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Architecture Sustainable Urban Design
Architecture Sustainable Urban Design
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Produced by
Energy Research Group, University College Dublin,
School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, Ireland
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Written by: Vivienne Brophy, Crea ODowd,
Rachel Bannon, John Goulding and J. Owen Lewis
Design: Sinad McKeon and Pierre Jolivet
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Printed in Ireland 2000
European
Commission
General information
Sustainable
Urban Design
ENERGIE
This is an ENERGIE publication, funded under the European Unions Fifth Framework
Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration. Jointly
managed by the Directorates-General for Research and Energy & Transport of the
European Commission.
Partners on the project were:
Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, Ireland
Institut Catala DEnergia, Barcelona, Spain
O.. Energiesparverband, Linz, Austria
1.
Environment
Society
Economy
Sustainable
Development
Economy
Society
INTRODUCTION
In urban settlements, where over 80% of Europeans live, the concentrations of people
and their activities create intensified demands on the environment. However, this very
concentration offers opportunities, through design and actions at an urban scale, to
minimise the various environmental impacts - ideally to the point where they can be
assimilated by the ecosystems of the region without lasting damage. It can then be said
that a level of sustainable existence has been reached at which the community can live
in symbiotic harmony with its environment.
The best known definition of sustainable development, that of the World Commission
on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), dates from the
publication in 1987 of Our Common Future [1]:
(Sustainable development is)development that meets the needs of todays
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
It is worth emphasising that it is our needs, not wants, that deserve primary attention.
It is also worth reminding ourselves that we in the developed countries have used
power and knowledge to help ourselves to a grossly disproportionate share of the
world's resources leaving much environmental, social and economic degradation in
less developed countries - and sometimes closer to home.
There are many indicators of sustainability that can help in assessing the present
condition, and strategies that may be adopted by a community to ensure its continued
existence and development. An holistic, interdisciplinary approach involving the
natural and physical sciences and the humanities is a feature of most comprehensive
analyses, and the issues involved in developing and implementing action plans for
sustainable urban living are diverse and often interdependent.
Environment
While recognising that social and economic factors are also of fundamental
importance, the focus of this maxibrochure is on physical environmental issues. It aims
to outline some of the current thinking in urban design, and show some exemplary
responses, as an aid to the process of making urban settlements in Europe more
environmentally sustainable.
1.1
BACKGROUND
The nature of the problem, now beginning to be recognised in broad terms and
sometimes only from indications at a global or regional scale, is such that it is still
possible to take corrective action and begin to halt the decline, and reverse it in many
instances, if measures are urgently applied. However, failure to act appropriately at
this stage may soon result in our having to face catastrophic failure of the
Many of these issues come to a focus in urban settlements. In general terms they may
be considered as inputs and outputs of the urban system including: non-renewable
and renewable resource use (both including energy); solid, liquid and gaseous wastes
and their recycling, treatment or disposal; and manpower and knowledge.
2.
URBAN IMPACTS
2.1
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
A heat island is an area of land whose ambient temperature is higher than the land
surrounding it. Many studies show a direct correlation between the density and
population of a city and the intensity of the heat island effect. Higher urban
temperatures increase the demand for electricity for cooling and air conditioning in
warm conditions which leads to an increase in the production of carbon dioxide and
other pollutants. These pollutants in turn contribute to increasing global temperatures
due to the greenhouse effect.
Temperature
High point
Base temperature
2.3
Buildings are required for almost every activity and are the principal elements of the
urban fabric. There are environmental impacts associated with their construction use
and disposal. Land use for buildings and other purposes is a scarce, finite resource
that has hitherto often been used wastefully, especially in and near cities and towns
and in suburban areas. Future sustainable development needs to address land use and
planning according to function to ensure that optimal use is made of the available land
resource to serve the needs of society as a whole. Issues of sustainability associated
with buildings and the land they occupy are discussed in detail in the following pages.
2.4
Traffic congestion reduces the quality of life in cities, wastes time and energy, and
increases environmental degradation. The design, placement and density of buildings
in an urban environment have a great influence on the consequent transportation
patterns. The prolific use of the private car is both a cause and result of inadequate
public transport facilities in many European cities.
Too many
cars on
streets
Increasing
traffic
congestion
Less use
of public
transport
TRAFFIC
Slower mass
transport
less mobility
reduced service
2.5
The domestic, commercial and industrial waste generated by urban living are of
concern to local authorities and inhabitants and a major source of environmental
pollution. The smells and other emissions associated with sewage treatment plants and
landfill sites, traffic and industrial processes are a regular source of irritation,
particularly where large numbers of people live close to such pollution.
2.6
WATER QUALITY
The quality of our water is influenced greatly by human development. Acid rain is a
common problem in and downwind of urban communities and industrial facilities. The
expanse of hard impermeable surfaces in cities results in large bodies of rainwater
requiring collection and discharge elsewhere. Dust, dirt and other solid pollutants are
washed with rainwater into drains, the water sometimes discharged untreated into
local waterways. Drinking water from local waterways often requires treatment with
chemicals to combat bacteria and other micro-organisms from such pollution.
2.7
Impermeable city surfaces.
Many cities have succeeded in reducing the high levels of pollution traditionally caused
by large-scale fossil fuel combustion. In London prior to the 1956 Clean Act, air
pollution had reduced midwinter solar radiation in the city by 50% compared with the
surrounding countryside [5]. The suns capacity to contribute to thermal comfort in
winter was thus halved. Today, vehicle use is one of the main contributors to air
pollution in cities. Despite reductions in individual vehicular emissions, the increasing
number of vehicles on the roads in cities ensures the continuing rise of urban air
pollution levels.
2.8 AERODYNAMIC IMPACT
Wind velocities in cities are generally lower than those in the surrounding countryside
due to the obstructions to air flow caused by buildings. Wind affects the temperature,
rates of evaporative cooling and plant transpiration and is thus an important factor at
a micro-climatic level. Built-up areas with tall buildings may lead to complex air
movement through a combination of wind channelling and resistance, and this often
results in wind turbulence in some areas and concentrated pollution where there are
wind shadows.
600
Windspeed : m/s
40
Altitude
500
40
400
30
300
30
200
20
100
40
20
30
20
Wind speed at a given height, is lower in towns than over open land.
2.9
URBAN DUST
Urban dust is particulate matter released into the air as a by-product of building
works, exhaust fumes from buildings and vehicular traffic, manufacturing and other
processes. It clings to porous surfaces such as stone, brick or concrete. The streaking
effect under windows and architectural mouldings is a result of this dust being washed
off non-porous surfaces such as glass, and lodging itself on the porous material below.
Extensive sealed surfaces and insufficient planted areas intensify this problem. Apart
from the aesthetic effects of urban dust, studies have shown that excessive exposure to
this dust may aggravate pulmonary disorders.
3.
3.1
Optimal siting:
Cool climate
low to mid slope to avoid strong
winds and cool air pockets
Temperate
mid slope preferable to exploit
summer breezes, upper and lower
slope also possible when sheltered
from prevailing winds without
compromising the benefits of
summer breezes
Hot arid
high altitudes preferable above
sloped ground to benefit from cool
air flows
Hot humid
high altitudes on windward side to
increase evaporative cooling
potential
Adjoining developments
In general, denser developments result in a greater reduction in wind speeds but
proportionally increased turbulence. The edges of built-up urban areas in
particular need protection from prevailing winds and driving rain in northern
Europe.
Consideration must be given to optimising the solar access of any site, particularly as
passive solar technologies become increasingly common in urban situations. Where
solar gain is desired (during the heating season, for example) adjacent structures or
vegetation should not be permitted to obstruct sunlight. The planning of access roads
on a site influences solar access considerably by determining plot orientations,
particularly on smaller sites. Roads laid on an east/west axis, with smaller north/south
links where necessary, are most conducive to southerly oriented buildings, but this may
not be viable in every situation.
E
W
N
5 W
S
W
S
5
In a typical residential development with houses at 21m spacing, compare the heating
requirements of the same house on: (i) flat ground (ii) a 5slope, north facing (iii) a 5slope,
south facing.
In developments with a mix of building types and forms, buildings should be arranged
with respect to the suns path and orientation of the site. Taller buildings should be
placed to the north of lower ones, at site boundaries or corners surrounded by roads,
where they cause least solar obstruction and overshadowing.Varying roof profiles
across a site helps to increase the number of buildings with good solar access.
Grouping and spacing of buildings should be designed to prevent undesirable windtunnel effects.
1 roof
2 south facing glazing
3 south facing external space
4 north elevation
1
4
2
Southern European site layouts should aim to optimise natural cooling. Building forms
and densities can be designed to optimise shading. The cooling potential of wind flows
across a site should be considered at the early stages of a design.
Air movement up or down a slope can significantly influence cooling. Anabatic flows,
where air is warmed by the ground on a calm, sunny day, rise up a slope. Katabatic
flows, where air is cooled by the ground on a calm, clear night, move downwards and
have more noticeable effects, creating cold pockets in hollows or valleys and
aggravating frosty conditions due to trapped cold air.
As pressure on land for development increases, designers are often faced with sites in
ecologically sensitive areas or on difficult soil conditions. Such developments, if they
are to occur, require especially careful design to minimise environmental impact,
particularly in terms of ground and surface water conditions. Sites located near
wetlands, for example, should limit water run-off to avoid disrupting salinity levels,
water-based wildlife and vegetation.
3.1.1 Case Study ParcBIT Project, Mallorca
As part of the EXPO CITIES project in the Balearic Islands, the architectural firm,
Richard Rogers Partnership, together with a multi-disciplinary design team, has
provided a masterplan for a new sustainable community near the capital city of Palma.
As a residential community of 2,500 people with a peak working population of 6,000
people, ParcBIT is intended to be a business and science park set within the context of
a full community development.
The communities are arranged within three urban clusters each of which is in itself a
village, and which together form a distinct balanced community. Each cluster gradually
diffuses from a vibrant, publicly focused centre, through a working district of offices,
production, manufacturing and housing to a quieter residential area on the outskirts.
The proposal aims to maintain a balanced cycle of activities over the day and
throughout the year. The phasing of the construction is structured so that each of the
villages will grow from the core outwards, establishing life in the centre to form a focus
for each village, preceded by the progressive laying down of infrastructure.
Careful analysis of the site and its landscape has influenced the masterplan which is
designed to preserve natural landscape features. The topography of the site has
played a significant role in the definition of built form and circulation patterns.
Buildings are located on terraces which wrap around a ridge following the contours
of the land. Ten percent of the winter floodwater from two flood torrents traversing the
site is to be collected in a storage area and released over the year to provide both
irrigation and drinking water.
Traditionally constructed buildings with thick masonry walls will help ensure that rooms
are cool and comfortable. Height to width ratios for streets and squares are controlled
to ensure good daylight penetration to buildings, while providing shade to public
spaces in summer and allowing solar access in winter. Building facades are designed
to open in summer to provide shade and ventilation to buildings and pedestrian routes,
and when closed in winter provide a buffer zone.
The energy strategy for the development proposes to reduce demand by 70% by
constructing energy-efficient buildings and by using a combined heat and power
system fuelled using renewable energy sources.
An important part of the concept at ParcBIT is the proposed integrated transport system
with trams, buses, and electric cars connecting each cluster with the university and
Palma. A road-based tram system will serve 7,000 inhabitants and a further 5,000
people on the university campus. Green-planted cycle and pedestrian routes will
provide access to residential areas from road and tram links. Parking areas will be
located so that residents and office workers can share spaces, thus reducing the overall
number of spaces required.
Energy strategy.
3.2
A net density of 100 people per
hectare [or about 40 50
dwellings] is recommended for
neighbourhood developments
on average in the UK on the
basis that: [13]
DENSITY
3.2.1 Buildings
The move towards revitalising and repopulating inner city sites with high density,
mixed-use developments aims to improve the viability and vitality of urban centres,
increase the potential for shared resources and reduce vehicle use generated by
suburban dispersal. A sustainable approach to the issue of density reduces the
dominance of the role of the car and instead considers less environmentally damaging
ways of achieving the horizontal and vertical movement of people, energy, food,
goods, water and waste.
In general, developments with higher densities use less energy for horizontal
movement: in mixed use developments most facilities can be located within walking
distance or integrated within an efficient public transport system. Reducing travel
distances will reduce car use and its related greenhouse gas emissions, allowing
design strategies to focus on the needs of cyclists, pedestrians and the provision of
green spaces between buildings. Higher density developments enable the sharing of
facilities and resources. Infrastructure supply lines can be shorter, reducing distances
for energy and water service runs.
For maximum density developments containing high-rise buildings, the additional
energy required for the vertical transfer of people and services such as energy, water
and waste must be addressed. Moving infrastructure upwards against gravity requires
more energy than horizontal flows. However, a higher density scheme will allow a
greater area of land to be dedicated to landscaped public areas and activities,
including allotments for food production and on-site bio waste treatments, for
example. At an architectural level, the embodied energy of the building materials must
be considered. High-rise structures often require materials (e.g. steel) with a higher
embodied energy than traditional materials used in low rise construction.
The optimum densities for mixed development of a site depend on variables such as
climatic, social, and topographical factors, location and existing settlement.
Fundamental to the success of any new development is planning foresight and wellprogrammed investment in high quality infrastructure and facilities.
The potential disadvantages of high-density developments in terms of daylight access,
wind tunnelling and urban heat island effects for example, can be mitigated by
climate-responsive design. A starting point in any project must be to assess the microand macro-climatic characteristics of the site, an exercise which will indicate
Mutual shading.
A grid layout incorporates avenues, parks, squares and planted courtyards, with each
section of the district containing 1000 dwellings in eight blocks grouped around a
neighbourhood park. It is a high-density development respecting the principles of
efficient resource and land-use. There will be three zones from west to east with
differing levels, density and dwelling types; four storey apartment buildings to the west
next to the service road and tram route; three storey housing in the middle; and two
storey terraced housing to the east. Ten per cent of the housing will be owner-occupied;
the remaining ninety per cent will be subsidised rented accommodation. All of the
dwellings will have direct access to a green space in the form of a courtyard and
nearly all of the dwellings will have a private garden, a balcony or a roof garden. The
landscape plan for Kronsberg incorporates the planting of woodland on the Kronsberg
ridge with diverse habitats created in the vicinity for wild plants and animals .
Residential district at Kronsberg.
Extensive commercial estates are being developed directly adjacent to the residential
district, fulfilling the aim to develop workplaces close to home, accessible by public
transport. The long-term planning aim is to expand the current commercial
development to the south after EXPO 2000. The simultaneous realisation of the
residential area with its infrastructure and amenities, comprehensive landscaping and
green space, constitute attractive conditions for the location of businesses and
employment.
A new tram service connecting Kronsberg to the city centre will have a journey time of
20 minutes, with sufficient tram-stops to ensure that no dwelling is more than 600m
from a stop. The main service road runs parallel to the tramway on the edge of the
residential area to minimise disruption. From the main service road, the district has a
network of minor streets, serving only local traffic, bordered with trees and grass
verges. The streets are laid out to favour pedestrians and cyclists. Car parking
requirements in Kronsberg have been set at 0.8 parking space per dwelling, much of
it located in underground car parks.
3.2.3 External Spaces
Much research has been done on the psychological benefits of comfortable external
spaces and how these can be influenced by climatic, spatial and architectural design
parameters. Social issues such as maintenance, security, and visual privacy or
openness must also be addressed when designing external spaces.Climatic
considerations to be addressed in providing comfortable external spaces include solar
and wind access and proximity to sources of noise or air pollution.
Solar houses, Kronsberg.
The most significant benefits of climate control are usually gained from localised
features such as courtyards, sheltered or shaded areas creating microclimates more
comfortable than surrounding public open spaces. Thus when considering climate and
air quality at an urban scale, the provision of a network of many small green spaces
or urban forests throughout a city is often preferable to a few large parks. Derelict
land in cities may be reused to provide community forests and parks, climatic shelter
belts and buffer zones, and visual and acoustic screening of motorways.
3.2.4 Case Study - Urban Parks in Paris
Paris has many large and small public parks and gardens. As part of the regeneration
of disused and derelict parts of the city, three new parks have been formed; the Parc
de Bercy, the Parc Andr-Citron, and the Bastille Viaduct. Filled with vegetation, from
mature trees to flower beds, these amenity spaces improve the immediate and general
environment through the provision of natural air filtration mechanisms, water retention
areas, summer shading canopies, as well as habitats for the areas local fauna.
10
Parc de Bercy is built in the centre of a former wine quarter in the east of Paris.
Much of the area was derelict and in need of renovation. The park was designed by
Bernard Huet and FFL architectes, and encompasses an area of 14 hectares. It is
divided into three rectangular sections: an open grassed play area, containing trees
informally interspersed within an orthogonal grid of paths; a central garden section,
subdivided into regularly planted and shaped plots, and traversed by a canal which
leads to the third, water section of the park. A raised walkway, designed to act as a
visual and noise buffer to the nearby motorway was also planned but financial
constraints have prevented the construction of this part of the development.
Parc Andr-Citron is located on the site of the former Citron car factory in the
west of Paris. Gilles Clement and Patrick Berger designed the northern sector and Jean
Paul Viguier, Jean-Francois Jodry and Alain Provost were responsible for the southern
part. The park covers an area of 14 hectares, and is centred around a large green
expanse of grass. Geometrically sculpted gardens contain and control the vegetation.
Each garden has a different theme: deciduous trees are scattered throughout one
garden; another contains a pattern of evergreens; yet another is left to grow wild. A
terrace of fountains saturates and cools the paved area between the orangeries, while
a row of limestone pillars containing small water fountains lines the western end of the
park.
The Bastille Viaduct is an example of the advantages of reusing existing urban
fabric to improve a local environment socially, economically and environmentally. A
disused viaduct was renovated to provide an elevated linear park, along which runs a
promenade lined with trees and other vegetation. Patrick Berger was the architect
responsible for the design of the renovation works, comprising the viaduct, the 13
hectare park above, and shops under the arches of the viaduct at street level.
3.3
CLIMATE OPTIMISATION
SPECIES
Acer Negundo
Catalpa Bignoinoides
Celtis Australis
Ceratonia Silicua
Cercis Siliquastrum
Citrus Aurantium
Ficus Macrophilia
Gleditsia Triacanthos
Ligustrum Japonicum
Melia Azedarach
Mioporum Pictum
Morus Alba
Nerium Oleander
Olea Europea
Phoenis Dactilifera
Pinus Alpensis
Platanus Acerofilia
Populus Alba Bolleana
Robina Pseudoacacia
Sophora Japonica
[8]
SOLAR
RETENTION
%
88.6
85.8
91.0
83.6
90.1
87.0
93.8
89.0
89.0
89.1
91.4
77.5
91.6
89.8
90.6
85.8
85.8
94.3
86.0
93.2
AL WINTER SHADE
Y1
Y2
X1
X2
The main considerations in the design of planting are species type, growth rate and
location. Different species of vegetation have different capacities to absorb solar
radiation. Local species generally have stronger resistance to local pest and climatic
conditions, requiring less maintenance than exotic species. The characteristics of plants
that can significantly affect their contribution to solar shading are:
Growth pattern
the time taken for sufficient growth to provide shade/cooling benefits
Diameter and height
implications for tree-spacing, distance from buildings, extent of shadows at
maturity
Duration of leaf season
timing relative to the heating/cooling season, implications for solar access and the
appearance of the trees in winter
11
Pollution resistance
durable species are needed in urban areas to avoid premature plant death
When planning trees near buildings, consider crown diameter and height relative to
the location of solar collectors and windows. Trees in sheltered locations retain their
leaves for longer, which may or may not be desirable depending on the climate and
solar access requirements.
45
45
r sun
Winte
Prevailing winds
GREEN SPACE
ACCESS
ROAD
BUFFER
SPACE
MAJOR ROAD
Roof gardens can be established on the flat roofs of buildings using potted trees,
shrubs and plants. Roof planting also reduces the area of roof surface exposed directly
to the sun and the summer and winter temperature extremes to which a buildings roof
structure is subjected.
Planted, or grassed roofs, though not common, are beginning to be found on buildings
in urban centres across Europe. Low maintenance grass roof systems are increasingly
available. Some of the benefits include:
12
1. Orientate long
axis parallel to
dominant wind
evaporative cooling
from river
3. Avoid funnel-like
gaps between
buildings
3.3.3 Temperature
Evaporative cooling has been used to reduce temperatures locally in Southern
European countries for centuries, from the Gardens of Alhambra to the 1992 Seville
EXPO. Water evaporation absorbs a considerable amount of heat energy 590
calories per cubic cm of water evaporated.
Direct evaporation of water raises the moisture content of surrounding air, from bodies
of water, fountains or evapo-transpiration of vegetation, inducing cooling of the air
and adjacent surfaces.
Passive direct evaporation strategies at an urban scale can be achieved by simple
means, such as the provision of vegetation, fountains or ponds in public spaces, or by
more complex means such as water towers. When using evaporation in hot climates
an expansive surface of water is not needed but natural ventilation should be designed
to avoid problems with increased humidity levels. Indirect evaporation avoids
problems with humidity levels and does not require as high a velocity of air flow as
direct systems, although its use often entails a greater level of planning, design and
equipment.
Due to the evaporation of water from vegetation, temperatures can be up to 10K lower
in urban parks than in surrounding densely built areas (see section 3.3.6). Alternating
densely planted areas with open spaces enhances night cooling, by allowing the
humid air from around the vegetation to escape. Concentrated sources of heat
production, e.g. kitchens or plant rooms, should be located near densely planted
areas.
The presence of a body of water will help to moderate temperature extremes due to its
high thermal storage capacity. Evaporative cooling is most effective downwind of a
cool, dry air flow, seen in many traditional settlements in hot-arid climates which
feature ponds or wetted surfaces placed along known air-paths. The temperature of
hard landscaping materials can be lowered when water is sprinkled, run over or
through them. This is especially beneficial in built-up areas with large surfaces of heat
retaining materials, exposed to high solar radiation.
To increase air temperatures at a site:
Optimise solar exposure and create `sun traps on south-east to south-west facing
sites
Provide windbreaks to direct cold air flows away from open occupied spaces and
buildings
Use dark coloured heat retaining materials (concrete, masonry) on south facing
surfaces
13
Bio-climatically controlled
spaces, EXPO 92, Seville.
14
external
Studies prior to the construction of the EXPO, and further in-use assessments have
shown that comfortable external environments were achieved by the natural means
described above when climatic conditions in Seville remained below the following
levels:
Vegetation
Shading
Ventilation
Water evaporation
Thermal inertia of the ground,
landscaping features
Heat dissipation systems
Air filtration systems
3.4
BUILDINGS
Using dark coloured finishes to reduce glare may result in an increase in the solar heat
gain of the structure, which can in turn increase the cooling load of the building. The
use of vegetation and architectural features to providing shade in such situations may
be more appropriate. Vertical and horizontal shading can shield large surfaces of a
facade, offering solar, wind and rain protection. In cold climates where solar heat gain
by day is beneficial for evening heat release, south facing walls can be covered with
deciduous vegetation to avoid obstructing desirable solar gain in winter.
Conventional dark coloured roof finishes (asphalt, PVC, EPDM) absorb large amounts
of solar radiation especially in summer. Lighter coloured or reflective finishes, grassed
roofs and roof gardens can significantly mitigate heat gain.
Workshop
Bath
BUFFER SPACES
Bedroom
Hallways, Storage, Stairs, etc.
Bath
Bedroom
Building construction with a high thermal mass can be beneficial in both cool and hot
climates. The thermal stabilty provided by high mass construction contributes to slower
heat transfer in hot dry climates, while in cooler climates, solid construction exposed
to winter sun can act as a heat sink.
The use of light colours on external finishes reduces thermal gains in building
envelopes, but consideration should be made to avoid problems with glare.
Living
Area
Kitchen /
Dining
15
Zoning rooms to provide thermal buffers can benefit both hot and cool climates. In
Northern European climates, buffer zones located to the north of buildings prevent
excessive heat loss, while in the warmer southern European climates uninhabited
rooms to the west of buildings provides a thermal buffer against low afternoon sun.
3.4.3 Case Study - GREEN City; Radstadt, Austria
In the 13th century city of Radstadt, fifty new dwellings were planned, of which thirtysix have been completed. This solar low-energy development has become a model
residential area, giving new identity and an improved quality of life to one of the oldest
parts of Radstadt.
Optimisation of the micro-climate and passive solar design were major objectives in
site selection and building orientation. A primary aim was to minimise the total energy
consumption for both construction and operation of the buildings. Life-cycle
environmental impacts of ten construction methods and heating systems were
undertaken to determine the most cost-effective, environmentally acceptable systems.
To achieve low-energy buildings standards, the walls to the north, west and east are
constructed of brick cavity walls with 160mm insulation, and to the south of lightweight
timber construction. The design U-values of 0.2 W/m2K for walls and 0.7 W/m2K for
windows respectively indicate the high thermal standards applied.
Light-weight
Radstadt.
timber
construction,
The project is served by 108m2 of solar collectors for hot water, while a wood-chip
fuelled district heating system and a heat recovery ventilation system help ensure low
energy consumption. The total energy consumption for heating and domestic hot water
for an average multi-family house is 76kWh/m2/yr; 14kWh/m2/yr provided by solar
energy and 62kWh/m2/yr by biomass.
16
While energy and resource optimisation at the scale of the individual building or other
facility is important and the cumulative effects of such measures can be large, there
are many energy and resource supply measures that are often best undertaken at an
urban scale including: district heating systems; large-scale photovoltaic energy
generation; large-scale combined heat and power production (eg using biomass as a
fuel), wind power, and hydro-electric power production.
3.5.2 Waste Management
The provision of adequate storage is necessary for different categories of waste,
particularly for domestic waste in high density residential developments. This includes
recycling collection points and communal waste-disposal areas. Particular attention
should be paid to construction wastes and the potential for re-use of materials ranging
from formwork to top-soil. Designated access routes of adequate dimensions for waste
collection vehicles must be provided. Strategies for as much on-site treatment of waste
as possible should be established, to reduce transportation energy costs and minimise
landfill.
Photovoltaic application.
Communal strategies for waste collection and treatment must be managed properly
and supported by a large enough population for the process to be feasible. For
example, the scale of waste combustion operations must be large enough to meet the
cost of efficient, environmentally acceptable waste treatment equipment and controls
which minimise the level of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere.
Volume of water
used by...
Septic Tanks
Accidental spillage
Leaking storage container
Waste incinerator
Refuse dump
Leaky sewer
Well
River
Water table
Polluted groundwater
17
Canal, Lucca.
Reduce the use of non-essential lighting (turn off neon signage or shop-window
displays in the early hours of the morning for example)
Where lighting is required for emergency, security or operational reasons, use
energy efficient luminaires of the minimum necessary wattage and, where possible,
shield fittings to avoid light spillage
Infrared motion-sensor lights are successful in security applications and help to
reduce electricity consumption
On public roads, uniform lighting with a low glare co-efficient and fully shielded
fixtures effectively pointed downwards reduce light pollution and through more
efficient lighting, can provide safer road conditions
Low pressure sodium lighting is one of the most efficient light sources and has a low
operating cost. The bright yellow monochromatic light causes less glare than mercury
vapour lamps which are commonly used for all-night lighting.
3.5.5 Case Study EXPO 2000 Kronsberg, Hannover
An energy target has been set for the Kronsberg development, to reduce CO2
emissions by up to 60% through savings on heating, hot-water and electricity, but with
no reduction in comfort. This will be achieved by optimising energy use in low-energy
housing and the incorporation of renewable energy sources and innovative
technolgies. A standard Low Energy House in Germany has an energy requirement
of 70100 kWh/m2/yr. At Kronsberg, a maximum level of 55 kWh/m2/yr was
established. Specific energy-efficient construction methods and the use of
environmentally sound building materials are mandatory. All buildings are to be linked
to a district heating system.
In the Solar City part of the development, 100 passive solar dwellings and a childrens
day-centre are to draw half of their heating requirements from active solar energy and
the other half from the district heating network. Another 32 dwellings are to be
constructed as passive solar houses to demonstrate a building standard that will
enable the space heating to be reduced to 1520 kWh/m2/yr while significantly
reducing energy needs for hot water and household appliances.
A district co-generation plant will produce power and heat with reduced emissions.
Photovoltaic cells installed on the roofs of the primary school and the community and
district arts centres produce power for these buildings. Two wind turbines have been
erected which will supply the electricity needs of 3,000 dwellings.
18
Rainwater from hard-landscaped areas is collected, filtered and redirected into the
water features on site in a Mulden-Rigolen-System. In the community centre and
school, rainwater is reused for flushing toilets, watering gardens and green areas. All
new houses will be equipped with water-saving fittings (flow restricters and pressure
regulators), contributing to an estimated reduction in drinking water use of about 26
litres per person per year.
Residents are encouraged to save potable water. A public awareness campaign,
incorporating exhibitions, leaflets and brochures, will promote water-saving strategies
for residents. Training for water engineers and school teachers will also be provided.
The value of water will be emphasised through school projects by primary school
children. All the rainwater falling in the school grounds and from the grassed roof of
the school will be collected and used for flushing toilets and to water the school
garden.
Retention Strategy:
Most of the water leaves the site at this stage, via the existing stream which runs
through the site. Some of the filtered rainwater is collected in retention basins and
fed to points of use for toilet flushing and irrigating landscaped areas
19
3.6
Some European car parking
requirements
spaces per
dwelling
UK & Ireland-standard
1.5
Germany-standard
1.0
Kronsberg, Hannover
0.8
DWM Terrain, Amsterdam
0.3
Bus
Pedestrian
Bicycle
Car
45
40
Underground
Time in minutes
35
30
10km+ faster by
underground (or lightrail)
25
< 4500m faster by bicycle
20
TRANSPORT
15
Planning
10
< 450m faster to walk
5
< 250m faster to walk
0
0
10
11
12
Distance in km
DME
RME
Biogas
Ethanol
Electricity
DiMethyl Ester
RapsMethyl Ester
Strategies to reduce private car use will be most beneficial and successful in mixed-use
developments where alternative modes of transport can be offered i.e. an efficiently
run public transport network.
Design
Pedestrian routes should be safe, attractive, and easy to use. The following issues
should be considered:
seasonal solar shading or access depending on the climate
shelter from wind, driving rain and snow
landscaping materials
energy-efficient street lighting of minimum wattage and with shielded fixtures
3.6.2 Renewable vehicle fuels
20
Renewable vehicle fuels have a range of benefits, including lower emissions, and
unlimited supply when compared with conventional fossil fuels. Biodiesel fuels such as
RME, a product of rapeseed oil, offer the benefits of a renewable energy source whose
pollutant emissions may be eliminated using vehicles equipped with catalytic
converters.
21
4.
The complexity of urban design, which incorporates several levels of analysis from
climatic to cultural, geographic to geometric, is fundamental to the difficulties
encountered in the development of successful urban design tools.
A wide range of design tools is available to aid in the design of more energy-efficient
buildings. However, few tools have been developed to assess conditions in the urban
environment at city block or neighbourhood scale, or to predict the impact of proposed
buildings on an existing urban environment. Some design tools which address the
environmental impact of a proposed development on surrounding areas are outlined
below.
ZEIS
Sustainability Indicators are methods of analysis which attempt to quantify the many
levels of environmental, social and economic impact of concern in urban design. The
aim of urban sustainability indicators is to analyse an urban complex in terms of its
environmental impacts. These impacts can be described broadly as inputs and outputs.
Inputs refer to a citys resource consumption, outputs refer to its by-products, wastes or
goods manufactured. ZEIS is a prototype for a computer aided urban design tool.
Within six main categories (Energy, Emissions, Buildings, Transport, Services, and
Environment), the programme has established approximately 100 criteria for
sustainability.
Developed by: LEcole dArchitecture de Toulouse, France.
Urban
Pattern
Neighbourhood
Building
Form
Indoor
Comfort
Building
Quality
Chemical
Compon.
Solid
Compon.
Sound
Discomfort
Grey
Water
Renewable
Energy
Recycling
Incineration
BUILDING
EMISSIONS
Waste
Building
Public
Lighting
Transport
Industry
ENERGY
URBAN
SUSTAINABILITY
Water
SERVICES
Lectures
Water
Education
Grey
Water
Public
Lighting
ENVIRONMENT
TRANSPORT
Health
Shopping
Waste
Hydrology
DOMAIN
Natural
Zones
Natural
Risks
Industrial
Risks
Road Syst.
Efficiency
Public
Transport
Parking
Private
Transport
Pedestrian
Roads
CRITERIA
Canyon
Canyon is a tool developed to calculate the dynamic evolution of ambient air in urban
street configurations. The tool calculates the thermal balance in the street, taking into
account short and long wave radiation, as well as other transfer phenomena
associated with materials and components in the street.
Developed by: Group Building Environmental Physics, University of Athens, Greece
CPCALC
CPCALC is a tool developed to calculate the air pressure distribution around buildings.
The programme is designed for a large number of building configurations.
Developed by: Polytecnico di Torino, Italy
Townscope
Townscope II assesses thermal comfort, critical wind discomfort risk and perceptive
qualities of urban open space, and provides an integrated multi-criteria decision
module to rank various alternative proposals.
Developed by: University of Lige, Belgium
22
5.
[1] United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future,
(The Bruntland Report), 1987
[6] Alcock R, King C, Lewis J O, Solar Thermal Systems in Europe, EC DG XVII, ESIF, 1998
[9] Hough M, Cities and Natural Process, Routledge, 1995
[10] Mascaro L, Urban Environment / Ambiencia Urbana, Sagra-Luzzatto, 1996
[11] OCofaigh E, Fitzgerald E, Lewis J O, A Green Vitruvius - Principles and Practice of
Sustainable Architectural Design, James and James, 1999
[12] Sevilla A, Landabaso A, Present Tools to Shape Sustainable Cities, Geohabitat, 1998
[13] Barton H, Sustainable Settlements - a Guide for Planners, Designers and Developers, Bristol;
Luton; University of the West of England; Local Government Management Board,1995
[14] Vilanove R, The Balearic Islands shaping the 21st century, The Balearic Government, 1998
Benstem A, Wenau A, Hannover Kronsberg: Model of a Sustainable New Urban Community,
Kronsberg Environmental Liaison Agency GmbH (KUKA) and the City of Hannover, revised
version 1998
Daniels K, The Technology of Ecological Building, Birkhuser Verlag 1997
DETR, UK, Building a Sustainable Future - Homes for an Autonomous Community, Best Practice
Programme, General Information Report 53, 1998
Givoni B, Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1998
Gleiniger A, Paris - Contemporary Architecture, Prestel, 1997
Herzog T, Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning, Prestel Verlag, 1996
Lloyd Jones D, Hudson J, Architecture and the Environment - Bioclimatic Building Design,
Laurence King, 1998
Lopez de Asiain J, Arquitectura 5, Open Spaces of Expo 92, The Superior Technical School of
Architecture of Seville (ETSAS), 1997
McNicholl A, Lewis J O, Green Design - Sustainable Building for Ireland, Stationary Office, 1996
OCofaigh E, Olley J, Lewis J O, The Climatic Dwelling, EC DG XII, James and James, 1996
Olgyay V, Design With Climate: A Bioclimatic Approach To Architectural Regionalism, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1992
Passive Solar Design Studies Project Summary 045, Estate Layout For Passive Solar Housing
Design, UK Dept. of Energy Contractors Report, Reprint Dec.1990
Rogers R, Gumuchdjian P, Cities For a Small Planet, Faber and Faber, 1997
Urban Technologies Sectoral Report 19951997, EC DG XVII Thermie publication, 1998
White R, Urban Environmental Management, John Wiley and Sons, 1996
Articles
[7] Dodd J, Landscaping To Save Energy: The Protective Landscape, Architects Journal, July 1993
Web Sites
[2] www.iclei.org
International Council
Environmental Iniatives
for
Local
[4] www.progress.org/
What We Use and What We Have:
Ecological Footprint and Ecological
Capacity
www.uia.org/uiares/reshum.htm
Excessive Ecological Footprint
Encyclopedia of World Problems and
Human Potential
www.ire.ubc.ca/ecoresearch/ecoftpr
.html
How sustainable are our choices?
www.darksky.org
International Dark Sky Association
www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Environment Acency, UK
www.urbed.co.uk
Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood
Battle G, McCarthy C, The Design of Sustainable New Towns, Architectural Design, 1994
www.greendesign.net/greenclips
NASA takes aim at hot roofs
Glass Dr. J, Keeping The Lid On Overheating, Concrete Quarterly, Winter 1998
www.eurofound.ie
The European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions
Rogers R, Creating the Cities and Citizens of Tomorrow, Building Design, December 1998
23
OPET NETWORK:
ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
The network of Organisations for the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPET], supported by the European Commission, helps to disseminate new, clean and
efficient energy technology solutions emerging from the research, development and demonstration activities of ENERGIE and its predecessor programmes. The
activities of OPET Members across all member states, and of OPET Associates covering key world regions, include conferences, seminars, workshops, exhibitions,
publications and other information and promotional actions aimed at stimulating the transfer and exploitation of improved energy technologies. Full details can be
obtained through the OPET internet website address http://www.cordis.lu/opet/home.html
OPET
ADEME
27, rue Louis Vicat
75737 Paris, France
Manager: Mr Yves Lambert
Contact:
Ms Florence Clement
Telephone: +33.1-47 65 20 41
Facsimile: +33.1-46 45 52 36
E-mail: florence.clement@ademe.fr
CORA
Altenkesselerstrasse 17
66115 Saarbrucken, Germany
Manager: Mr Michael Brand
Contact:
Mr Nicola Sacca
Telephone: +49.681-976 2174
Facsimile: +49.681-976 2175
E-mail: sacca@sea.sb.uunet.de
ASTER-CESEN
Via Morgagni 4
40122 Bologna, Italy
Manager: Ms Leda Bologni
Contact:
Ms Verdiana Bandini
Telephone: +39.051-236242
Facsimile: +39.051-227803
E-mail:
opet@aster.it
CRES
19 km Marathonos Ave
190 09 Pikermi, Greece
Manager: Ms Maria Kontoni
Contact:
Ms Maria Kontoni
Telephone: +30.1-603 9900
Facsimile: +30.1-603 9911
E-mail:
mkontoni@cres.gr
BEO
BEO c/o Projekttraeger Biologie,
Energie, Umwelt
Forschungszentrum
Juelich GmbH
52425 Julich, Germany
Manager: Mr Norbert Schacht
Contact:
Mrs Gillian Glaze
Telephone: +49.2461-615 928
Facsimile: +49.2461-612 880
E-mail:
g.glaze@fz-juelich.de
BRECSU
Bucknalls Lane, Garston
WD2 7JR Watford, UK
Manager: Mr Mike Trim
Contact:
Mr Mike Trim
Telephone: +44.1923-664 754
Facsimile: +44.1923-664 097
E-mail:
trimm@bre.co.uk
CCE
Estrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1
2720 Alfragide, Portugal
Manager: Mr Luis Silva
Contact:
Mr Diogo Beirao
Telephone: +351.1-4722818
Facsimile: +351.1-4722898
E-mail: dmre.cce@mail.telepac.pt
CLER
28 rue Basfroi
75011 Paris, France
Manager: Ms Liliane Battais
Contact:
Mr Richard Loyen
Telephone: +33.1-4659 0444
Facsimile: +33.1-4659 0392
E-mail:
cler@worldnet.fr
CMPT
Exploration House
Offshore Technology Park
Aberdeen AB23 8GX
United Kingdom
Manager:
Mr Jonathan Shackleton
Contact
Ms Jane Kennedy
Telephone: +44.870-608 3440
Facsimile: +44.870-608 3480
E-mail: j.kennedy@cmpt.com
ENEA-ISNOVA
CR Casaccia
S Maria di Galeria
00060 Roma, Italy
Manager: Mr Francesco Ciampa
Contact:
Ms Wen Guo
Telephone: +39.06-3048 4118
Facsimile: +39.06-3048 4447
E-mail:
enea_opet@casaccia.enea.it
Energy Centre Denmark
DTI
P.O. Box 141
2630 Taastrup, Denmark
Manager: Mr Poul Kristensen
Contact: Cross Border OPET
Bavaria
Mr Nils Daugaard
Telephone: +45.43-507 080
Facsimile: +45.43-507 088
E-mail:
ecd@teknolgisk.dk
ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
OX11 0RA Oxfordshire
United Kingdom
Manager: Ms Cathy Durston
Contact:
Ms Lorraine Watling
Telephone: +44.1235-432 014
Facsimile: +44.1235-433 434
E-mail: lorraine.watling@aeat.co.uk
EVE
Edificio Albia I planta 14,
C. San Vicente, 8
48001 Bilbao, Spain
Manager: Mr Juan Reig Giner
Contact:
Mr Guillermo Basanez
These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016
OPET Luxembourg
Avenue des Terres Rouges 1
4004 Esch-sur-Alzette
Luxembourg
Manager: Mr Jean Offermann
(Agence de lEnergie]
Contact:
Mr Ralf Goldmann
[Luxcontrol]
Telephone: +352.547-711 282
Facsimile: +352.547-711 266
E-mail: goldmann@luxcontrol.com
OPET Bothnia
Norrlandsgatan 13, Box 443
901 09 Umea - Blaviksskolan
910 60 Asele - Sweden
Manager: Ms France Goulet
Telephone: +46.90-163 709
Facsimile: +46.90-193 719
Contact:
Mr Anders Lidholm
Telephone: +46.941-108 33
Facsimile: +46.70-632 5588
E-mail: opet.venet@swipnet.se
Orkustofnun
Grensasvegi 9
IS-108 Reykjavik, Iceland
Manager: Mr Einar Tjrvi Eliasson
Contact: Mr Einar Tjrvi Eliasson
Telephone: +354.569 6105
Facsimile: +354.568 8896
E-mail: ete@os.is
CEEETA-PARTEX
Rua Gustavo de Matos Sequeira,
28-1. Dt.
1200-215 Lisboa, Portugal
Manager: Mr Anbal Fernandes
Contact:
Mr Anbal Fernandes
Telephone: +351.1-395 6019
Facsimile: +351.1-395 2490
E-mail: ceeeta@ceeeta.pt
RARE
50 rue Gustave Delory
59800 Lille, France
Manager: Mr Pierre Sachse
Contact: Mr Jean-Michel Poupart
Telephone: +33.3-20 88 64 30
Facsimile: +33.3-20 88 64 40
E-mail: are@nordnet.fr
SODEAN
Isaac Newton s/n
Pabelln de Portugal - Edifico
SODEAN
41092 Sevilla, Spain
Manager:
Mr Juan Antonio Barragn Rico
Contact:
Ms Maria Luisa Borra Marcos
Telephone: +34.95-446 0966
Facsimile: +34.95-446 0628
E-mail: mborra.sodean@sadiel.es
SOGES
Corso Turati 49
10128 Turin, Italy
Manager:
Mr Antonio Maria Barbero
Contact:
Mr Fernando Garzello
Telephone: +39.011-319 0833
+39.011-318 6492
Facsimile: +39.011-319 0292
E-mail: opet@grupposoges.it
VTC
Boeretang 200
2400 Mol, Belgium
Manager:
Mr Hubert van den Bergh
Contact:
Ms Greet Vanuytsel
Telephone: +32.14-335 822
Facsimile: +32.14-321 185
E-mail:
opetvtc@vito.be
Wales OPET Cymru
Dyfi EcoParc
Machynlleth
SY20 8AX Powys
United Kingdom
Manager: Ms Janet Sanders
Contact:
Mr Rod Edwards
Telephone: +44.1654-705 000
Facsimile: +44.1654-703 000
E-mail: opetdulas@gn.apc.org
FEMOPET
Black Sea Regional Energy
Centre (BSREC]
8, Triaditza Str.
1040 Sofia, Bulgaria
Manager: Dr L. Radulov
Contact:
Dr L. Radulov
Telephone: +359.2-980 6854
Facsimile: +359.2-980 6855
E-mail: ecsynkk@bsrec.bg
Estonia FEMOPET
Estonian Energy Research Institute
Paldiski mnt.1
EE0001 Tallinn, Estonia
Manager: Mr Villu Vares
Contact:
Mr Rene Tonnisson
Telephone: +372.245 0303
Facsimile: +372.631 1570
E-mail: femopet@femopet.ee
FEMOPET Slovenia
Jozef Stefan Institute
Energy Efficiency Centre
Jamova 39
SLO-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Manager: Mr Boris Selan
Contact:
Mr Tomaz Fatur
Telephone: +386.61-188 5210
Facsimile: +386.61-161 2335
E-mail: tomaz.fatur@ijs.si
Latvia FEMOPET
c/o B.V. EKODOMA Ltd
Zentenes Street 12-49
1069 Riga, Latvia
Manager: Ms Dagnija Blumberga
Contact:
Ms Dagnija Blumberga
Telephone: +371.721-05 97/
241 98 53
Facsimile: +371.721-05 97/
241 98 53
E-mail: ekodoma@mail.bkc.lv
OMIKK
National Technical Information
Centre and Library
Muzeum Utca 17
H-1088 Budapest, Hungary
Manager: Mr Gyula Nyerges
Contact:
Mr Gyula Nyerges
Telephone: +36.1-266 3123
Facsimile: +36.1-338 2702
E-mail: nyerges@omk.omikk.hu
FEMOPET Romania ENERO
8, Energeticienilor Blvd.
3, Bucharest 79619, Romania
Manager: Mr Alexandru Florescu
Contact:
Mr Christian Tintareanu
Telephone: +401.322 0917
Facsimile: +401.322 2790
E-mail: crit@mail.gsci.vsat.ro
These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016
The overall objective of the European Unions energy policy is to help ensure a sustainable energy
system for Europes citizens and businesses, by supporting and promoting secure energy supplies of
high service quality at competitive prices and in an environmentally compatible way. The European
Commission Directorate-General Energy & Transport initiates, coordinates and manages energy
policy actions at transnational level in the fields of solid fuels, oil and gas, electricity, nuclear energy,
renewable energy sources and the efficient use of energy. The most important actions concern
maintaining and enhancing security of energy supply and international cooperation, strengthening the
integrity of energy markets and promoting sustainable development in the energy field.
A central policy instrument is support and promotion of energy research, technological development
and demonstration (RTD), principally through the ENERGIE sub-programme (jointly managed with the
Directorate-General Research) within the theme Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development
under the European Unions Fifth Framework Programme for RTD. This contributes to sustainable
development by focusing on key activities crucial for social well-being and economic competitiveness
in Europe.
Other programmes managed by Directorate-General Energy & Transport, such as SAVE, ALTENER
and SYNERGY, focus on accelerating the market uptake of cleaner and more efficient energy systems
through legal, administrative, promotional and structural change measures on a trans-regional basis.
As part of the wider Energy Framework Programme, they logically complement and reinforce the
impacts of ENERGIE.
The internet website address for the Fifth Framework Programme is
http://www.cordis.lu/fp5/home.html
Further information on Directorate-General Energy & Transport activities is available at the internet
website address
http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm
This maxibrochure is available for downloading as a pdf file at the internet website address
http://erg.ucd.ie/erg_downloads.html
The European Commission
Energy & Transport Directorate-General
200 Rue de la Loi
B-1049 Brussels
Belgium
Faxsimile: +32.2-295 0577
E-mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be