiya harbours were selected by
stratified sampling method, having highest number of multi-day boats. Those harbours
were visited to collect fifty samples (ten samples from each harbour), as primary data
and to get detail information on fishing methods and post harvest losses.
Then a proper site was selected and type of the fish was selected and assumed that the
production will be 1500 cans per day. All other calculations were done according to this
144
assumption and the feasibility study was carried out finally to find out whether the
project is feasible to be implemented.
The first two stakeholders (fishermen and commission agent) were analyzed by
developing a regression model.
Correlation Coefficientsa
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
B
(Constant)
100.003
Standardized
Coefficients
Std. Error
Beta
8.011
12.483
.000
Fishing gear -3.128
1.415
-.113
-2.211
.032
Storing
1.248
-.087
-2.029
.049
Temperature -3.389
.706
-.386
-4.798
.000
Experience 1.530
.489
.203
3.131
.003
Time Period -.946
.202
-.349
-4.670
.000
.002
-.135
-1.804
.078
-2.531
Total fish
-.004
Dependent Variable: fish quality
According to the result fishing gear, storing condition in the boat, average experience in
fishing, temperature after unloading, time period of fishing, are the factors which are
significantly affect the fish quality (P<0.05).
According to the collected data, identified what will the best under greening concept. If
the fish quality is higher than 75% considered that those fish are very good and can be
use in processing. From collected data found out the average of the Total fish catch,
Time period of fishing and average fishing experience and find out the highest
frequency of Fishing gear and storing method in the boat and when considering
temperature after unloading, it is obviously to have less than 40C, if not histamine
formation will be high.
According to collected data identified that average fishing experience is about seven
years. When experience is high they know how to catch the fish by avoiding damages
and also how to store the fish with minimum damages. When consider about the time
period of fishing, identified that 13 days are the best time period of fishing. So there
will not be excess fish and there may be fewer damages to fish caught early. The best
quantity of fish is estimated as 2700 kg. Pole and line method found to be the best
fishing method. When considering fish storing method it is better to have racks so that
there will not be excess fish and there may be fewer damages to early caught fish.
Then fish processors were evaluated by identifying and quantifying raw material flow to
gain the knowledge on the amount of inputs and outputs from each step. Environment
impacts from each step were found out and possible solutions were suggested.
145
According to the collected data Matara was selected as the best location for the factory
having the highest fish production in Sri Lanka. Skip jack tuna (Balaya) was selected as
the best species for processing. Canning industry was selected as the processing method
by looking at the quantity of fish products imported. Proper factory layout was designed
to minimize the waste and all necessary steps were taken to minimize the environment
effect and finally to have safe and quality products to consumers. Finally feasibility of
the project was studied under the greening concept. The Return On Investment (ROI) of
the project is 83.42%. It indicates that the project is highly feasible to be implemented.
Conclusions
Establishment of a community based fish canning factory under green supply chain
management approaches is a highly feasible project. According to the profitability
statement the return on investment was 83.42% .indicating that the project is highly
feasible. However, it is not possible to achieve 100% performance at the start.
Therefore, it is proposed to achieve 60% performance in the first year, 80% in the
second year and finally 100% performance in the third year. So the feasibility of the
project is in first year is 50.05% and the second year is 66.73% and in the third year
83.42%. The figures indicate that the project is highly feasible.
Fish quality is taken as the main factor which is affecting to the greening of supply
chain. That means if the quality of the fish is high there will be less waste generation
and less environment impact and also can use the existing resources efficiently. So the
factors; Fishing gear, Storing condition in the boat, Average experience in fishing,
Temperature after unloading, Time period of fishing and Total fish catch were
identified to be affecting the fish quality.
References
Ceylon Fisheries Corporation (CFC) [Online] Available at:
http://www.fisheriescorporation.gov.lk/ (accessed on 08.05.2011)
Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DFAR) [Online] Available at:
http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/
Geoffrey, R., Ames, 2002, Traditional and modern post-harvest technologies for
increased food and supply from inland fisheries in Africa, Natural Resources
Institute Chatham, UK.
Mohanty, R.P., Deshmukh, S.G., 2008. Essentials of Supply Chain Management. 274280.
146
Cost Reduction of Brine Shrimp by Replacing of Low Cost Live Cultures

(Moina, microworms) for Fresh Water Fish Guppy (Poecilia reticulata).
G.W.H.P.N. De Silva, S.C. Jayamanne
Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka
and
M. Hewavitharana
Tropical Fish International( Pvt). Ltd.
Introduction
Ornamental fish farming is an expanding industry and its global export trade has grown
steadily and today it is a multimillion dollar industry in many countries (Andrews,
1990). Sri Lanka contributes approximately 1% of the world's demand for ornamental
fish. The demand for the fresh water fish is quite does not meet the demand because
there are so many constraints related with the fresh water ornamental fish farming. The
major constraint is the cost of feed especially during the stage of the post larva and fry.
Artemia (brine shrimp) nauplii is the most common live food used in commercial
larviculture of fresh water ornamental fish (Dahlgren and Phang. 1985; Kim et al.,
1996) and the cost of 400 g of cysts is nearly Rs.4000.00. The present study aimed to
find a suitable low cost live food which can replace high cost Artemia in aquariums
giving more profits to the ornamental fish traders. Two live food species, Moina and
Micro worms, which can be reared easily with very low cost are selected for the study
and their suitability in rearing post larval stage and fry stage of guppy (Poecilia
reticulata) was tested under aquarium conditions.
Methodology
The experiment was carried out at the Tropical Fish International Private Limited,
Wagawatte, Horana. Mass culture of Moina and micro worms were carried out prior to
conducting feeding trials.
Three types of live food cultures namely, Artemia, Moina and Microworms were
maintained for 21 days during feeding trials. Fifteen aquarium tanks of same size were
used for the experiment and three tanks each were used for control and four treatments.
Two hundred and fifty numbers of day-old fry were stocked in each tank and were fed
six times a day according to the feeding schedule given in Table 1. Three types of live
feed, Brine shrimp, Microworm and Moina and powder feed were used for feeding and
the fry were fed ad libitum at each time.
Table 1 Feeding schedule of the fish for control and 4 treatment tanks
Control
Treatment 1 Treatment 2
Time Feed Time Feed Time Feed
8.00
PF
8.00
M
8.00
M
9.00
PF
9.00
MW 9.00
PF
11.00 PF
11.00 M
11.00 MW
1.00
PF
1.00
MW 1.00
PF
3.00
BS
3.00
M
3.00
M
4.30
PF
4.30
MW 4.30
MW
PF - Powder Feed
BS - Brine Shrimp
147
Treatment 3
Time Feed
8.00
M
9.00
PF
11.00 MW
1.00
M
3.00
BS
4.30
MW
M- Moina
Treatment 4
Time Feed
8.00
M
9.00
BS
11.00 PF
1.00
M
3.00
PF
4.30
MW
MW - Microworms
Water quality was checked daily at 7.30 a.m. before feeding the fish. He appearance of
the water in the tanks was observed visually and the quality of water was ranked.
Unionized ammonia, NH4+, pH, Nitrate (NO3-) was measured using test kits. Mortality
was checked daily and recorded promptly.
Lengths (mm) and weights (mg) were measured using a top loading balance (Sartorius)
with a precision of 0.0001 and a Vernier caliper respectively in 100 fry randomly
selected from each tank at weekly intervals.
The differences in weight gain, mean weight gain, length, mean length, specific growth
rate, condition factor, survival rate and water quality parameters ( water appearance,
Ammonia, pH, Nitrate) were tested using one way ANOVA.
Comparison of means was done by using the Turkey test to find out the significance
between the means.
The parameters were calculated according to the equations given below.
W2 W1
F
W2 - Weight of 100 fries+ water bowl, W1- Weight of bowl +water, F Number of fry
Mean Weight =
Mean weight gain =

W2 -Final mean weight, W1-Initial mean weight
(W2 W1)
W1
L1 + + Lx
F
L Length of individual fish, F Number of fish fry
Mean length =
Speci ic growth rate (SGR %)
=(
1 100)/( 2 1)
Loge - log to base e, T2- time of final weight in days, T1- time of initial weight in days
Survival rate (SR %) =
Number of fry that survived 100

Number of fry stocked in the tank
Cost of feed for 21 day rearing period was calculated based on the cost of production
for Moina and microworm and based on the market price of Artemia (Brine shrimp).
The amounts used for daily feeding was recorded and the cost for each treatment was
calculated.
The growth performance of the guppy in control tank and four treatment tanks is shown
in Table 2.
148
Table 2: The performance of guppy in control and treatment tanks (The values given
are means of three replicates mean of three replicates
Parameter
Mean weight gain (mg)
Mean wt
gain (mg)
Final length
(mm)
Specific
growth rate
No.of fish
stocked
No. of
harvested
Survival rate
(%)
Cont.
17.66+
1.15
12.70 +
0.26
13.93 +
0.29
250
T1
19.00+
2.00
13.63 +
0.23
14.25 +
0.47
250
Treatment Tanks
T2
T3
16.33 +
22.66 +
1.15
0.57
10.40+
15.53+
1.15
0.25
13.577+
15.202+
0.32
0.23
250
250
T4
18.33+
1.15
13.33+
1.06
15.202+
0.23
250
209.67+
5.51
83.60
222.33+
3.51
88.8
185.67+
7.23
74.0
166.67+
10.50
66.4
236.00+
3.00
94.4
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mean weight gain

control trt.1
trt.2
trt.3
trt.4
Treatment tanks
Specific growth rate%
Figure 2: Mean weight gain (mg) of guppy fish fry in relation to treatments
15.5
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
Specific growth rate

Control
Trt.1
Trt.2
Trt.3
Trt.4
Treatment tanks
Figure 3: Specific growth rate of guppy fish fry in relation to treatments
Treatment 3 showed the best mean weight gain, specific growth rate, length gain and
survival rate (Figures 1 and 2 and Table 2) compared to other treatments. Therefore the
combination of Moina, microworm, Brine shrimp is selected as the best feed among the
tested feed for guppy fry. All treatments except treatment 2 showed a better growth and
specific growth rate than control which is the currently practiced feeding strategy of the
aquarium. Mean comparisons showed that there is no significant differenc between
control and Treatment 1, 2 or 4 but there was a significant difference between control
149
and the Treatment 3 (P<0.05). Treatment 2 showed the worst results while other
treatments fared well in comparison to Control. Reduction of feed cost was highest in
Treatment 1 (95.88%) and 47.36% in Treatment 3.
Cost for feed during the rearing period for control, T1, T3 were Rs. 820.00, Rs. 33.71,
Rs. 431.18 respectively. Lowest cost was observed in Treatment 1 where only Moina
and microworms were used as feed. The cost reduction was 98% by using live feed as
in Treatment 1 and 48% using feed as in Treatment 3 (all four types of feed).
Conclusions
The present study showed clearly that the cost incurred by aquarium traders using
Artemia as live food for fry can be reduced using other low cost live food. Moina and
microworms can be used in aquariums for feeding fry stages successfully. Different
combinations of Moina and microworms could be used in this regard and the aquarium
traders can select the suitable combination considering the cost. However, It is also
advantages to feed Artemia once a day to gain better growth. Findings of this study will
be useful for the development of fresh water ornamental fish farming in Sri Lanka.
References
Andrews, C. 1990. The ornamental fish trade and fish conservation. Journal of Fish
Biology, 37: 53-59.
Dahlgren, G.V. and V.P.E. Phang. 1985. Food and feeding behavior of the guppy,
Poecilia reticulata (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Can. J. Zool. 59:684-701.
Kim J., K.C. Masses, R.W. Hardy 1996. Adult Artemia as food for first feeding coho
salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch). Aquaculture. 144:217-226.
150
Preliminary Study on Effect of Different Feed Combinations on Captive

Breeding of Anemonefish Amphiprion Clarkii
P.R.A. Pathirana, S.C. Jayamanne , N.P.P.Liyanage
. Uva Wellassa University. Badulla. Sri Lanka
and
J. P. R. P. Kumarasinghe
Ceylon Aquatics (Pvt) Ltd., Galayaya, Pannala, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The marine ornamental fish trade began in the 1930s in Sri Lanka (Buckner, 2004).
Harvesting marine species for home aquaria has started in 1980s (Andrews, 1990) and
the exports have continued to increase in 1990s (Vallejo, 1990). The trade has expanded
to a multi-million dollar business and 45 countries supply global markets an estimated
14-30 million fish annually. The largest suppliers are Indonesia and the Philippines,
followed by Brazil, Maldives, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Hawaii. Approximately 150
species of marine fishes are exported from Sri Lanka and all these come from the wild
catches. Even though Sri Lanka has a vast potential for marine ornamental fish trade, it
has not developed technology on breeding marine ornamental fish in captivity.
Anemone fish, Amphiprion clarkii is a species which has a high demand among marine
aquarists due to its attractive colours and behavioural display. The fish is caught from
the wild destroying the natural habitats due to improper catching methods and may
decrease the population. The genus Amphiprion represent the most important group of
captive bred marine species (Olivia et.al, 2006) and the present study aimed to find
the possibility of stimulating breeding in Amphiprion clarkii in captivity using two
different feeds to reduce the pressure on the natural environment.
Methodology
Four glass tanks of the size (91.5 cm X 47 cm X 38 cm) were used for the study and
all the tanks were set up in a same height providing equal amount of light and
temperature. The bottom of each tank was filled with same amount of cleaned coral
sand and gravel just enough to cover the bottom. Two cleaned clay pots were placed in
each tank providing hiding places and a substrate to deposit their eggs. Each tank was
connected to a triple pass type protein skimmer (400 l per hour) and a biological filter
(Figure 1). All the tanks were supplied with aeration and were numbered. Purified and
disinfected sea water was transported to Pannala from Marawila area. Each tank was
filled with a volume of 129 l sea water and recirculation system was in operation
throughout the study. Salinity of the water was adjusted around 30 31 ppt. Four pairs
of anemone fish (Male: around 4 cm, Female around 8 cm) paired out naturally were
obtained from the coral reef environment of Tricomalee sea. One pair of fish was
introduced to each tank after circulating the water system for 24 hours. Two different
feeds were prepared to feed the fish as formulated feed and the mussels. Mussel feed
was prepared by grinding cleaned mussels and the formulated feed was prepared by
grinding the cleaned ingredients; fish (50%), seaweeds and prawns (20%), cuttlefish
(15%), mussel meat (15%) with garlic.
Feed preparation was done bi-weekly. Tank number one and three were fed with a
formulated frozen feed and tank number two and four were fed with mussel meat at ad
151
libitum for three times per day. Changing and siphoning of water was done once a
week and salinity was adjusted around 30 ppt. Fish were observed three times per day
for their behaviors and all the information was recorded. Tanks were specially checked
for eggs in the morning and afternoon. Salinity and temperature in the tanks was
checked three times a day using a digital salinity meter and a temperature meter (YSI
30) respectively. Ammonia levels were checked with an ammonia meter (HANNA: HI
96733) twice/month and the level of ammonia was maintained between 0 - 0.001 ppt.
Data were collected for three months and were analyzed with two proportion z test in
MINITAB 14 statistical package.
Figure 1: The water filtering and circulating system

Results
The fish that were fed with formulated feed diet started pre-spawning behavior after
eight weeks after stocking while those fed with mussel did not show any spawning
behavior. During the pre-spawning period fish rarely swam around the tank and at first,
the female selected a specific place and stayed there and after several days same place
was occupied by the male. Then, cleaning of the substratum was started by the female
and later both male and female engaged in cleaning. The results indicated that
formulated feed has a significant effect (P<0.05) on stimulating spawning behavior in A.
clarkii. The pre spawning behavior was limited to a period of fourteen days but
spawning did not materialize. The environmental factors, salinity, ammonia, nitrate and
nitrite remained constant during the experimental period but the temperature has shown
fluctuations. The temperature showed a significant effect on the pre-spawning behavior
(P<0.05) and the pre-spawning behavior was interrupted when the temperature
increased greater than 27 0C.
Discussion
The results of the study has shown that the formulated feed has a significant effect
(P<0.05) on the breeding of Amphiprion clarkii. When the temperature level began to
increase the pre spawning activities were stopped by the fish. According to the previous
records, Dalia and Svedang (1997) has shown that water temperature has a very marked
effect on the psychological and biochemical process in fish, and a raised temperature
regime has a complex effect on fish reproductive, nerve and endocrine system. The
152
temperature presumably effect on both GtH (Growth Hormone) secretion and the
responsiveness of target organ to hormonal stimulation. Increased temperature affects
the fat synthesis, metabolism and endocrine system which results in the failure of the
generative processes. The histological analysis revealed high frequencies of egg
resorption and the gonads developed arhythmically (Dalia and Svedang, 1997) . Most
of fish including Amphiprion clarkii, are external fertilizers. The external environment
should have the ability to protect the eggs with suitable conditions. When the
environmental factors are suitable, gametes are released to the environment by fish after
having several behaviors (Pre spawning behaviors). These behaviors are induced by the
endocrine state of the fish. According to Dalia and Svedang (1997) if the environmental
temperature is raised, it is affected negatively to the endocrine system of the fish.
According to Wood and McDonald (1996) there is a close association between
reproductive behaviors and endocrine state, and any environmental factor (i.e.
Temperature) that interferes with normal endocrine functions may also disrupt
behavioral processes.
Conclusions
The formulated feed used in this study is a good source of nutrients as a brooder feed in
breeding anemonefish, Amphiprion clarkii in captivity. The water circulating system
which was used in tanks kept low levels of dissolved compounds and ammonia is
efficiently removed by the system. The fish can survive without any disturbances up to
300C, but the spawning activities has not taken place in temperatures above 270C and
higher temperatures affected spawning activities of Amphiprion clarkii negatively. The
results are encouraging and need further research to succeed in breeding of Amphiprion
clarkii in captivity.
References
Andrews, C., 1990. The ornamental fish trade and fish conservation. J. Fish. Biol. 37:
53-59
Bruckner A.W., 2004. The importance of the marine ornamental reef fish trade in the
wider Caribbean. NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat Conservation, 1315 East
West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
Dalia, L. D. and Svedang, H. 1997. A Review on Fish Reproduction With Special
Reference to Temperature Anomalies. 10:14-17
Olivia, J., Fernando K., Raja and Balasubramanian T. 2006. Studies on Spawning in
Clown Fish Amphiprion sebae With Various Feed Combination Under
Recirclating Aquarium Conditions. 376-381.
Vallejo, V. B., 1997. Survey and revive of the Philippine marine aquarium fish industry.
10: 25-26.
Wood, E. 1985. Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishs from the Aquarium Trade. 121
Wood, M. C. and McDonald G. 1996. Temperature Effects on the Reproductive
Performances of Fish. 159-176.
153
Production of Tuna Fish Oil by Utilizing Tuna (Thunnus Albacares)

Processing by-Products
M.S.S. Kumara
G. Rajapakshe
Jay Sea Foods (Pvt.) Ltd, Ja-Ela, Sri Lanka
and
S.C. Jayamanne
Introduction
Sri Lanka is surrounded by a coastline of approximately 1700 Km, and belongs to an
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 517,000 Sq Km. About 50,000 people in the
country are directly involved in the fishery industry. The total marine fish production in
2010 was recorded about 332,260 Metric tons (Mt), while Tuna contributed 88903 Mt
to the total (Fisheries year Book, 2010). From the total yield about one-third of the
catch of fish is not used for direct human consumption but for the production of fishery
by products (Balios, 2003). Every year thousands of tons of fish by-products of high
nutrient content are discarded by fish processing plants through the world although they
can be utilized for other purposes. Crude tuna oil is produced from tuna waste by steam
followed by purification, wet rendering, alkali digestion, acid silage Soxhlet like
methods (Bimbo, 1990).Tuna fish oil has been considered as an available source of long
chain polyunsaturated Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and Docosa Hexaenoic Acid (DHA). Tuna oil differs from other fish oils in
the ratio of the C20:5 n-3 (EPA) to the C22:6 n-3 (DHA) fatty acids. It means that the
ratio of EPA: DHA in tuna oil around 1:4 is similar to that of human breast milk . This
study attempted to find out the feasibility of producing Tuna fish oil using fish waste.
Methodology
Heads of yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares) weighing more than 20 kg were obtained
from tuna processing plant in Ja-ela, Sri Lanka Selected tuna heads were separately
crushed up using a mechanical crusher to get fine ground particles.
Tuna fish oil was separated using Soxhlet method, wet rendering method and alkali
digestion method respectively. In Soxhlet method 100 g of sample of prepared tuna
head sample was transferred into extracting thimbles. Oil was extracted with petroleum
ether (chloroform and methanol at the ratio of 2:1). The temperature was maintained
between 60 OC to 80 OC for 6 hours and extracted fish oil was weighed.
Wet rendering method was carried out according to the Bimbo (1990). A sample of 100
g of prepared tuna head were mixed with 20 % water and heated by using a water bath
maintaining the temperatures 75 OC, 85 OC and 95 OC each with heating times of 10
minutes, 20 minutes and 30 minutes followed by pressing.
In Alkali digestion method, crushed tuna head samples were taken (100 g) and mixed
with 10 % of distilled water and digested for 30 minutes at 50 60 OC. After 30 minutes
20 mL of 2% Sodium hydroxide was added slowly to avoid soap formation. The
mixture was then cooked at a temperature of 80 OC up to 30 minutes with constant
154
stirring until the head muscle particles were turned semi colloidal state. After 30
minutes oil was separated using centrifugation.
Free fatty acid analysis was made by extracting free fatty acids in hot alcohol and
titrating with standard alkali medium.
Results
Results of the analysis of oil, using different extraction techniques, are presented in
Table 1.
Table 3 Yield of oil extracted using different extraction methods
Parameter
Soxhlet method
Wet Rendering
Alkali Digestion
Yield
13.655 +/-0.113
3.046 +/-0.509
5.296 +/-0.611
Free FA Value
.621 +/- .061
.125 +/- .074
.0008 +/- .0012
Soxhlet method recorded the highest oil yield of 13.65 +/-0.113. followed by Alkali
digestion method (5.29 +/-0.611). Wet rendering method showed the lowest oil yield
(3.04 +/-0.509).
All the mean values were subjected to One-way ANOVA to find the significant of the
methods. A mean separation was done by using tukey test to find whether there is
significant difference among the methods.
Free fatty acid content of tuna fish oils separated by different methods is presented in
Table 1. The lowest free fatty acid value was recorded from oil recovered by the alkali
digestion method (0.004%). Wet rendering method was the next oil extraction method
which reported the low free fatty acid value (0.125%). Soxhlet method recorded the
highest free fatty acid value (0.62%).
Free fatty acid value
0.7
Free fatty acid values of different extraction

methods
0.62
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.125
0.1
0.0049
0
1
2
Extraction methods
Figure 5 Free fatty acid value of soxhlet(1),wet rendering(2) and alkali digestion
method(3).
155
Discussion
In this study tuna fish oil was extracted by using different methods and quality was
determined by finding the free fatty acid values of the oil. According to the results of
this study highest oil yield was obtained using Soxhlet method.
Lipids will dissolve in a variety of solvents. Solvents such as chloroform and methanol
with somewhat higher polarity have high dissolving property and Soxhlet method has
reported the highest oil yield.
In alkali digestion method fish tissues are digested with the help of alkali medium
(sodium hydroxide 2%) and liberate oil from the fish tissues easily. Application of heat
accelerate the digestion process to some extent, but release of complex lipids to the
solution is lower than that of the Soxhlet method (Tanikwa, 1971).
Wet rendering method was carried out according to the method of Bimbo (1990). The
highest oil yield was observed at 85 OC for 20 minute treatment and lowest oil yield
observed in lower temperature treatment (75 OC) and also high temperature treatment
for long time (95 OC for 20 min, 30 min) method. This is possible due to the fact that
lipid cells were ruptured to a great extent with 85 OC (Bimbo (1990). Among the
different time temperature combinations the optimum condition for tuna oil extraction
was observed to be heating the sample at 85OC for 20 min.
The highest free fatty acid percentage in oil was recorded from Soxhlet method and
alkali digestion method recorded the lowest free fatty acid value. According to the oil
prepared at higher temperatures had higher free fatty acid amount. This results indicated
that the hydrolysis of ester bonds of triglyceride occurred less at lower temperatures as
well as oil can undergo hydrolysis in the presence of moisture and heat. In Soxhlet
method oil is kept at somewhat higher temperature for long time (50 -60 OC for 6 hours)
and hydrolysis of triglyceride was high resulting high free fatty acid value. Second
highest free fatty acid value was recorded in wet rendering method, because a high
temperature (85 OC for 20 min) was used. Alkali digestion method gave the lowest free
fatty acid value. In alkali digestion method Sodium hydroxide add to digest the fish
tissues so it will neutralize some amount of free fatty acid in the oil. Hence the Soxhlet
method is recommended for extracting oil from fish.
References
Bimbo, A.P. 1990 . Production of fish oil in M.E. stansby,fsh oil in nutrition (pp.141180). New york:Reinholdpublishing Co.ltd
156

RPabs - NPPL - Preliminary Study On Effect of Different Feed Combinations On Captive Breeding of Anemonefish Amphiprion Clarkii PDF

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Proceedings of the Research Symposium of Uva Wellassa University, December 15-16, 2011

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