BIBLIOTHECA MATHEMATICA 1A Series of Monographs on Pure and Applied Mathematics Volume 1 ited withthe enoperation of HH oRNTROW He ,MATHEM ‘THE, WISKUNDIG GENOOTSCIEAP Pitre 8. 6, we Baers , vas Davee | INTRODUCTION TO METAMATHEMATICS COLE KLEENE SH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING CO. P, NOORDHO¥E NV. — GRONtatraduction to Metamathematies” by S, C, Kesens i aso ‘published by D. van Nostrand Company Ine. New York, as @ vlnme Ta the University Series in Higher Mathematics his boo any pts ret eb ep ay form ion rite, ‘Sci om eter a fe poser. PREFACE py soecenivo eras of investigations ofthe foundation of mathematics n'y hineteenthcentsy. culminating in the theory of sts and the inf Gato of analy Jed around 1500 to a new eis, and a new arated by the programs of Rasall and Whitehead of Fiber ad of Brauer. prenmrcarance in 1981 of Glel's to incompleteness theorems, in 1980 0 Tara's work onthe concapt of truth in formalized languages, ie ofthe Herbrand- Gide notion of ‘general recursive function ven 1086 of Church’ thes of eoneeming i, inaugurate a tll never ana hich mathematical tol are being apie both to evalating the ‘Sir proerans and in unforeseen directions, “The him af this book i to provide a connected introduction to the aes of mathematical loge and rcsesive functions in particular, and fb the newer foundational investigations in general, se sleton was necessary. The main eco hasbeen to concentrate atte Pre Ton the etamathematical investigation f elementary number fhooy with the requisite mathernatial lg, leaving aside the higher odieate exe, analysis, type theory and set theony. This ehoie was Jae besos in umber theory one ds theft and simplest exemple ration nf the newer methods and conecpt,altbough the extension to fother branches of nathematies ie well under way and promises to be Treseasingly important Sn he immediate future “The book is writen tobe usable ata textbook by fist year graduate stants in mathematics (and above) and others at tat level of mathe te cy, eet of th none of any athe ‘atl sbject matter. Tn wing the book a textbook, ii intended that Pst I (Chapters LIih, which provides the neee=wary background, should be eovered api (nto or three weeks by a elas meting the times a week. The fntesve stady should tgin with Pact TE (Chapter TV), where i «= ‘sential that the student conesteate upon acting « firm grasp of erathemieal snethod The stared sctions can be omitted ona fst reading o examined ia‘scutsry manner. Sometimes i wil then benscesary latrto go backand ‘ody an ear starred section (og. § 57 ell have to be sued fr §72, ‘Gus two famous incorpletenes theorems ae reached in Chapter ‘VI Teasing ana to be proved i Chapter The author has found It fests to complete these fen chapters (and sometimes ait more ; =~) q sec eh gt tthe | Bee Cre "The cemainin five chapters canbe asd to extend such a course toa year course, oras collateral reading to arcompaay a sina. eee cece or ouer ‘A semester court on cursive fanetions for students having some pion scsuaintance with mathematieal lg, or under an tstrcter wth Sch | Cyapren 1, THE THEORY OF SETS e Settnintanes, could start with Part IIL (Chapter IX). There are other)" ¢ |Enumerabe cts 5 eatin foracleting watral;eg. nacho Part IVcanaiow diely |} 3° Cantor's diagonal method 0 Part Il or even Chapter VII for students primary intersted io mathe: |S Coal number fe ‘mate lg |=} 4. The equivalence theorem, finite wa infinite sets i “The auth i indebted to Saunders MacLane for encouraging him to | 4 §) Higher taste cardinals H write this book and for valuable eri of an easly draft of several cece he don read the etre fest pre’ sproot with ereatcae, | Gu smrpy 1, SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS : Sndependantly of the author. Among many aters who have bees of 35 ary Beth, Robert Breach, Arend Herting, Nesey Klee. Ye ie min! amc : 4 Teonerd Lisa, David Nelson, James Renn and Geoe Rose. Scentiie 1 7, Mathematea! incon 2 indebtedness is uckaowledged by eferencesto the Bibliography especially fg2 Specs of she m ‘tensive sat as been mate of Hilbert and Berayy” Grundlagen det Nee hry win zB Sno in tw volumes 134s 2959 a 6.6 Kussse | CHMPrm II, ACRITIQUE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING 36 S11. The pardons 3% {12 Bis interes om ie pdeses ° } fio nmin “ [ie Tomton S ] He Formalin ora tery 5 Pagr Il. MATHEMATICAL LOGIC | Gianen IV. A FORMAL SYSTEM. ° Ef 16. Formal symbols 8 187 Ronnation rues 2 {18 Free and bound vides % $19. Transformation rales =fe = - = ‘ouarren V. FORSIAL DEDUCTION fe. Comectvai reson zi 420, Roma deduction ob, Usiterity 2 ERC The dataction theorem S ” Sie. Godel Punction be $2 The deduction theorem (conc) 7 Grmitive ene frctions ad the ber ewe 3% Traction ua elimination of ogi mols fea aa 932k Dependence and eration, cumvenX. THE ARITHMETIZATION OF METAMATHE- cuarren VI THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULCS Sas $25. Proposition Iter forms 0. Metamathematice ot genera arithmetic 26 $26. guialnc, replacement $80 Recursive metamathematieal defn 251 $22 Bguialenes, diy $3. Geoc munbering a $a. Vatoation, consistency A$ tpdactve and recursive deinitions 158 $2. Completeness, normal fons os eee nae yarns XI. GENERAL RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS 20 Ccuarven VIL. THE PREDICATE CALCULES — 6 — 1, Proicate letter formulas SSS SStmetuation ofthe onal of recursive finctons 276 $2, Derived rls, to wari $G+ he woperater, enumeration, dlagoral procedure . . 229 $28, Rephcenent : : 58, Normal form, Poss theorem 2 $04, Sabtation a $59. Genral eousve Sanctions and the nomber-theree SS ulate, diy, pre for Sonate : = $36. Vatution, cansseney 0, Church's theoreti geneaited Ge! theorem, | 298 ARF Scetneorti predate lpi, transis ee cs cot Caarex VIL, FORMAL NUMBER THOOEY © Gurnee IF, PARTIAL RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS on 198 Indoction, equality placement | eames a E33 Adlon, ltipeton, oer. = Ly Tag Cera hee a e253, The farther development of amber theory tap} $62 esta recat : lelaton 1 ek, The value lie ma $4 onal $68. Gavel numbers 30 $42. Gides theorem iA Steen, 0 at IL, RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS (upren XII, COMPUTABLE FUNCTIONS. 6 0 a : air | $6 Tong machines 6 Cuarreg 1X, PRIMITIVE RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS TEE cae tty a cane fons a {43 Pimitive recursive fontions 212 | 69, Recunivens of computable functions = $44 Eyl detiton 2 | $70. Torn’ thes : 6 FS. Predicates, prime factor representation i an i‘aur IV, MATHEMATICAL LOGIC (ADDITIONAL TOPICS) Caarnee XIV, THE PREDICATE CALCULUS AND AXIOM ‘SYSTEMS Gie’s completeness theorem “Te predate calls wth equality Eliminabilty of Gseiptive definitions Axiom systems, Skoln's parades, the natural number §75, The dec cuarree XV, CONSISTENCY, CLASSICAL AND INTUITION Istic SYSTEMS 77. Gentes formal system 78, Genteen's normal form theorem #379, Consistency pros {}40. Decision procaluse, intikonntie unprovabity $81, Reinctions of clea BIBLIOGRAPHY SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS INDEX > intuitions stems 28 65 2 a “ “0 rr sol so PARTI THE PROBLEM OF FOUNDATIONScurren T THE THEORY OF SETS 1, umorole st Ear ung to ut ain abject wil fue tees ae telated to eachother At of four sheep and a vin which neither related toa pile of three stones ora grove of It uces Althoogl the words fr number: have been wed to state this WSS the prntodpge, the selathonship to which we refer underies Ihecomeep of cordial number, Without counting the scp or the te, thes, for example by tethering the sheep each tes belongs to exactly one ofthe iections ots forthe ees 2 that cach sheep a Jules Sach a pairing between the menbars of ti rates i alll a emetone (Ll) coresondence. In 1638 Galle remarked thatthe squares ofthe posto integers can te placed in a I-l corespondence with the postive ingers them sts thas ie them with lite the ancient aadom thatthe whol is greater than any of ts parts, {tor etween 18° and 18°, fist undertone systematically to compare infin stain terms of the posblity of establishing [1 corespond- Th two set in Galileo's “paradox” andthe set of the natal numbers ue etamples of infinite sets which are “nnmerable’. Choosing the lst Tuned asthe standard, we define an ifiaite set to be emumeralie (or Mewamerale or counts) f can be pinot in a I-1 comespondence dh the natural numbers To show that an infinite set is enumerable, we ned merely indicate i ts meres canbe given (without repetitions) ina infinite stes ee v a _ then the fist ia the list correspon to 0, the soon fo 1, and Soon. | peeve of the matrix constitutes a general one for enumerating the tough the Hat Hell is nite each meaner occupies Gate poston | aye puis of amber of a enumerable set, the ordered pais of ers the ore pais of integers. Te rows of the matrix ths I | foot auto set, on Fl eomtespondenee tween the stand the marl nies! ed ples of membre of em ermal ef ca ten be nut {real an enmeration ofthe et; the abe coresponding owen | igh by anor application of the eat, taking ot the rows the somber i the ide ofthe meer he emer. ated son aay on of the Eres with the ft member of the The members ofa finite set ean also be given in 4 Est, Le finite, ie ized. Suoresively we can. win enuerations of the ordered Hence the term enimerable i sometimes applied to sets which ae either) gy of members of an enameraie st foreach fixed postive intgee fntnite and enamerile, i. enameraly ifete, orcs Site ett ese enetatons, ocaing Uhe enumeration ofthe orginal The et of the dntgee can be enumerated, by Usting them fn the) {ygqu be taken asthe rows of a new matrix to obtain an enum dred tuples for waiae , Le. che one coerce of felowing order, as sumbers ofan enumarbl ot ooh 2 | "fis real cam be aplied to obtain an enumeration of the alerae “st ofthe ratinat numbers also eer, 9 fst which ae mance aneevrywhere dense tet, militar cei, snce each onto ant Sexe by eng tet Aa tal Oy the sstvence bok eH Cr a6 sup tion OF S15 “The frat symbol in an equation & not 90. Reinterpret these abo | Teale [soa quatanrdecnal nner eptember em eee Se ame may thatthe decimal systems based on 19 Tee etl bese «mtu! aber (tinct equation cig ene Rumen). Enumerate te oqeatone nthe order of magaitde of thee nes {§2. Cantor's dlagonal method. That thre re infinite sets con sider Jn mathematics which canvot be enumerated was shown by Cantor's fanoas diagonal method” The sot of the real mums is sonrenumerable Tota ist consider the real numbers én the ineraat <2 ach real umber inthis interval fs represented uniquely Dy a prope fon-teninating decimal fraction decal fraction having its fist gnieant git tothe right ofthe decal point, and having infinitely ‘te agts that are not 0A number may have a terminating dcinal Tati, ie. one with sepeting Os, bat Lat faction is replacable by a rn-terninating Traction wih cepeting 9s For example 4€9 ot "23000. ean be replaced by 482999... Conversely every proper note ‘Gominating decal fraction wepasente & unique real number in the ‘Now suppose that ean infinite lst or ennmesation of some but not necsarity all ofthe ‘Rat mumbers belonging to the interval. Write down one below anothe thee repeetive nonctermiaating decimal tacton, Se a a Bm Select the diagonal fraction shown by the arrows. Tn this change Sith of the auucesive digits yc to a diferent digit %q, Dat avid ‘racing «terminating faction, Say, let =, 5 I yy #5, a ren 6 hy 5. hile, eh, seh, Wet the sequences of the vals of the acsesve fonctions une blow soother, 28 the rows ofan infitte mats,Ha) 0) A) 49) 2) 1 10) AiO) 168) 12) 0), rake the sequence of vals given by the dol. Change erry ono Tees Bisco ttecnt so, say by adding I. The fant ) wi Resin sequence of va, whieh we may wrt iio) Han + cannot bong to the emmeation, since i ifs fro the st of he sar Ecsite vl taken ft 0 rm he ssond i te Salve taken for 1 and on ee the argent ilfeenty, suppose that the fnsion «eo BRE cmomeration Les suppose that or some sara be fie) = hie) for cvery natal number 4 Setting the umber ¢ forthe vari tin Gis a he preceding equation, 1) = 1s0)= 140) + This isp, soe the natural momber canst eal al i rece Oy Sat older example of nomensmerbl set isthe set of the ot oS sa nous (Bt the st of th Ste sts of mated numbers coring) We can vepeset a set of natural number Ba caarnag toe, which takes the alse for a natal numb fe est and the vale | for 2 nator number ot belong a tne sequoncs of te vtec ofthe representing fenton oft {0 wt a oumbers oan nate equrce of and Ts Fo xan petite fr a et emtiing , 2 snd 3 but not 1 and 4 tar oa De SST oe He quences ae alone heros ofthe nite mati The ateaon pros o te cago the interchange of sand See erent noreemeabie sts be paced in Il come poche wth ome nut an ae tare stil eter types offi ance ar may prof by atempting to answer te apetns Heelattansmers ve een in) We shall now lok at Cantor theory {genta orm 2 4 Cardia mumber Cantor ry of are et? dea with een eet aca ss they of pat et) Carder Jet cal thc of osc (gp 1) Se ee ciate armen fhe) Saab lel anagpge ost o ao omen wb Tal san ent of ay sabe exposes sing that# i ee Arba oro abl w8 as nent of Mego i ied tose ahd tobe these (a pmb = ¥) og ltvetie ame caentarteiltevey objet 4 and eek ete AF and N are sid to be aia fi spo, M ~ 8), 0 She comtpondnce Aine to rer to 8 paar TSFooenc teveen sn wtih mot est WAN) Tae cia 3 vey pve the sexe ayn sed sve popeing te fay ete, Nand AM WU Moen ke ec rant Phen AP Sita eqen By ta etn: f= 8a ty pec conc ch wl he afore nteligees ols {Sr ihe ander the being ve all the power orn thar M0 Tioge thy and Rell gs ely the cata we ith he se of te sete eqn fo lwo Neuen tn ches om asso ts (ovens Cnc) = a The nn of aro eal toed hy te fling dein ha ye af tM Gasp M2 ch Shot of sa eanent0 ‘ror mtrony oF 8115 on. ours 1. ‘Theset (a, of tre elements a eas ight (~ 2) | nln, fa} Bl eh 8B ne, sd 020.6 Note tha the subsets of set AF incudo the vacuous so O, and the set ull The later i the infer subst, a the other subsets are proper Evidently, CM, © Mand M, © M (abbreviated M, CM, ©} then af, The anion or sum AF N of cwo ste AF and Nis the set ofthe jets ‘belonging to atleast one of and (ie. belonging to Mf orto) and ‘heir tation pret M+ is tho set of the objets belonging both of A and 1 (le belonging to AY and to). Stila for moe this tio sts The diffeence MN of Mand (when NGM, also cll the complement of 2 with respect tof) i the seta Che objects blangg to but not to. Exawons 2.68.4 0d) = 0,568), (429° BD =O, bo —tha = ie be) = fae Bvidenly MA, €M; and if AFCA, then (and only then M, + (M —36) ~ 3, Two sets A and are dij, if they have op fommon elements, ie, MN ~ For example, My and Mf A, are fisjoint sets, If M and N are dlsjolat, ether A '2 N or M —N = 0, We tara to the important question of comparing cardinal number Given two sts A and Nit may er may dt be possible to pat M itp TH cormepondence with sme subset, of W. Vice vers, there may oc may not exit a sabert My of M which is equvalnt to. Combining theve two pis of altematives ives four case, exactly one of which mus. apply to any given pir of sts M and (a) For simeN, MA N,EN; bat form My Nw My Ch (10) For m0 Ny -M~ NEN; at for some Ay, NV ~ Mc @) For some Ny, M~ALCWN; and for some Ah, NV ~3E CM, () Form My M~ACN; and for no My, NWO EM In Case (La, the carnal of M sat be fs than the erin linymbsls, Mf < Np To justly considering < as elation betwen the farditals and R, and aot merely one between the sete MF and Ne ost cbserve that iM’ ~ BF and 8” ~ , then Case (ta) applies to the fl ol sete M1" i and only ¢ apple to the pale A, The order elation for earinals ie transitive, ifr any tice cardinals HN, Pst M = Nand N WN AE. Than Sf > W exactly in Cas (1) D rm ngowaurscs TOR h Te eationship 57 — Le. AT -~N, evidently fats under Case (2) by Peet, an Mth impeop sabes ents for any evo anal te he hee eelationshie NN. Jd — Nand M> N are Seip excluce, Le. nt tore than one of them can hol 2 cx appeal an advanced stage othe theory eras fa Af fener Oy are exhaustive ia. whether a least eof the thee $97 The stuaton i paral cafod by the next theorem, int Jit che queton remains only whether Case (9) can ari. tg.4. The equivalence theorem, finite and infinite sets. Tueo woth J[M 8, € 8 and N mM, ©, then M ~N, In other words Ta ee (2) of §3, 3 —N. (P, ernstein 2858 Poor. By the hypotheses, we may suppose given a partcaar 11 ormapolence MN between Mf and hesaset 2 of Nand sinaly Ft hr, Out problem isto finda third I-1corespondence MN [et dy = M~ Myla the given coespondence MN, the cements atthe atbnct Ay of A wil correspond to ements orming robe! By of, fea ence of), orn symbols Dy. Then a the other given corres: Fondence N-©Afy the elements ofthe subset By of wil correspond to ‘ithcats forming’ sabe ty of M, fad Bence of M), or In symbols By2 Aysand soon, Thos Ay 8 dy By 2 Ay By Ay The situation may be grasped by picturing M and N as miro by which the port Ay of M outside I, i eletod ack and forth to prodoce an Infinite succession of ages dy, dy dy «=. in A and Bi, By By in Iya shown inthe figure (le sets AE, Mf, and ae vepresented by the prt ofthe horizontal ines to the right of the labels“, "ay and'N', the sets dy By, Ay. by the intercepted segments} Mat A= Ay + Ay ly fly pot fe is the subset of M com tuning the elements which fallin dy oF Ia any of is images dy, dy Agree in ME, Also let B— By By’ Bb v3 he. B i the subset‘of N containing the elements which fll in any of the fmages By, By Baa of yin To obtain the we state a rule hie etcnines to each clement of Hf corresponding element» of N, dea peove that the resulting coeespondence fs -1 between AY and 1-1 comrespondence AF 2. "Rous, Consider aay elmnent m of M. Ether m belongs t the subset Avon mdoes not belong tod, Lembo to M— A. Im belongs to ‘Be tomesponding lament of bal be that which comesponds to mn the cemsponveace Af-L Ny, Im belongs to Af —A (in which ce m Tongs to 3) the enresponding element » of 9 shal be that to which a omespondsin the corespondence Ny The resulting cormspondence is 1-1 between Mand N, fr (a) To diferent ements m of Mf, sy my and My tte correspond Aiforens elements my asd ny of 1 This clear when mad bth felony tond or both to Af-A. But it also so when m € 4 and SM =A. since then my € Band my @ N-— Bh ib) Each cement of correspond to some clement m of Af, Naty hemes of al conespond to clemants in and the elements of NB all corespond to elements in Mf — A Te method of bringing A and N seto Io] correspondence may be visualised asa sifting in the above picture ofeach of the parts dy Tals dy. + of Af one potion to the ight, 2 that A, takes the plat Say of dy dy of dy, Tht ehanges 2, into N AF Comorian A IF MEN, thn 32 = B. (ii 2 moeane: SF =F of MY = Ny) Forf ME, then eter Cove (0a) or Cave (2) applies with AF a5 the 2 Tha candost nub ofthe emply et O we ell 0, (Nove: M' ~O cnly 0) The cardinal number of any st N (a) whore af N we GIN 1, (Nore: A0°-~ No} where a #N ifand only M'= Nha} shure a BN" and N'~2,) "Regering the natal numbers, 1,2, <0. m+ cof abject avealy knows to a, the tv defintons jst stated coteate fo cach natura nur » respective cardinal number which we ale ‘ten, Weal these cardinal ft cardinals, and ets whi have thee arvinas finite ee, The following two propositions will be proved i= Example 147 TI) For eat maura under, te init cardinal » the codinal of seo he nator mers which recede the natural wmber nthe wal itr of the natural manbere orn sya, = 0,1, Bow 9TH ssa suenee ce ga a (a) 1) ~ mora naeral mumbo 9) and M~ My ©, then My risk fn et mt eietent any proper sie of tsa. Mya tese two popeition itis mot hard to show thatthe quality ‘ttn wand order ration § ae exhaustive (nd $9), appears asa co Say ol che "welherering theo” of Zermeo 904 (el eg, Hause oop or mgey p61 or Feuele x92 p. 208). Fora bref account of the {Sbeted “continua poem”, whi deals wit the question whet fy cardinal es Beton Ry and 2%, see Gide 1947 "We have begun wth Cantor's theory for two gute opposte reasons wt some ofthe ens an sets which wil prove bask ter appei Inti thi orginal and simplest fan, Sevand, the theory, purse (4 far reveals Iga dificult, which are a point of deporte for ot fui investigation. This wil sppeae in Chapter IL | xaniurs, Sets oF cARDISAL 2% This is the cardinal assigned to tht cot of te bert of the set of the natal numbers, which we dseribel apd aeheset ofthe ste of tara names, There we epcesentd th Uilncats af the act by the ite eoquncrof's and U's, The Os and Yr can be interpreta the digit im dual or dyad) umber sytem ja munber stm ase on 2 the decimal system i aed on 10,50 {Gece have the set of the proper al Jeans. Using Theos) B {batary D to withdraw the terminating actions, which are ensmerabe, ive obtain the proper ran-erminating dual fractions, ‘These represent Wi che rot womans fn the toad <3 1 Prom tha oper (Geteraating dol fractions. we alo obtain I the infinite se Wace of natal munbers or funcins of natal number taking {twe! number sla, by eoorinting Yo faction that fine fan fe) fo wtih (0) ~ the somber oO doe the Ht 1 in fhe {fon ft) the numberof O's Betoun the fist | and the send Siocon (or ample, the fonction at corespnd fo Ue tcton oleo001000000001 ow eit rom the frre << 1 the numbers = I eaving the nat ramters inthe intra © << 1A ansiony = fe) el Geof the rat urns, eg. the function y ~ cot Removing the Selonl mumber, the (ea retinal numbers ate left or remov fhe albaic tambers, the trmsendoda “nami Ta. Cartan caudate geometry, the real mbes recordist t0 the pine (Gite roel Botan ine, Tals st athe “aca contin’ a0 80° Erdal th cardia 3% th power ofthe continua Newt we can proced a follows to. oan the set of the ordwed agin ral umber cuing 4 pa (9) Se Ca" ‘ates in the plane, the points ofthe rea! Euclidean plane, Under the tei yi! be hm te ie Suenes of O's and 1's, any to real mombers,ycorespond respective ioseuences of sand = , a Jem wich can be combine into a sage sequence carsspring toa sngle real number. Convery, ay sale equnce Breaks up into determinate pl of squenes ade this thd of ‘oobinton Sina roedar ivsthe wap of el ambrs othe sit of et Bataan m dimes poe a el Post mo a cave eget Tce eit auf mar oh pi a han Rmeatnl space, Ts st exam eet y anche netodel Yiocmiine mcequnce of vant Pekinto single sequence in which each member of each of the given sequenecs has 2 determin T fer any one of the rel dna fanon of rat cial 1 Ge fenton ve deters bythe conta Pop a te cs are ven for he rational Yes of be indepen 2 hae ase gen as ann eqns ofa ns Fae eth andr ofthe aioe aumbers sone eel ener by fen fos by Tare A Cry A, tt of Ces fs aoa a et foe eral Batson mut ave at Lt Gor te a hone exactly thi aia, sine the content font ‘Srna este th the cardia ‘Gers or canDoxal 29%, This is the cardinal of the sts of og ‘Nom the equivalence between the se of nati frome pnts in eimessional oi Toners and the real numbers oc the sree space, i fllons thatthe ets of ral number nd she pe dist Pactdean dimensional or timansonal space have i ie represented by hi efainl The real factions of rat variabl can be rep 7 cae ch ae polnt sets inthe Plane, and hence the st of them rays he cndial 29, It has exactly ths cardinal, since those of Ae ick take only O and as Valles are the cepreseting Temata ate of wel murbers, and so constitute a subset with resi Tf we extend geometric terminology #0 tht example, we See tke pute af rot Eustdean Dedimensional space. J eatyts explain 0,1, 2,3, caxoren 1 SONE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 56 ‘The natural numbers. The purpose ofthis chapter to bring subaher, ply for efrence apart for elon Inspection some ofthe HEcrand methods of mathematic. Ayn we write the natura number sequence Gua ee we aly onthe dots..." to suggest the continuation of the sequence Tryon he several members shown, rnecker remarked (184), "God made dhelntagers, al the resis the york of man.” We cannot expect thatthe cognivance of the natural Tmber sequence can be reduced to that of anyehing ental more rine than all ut by elaborating wpon what onr conception of comprises, we may secs In making clearer the bass of our reasoning with the natural sates We begin by describing the natural numbers asthe objects which cam egenerted by staring with an initial object O (zee) and successively sing roman object n alieady generated to another object mf leew” Tike srcssor of) Mlte we conceive of tas posible, no matter how far we have already uetnreachy, tog theone step further o reach Thus of the accent felon” ited of the more tlie n+ 1” emphasnes Gat" “yinitive unary operation or funtion tse in generating the tara Iu, wile can be defined ts ater stage st. inary operation oe funtion of two natura numbers, > To atin the satura mombers with the anual notation, it remains ‘as otanding for epoctively. This f 9 matter of detail concerning decimal notation. Tn the foregoing descptan, we have evoked the coaception of aocosion of iserte steps. These consist in stad ee repetolly frm a number w to the nex # ree into several clases, lows : oka ie al namber. 2,14 nina natal mabe, then» tata ee ene only naira names are those given by 1 and 2 i dean, the saceasion of drt steps becomes an appa of Cana | ana succession of applications of Cl Seopa a what we cal a inductive deinition tet cecal number) whichis being defined iain. The ‘he term (ort lat which provide instances of he term beng defi, together consis an sre called di eB The eee clause "ees int clause, whch says thatthe only in ae ree povided bythe peeding ns the ral lw “Mot tate in this ndutve definition fs the on only tht numbers generated by applications Tock ways should be dintinct objects. This ean farther propositions oor any natural mu unbere mand 8 natural number 90 isha it understood that ° isa unvalent ope faction, 0 that con wow itm rsly to Az For any matt Tore that Propositions 4 and $ do rogue th two dilereatly genera that ata given stage i Orca far generatd ae distinct Shust be distinct from ea vin for distinct ‘ot cluses and 2 i tye eprint two only ifm =m S-Forany crator of sngle-value fat sumbers m abd 1 distinctness of eve er, me ean eae. as follows. SUPPOR dye geneavon of the nabs ll the numbers "Then the next one generated the sacecnry Ly 8 senong tose previo ‘ated (by and rm O (by) So cach ses Son produces 1 new nomber. sive step inthe Bene i ee v0" ag may ako be soem thus. By 4appied wil vr as them and asthe m0" ov =o only to “These five peoprsions IF ‘Peano (i885 1894) as aos ch Peano stated. Propost Snduction (67), and placed fied and four, espectvey @” only if 0 Bat by 5 with 0" ashe Gon 3 instead ae the pin lore ween consiering what th oO” = 0 By 4 sen no" 40. 3 vith one diference, were taken eater he natural monber seen niple of mathematic Ff on bs nt, and 5 being moved up ff ne natural uber re intial nas they frm he ontra ber sequence, A rrr a tra number isto be place i the sequence eognied as th object Tnother words parte ‘ccnpying partcll umber given whe ng with, and proceed: | The description ean be its generation under the inductive definition ia given, For example, the ie Gel mute 4 given av that object which obtained by starting Af the inital object O and applying the succesor apeation "once, els again and again or bly 4s gven as 0”. A number such as ‘Haein decimal notation coli principe be exhibited by appiatons Af 100, thngh in practice we donot dos [Ofcourse when we deal with propositions such as that a certain equation acto rots, we farther employ the assignment of Ue natural numbers Pe andinal tbr of finite sets (4). Cxoen, Under the inductive definition ofthe aatrl mune, he sc gunated fa cetain ere (the falar one. Ths we define SE Ton itm i genratd lore nn the cure of genesting Die ‘Rohe we ave the allowing lndetive definition of the lation ES fetes mange ovr the natal nome). Ol mem OF Mime 0) contains ay] enc! pair rapa whic nudes no lier ofthe parnbees beg} ‘ow Proveby «couseof-vals induction ann. One may choos consi vals 2 positive atoger ora mural noraber. 1 the later, he basi etuouy tru, Le. true because ts hypothe i not sated, (iva rater the faction step, the lelaost parenthesis wil bea eft paren thee and ths wit Hsmate), either themselves constitute an imermo fais of che ince st of pareaieses ying between them t0 whi The ipothesk of the faduetion can be apie) | TLxnta 2. A sel of 2a arenes adie af mst ome proper aig Prove bya (simple induction on, (Hast: Under the induction sey by Loma 1 the given poreatheee contain an innermost pair. With ‘Seng thi he hypothe ofthe indetin applies to the set of he pe rentheses maining) Testa 3.1/2 parentheses and conscctie subset of 2 o the a adm proper brings thn the oper ain 1 the subset forms a art ‘he paper porn the shes. each parents ofthe subse has Saone mae in Blk airings. Prove by induction on For iastrtio, consider the 22 parentheses @ GEG EGE GU EE GEG GF Ge Ie |A proper psn, incatea by the subsets discovered by the fe ining 'aigorthn’ (suggested by the proof of Lem 2): at each tag ‘rooting from the let, search ut the fst innermost pir among thor Tov aktealy sed, and let this pair belong to the pring, By Lemma 2, ‘foul be fe to seatch for any other proper pairing than tis, Tho ei othe twelth parenthess are 9 consteative subset, in which w propa ‘aiting as already been estabsed in the process of iting the whee ray Lemma 3, would be ft to serch for any canseeatve sabe nnitngs poner pring other than one of dhose already propery aie in paring the whole {$4 Systems of objets. ya system 5 of abjats we mean a(n eos) set or clas or domain D (or posbly several such sts) of obec fon whieh are established certain relationships | Torani, he natural number sequence (6) constitutes a system — — "When the objects of the system are known only through the relation- matt% by 2 (ies alae mo 2), is, | ok a4 (ystems of residues wire fit considered by Gans, 1015) Rea example, let conse of to sequences Bead OEE OF OS on each by tel of the same structure as the natural nmbers, ad wi etnedier of either sequescs in the ration of soccesor toa meme) othe other We can ody each ofthese three examples obviosly to conser save gotem of the type (Dy 2) i the third example, we then take thy mehes in the order chow and we call them the ontinal < 2a (um Cantor's theory of ordinal number) “The eden mod 2 (or «representation of them) are not Somorpbi svth the nateral numbers (or representation of them), since i sm Fsiie to establish I-) correspondence. The oninals << 20 ace nl Emory with Che natural momber, farts aot posable in establishing wey damtapendence to preserve the succesor operation” fr the ode relation =) this setion, we ate writing" for a system and "D" for its st object, the con of systems having one se, The notation can often seed without confusion fo use one letter for both. Tt can pelking of the naturel numbers as above, Te cannot ein speaking d Beka ve =) consisting of the natural mumbers, with the eve Mnber omer) ended among themselves es wut, and all te {hun numbers preceding all the odd nombers. (Ths system is a req Sntatioa ofthe ordinals = 2a.) Mitame of objects are introduced fo mathematics ander £0 cr) teasing metods or points of wow (ct. Hilbert 1920) “Ths anc or comuractve method is strated by the inductive de tino of the natural mers (§ 6). "There we eonorived ofthe natu umbers a beng generated or constructed ins certain orderly manos {this aid not prevent ont treating ther abstrsetly.) Ta the ext or fstulatione cto, on the other ands st propostions called wsioms or potas, are pot down atthe outset 3 remapHony or conditions on a systema Sof objets. The consequenceed fhe anloms are then developed sea theory aboot any exiting stem tt objcts whlch satisfies the axioms | ‘Gelinosate, we can take as the axioms Peano’ five axioms TH i spake the point cst, et us rewrite the Peano axioms sbettting oi er of” for “natural uber 7 POED. P2ICWED, then WED. only if me — PO, If meD and ED, then PATE WED, then w 20. PS as WP ED and poe? and @) whenever "6 P then we P, then P~ D. Me aeady know that exactly one abstract system satsies these onus nay theater nosbos wih we prevonaly intro Herth geste standin icone aka ean, we an oly wel one other se fr example Pha Then scam be the aor mbes ‘tof ni cdr any ove of many oe abet itera, Sones. tems Tifa the some are P1—T9, PS, hen th den aback pos which ety ae pecely the nar mers and he sates Sac ed freak postive integer st spp remot ery semove Poot subsite fr petueD. ten ebut =n Now sgn erally one abit ye sais, the reds mod 2 Si stn PY" together ar ail by mast al invent torte sty PI=PS and only he ees mat Soy ris P,P nto dfn of teste ft objets ot they at ‘thon mean hatin aio dtm wich em tod fen hairy te thry apples Then the cea The ame Sty te std y to spt of objess (og PI=PO): or hy exely ee shel syste any two syste whch sty eng Bomerphic eg PDS os FIFO, 15, 0, by mere than one aerate, {Sen isomorphic stems txt wiih sly (og PI—P4, or PIMPS 15) Tein fin cee my eal he sof ove scan the othe {rosm-rcwens and farthest second eter (Veblen 0 dh ie tiger nent on eer, he flarston proce eranaly tend to determine the aba tcc of te sytem complete, tacos aegr intone scm) Temay be by no means eident fora given axiomatic theory which ‘lth thre polities i the care, This ustatodhistoialyby the ‘ranple of Eucidean geometry widhout Busi's parallel postlate, on lh depends he theorem that through a given pot not ona give ine there pases exactly one Tine paral tthe given ine. From Endli’s‘Ehments(¢,290—2208) nfl thedlscovery ofanon-Euelean gecrg ‘ny by Labatchevsy (1629) and Roly (1833), was generally soppong {hat the anoms ae categoria ota est the question had been Sse, inthe ters, it would probably Have been so answered The Gres ballet that they were dealing with «nique stracture sqace was not formulated inthe present terminalogy, Evcld thooght fis axioms as expressing certain fundamental properties of real space ‘Theaxiomatiomethodinthisolder seme, whezcn the objects ofthe syste S are supposed tobe known peor to the axioms, may be distinguish normal op atrial axiomatic. In hs, he aon saerely express thug [properties ofthe cbjecte which are being ten inital a5 evident frog Ute constrictina, or inthe cae of thers applying to the empiia ‘world a abstracted diectly um experience or ae postulated abo tat word Te axiomatic method as decribed above, wherein the axioms a orto any specification of the system S of ebjets which the exo fe about fand serve to dutwaduce or “define implicitly” the S), wa fist developed. systematically in Hier "Grondlagen der Geom {foundations of Gonetey)” (x), ad nay be distinguished a forma rexel asiomatcs, We note that i sony from outsdo afore niomatic theory (he. fn some ether theory) that one ea Saves whether one, of more than one, of no abetract system S saisics th tnioms. Within the formal adomatic theory, the domain D for Slay {he role ofa fixed and completed set of objects, astumed as existing a ft once apart fom any ender of generation, to which the operation, Felaions, ee. ofS app. For a ajetein Sof the type (D,0,"), 0 a’, of D, © and’, ae then called the primtve or tehvial ce undefined notions, i. thay are Wk ‘lfined porto the ftenduction of the anos, The ether terms it uo ae ondary olga ordained, i, te meanings mast be pre iusly understood. About D, 0 and’ thas only to be understood i duvance that D isa set, an object belonging to D, ad "an operation {member of D; Se. ony the grammatical eateries to which "D”, “0 fn" belong are defined in advance. Sina fora system of the or {, <), the undefined notions ate =, or D and =. i; Tnmathematical practice thre often an interplay between the genet and axdomatie methods of introdicing systems of objects, a8 when af trarple of sytem of objects stialing the axioms ie provided gene telly At other times an example may be drawa fom another forma Ariomatic theory. (ln either case, as soon asthe S fora given formal rimatc theory Mentied witha system of objects provided from axle the theory, we have an pplication othe formal axiomatic theory, sich application bosoms material axiomatic theory) ‘Te formal axiomatic method is offen seed to advantage with am Fk saiom afters, 29 as to devlop simoltancously common ine of theory for may diferent systems. The example of ‘groups Eiger i celebrated ie coother example, consider the following axioms for Bivear ont, ich apy t ystems of the type (D,<) Me hm =o sal wp, then m bods Flee © wimeans w- 2 (among which there ls no las) s0 9/2 i ivational ‘The ender relation for rele i defined thus: x x for every seal number belonging to (A) Tf mom-sacnot sel of rel unre has an upper ound, i has ent apr bond w (= Lb. Mh Roo. We mst construct u asst of rationals having Properties (6)—(9, We are given Mas ast of suc sets of rationals. The dliition fl tbe set wis this rational rou when and only when, for some real | number x which € 4, rx. In the symbolism of 85, u— GM. Tes elt {othe reader to show now that w= lub, M. (Prove that w is a real ‘umber, wan upper bound of M, and M has no upper bound v <1) “lower boonds are defined simisly. If the ral x is rational, lt St Gr otherwise, et Fx Let =x be the set ofthe rationals=r for rER—%, (If x is rational, then —x corresponds to — x) Tetatt be thect of the tele x for x6. If ea lower bond ot Me tien —w ie an upper bound of =M, so. —M basa Luby ang = qub. = = hb. ‘Given sels x and y, It 4+ be the set of the rationals r+ § for rox and sty, lt X-y x4 (9); and let fx] = XH DO ang [nim x il <0, (Do not confuse -} and — with addition and Subtraction of sets, which aze writen -} and — ‘Given a finite sequence yyy sy ty «-+ of teas and areal > fa, we say that lim a, — ay i for evesy tal © > 0, there & a natal umber my such that, for every n> my, bya} w —1)25 | (Prove that My act pey,) Let ay be any real chown from My [Prove that na, =u) | Notwithstanding that fn his theory analysis is “aithmetized”, the itncton between arithmetic and. analysis remains sharp, in a | Sagas finds it necesary to employ inne sets of the object of rithm | tie aes objects § 10, Functions, Inthe most general sens, a (single-walued) function | os fs) ory fs) of one evil la eorespontence by which o each Ament x of at there correspond a singe lemeat y ofa st Y. The act X is the range ofthe indebendent sri or the domain of th > Junction, The aneton ay bead a function from X to ¥ (ra function ta member of X faking & member of Yas sue oF an eration oF tember of X producing a member of ¥, et} The range of the dependent variable or f(s) the subset Y, of Y comprising the ements of ¥ wu nthe carsepondene, i. thove which forrespod by the fanction to some element of X- Then 2 and ¥ ite In many-one correspondence, since to each clement of X there co | Fesponds just one element of Y, but an element of Y wil in general frtespond to many elements of X. An element + of Xs an egument the function on a tae ofthe independent swviable, The corresponding ‘kstent of Y the corresponding vale o the Junction oto the dependent vial, or the wale of the function for thet argument. (Sometinses "a | {guent” encountered meaning “independent vavible™) excrtons _ 3 EE paeperalod) fenton fF lyn) = Hy 2) of seelite sp cree bu conepeance Wy which, to cad cred Bre oe eins ob objece rege hy 8 pn He ky tee aia is dle objec y vere y8¥-& fenton ow salsean GqeSRilred av funtion we vv with a he dae of al he Mogador). Siar trminogy spin, Thaw Xf oe a Kec iy csy yok Here hea may a be te a tbr ay be sven fp to fecal rnge pe te mance ny ror deme n Nynn e epctily, seein o engines TAGs pete of termimlogy, ons may rcgnee mint teimiogs base on to Mas the ae’ Toncton 4 many on6 tarps and tcc ofa funciona + wera wich rage $fSRin to toe are wate vale lye fed by tet ie fist Hea isthe more compshesve one, which the student ais hep apjermos nhs mind The sco a omeve ie se nature way to the flotation convention, whey a tne stands fra etn fants ofthe niente wae ent ab teae ves ofthe inpenen var angen), on") sands for ie vate ofthe neon for the argument HO) the sate when see ‘Omesialbeaare that hen)" may have eer of tr mening: 1 fantion il the anyone crespondecce between Xd 1. 2 When stan fora bet rom the msn the commending ‘rhe tthe fenton ea ener of) When speci, he tec the omen sue the tin Euan L_Whenwe say “e+ isymmetic” we sna by “xb tte tein. Wh we sy" ns) Oe any two ater nabs Sayin +, woman byt” nova faction it «mame (he tons val of he fant Tis vation can be aed by wing “f 1) he fenton so long st wea talking onl aos foneton for cick of ‘hic symbol sch a 7", 9 as Ben sce, Hat ttn wtch sw thd aie are ery omni fr ring other fanetons compost out of hse neon fd cont) cei se 30 oat noe 2. To consider ti in more dtl sy tat jan ge ren nambrdhrti tion o oe wae each, b,c om4 foxe rowpawewran concerts cu p10 number, Then gl) sa natural amber, ie thevalve of gor sasargumene | a a eet Gara eee ae oon arom is determined. Thus “f(g(x}}” stands for the ambiguous value of @ nem soft + ofofo) the new fetion self (Meaning 0), 1-0=04nd 1-1 us by the second table, 0-0 ‘There is another notation (fue to Church 932) in which the inde) ™ encent variables appear, bt whi eprint the Sanction fs stn fronts mbiguonsvale manely"h/()orforafunctionof waa, "hayes fle yl" 0 "Baflge)”, "nae + 3x", De2, 3)" We stall ace this enotation for emphass in stuatons whete especial eae i require, Exauren 2. Let g bea funtion of mo numbers. Using the?-notation consistently, whenever we ian the function instead ofthe anon ‘al, weet distinguish} the muaser g(x, (the function a9 ‘of ono variables, wih yas parsmetr, che function hy) of ta variable, with a8 fist and y as second vacable, (@) the function dooryng) withyastistand rassnond variable) thefanctiondaby 4s ‘tone viable, whose values ae fonctions of another variable, (Sshinfinkel 924 and Church entity) ade, bt that snot necessary for os) For any ntuple ote of arguments fr f, tae alte Sait) = Meth or example, fur 3x} = 10, Ble 910) ~ 10.9, bys se, 90,3) = 28.0), Bay gs 9 We have descibeda function ab a many-one corespondence. One say go ferther in saying what a many-ene corespondence i tobe ‘ecoring tothe kindof theory one fs working in. In tt theoretc tems, the corespndence ean be Weniled with the set ofall the ordered pit (a9) of eomespontngelentents of and Y;. One may speak instead of the law or rule eablsing the correspondence, atleast in dealing with Such functions tha ala or rule in sme understood sense ean be ives foreach function, Ia the ese that X ea finite ea faction ea be gives soa tale. 2) = He) Exams 4 Let X and ¥ both be the sede modulo 2, te! X= Y= (0, {}Thefanctons and.x-y ean be defined by the follow:cnarren It A CRITIQUE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING §§11, The paradoxes. This chaptris intended to present the problem? situation out of which the investgition to be reported in the ret of the | Tok tose te. the stuaton preceding thoee Investigations (but ant | how it has sinc changed Th the arithmetization f analyse (§ 9), am infinite election (of ra tionas forming the lower haf of « Dedekind eat r of digits i sequence» forming a ponetrminating decimal, ete) is onstitted object a he fet ofall such objet sconsderod asa new allactin. From this it i= Datarl step to Cantor's general at theory | ‘Hardly had thse theories been conslidated, when the validity of the whole constuction was est nto doubt by the discovery of paradoxes fr entinomiy in the tings of the theory of se (A) The Bural-Fert paradox 1897, also known to Cantor i 1855 arises in Cantor's theory of transite ontnas. (@) Somewhat sinilse antiomies occur in the theory of trata | cardinals, particusly Cantos parador (oun by bia in 1895) Consider the set of allseej calli M.By Cantor's cheorem (Pheorem €§5), Ao since Mls the st of al ets, and UM ea sto sts (namely, the set of th subssts of M, IMCM. Hence by Corollary A Theorem WH = Mand 0 by $3, not HH > H. Thus we have proved both tha {iH Mand that aot TH > ‘Staring withthe same M we can ako reach paradox thus. To each member A of Mie. toany at M, by Theorem C ere is another member Wei M, nama UAE such hat 7 pine of lassie! log, vali in reasoning about finite sets, which noawer does not accept fornfate sey, thelaw of theenchued mide hla, ls general form, says for eery proportion deter A or wat cA owrot be the propoition there exis a member ofthe se (or domi) D Melati property Pe Then mat Ais equivalent to every member of D dees fatto the property , or inter words vary member of D has the ropety cP. The law, applied to this, hence gives either tho eit @ member 1D having the fropety B, or very wee of D has the property noe, Por deliitenes, It us spaly P to ben property auch tht, fr say geet member of D, we can determine whether tht membee has the fropety P ot does not Now suppose Disa finite set, Then we could examine every member of ‘in tora, ad thus eter find a member having the property Po ely Pat all member have the property mat-P. Theve might be practical dif felts, eg. when D ba very largest having say a mlon members fr evn for «small D when the determination whether or nota give tnenber has the property P may be tedious But the posal econ Sing the seareh exes plate Tei this peasy which for rou {rks the lw of the exe middle «vl principle for reasoning bith ite sets D and properties P of the Kind spied Foran infinite set D, the ituaton is fundamentally diferent. I sno Inger posable in principle to search through the entire st. oreaver in this sation the law isnot saved for Brouwer y sub- setting, for the impossible search through all the members of the inf set D, a mathematical slation ofthe problem pos. We may in tame cases, Le for some sets D and properties P,sucoed in fading foember of D having the property Pad in other eases succed in show ‘ng by mathematical reasoning that every member of D has the property ImiP, ea. by devucing a conteadition from the assomption tat an tubtrary (Le. unspectos) member of Das the property P. (Am example fete second kind of solution is when Ds the set fal the cndeed airs ln) of positive integers, and Pie the property ofa pat (m ) that 18) 2nt The rests then Pythagorae’dacovery tht (2 istration) ut we have no ground for aiming the possbilty of nbtining either ter the other of those Kinds of soins in every eas. An example om mavernmathemalieal history isafforded by Fermat's Tt theorem”, which aiserts thatthe equation} y* ~ =" has no ‘ton in positive integers, s,m with m > 2. (For m~ 2, thee are ites of postive integers, called Pythagorean numbers, which at, (129, yo 4 2 Sor r= 5, ym 12,2 19) Hoe Dis he set oftil ordered quadruples (5,9. of postive integers with # > 2, aa ‘isthe property ofa quadeuple 9,2) that s+» yr = =. About ley Feemat wrote onthe margin of his py of Bachet's "Diophantes” tha the had discovered a truly marvellous demonstration of this “theoregt ‘which the margin wat tov marrow fo cootan, Desplte af intietee ey Denditure of effort no one since then has suceeded in proving or diy roving the alleged "theorem"; and moreover we ck the knowledge Say systematic method, the puro of which mast in penepl ultimate Tea to a determination a to its rath or fality. (Cl. Vander 1946 fp detais) Brouwer nomaceeptaace of the In of the excluded mide for iy) site sts D dows not rest on the ae of mathematicians thos fa have solve this particular problem, or anyother partcalar rable, Typ rect his objection, one wall have to provide & method adequate ‘sncple for solving not only all the oustanding unsaved mathemati) Problems, bat any’ others that might ever be proposed in Ue ature. Ho ely is that sch a method wal be found, we env forthe tne bei to the readee to speculate. Later im the book we shall return to th ‘uesion (60) The familie mathematic, with its methods and logic, as developed, roe to Brouwer’ eritigue or disegudng it, we call asia; tel ‘athematcs, methods o lg which Bronwer and his school allo, wa fal nations. The asia) inelades parts which ae intitionisti aa parts eich are non nto | “The now-intultionstic mathernates which ealminated in the then of Weierstrass, Dedekind and Canter, and the ntitionitic mathematic? ff Brouwer, lifer essentially in hae ve of the infinite, Inthe frm, the itt stented ns asta o compl or eatended ox existential. Infinite sot is ead as exstng sem connote totality, pir to orf Akpentetly of any hima proces of generation or constestin, and ‘hough could be spread out completly for our rspetion. Inthe ate, the infinite fs tested only a8 oft of Becoming or comer, Th recognition of ths distinction, in the cave of infinite magnitudes, goo} ‘back to Gates, who in 1691 wrote, "I protest... agains the use of infinite mageiiade as something completes, which i never permis fn mathematics” (Werke VII p. 218) | According to Weyl 2046, “Brower made it clear asT tink beyes any doubt, that thare sno evidence supporting the bel n the existential character ofthe totality ofall natural numbers... The sequenced numbers which yows beyond any stage aleady ached by posing tot ° 3 sremonion ext number, i a manifold of posits open towards iniaty: i Sonim forever in the states of eeaton, buts nl 2 deal als of {Eines exsting in thomsen, Tat we bind converted one ito the Si the tre sure of on dificult inning the tioning a Stove of more fndamentl matte than Reels views ce rai ste. Brower opened aur eyes and made ts ee tow fr Casal feathers, nourish hy belt in the ‘absolute Hat waned nan posites of relation, goes beyond such ttcments area Ek cl eaalg a rth founda on iene imeem othe de a pid nite et ay Wiest fe natral amb) slr fom this stand eet Iaiy. We se tis early y considering the mening which the fe {a attaches to vais fre of sate ‘A ene statement al natal nombre w hve he prop) P, or ity forall , Pn) is uertod by the intuition aan pots Seerin tothe eflr that, any prt natal unter ere gen tbus we cold beste that that umber mas the popety P. The st Dhsiag whieh dos not require ut take into view the casa come Fl infinity ofthe maul ber. Mathematical indetion fan exsnpie ofan intuitontc metho for Efsvoe revsnlty propastons chou the natural mactens A atetty Indoton ofthe proposition for ll, Pa) sows that any enw wuld dave to have the property P, by resoning which wes only the numbers frm O upto» (97) Of ers for pci pol by iadcton to Bo into ao the reaming aed wits ess nd dation ep thst be intone An eisence statement tarot natral mune hain te roy ‘ye ily hr ent am such tht Ps es nant eng ‘88 paral comenuncaton (or abstad) of statement ging» as Sar example of natural smber'n which has the poprty , eat eens tho hy ihn once oe coud find sacha “hecore an ineitonits poof of the proposition te esse an ‘uch ta! Pa) mst be cosa tn the follwing) sense, The Yo actual extbits an example of a n sch hat Po a Tent Gites a method by which one could pice find sch an example Te css mathonaties thee otc ncn lite ssc proof, which the ints do tet serps For eral, fo Howe re exists ann sich hat Df) he casa mathematica ay edoe a contradiction frm the asus fr al el Pn). Unebth the casa and the intuitionistic lle, by eeductio ad absardum | this gives nt forall n, aot Pn), The casscal loge allows this rev be transformed lato Hee ete ww m such hat Pi), bat ot Gin gene the Intitionsti. Such a clasral existence prof leaves us no nee ‘hun before the proof was evento having an example ofa amber that Pl) (thoagh sometimes we may afterwards be able to discover tag by another method). The ntaltont tfrains from accepting sch gp ‘existence pron, Deause its cancasion thre exists an w such Sat Pa an have no sang for him ober than a reference to an example gf} ‘number w such that Pla), and this example bax at been produce. The ‘ascal meaning, tat sonewhere in the completed ifinite totality | the natural numbers there occurs an m sich that Pte), not avalabe | him, since be does not consive the natural numbers as a complet totality. As air ena nom comtuctve execs po, se dus boun shen fora certain P, by intultonstic methods, that Fermaty ‘ast tore” teue, then the rember 5013 has he property Pa als that if Fermat's last theorem” is flo, then 10 has the property Clascaly this sults to demonstrate the existence of a number n sad that Pin ut withthe problem ofthe "last theorem” unsolved, Browne ‘wold isllow such an exicence proof, heeaawe no example has bee | fiven, We do not know that SOI3 faa example, nor do we kaow tha TO san extmpe, aor do we know any proce which Would in psn) (Ge apart from practical Limitation on the length of procedures wo ary oa) lend oe toa paticnlar mimber stich we could be sare ap trample. Beowwer Would mezly aceapt what has been given as provig the implication forconitionn statement if orm! F, he here existe ae sr awch thet Pa), where Fe the statement for al 9,2 > O and n> {eof ys a 3% The casscal mathematician, by his lw of the exch rile, asthe premise F or ol F ofthis implication, and oe cam inf) its cnchnson tere evista sch tat Pn). But inthe present state oy owe, Broswer does uot accept the premise F or nat as own As appears in this example, intuitionistic methods are to be ds? tinguished frm nom intitionitic ones in the eve of dlaitions as wel as in the case of proof. Inthe present state of our Knowedge, Brow, cs nat scnpt the mabe msohich soa! t 5013 fF, ad ua 1h ‘Ynot Fas valid desiition of «natural number } A isjuneion or Beaneitutes forthe intitionist an incomplete communication ofa statement telig ws that 4 holds or that hold forat least giving a method by which we can chooee frm and a i hie ols A conjunction and B meats Gat both A and B ol, An oiling orf ten expres thai lows on GG sakiotcie renin, oc more explly thal cae poaenes Mod which rom any poo of A, woul provare a post of Band oton wt A (ord is ard hat a cotraton Bud a follows Jeon by sottonstcrensoning, or more expt thst one posses Shed ich, rom any roto A, woul procre pol of sont in 1 tnd nD oof statement ard known to be abs, och Gino, Additonal comments on thee lato meanings wil be ein ‘ehh with the exact prt of om thinking... no scene in pe {ese ot lesen or lng canbe a prenmppetion for mathemati Te would be cealr to apply any pthsophial olga! prin sa fen of pool, since mathe! conepion re aed presopposed pte lation of such prinapen” These rnin fr mallets tho other source than an intuten, which place concepts and in fGeomesbelore ur eerily ear" Ts nto“ tio tier tan the acy of comeing eprately para concept a fMtecoce which ect reguay in tedary lang.” The We ofthe fat romer sores canbe aalaed a eng onthe pity, et St coniring an objeto experince a given oe sepuately ron the feof the worl, sewed of ingusting on sch om ater, ad Third of imagining an id repetition ofthe second proces, "nthe intukie mathemati, oe Uae nt dam inferences acodig to Sod ns, which canbe cleed in alge, ut each Soe ners Inetately tied on ts codene” Bat tho "There are geal ful ly wih from gven mathemati feorems new fhcorens an be fied nan iiialy ear ay the tno of thas conection cn te rated In aeratica li, which then a branch of mathe Its and is not seubly app tide of mathematic We wrn aw to the quest: How hnge «part do the noth ‘inte melted playin the chase! ater? The fact that nonionic methods ova ncaa elementary mtr teary i signet, sae it enables comentary mane ery Ipsrrve sr the fis ant sinplet texting grand tn restr on fou tees groving out ofthe intuitionistic and formalist thinking. We All be sect woly concerned with cementary nunbee they i sok Actual, in the existing bly of elementary umber theory, thenor-intitonstic methods do nt play age part, Most nom-constructig | ‘existence proofs can be replace by constructive ones. ‘the other hand, in analysis (and still more transcendent anche cof mathematic) the non-initiontic methods of definition and pin permeate the whole methodology. The real numbers in the Dedekind ext epeseatation ae infinite sete of rationals (9). Thus to creat they thjcts in the usual way, we ae already using the completed infinite | In particular, we do apply the li ofthe excied middle to these et In connection with the splat definitions ofthe subject. For example | to show that for any two real numbers x andy, either x Gimli), (and), ¥ fon) > (ot), W (oe al, ©0 3 (lie exis). Prolene: — (ow), Fastin gm is dine, (tne). be). Varia Fee pti ‘ Fhcwoxachown yeti oy ote esol a anecdotes te interrettns na relay Ma. ayecatonseielopel eye ogal cota Theva inrfetetasrnsngoes tients. Anite or na Meera ti var o reppnd fo boo and seta crete thatthe tres ae evant the eg of We ral pte a uc Hat be pone to peed reer oie ne an andr ym ae ee ‘Sabu frumethng which they sb eit Te spo Cath at eeurenen, anda Sie om the other formal sym {In the case of the variables this must incude our being able to recogni 1 iymbal wich varable oe sch i “he fal symbols cote tn fit caegy of formal objet wets tnt sd xtegey by canting fe eqs Ur ccc) of foal ri Wh ell oma enpreing $e ord “ocr ac hr ore fo he mobs tne Gf th ir Satas ao memes to empasoe tat diet ‘Mints may be te se sol hick gr th ot evo we term sequent 1,2. She ral erst ioe th rade gle occ’ tla Expt when ta, SSeempy seventeen wil ot bend Fr ean Sayed, wet and ((OD™ ve formal exresons. The en f seen fcc syne hos seen nb {he eed eh and nth (ccc) symbols Ini we exh (ecamets af 0: and te (tn) smb nh ear ae Wetec ae angst f he we hanguage: bur unr the intron sme of thom cre fete sans, eg: (0, a her are nit sane, Geto ai ou fermnchogy es te fot at, forthe fr Gre chy te expen exes oihing Dalat only er gqiabl nd dings objet i "Re sal ln yma thd cgay of oma bjs, the it suet of caren formal expen dering the feral sje we al fen stead of exhibit them ese (ent) hon by eters ned fer he pure ry cen ny eters heady nos. er ea omar senor n getter °3 might be sed to repreceat the formal expression (a)+(), eA” to represent (a0. Further ilstations wil apear presently i eran expresionsco used ate not formal saab end expressions, ut informal or metamathematial symbols and expressions, which stand seers for formal objects. In th as compared with ordinary ira ef eymbolism, there is the new featze atthe ebjects named are Tpunselves symbole ce objects consteacted fom symbols. We have hs iction to preerve betwoen two Kinds of symbolism, the formal ‘golian about which we are speaking, an the intive of metamath- ‘Beal symbolism in which wear speaking about the othe. Diflerences Wine kinds of type which wl be wae forthe two porpons (2, b,x men ab, tx, A.B) wil uti keeping the matter straight Tih we of symbols ad expressions to name the objects meat talking yet should not be considered ar novel our everyday method for Aeeriting @ ventence about an object sequies this. What i novel, (iter is the other procure, which we nse fomewhat in ou meta ‘Giese, of Sncorprating the object Stell, Le @ specimen of the Tojo. crety into the sentence. Although this wolates the sual eons GTetsmatial popes, His unambiguows sehen we are engaged in (Getumathematics For in mctamathematics wo most teat the formal ‘labels a meanings, and therefore the formal objects eannot serve as ‘ites for other objets, and a sentence containing a specimen ofa format {bjt can only be about the formal object tri. ‘Those remarks apply to our metamatbematis. In an occasional pas sage, concerned with the interpretation and so Labeled fr the reader, we ‘aby give the formal symbols an informal sats, tating them then as sagt Tour metamathematica study ofthe formal expressions, we shal ime use of the upertion of justaposition (or concntenatin), in which fo ot more sequences of formal sjmbols are combined consecutively to reduce a new sequence, For example, the juxtaposition of the two fara expeessions (0¥O0= and ()-+() in that order produces the new ermal expression (O¥CD (a+ (6); and the juxtapastion of the seven Formal expressions (, ()+(8, se) in the ven ender prodeces the new formal expression (a)(4)-(e} ‘When some of the formal expressions to be fustaposd are being rp sented by matamathematical eters or expressions, these liter may pear in plac of the frtal expressions which they represent in writing ‘Gere ofthe juxtaposition, For example, ifthe leer “8 rpmsents {Em oral expression, th sult ofthe joxtapostion ofthe seve formalexpressions (5) (0) is writen “ah (EV. Here “MUO” ag ‘etamatematicl expression representing formal expression, the forma fxpresion represent depending on what formal expression the lei represents. In particular, if = (a)-+(8, then @M(6)) (Bre ( §17, Formation rules, We stall now define certain sabcategoig of the formal expressions, by definitions unalog he ules a yay | First we define ‘term’, whichis analogous to noun in grammar. The terms of this system all epresent natural numbers, fixsl oF Yara “The definition ie formated with the dof metamathematcal Varn “e" and "tan the operation of jextapostion, as explained above ‘ss the form of an inductive definition, which enables ws to proceed fog | noi examples of terms to further ones 1 Olea rm. 2A variable ia erm, 98, fs and ate toms, tha (0-44), @)4) and (6) are terms, 6 The only tons are those gle bys Exaupis 1. By 1 and 2,0, a, band care terms. Then by 5, (0) au | (0 ate ers, Aplyng Sagi, (0) ater; adap We now give a delttion of “ormla’, analogs to (decartin) sentence in gram. Th If and tate terms, then ()—() fe formula. 2-8. 16 and are formula, then (A) > (B), (4) &(B), (A) VB) and (A) are fe tnudar, 6-7. Ixia variable and A ie formals, thea Ys(A) and 344) te frmudae. 8. The only formulas sre those given by |—7, Exaotnr 2, Using | and the examples of terms already obtain (#18) and ((e)¥ (2) =() ase formulas, Then sing 5 and 7 A G=() a8. {fo} H(a)—()) ave formalas. Final by at | pplication of 2 the following i a frmel « or ‘Th inductive definitions of trm and formula have the consequene that cach term formula ean be Bult up fem Oa arable by a seria of step, each of which steps corresponds toa direct clase of one of hase ‘Sefntions (6), and may be eal an pcan of that cause Each stp, except an aplistion of | or 2 the definition of term, | ‘-b(a—(8)) > (la)=(6). fie lowing kid, At tho start we have gven ab expeson or pir a Mjresions previously obtained. We enelowe the given expesion a the elven expreson i parentns, and intouce an x spn neo the ten fos 5 38, Wenn there xis variable. Let us alan expendon of one ofthese en frm repent In parila, >, &, Ve ae fropeionl conan, and emer of the forms We atl 3 are quanti, Ws being 2 wna ese an enna quanti hss ae ial pears. sn sven cxpresion oral of expres we ell he spe ofthe tor inthe rig expen. fy aliowng through the enite Searocton of «term or formu, establishing im the obviows way 2 Gropondence between the pars of th given expression or prof (Gjecios and pars ofthe euting expression at each step, we ae lod Gin soagnnet ols wpe rot merely to he operate st needed ia fhe completed term or frau, but fo every operator in that term cr foes ene 9, In tho formu (A) the soope ofthe ft cccurence of sani ofthe part (6) +4) and te fs osrence of fy an the ape thee the past (le) a) =). We now state the follwing fact, the rigorous proof of whlch we shall, consider in moment. In «given term or formula, the scopes of the ators can be recgaized without nmbigity froma the ssangement of fe parentheses, Tn other words, the parentheses make it posible, given i term or formula asa finite sequence of formal symbls 4 reaver lesen deta ofits construction under ee inductive definitions of “The gorous proof ofthis acti afin by Lemons 2of§7 Example 2, ‘agther with the following lena which can be proved by induction fe the lnductive deficits of tern and fre Linova 4 I gion term o formu, there exists « proper pring of i prentheses ahi are 2n inborn bing et arethees and w ng it poet) such thatthe scope of each operator occurs wt follows Wah Fer oferalor having on expression essa, the scopes immedily shod within paired paventhesss, end the operator sands immatay aide hie fai of arenthees, a immediacy tthe lof th ll are lesen the case of >, We, 3x) or imately he vght of fhe righ esther inthe ease of(©) For operators having to expressions as sop (namaly 2, &, y, 1}, each o he to express is imma enclosed within pg) arenes, ad the perio stands mimosa between erg paretheg | Of he fair enclsing the Lt expression and the lt arenheis ofthe pag cls the right expression, Exenue 8 (oneludd}, ‘The daplayed example (A) of fom contains 2 patenthesen, By Letina 4 the 22 pacetheas admit oper paring, whichis dsovered in the prot of cnsreting tg formula under the definitions of tr sl forme, and whith nde | the sops ofthe operat. Knowing tat there exit «Prope png ty Lemna 2 hat ping unique, an can therfore be doxovere tho algorithm af $7 withos por knoe ofthe constrain of Oy forma under the dinner ao ermula We acta i Aa thecnd of §7, where we examinnd the sue 22 parentheses with | Ieoking atthe intervening syns Using te resting lig hy 22 prea as tiny oct within the complete form, we cana | thatthe scope ofthe fst ncrmrence of — ont athe expres cuclosed by te parentheses (J andthe expesion enced Uy fe orenthees (Thi gees without previous identifi of tha ‘ope, Silay, the sep of Se ences! by he pares) Lemma 3 of $7 wile nt necessary tothe poof tat the seopes ean he dissverel fom the serngement of the parentheses, is toca reasoning abut the spe in parts and the whe of fem forma For example, M,N and A at rms aad Avot abo (onset part nt the whol, of (> (N}, we can Ife hat this pt (or eh Sch prt) iether & par f Mors par of "Choosing our definitions of tenn at forma, we of care provi the parentheses for he above deserved payee of ndesting espe wunbil, Now evn mie uth wl el be {roca under the dents tansy ecesay fr the par | Leaving the dinons a they stand, we ean are to omit sujet arenes asanareviaton nthe writing dows tems and formu {of metathesis express representing them. ‘The posites in this detonate exes by einpoyng conve: sions of srt faa from agers, where a+" nese! fo rncan (28)te: We say hee tht “+ vonks ahead of = andra oa ‘eros the orden we we ave eed tet) above Tore | ny poentheses which are let eut in abbevintng term or rma ne may proceed step by step, each tne sting an operator which ae: peeunt comes caries in the st, Le. an operator of highest rank, AMF ping it the gcaeat scope compatible withthe roqulrement that i whole bea term or frm. ve sall ot lays ort the maximum asmber of parentheses whieh ar convention would allow, bat at xt setting maxim reality iit this, we abo soneines ater parentheses to square brackets [resry brackets) xyrte 4. Restoring parenthess to "A DBC SD" gives su watly "ADBVERD)", "AD(BVE KDI", “AIZ((C) VC) ‘Wealbrevate the dplayed example (A) ofa formula as follows: 7 Sele-}a=b) 0b Another ind of abbreviation fatforded by introducing a new symbol, sits iethot for trnslating an expression containing the ew symbol Baek into one without i, For example, we abbreviate the terms (0) OT. (OYY Ys vos a0"17s 727, "9" wp rexpectively and we abbreviate fe formu a6 as ass6", and’ the formula 3cle-pam8) as rb". The dgplayed formula (A) can then be writen 8 “The general rule for the abbreviation “A” allows us to write "st" ss abiveviaton or-s-t whenever sand tare terms, The general role fe the abbreviation "allows us to write “+t” as abbreviation for ix’ ts=!) whenever x sa vaslble and's and t are terms not om fing x In unubbrevatng, when the intodvction ofthe abbreviation fie sappresed variable, an the case of "2", there isan ambiguity ‘veting the varableto be supplid. Thos in inabbeewating "st ‘remay choose a the x any variable which sand t donot contin. This nbigity fof minor consequence, since the statements we sll wih to ‘ake sbout the formla abbrevnted wil hod segadles of what ad- fstle variable is oven ‘esha gard ll his abbreviation as merely ithe exposition ofthe ‘etamathematis, This is adequate for ur proses, and therdy We Heep the fundamental definitions, whch establish the formal system, Theoretically simpler, Metamathematial statements about terms and fms of the system are hence to be understood to refer to the ute SBorovated expressions in the iteral sense of De dalinitions, whatever Shorthand we may explay in writing the statements acboavhovo vananes n 4 roma sysrew xs —— —— ‘ables, An oman eae Example 4 with Example 2. exe 5, Compare Bsa 18. Freo and bound variables. An occurrence of a vaviahy | 6 aaa a wi ta Be Sound (or aca bound arab) the occtrad Joe peiminary remarks ace offered now on the interpretation of opr le tena pc lanl We eg Suma a pr le those x: thew fe a er fect of oot ut te tata Bt al fn ts pat ct «en i eat hat, ECSU EH patch acer a ey ese coman n ine oo » lye dete ew get steno ab tod cand the enlybound tric A Bound acura fa virile x na fomls A Bod by tat FOU oe, of the quntics Ye Bethe sone ae : , spect whch is, wich has he lt cope fl by te in Sa timiteon [Aone Ate Wor 35, hy that quate lr te ter Bon ie fate, se (ety mean te tne a the rape xen) oes of mc geet B) > eb) the fst and fur ve (Bat 9 3) oot (sal) th same ws eearences of ¢ are bound by the fet quanilier and the seat rssion "we substitute fora free variable an expression representing fand third orcurences of e bythe seond quantifier 3 » ‘Saw wate te an fete, ne nays Fenn tt he tn of em dea nt tan wn ea to {item cme. rhein teresting orm oan | a en ne eee hat one ofthe quater wee netacon ae | tet haa cere ces une Se Seu amit.a, [fi de anti ia wich ts nce Ete oyns arora sven gf gg nan aan nso vanessa are (ordinarily sgt expresions, bat not SEN wich we bane sbove cory by substituting for ain A), 5 | forthe original x in the orginal A(x). (The same diflesty can oeur © See finan. [0.9 Be een us nouns bv s acini Stomal mebiomsiey We have not requized that the variable x actly occur a8 a fee ‘When the same variable ocurs both fee and bound in an expres, preci? Mable in A(x). When x isnot fice variable of A), the reall AQ) the quantity represented by the expression depends only en the val | pamber of dint variables; and we hal employ like notations such as ‘ f f Mscish we tal etten ose tae Sop slr, ac Sonsttrorios. In stating the metamatheratical definitions of the, ye"A(e" Ot "AG,-. 2)" stead of "A" when we are interest inthe next section, we shal se an operation of substitution, which we defng|gyendence of Aon a variable x or varias %,...%, whether or not tatu, The ntttion ofa term fora vavnblexin for synonymouy | yeate about to make a substation. For example, we tsaly designate rough tem oF formal A shall cons in ceplacing simllaneeay| yea by A(R)" ipsead of "A, when we ant to use im WeA(s) ean fre sonst of in A by an occurtence of To desribe hig. endfor all, A of "er briefly “all x, A of x") of AG) (read "here jastapeaion tation, et w be the numberof fre oscrrences of xin) gts an x such that of x of brielly “exists x, A of x"), We repeat Re oye and waite Aas "AyAye-ssAythe” showing these ee it By using “AVS” (or “Alsou. x)") we do not imply that x (oe uerenees (An Aus soos AeA being parts possibly empty contains ph of... %) cesaily gecurs free in the formula designated GBoceanret offre relative to A sea whole, and all the w occuten)The preliminary remarks onthe interpretation shut It on why we Ors shown ing fre). Then the ret ofthe substation of € for xin} hare elected to define our metamathematcalsbattution operation te AB ARM. de athe | ping ony to the te ocarsence ofthe vase. ‘A compact melamatiematical notation will be useful in representing We ow sty that aterm tis fe tthe free ocirencs ofa vatiable tnd oul of eubutituton. If aubstittin to be perforned for x, e| fea formala A(x) (ort rea th ubettaton postions for xin NG), oF fist introduce «composite notation such a4 "Af" forthe subsite “ely € fre for xi AC) ino free occurence of x in A(x) ia the ‘Sowing dependence on wafer te manner of notation for fanctions| ope ofa quanti Wy or3y where y isa variable oft (ota inthenatin 10) The oak of minting € for = AN) NG] pene Th ene d 10 and of ro tice fora in he ten veiten “ALG ato in the second ofthe flowing formulas Exons 6 Let x be ¢, and N) Bele-pand) edt “ Aa} oe Ale) be 3(e"F4=8) Dna=b-e ee aie Then Al) & Be{e-ta=8} 34am b ho, and” Ala) Bele-han8) > samba Exawons 7. Lat x be g, and A(s) be a and A) i Penk The subatitution which gives A()) mast always be perfonned fr th? PHOTLE 8 (concluded), Subatitating d+-0" for in () gives rigial variable x in the erga Tormula AG), ke. for the varalt| 0) 3XC+(140)—0)&—d=0, Adds (d+0)—4) &d-0, Shin the fanaa for which the notation "AG" fist introduce. | pgectively. In the fst ofthese, dhe dof the occrence of 4.0” TExanros 7 (conched), For the above x and A(a),A(d ise-Fe=Iend by the substitution remains free inthe whole formu, but aot ye subtitute Bor ein A(e, we obtain B-bo=F. This i mt the sane, the secon Under this definition, when fee for x in Afs) and only then, the labsttution oft fr in A(x) will not introduce € into A(s) at ay place | rea hee) variable y oft Becomes a Bound occurrence of the rot A(t Then A804‘Wesay that the ubmition of fon A) sree is x in A(x), With only the smattering of interpretation indicated oa it shoud be es that a subst inappropriate when ie nat The two formulas io (1) mess the same; bat het in (1) doa Foran informal example consis the send expression of (A) ‘This stands for & function of y, call it a o 16) — im ts.) in 9. The vale of ly) for y— 2 i then given propely by a 18) = im fs. 9), aot bye) =m fl. i Exwurus 9, To illustrate the handling of the terminclgy a) notations expe inthis section, sy that © (ese deol ‘arial, As) “As”, and is. de ‘varia ach that bs fre orn Af) a) b dosnt oe in. AG) (ote © 3). Caer oor ssn notation, ace" a ‘A ae ioe fst. (8) AG) (by dition) the ro stating re fe ne i A) ye a tenes of in A) wich are ntodend thi satiation a ee (i there are no ater fe erences of bit AD), Tne the feo tatenes eb in AB) ae esely the octet Substation. Hence verso) — il) fs) & er in AB) (x) x dosnt err eA) aes xs), end (4) AC) a a thereto ndttng forte fee sceurencer af bla (Toma Or example parte », Ae) Ato, may be repectively, ) Drab 6 eet $19. Transformation cul. In tis sctio we sal itt futher etenthcmta Stns (lel dcr ese formation rata) which ive he fal pte test as dace {iy Tse aay ea nora Sete ty ‘hart wil at tlt honever forthe metanathesag| Shae st ptr sn fein inde hye ‘ven ey thy hve meaning aol lous sd al (Chat) to ih we dl eter ese tetas } 1103 forte "eral theoren a ®, ‘hei a schema containing three metamathematca expresions “A, ANDI" and "B", which represent formplas whenever formals are gee 4s represent by the metanattiematicl letters "A" and "B! {he sree of the rae is thatthe forma represented by the expression ten below the line may be fered fom the pair of Tormtlas ee Jretnted by the two expressions writen above the line, For example, by taking 39 A the formula sa’ Osnd a B the formula a'=0¥6'™O, fie role allows the ference from —4'=0 and 3 ¥=0V-4'=0 ate axioms (as we just aw), =D V4 = (Our terminology wil acade the axioms lace “e'=0 and theorems) ‘We shall ow display the fall postulate list, lndons stabishing the deductive structure ofthe formal system by Irn to the ist The render may verity thatthe camlative fot ‘the sts of definitions wl be to define a aucass of the ase of for ‘ls called “provable frm” o ‘ormal theorems Dnasvis vexsowse, For Postultes 18, A, B and € are formulas or Postulates 913, x sa varible, A(p) i formula, Cl formal ‘ich doesnot contain x fc, a ts frm whic sfc for xin A.7 ULES 3 — a Te earsrommATON nous _Geove A. Postltes forthe prdizte cae. jd atenton tothe eco of ppying be ditn. Portales our At Poste fr he popsnal eles | RAY? wl the rer ferences For ny (ed) eo he A 1h (ADB)D(AD BOC) 2/30), Fee or oases 3. ADBDASB), 4a ARBDA, ee rppication of the tule (or the (forma) inference by the rule). The Bit maltese of he emit) (by he rh Sa, ADAVR, & (ADO> (Raq “tara sos brings the two kinds of postulates wader the common Se BoavD Sav bse ektlaonmaton ral by conideag the axons a he rot 2 (ADB)>(A3 9/954, @, ADA. | fumoenation fom 2 premises GnovP A2. (Additional) Postlites forthe predicate calcu, 2A) | ee 1. ea 2409, Aw oe aagac | (Additional) Postlates for number bso. 13. A(0)& ¥a(A(s) DA(e7) 20). 1, Ag) D3xAtq) Grove 8, ab >e6, 1 namo, | 16 anb>laneDbn<) abo. 1 a40=0 19. a48lathy wD. 20-0, 21 ab aobta {The reson for writing" on Postate 8 wl be given in $23) ‘ne may very that 1420 fomats aint 10 or a case 0 an 1, he expres) sora he expo Do A lin) array toca hea te A’ Br oes Nh ae {othe sito gc tthe aad ofthe pose j The dis af sei tnd ta oma aha, 1B an ofthe forms Ta Ib, 9810, Wy 18 or Hit ne ofthe fr M21. ‘1 “The atin of meine cnsonens is dfn thas. A fem smite aun oo tr nt ae am ‘the line, in 2, 9 or 12. : S “his isthe bide metamsthematicl definition coneponding ta [ stats 2,9 un 12, bute sal tte th adh eg i dln of 2a provable fossa or orma) Seren dann be given incvety allows sD wan arom then Dione, 2 105i froval and D isan svdiateconngnnt of, ten D's roa. 3.1 and Fare fra, inst ian tmmesineconsequane of an chen Dis pmlc K nl spot nly seed by 13. fe etn cans be vache by wing the itemnedite concept of Neral pros’ hu. A oral roofline soqunce of on or more Iectrenss of formas such tat cach forma of the Sequence i Geran axiom or rn meite consequence of preceding fons of {Eevequence, A pron salto bea pol oft a orm, an 1s Bain si ube rma) provable oro 2 Joma) ren xutrun 1, The following saquence of 17 formulas i a poo! of the lula aa. Formula | is Aviom 16, Formula 2 is an axiom, by an Application of Axiom Schema Lain which the A and the B ofthe scena Me both 00; and Formula 3 by am application in which the A is fob (one Dbed) aad the B i 0-05 (000-0), Formula 4 is In immediate consaquence of Formulas | and 3, as fst and second Iauise respectively, by am applieation of Rule 2 in which the A ihe rle a= P> (2=63 be) and the Bis [00> (0-00=0)) > Sieneab—c)), Formula Sian immetinte comequence of Formula 4, by a apieation of Rae 9 in whic the x ise, the AG) is e-b>leredb=0}, and the C is 0=05(0=020—0) fwhich, note, hos not contain the x fet). Formula 9 ie an axiom by an application ‘of Asiom Seem 10, in which the = # , the A(d) is Vi¥ea=b > (e-eD bey}, and the tb a0 (which, ote fre forthe x in the As) The At), by our substitution notion (18), isthe result of sab Sifting thet Jor (the fee ocarrenceh of the x ia the As), Le. ere the AQ) is WB¥e[a+0=FD (at 0c > bon)o 1, eb > (ae >b=0) — Axiom 16 2, 0-03 (0=050=0)— Axiom Schema ta. (4=b3 (anc >$=0) 3{[0=030=030=0)) > [o=b> (a~e3b-e)))— Axiom Schema ta, 4, [0-0(0=030=0)) 3 [24D la=e 26d] — Rule 2, , 9, 5. [0=0(0=030=0)) 3Vefanb 3 (ose Db=e)] —Rule 9, « 6 [9-0(0-00=0)] >¥é¥ela=b> [ae >bc}] — Rae 9,g 2, [003 |0-00-0)] 3Va¥bve(a—b3 (ae 3 b=] —Raleayg ME 8. Yavb¥elo=b > (ame b=)] — Rule? 2,7. 9. Wa¥iNela—b> (amc b—c)) DVBWeLa+0=b3 a} O=e D bag Aan Seem 10 10, VE¥e{a40~63 [a}}0-¢3$5-c)] — Rule 2, 8 9. 1, Vivela+0=B3(a+0=03b<)]3Vela40~a>(2hO—c3 en} — Aiom Schema 10 12 Yelat0—e3(a+0=e4=c)] — Role 2,10, 11 18 YelebOne>(a}0neDa—0)) la} 0=d>(+0—a9. Asm Schema 10 14 ah0ne3 (a FO—a Da=a) —Rale?, 12,13, 18. 40-0 — Axiom 18 16 4h0—g Dama — Rule 2, 15,14 17, aa — Rie 2,15, 16 Exaur 2, Let A be any formals, The the following sequence five formulas isa proot of the formula A A. (Es other words, what ‘anbE belo is pool seem’ hich becomes parila pote Subrfitating any particular fons, such as 00, for the metamatie Imatc leter "A"; and its Ist expression “A 3 A" is aceordinaly hoor schema) Form 1 i a axio, by am application of Asan Scheina ta in which the A and the Bt ofthe schema are the A ofthis trample. Forms 2s an aaion, by an application of Axor Seems th in which the A and the Cof the schema ae dhe A ofthis example, an the Bo the schema isthe A > A ofthis example, Formila 3 i a sme tite consnquence of Formals | and 2, as fist and second premis respectively, by an application of ale 2 in which the A of the mt Bethe AD(ADA) of thi example, and the B of the ule b the [A DYADA)DA)] 3A DAY of this example, Fils a mansroRNATION muues aS | AD(ADA) — Axiom Seema ta 2. (&D(ADA}D([ADUADA)DAIDIA DAI) — Axiom Sche- AD((ADA)DA)) D(A DA] — Roe 2,1, 2. 1 A3(A54)24) — Axio Schema 1 5 ADA— Rue 2.4.3 ‘he terms proof, thooem, ete, as defined forthe formal sytem (Le a pool, formal theorem, ete) mst be sharply distinguished from thes terms in the ordinary informal senses, which oe expoy in pe= Umtng the metamathenaties. feral theorem is @ formule (8 cer fi kind of nite sequence of me), and its formal prool is a cetai ini of finite sequence of formulas, A melamatiematin there fs fasinsal statement about the formal ebjects an its pool Ban iiive demonstration ofthe truth of that statement We meatoned three catgoresoffermal objects 1), but we shall tele to introduce others inthe study of them, so lng athe treatment Sintary. Besides this, « somewhat diferent extendon of oor subject fteroccors when we discuss the form of our metamathemtial del | Tinos and theorems in tun. If we chose to be meticulous in out ay ang th, it would constitute a metanetarnatesatics Howere, the ‘Soe practice fs common in other branches of) formal mathematics {adve hal rgurd ch sessions a incidental explanation, intended ‘metines to make it easier to grasp quickly what is being done in the fiamathematis, nd sometines ta enue us Yo condense the statement Mnetarathematial theorems which could be stated without themrarer ¥ FORMAL, DEDUCTION $20. Format deduction, Formal proofs of even quite eementan theorems tend to be long. As a pce for having analyzed logieal de Guetion into simple steps, mone of thowe steps have to be use The purse of formalin a theory i to gee an explicit definition ‘what constitates poo! in the theory, Having achieved tis hee) Teed always to appeal directly to the definition. The labor requ | tablish the formal provalty of formolne can be greatly lessened (cing metamathematiel theorems coaceraing the existence of for Drools It the demonstrations of those theorens do have the fn Character which netamathematiesissappsed to have, the demonstration, (ei indicate atleast imply, methods fr obtang the formal pro The use of the metamathematica theorems ten amounts to abbreve tion often of very great extent inthe presentatin of the formal prod "The simpler of such metamatheratea theres we shall call ei rules since they expres principles which an be sai tobe derived fa {he postulated roles by showing thatthe’ wse of them as adaitia| methods of inference does not increase the lass of provable form ‘We all sek by means of derived rales to bring the methods fore tablshing the fats of formal provability as close as possible to the im formal methods ofthe theaey which is Being formalied Tin sting up the fora system, proof was even the simplest ps stracre consisting of single sequence of formulas. Some of our dein oles, called rect rule’ wil serve to abbreviate for us whole segments ff uct a sequenoe; we ean then, 29 to speak, ust Hse spent retabrcated units i bulding pets But ako, in mathematical practice, profs are common which Ka ‘2 more complicated sructuse, employing “subsidiary deduction’, ie) ection under assumptions for the sake ofthe argument, which a Stmptions are subsequently dcharged, For example, subsidiary de Auction is usd in a proof by recto a absurdum sa les obtroe {when we place the hypothe ol uonem om a par with proved prog 2 er ions 10 Sole he conhson, Ot ive, lle ‘aeidry in a, wil gv nie Kindo pcre Be solace‘ by t metanationata dt, the aan «ital deci alee semper a Bt By Dy Ga (ncamens of frou, state aqua fone oe Hot satel eles (oma) Seton fom hea seers Dye Dy exh fa of esas ter Seti elec Dy Darshan, rants eeu Fre set armas oe euros A rdcton si ots ef es nt tray tn hola mob ddl ee aspire Ga atl, ye Dy 2) sed Menon ella) tte dasa he sol "= may fern hc tcntoe of deduction an of daisy ae gern o ot et and of pay rich they oe a he er Po cori them ot ny tras Dy Dy we pel a 1eptin arms he eden, pepe on mp wt he enrcr 1. Tat A,B and Ce forms, Then te flowing se eve a ve frst detection o 6 the tee asamp Glove A B50, B and A (Wo ahi ‘Glut hem’) 1B wena asumptn tml EA thd asumpon om pf A230 te sumption fm, 4 BBE then 2 oe pa a Exons 2. Let the reader construct: (3) a deduction of A&B fou Aan B; (8) a deduction of C fom A&B 3C, A,B. By an avaljis of a deduction or proof Ay... we mea a spec- lation, foreach ff — I, oro either hat A, ison of Ue anempion ‘emulas and which one atheist, ---,D), ofthat A, san axiom and ‘y which axiom schema or particla axiom of the postalate isto that {isan immediate consequence of preceding formulas and by which rule ‘infrence and of which preceding formulas a the respective premises tt that rule. Ta bret, an analyse of a deduction consis of the expla ‘sions ezployed to justify each currence of «formula int en on ‘amples, the explanations given nthe right af the frm). Te ay occasionally happen that an occurrence ofa formula ina de- Ute or prot can be josie in more than one way, «the formas08 A Band C might be uch that one ofthe fv formals in (2a og Gnsequeny. for ame othe Sesto ow te eee ayia to a given deduction only determined uniquely, when ‘ith the dation isa thre gen prea ala tt 1 isto be emphasied the the expndon "Dyess De, wig weustostitebll that Eis dnocelrom Dy.” Dy snot afar the sem, but ral way of writing a measatiematcl sates Sat the frmulas Dy. Dy Ey same the sateen tht te fits 2 certain kind of fst aquence af formulas, When f= Qa olution bees “E" meaing that Ei provable: The sy] "1 goes bck to Fre 1p the pet oe fH to Rowe 939 a lose 1934" Exawece 3. The following two statements (V) and (2) have bey justified by exhibiting above the two dedictons (I) and 2, respective and (2) sad (4) by Example 2 | (pada, 6) A Bp Ags. @) a2 (830, B, @) ARBDGA BEC c Notke thatthe symbol “appears in content preceded by a tg sees fst oe as ed by ine ra fe insta of rms, metanathenatiletesoexpresions reeset formulas). This makes mambiguns the cope effan seutence ef symbol “ina metanathematical seen, In partial, the Sop ot te fornal operators ae nes confined within forruas of System, wile" Ba metematienatel ve ying ous a formula of the system, © Ihe 9 “The defnion of Ge fom Dy.» Dy can ao be tt wit sing the intermediate compo «dedaton (the fst definition ‘provable’ in § 19). We leave it to the reader to state the five clauses) red. Brey, "Dyo.n.Dy E* then tans tat it posible eB {em ero ot moe ofthe formals Dy =D at eocr mr)a by the rus of infence othe form E. The tse of he Intion ae troght ito agreement by obeeving at when the formas | conse in the pros geting fom Dy Dyn aioms to Ea ut down in det of ft contin, we have a deduction o an | Dace Dy ‘West s rock capitate sachs" "8" "0", ete, to sand tor it sequences ofa o more oceureness of ors, when wh oindcate ets of sumption fans without ang the orm } | ike given time ~ 2 Laws 8. (JEFE. (1/7 +E, thew, +E. (1) 76, 6,0 GP FE. (IV) 1/8,D,C, PLE then 8, CD, TEE, (FPR +C AiG, +E, iten A, FE, (Alter Gentaen 19345) Buwiis 4 HA} Band A,B,C ED and B,D +E, then A,C FE. The weder may convince hineelf ofthis directly frum the mesaiag of | funder both versions ofits definition), and also wey that i fll for () — G0) and fom ()— (0), Te definition which we have given for = fs entve to a pasar fneal syst as determined bya postulate lint. Spell, it relative Ith to the part of the postal list which determines the axiom, and Ibthe rules of inference. Ths far we Have heen concerned only with the ‘ee formal system, ft we shal ake use of» in ike sense n connection ih cter formal systems, eg, subsystems ofthat one obtained by con Sing only pat of the postulate ist to bein force fr determining the of aiems and the relation of immtiate consequence. We shal trays understand | t be reative tothe formal system we ae stg Novice that 4, V | E fora given system is equivalent to A jE foe lsat rsang from the given one by ating the formulas to the fof exis$21. The deduction theorem. We shall consider the fal ‘theorem fst forthe propositional cles, ie, with only the pst of Group AI ia force Trronax |. For the propstiona calls, if E,A +B then T +A 3h (The datuction thorem) Paoos. The hypothesis of the theorem says that there 56 fay sequence of formelas such thats cach forla ofthe sequence i ey (a) one of the formulae P, (b) the formula A, (¢) a axiom, oF () aig Inediate consequence by Rule 2 of fo preceding frm 200 Rule the only rule of inference here); and the lst formula of the sequin, isthe formula B. This sequence we sal all the ‘iver Sedation of fromm Fy A The Conctesion ofthe thorem says that there is a finite sequen g forrmlas sch that: ech formula ofthe sence Ss either (2) oe oe formulas P, (an axiom, or (am immediate consequence by Rule 2 ovo preeding formulas; and the lst formula of the sequence i formula AB, This seqvence we shall call the “esting deduction A316 fom P, The theorem will be proved by 2 course-of-values indcton on Jeng ofthe given lution (97), taking the B of the theorens ae ‘aval, but the PA fixed for the inducion | The induction proposition P(A) or PAP, A, i: For evry forme Sf thee given a deat of Brom TRB then there co boa, (¢ daduction of KB from T: | Baste (to prove the propostion for A= 1, Le to prove PIT, A Suppose given a fomula Bud a destin of B fom T, A of lng ‘We distinguish thre cases, scoring t which of the possibilities a) applies to the lst (ad since A= 1 only) formula Bf te given dea ton, The posit (2s excluded ere since Bis the ony formal ‘For each ease, we show how to construct the resulting dedoc, leaving i to the reader to very thatthe sequence of formulas wid ‘ve submit as such does have the sequied featares, “Then the following sequoced Case (a): Bis oe of the formulas P Sormulas is the resulting dation, 1 — ane of the formas F. 2. (ADB) — Axiom Schema ta 3 ADH — Rule 21,2 = st (0): Bis A, Tho resulting deduction i the sequence of formulas sac wv given in 19 Example as 0 proofotA DA. Since BA {ieiemula ADA is ADB. ie ast (0: Bis an axiom, The resulting deduction isthe samo as in asia). except that now the fiat step sti om the ground that [oncriox STEP. Assume (as hypothesis of the induction) that, for qupl = b PD, At; ie that for cerry P= hand every By if there Gre deduction of B from P, of length then there can be fond Ghucion of ADB ftom T. Now (to prove PIP, A+ 1)) suppose ‘hove forma By and a deduction of B tom FA of ength hy 1 We tingish four cases, according to which of the possiblities (a) — (8) to the last formal Bol the given deduction. The trestment of fe (0) — (0 the same asunder the basis. Case (0); isan immodiate consequence by Rule 2 of two preceding souls: Hy the staterent of Rule 2, we may cal hese two fornulas Yani PD, (We ne the letter Pow, stead of Aas in the statement ibe rule, sings Ak reserved ete to designate the last assumption rma for the given deduction) If we dsced the part ofthe given Inston below the fra P, the part smnaining wil be a dedetion {EP from T, A of length [= &, By the hypothesis of the induction [oth asits wean hence ind «deduction of => P from P. Likewise, lvng the hypothesis ofthe induction to the part of the given de- fitlon down to T'2B incisive, we obtain a deduction of A(P2B) Uh. We use these two deductions (ny they are of lengths and g, tegcively) in constructing the renting deduction, a follows | deduction of A 2B trom T, given by the Ty of th dn face PY | eden f A328) tom Fg by en noeeomy | Bor ft ic, NaH. (AP) 3((4>(P28) 3 (ADB) — Axiom Schema tb. 1112. (AD PSB) >(ADB)— Rule2. paige Hg13. ADB — Role 2 p49, PEE? ‘This completes the prof of the theorem by enathomatia induction, “theorem includes the case that Tis empty: For the propositional lal, A} B, ten ADB,2 ronuat_ procera xen, We were ale to state, a (2) above that A> (2-36, gga what involvd in hese of mathematica induction, Hees AC. By Theorem I, we can thence ifr that A'>(B-30), B-side sal be atid fo know that he eng doin ex nd To examine ths extmple more clay let stake the dedi i be oud ich we exited in justiaton of (2, a8 the given deduction gg he proof of Theorem 1 wil eves & ml for metanatheratical From A'D(B5C), BA. By referring to the pro! of Ther tego of estan types. Tn fate we shal eten give such prots should beable to find the eng deduction of ADC from.A' (BG aire abbreviate way, when the reader could cast ce argument ato Since the given duction is of length > 1 ad fhe lat formula gael Cg aplication of induction, A ew procs wil be act wp ally exe tempting oy anata Rae 2 te cs Say apps Case (cer the indocthn sep. Thee we find some dete othe above root of Theorem | can be given in a more abbreviated snd instructons ofnd the est by applying Theorem (othe ded yy 8 follows To etch formula of dhe given deduction of B fom TA, and 14 occuring sx parts of (2). Continuing inthis manne, pea > be petted. (the example, fom Formulas 1,23, Sof cveatally obtain the following Ue vein deduction Mes ebain orale 3, 6,1, (4, 17 of ()) The ruling sequence wns (th ADB ae rsa) not (in general dedton B — second assumption formula fom T, but can be made one by inserting additional formalas in the sao ee tbe moe slightly, when we come to extend the theore to the 6 [AD(ADA) Aj] D[ADA] — Rule 2, 4, 5. Htisarem 1 that A3(B3C) | B>(A DC). A convenient arrangement : Pap@ag, BaLe—< 8 ROBSON SBS OT kc Seem ee a U, AD(A> (DC) — Rule 2 3 10 12. (ADAJD{AD(AD(BDC)} D{A > 2O}} — Axiom Sen, lets presentation, we have a sequence of expeesians analogous to, but mab, {Ga diferen lve! from, the sequence of formulas which constitutes 1a, [AD{A2(B30)) 9/4 389K) — Rule 2,8, 12, fvnal pro or dduction. The expresdons inthis sequence are ret 14 A3(b30) — Rule 2 11,18 anual tetemnents about the formal system, wil ina formal ook 15. (ADH) D(A DBC) S1A DC) — Axiom Schema 1b, edoetion they are formulas of the system 16 (AD(5DO) 3(A 36) — Rule 2,9, 15 Atohor example ofa dedoction and a a sries of metamathemtical 17, $5C— Rule 2 14,16 ements flo A&B — sccond assumption formal ‘Thededucton (5 snot theonly dductionof A 2C trom A > (B30,8,/ ASBOA— Aviom Schema 4a Te happens that there ashore one, which we obtain frm () by omic) 2 {lng Formulae 48 and 10-14, and citing 9 (intend of 14) a4 Baty &. A — Rule 2 1 2 pets fr the Inference by Rule 2 at Step 17. Fy & 230550 ~ list asumption formula, But (6) the patielar one which rete by the method wad i) 8. BOC — Rule2, 9, 4 1 a proving Theorom 1 when (2) ib taken as given deduction. We have) 6 A&B — Axiom Schema 4b Cari through the exercise of finding (6) to emplisine the fintay| 7. B— Rule 2,1, 6 ‘Sharacter ofthe retsoning uo! in prot of Theoret I, and i patina] 8 C — Role 2, 7, 5a rout peDveros cay 27H DeDverion ruroneN (concivoes) 98 1, ADMDO, ABE C— 6, ge new postulates only change the situation by providing additonat (9) 2 ADQ@S0); ABBSC— Theorem 1, 1 Riese costucting tose same deductions. Bata usin dodction ioe not nemesanly romain true when new postahtes ar ald, ‘As further examples, the reader may estaba: ibe the elargement ofthe sytem tends to create new istances of he (7) A&BDCEADBIO)— of (4) $20. | Silay deetions, and t beoomes a quston whether resting de fe) b ADB BOC ADC [fies east to comespond to these new subsidiary deductions Most V2. ADB y (BDO (ADC) — Theorem 1, 1 | Wine suidinry deduction rales which we shall state (in particular, all fbr of the present chapter) have an ambiguous set of ammpion nul T belore the symbol" thrmughout, 2 thatthe aation of Biaxin can cause no trouble, But the addition of rew rales of in- race will erate new cases tn be considered in the proof of the ele ‘We shall ext treat Theorem under the condition that all the ulats of Group Aare in fore, cither exactly these, or als the ones of Froup 1 (which are only an axiom schem aad axioms). A cain eseton wil be rogue in onder to handle the new cases a he poo 4m. The deduction theorem (omeded, Tire 3 dig rule othe ebiiny etuton tp 42, For sn spaton Tue even dees of fy fy A he sii delet a {he edncton of A> rm T obtained rom the gen dod by tie meted tnicated tthe poo of he sev cael tel defen, When wo te stating the ovine dtc Bl ‘ot actualy exiting em, wey span lip prsa Spin orale of "the dae. AFI", when we mea Bd "Yen ae foie th rama, whee pot of There {Tita wh Ge satement "Te Af Panera ext i Lethe postal eto eh; bu sme ey nay peer to Tm Theorem {the lt asco rm of he ssn de toe remain te apr, ecpting te Pat f 3 dunon 7A isnot wed n making up tet of enurmpon orig mune eran of this chapter, excepting the art torte satin deuction A> Brocadingy wey th caren ME 8 Oona al et emustig OF hes spn frm of he san facto hag Me, Yea sone deft hh ewclnomulting (ine ts rs ane shih mad a i ae eae ae ice. “hc increta frm nthe doen pedo gen Tn gener, assy doucion rude sa metamatematicl tera Wes career eh te dition pends on en ‘which has one or more hypotheses of the,form Ac + Es called the #6) 4.11 a, in the given analysis is D,, then A, depends on Dy, 2. If Ay “oy lla, nd acs oh fom 8+ Eel the ro EH 4 he esas Dy then A ebm om D2. Ay fetaton From each of the susie deductions, ene mote om Pi eh Sen Am es ‘Sito fray my bv ihr 2A Spend ch Dy only we toqed by Tan 2 TEemunur[. Theeae“1/1, Ay CandY,B Chon AV BHC) ‘ioc cen tht, dapnis yD, ant ony if here exits no wich wil be ete in te peat econ, bs two msg faeces othe dein ot sewanyconsecatie) which wer Shedoos TLATCand BG, om ihe fst of with the lito he Ger analy cones doom of Ay fom he Temleg Sep forma A's diclaged, tnd tom the econ the Bs Lonmin orlas Dy sy, Dae Dy ‘A metamathematial theorem ofthe simple form A +-E is det} eager 2, 1m the deduction (6) poe tal Exourue 2. In the deduction (6), Formulas 4, § and & depend on rule of the diet type. It says that iti posible to procsd fom 8 ef aasumpton fora A> (8 3). ad thc ctbe formals dono, foemolas 4 and the axioms directly to K by applications of the 8 Faas 1 67 (withthe given analy) constitute « deduction ot 7 finer lem the other assamption formula A ‘hare the following important ference between these tvo I a of dred rules A diet rfe necuarily remains trae when the fora) Ne tow say chat a variable y is varie na gven deduction (with 2 ‘jst enlarged by adding ew axioms snd rules of inferene, sin OF. atays) for a given assumption frmala Dy, if (A) y cea rein Tree wate Simpl tint Netatn deductions cam be constructed af Ue 40! (B) the deduction contains un application of Rule 9 or Rule 12%__ rom meovenor alg with respect toy (as the x forthe application of the rule) to a fog, REDKEN 1 (Conluded). For the predicate cleus or th fll nme .A(s) — Axiom Schema 10 (noting (v) and (i 2 YoAIo) DVSA) — Rale ocur fae in WDA, 3. €>,A(b) — assumption form 4 CBYDAG) — Rule 3, 3 SuncASE (el): CDA) depends om A.Then A does nt contain x fee, & C2 (oA SvsACa — frm 25m Case (a for Theorem 1821 ge others the hypothe thatthe Snes varsbles aro eld cease 9. CD VAA(s) — tom 4,6 asin Cave (6) for Tore I Je in the given dofution would be contradict, Since now neither tC contain x re, the formula AC dx ot contain es Tis 1A) contains xi, then in es deduton svar, sae (ay 48 6) and) session fev C9) cmt tee ae fat et Bl Fee eeeee eeeoal e 9's applied at Step 4 with respect to b to the premive 3, which depnl, HE+!- Applying the hypothesis of the induction to the segment of nt ntl mot vl te premise he frm CA we ant the apleton of Rie 9 with recpec oat Sep 2 does net Soe ston of A (CDA(s) tom Pe Tks dedcton i hampered in perry 2 Goss nt epee eareting the ring dation, a follows the assumption formal, In a given deduction with a.given analysis), 2 given variable y eduction of A 3(C>A) from always eld constant foreach astmption forma i whi it docs tiven by the hypothesis of the ine ‘eeu fee, while it maybe varied fr some ofthe assimption form Auction in whic it occurs fee and held constant for others AD(C2AGS) | Botuction of ARCO AL) from The above terminology suggests itll, ace Roles 9 and 12 ( (CD Als) given by (6:2 fend "ul a he "Brule") are the only two pstlates of Grou? AML ey, AEA) fara | Petre Ane Svea7, Aoduetion of €> VAs) frm 1, given by Iiypothase of independence, cavxaie) (CD¥EA(x) 34.3 (C3 ¥sA(a)) — Axiom Schema ta AD(CDVxA(s)) — Role 2, 941 Case (); Bis am inmeitinte consequence of «precoding fo by an applieaton of Rule 12. The treatent ofthis cae i ila, (64:3 toe in the frst see “| ‘The deduction thorem was fist proved as w derived rue by Hetty agyo, (Ck abo Herbrand 1925, Tarki 1930, Church 7032, Hie Bemays 2534 P.155, Jeskowski 1934) §§28, Introduction and climination of logical symbots, 1h) following theorem contace a ecllection of derived rule, with ray Column designations attached to provide convenient dexexptve tan for the roles. For example, "VxA(s) + AQ)" the rule of "genen ‘iminaton” or briefly "¥-tinination’ The variable "x" wetten as superscript on the symbol "Ja ty a ‘ofthe rules sto mark the application uf Rule 9 oF 12 with respet to fn constractng the renting dosetion Turoneat 2, For the jllowing rales, A, 1 and C, o &, AC), C and are snbjct tthe same pation a forth coveponding posta (51 Gud T on Tx) és any li of formas "For the propositional cleus, the roles Bld from “Negation”, inhsie Fer the prelclecaenus (or the fll nuobrsherei system), al es hd rived tht in each subsidiary dedton he fee nario Ded constant forthe assumption formal to Be discharge implication" (tetrduction) (Eliination) (Gnplicatin) 17 PAB, A. ADB EB. ee PEASE, (odes ponens) (Conjuetion) A,B p ARB, AGBEA. ASBLE: (@ijenction) A; AVE. TALC ond thon By AVEC. (Prot by cases) ree srROMGCTION a9 HLIMINATION RULES ” gto) IT, ALB and Py APB, ITAL A. ayers (Discharge of (Redtio ad abeudam) double negation" YsAix) FA) certs) Ala) VAG, ipisence) A) | SHAG, 1 Te, Ab) + ‘hen Dis, BAG) FC proors. The rile of Dintrtion fs Theorem 1 There remain eset end thece other subuldlary deduction rales. Th dct rules Gy be etallished by exhibiting the rogited doductions, The proofs of (i atsdiary deduction rules re conveniently presented as eqences of MMesmathenatial statement certain of which statements are to be ‘Sutanlaed by exiting deduction as in the prot ofa dee rule ‘hotel which fellow from preening ofthe statements by Theorem ier by general propertis of 1). In both cases nppeal i made at some pin torn coresponding one ofthe postulate. These profs are given Bie for several of the rues of etc type, the others being It ta the ale. However ter and in siniar statins, ce veadar Is urged fist fbattempt himself even thor which we give Diawer nets, LA — first asmmption fora, 2 ADB — second assumption formela 3, B— Role 2, 1,2 ‘This rule & simply Role 2 of the postulate list (the “D-rle", or rs poner" of radian logic} restated as a derived ue. intodaction, We already have this as 8) § 20. 3 -eiminaton -sliminatio, oF discharge of double negaton 1. 774 — ssmption forma 2. 4AADA~ Adlom Schema 8. 3 A~ Rub 21,2 *-insoton, Let C be some axiom no containing x feo 1. Ag) — assumption formal. 2 At) 2(CDAla)) — Axiom Schema 1a 3 CDAfs) — Rule 2,1, 2. 4 CBvxa(s) — Rake 9, 3 5 C— an axiom, 6 VxA(s) — Rale 2,5, 4Sunsirany pepvcrow nouns. Vsimination PAC — hypottess PEADC— Theorem 1, PB EC — lypothess, PE BDC — Theorem | ADC, BOC + AVB2C— wsing Aviom Schema 6 and Rule 3 ‘AVB,AVBOC | C-—S.cimination (or using Rue 2, PAVBEC— 2456 2 elination, Tp), Als) + © — ypothesis Pia} F Als) 3C — Theorem 1, 1 AG)DC 1 3xAfs) 3¢ — using Role 12. HaA(a), 3xA(x) DC | C — Deeimination, Ti), Beals) PC 2.3 4 These rales give lasifeation of lal operation 3s adapted fa, introductions and eliminations of the logical symbols, Gentzen 19345 The Tale called "V-linination symbol, when iis sae as follows. les serve to eiminate& dsjonetie FAVE — suppose given 2. ALG -— suppou given withthe fee variables eld constant 5, BL-G — suppose given, withthe rec variable held constant fer» 4 AVB pC Vesinination (with T empty), 2,3 & Fo— nA This procs corresponds to the fain informal method of proot by | cases: Either Ao B Cave A, Then C. ase 2B. Then C. Hence C ‘Similarly, Selmination, ed ax follows, eliminates an exsens symbol 1, axA(x) — suppose given 2. AG) F.C — suppose given, where € dacs not contain x a5 fe ‘arable, and withthe fee variables eld eaustant for A) 3. BA) C— Belmintion, 2 This cotespods to the familiar argument: There exists an x wl tat AG: consider such an x. Then €, which does not depend on [ Hence € _STRODUEION AND ELnMTEATION ULES 101 sinilriy, “introduction corresponds to the method of redectio ad —— ‘sing the I proved fr inthe theorem, any ofthese procedures can jecaredoutin the presence of any lito adconal assumption ferns, ie fllowing shows that A.A B (in words: fom a contradiction ani +A, any formula B is deducble). This we shall ce a the rule Meat m-einination. LATA ABE A. 2 ALSALSB LA. 3 ALA‘ p 5B — —inteodustion, 1, 2. 4. 5B 1B ~timinaton fh) SATA} B— 3, aay was to be proved Stop Saounts to blaming the formula 5 for the contradiction Nand A of | and 2, Continuing, we have 6 7A | ADB — Siintroduction, 5 1. PAAD(ADB) — Déintroduetion, 6 ‘Dar formal system was intended asa formalization of number theory ‘ning methods only accepted under the elassicl viewpoint (ef. § 3) However, sf Axiom Schema 8 -4-¥A 3 A) is replaced by the following J (7:7), all the postulates expeess principles also accepted by the | tions (een § 30: BL 4AD(ADB In terms of the derived rles of Theorem 2, this means replacing inition by weak -alinination, When we wih to consider this {Gem aso, we call the orginal sytem with Potato 8 the clasical Zp, and the system with Postulate Bt instead the (oresponding) bse system. Our rents are marke with the smbol "in every | aie when the demonstration we give not valid for both systems, Dut ‘aly forthe cassia (and no demonstration which the reader is expected, fadecover for html! fe avaable for the intuitionistic syste). Use of Wintoition followed by W-climination gives ws the following ie Stosrrosion von aN isoivipeaL vaRBAMLe, If x és a aril, Als) it forma, and arm shih free for 8 AUS}: A) AMY, We shall abbreviate the presentation of applications of oar derived fs, using tac general peoperti ofi ven ses i memos sn Ya 1 £ ABN Go mama a ts sop) Tat tek pe IN a eh Sh semen eo i 2 ARBEC— alin, £ t Given TER, Ph” (which meas: -P ant PO) wh conlese to" FP "sand snarl with lange ens of ode cach of which ser he fine has aie only seunptin mal | Conc ofthe preceding But "+P, +P" mens: PF Pend tg} 1 ADB, A} B— >-timiation 2 BE BVC— vintratacton ASB ApBVe— 12 ' We condense this 1 ADB, AE BE BYC— D-cim, Vintrod, ‘ +§ 24, Dependence and variation. For the proicate calcul i ‘onder to wse'a deduction obtained (ie. proved to exist) by one oft ‘erived rus of Theorem 2a aubsdiay deduction fora new appli ‘of one ofthe les, we sll nes en far as oar iformation go) to kr ‘ot only that the deduction exists, bat aso that the fee Variables Jyldeonstant forthe assumption forma toe discharged Tn order to have such information on hand when is needed, we tl ‘make it a practice in applying the rales to keep track ofall cases we variable may’ evar a the resulting dadaction. I is convenient do this by writing any variables which maybe varied ae supers fn the sym "}". This notation is ot fly explicit, as it does tl | ‘how for which ofthe assumption formulas a given superscript vars may be varied. We may the simply associate the superscript with th ‘ssumption formulas in which the varlable occurs fe, (When there occasion to be more expt, the fcts maybe sated verbally, eg a8 it) [Lemma 8 below.) ‘We recall tht, under the definition of variation (§ 22), waiable can be varad only for an assumption formula D, in which i occurs fe Teiseasily seen tht, given ay deduction Dy. De | E, aesimpen I toon) is which this the oe Mrs ven sey duction Dy ici poche deduction of E tom Dy eee 08 Di Bree etre lor keping track of variation ier strightforard rer dependnes. Thos far or only derived rales wish al or (aeSoe a anperenp are Vantroducion, Seclinination and sub sare wen then the speak ot arays Oeesary, whet sia fc an Winton or submittion dacs not contin fe i oon Tb below.) Moreover, once ruperserpts Have been n= ae rane mast ary hem ferwae inthe obvions way om give de torr oreating deduction (uns sce reason to the comtraty can eee bth in applying the star deduction rls of his scion, Fi coabining dedactons by gneal yropertis of (2) pe stations wich arise in practice are simple enoxgh 50 that we teil ble in secing what happening. Variables which ace being MS have usualy jst previously boen introduced in hat oe Sor some TREE porpon,o that they are not Bely tobe oveloked. How re pake the theory of ou derived ues complete, the fctare tated Store etal the flowing lemmas. Dy + Ey it i always pose 'D in whieh the consasion Lasts 6 I Theor t, ADB depends on a sen one ofthe formas [ri he esuingdedaton P| ADB, ony if Bdapeds aw the see one Ini given deduction TA |- B. Similarly, th other oiiory deduction Ines of Theorem 2, he conclusion depends on given one a he Is i he tenting deduction, oy # the conlason depen onthe sme one inthe hoe deduction (in ne last of he fo gen deductions} Yor othecwise that assunption formula could be omited fom the Psin applying the ule, and fterward introduced by (11) (and (4V) of lena 5 Tn Velniation, Ifthe € doesnot depend both om the AP A © aio the Bin 2,8 fC, the Voimination can be avoided altogether, SSnianly in 3etimination, the C does nt depend on the A(X)DERENDENCE AxD YAMIAION 108, ro Fowat DRDO 7 a Laman 7a, Tt Thar a sara ward for «gen on ogg gn sssmpton formulas, Those which come from the V ntradutions sin the eating deduction V2 By only i are forthe sag) ga 9818 (0) from (UH) are exactly as seid inthe present lemsns, ie hein deco, Bs Silay the le aubiry dec "gy 9. TV) of Lema sara y ican ra ie neo the ‘ese There 2, ef at for evar xf eimai he ite ER esing dcton 8, T+ omy) 17.91 il for te sme ea aee ee A he Sen the fit pon duction ©, oF () iY 18 sare for © Lanna 7b. In 3elimintion, the vai in th esting dea te scent itn duction CT, and C depends om that one of he 19 3uA\a) #2 Cont ortho te Ips wbch enti i fc gases een dation 8 Can tha ne of he's conti fe. cm which th C depends the poe dafucton T(x), AS) + G(s Sag | Lama 9 woul be immesiat, except fr the following contingency. ‘ation, ovaries are for he BRA(s); and lkewie in lina | he eon ven deduction C, TE there might bean appleation of ore AVE) IRges or 12 with espe toy fa promise dependent Cad yet y These wo masa be verified by examining the prot Tera eet constant for C bss C does not contain ye. he ddeion 1 and 2 Ford amination, thes s varied athe given detvcton frag] wre combined witha deduction & Cin whieh depends on one ofthe dncal the Tejon neh the € docs not depend atone of the Tg] Speotlnng fe, then y woul be varied fo atone ofthe sn the tay be omitted for dhe Belinination, ‘Raith dentin 8,1 EB we ext ose Lemna Bb to replace the “The dsassone of depenience and variation under steps perfor | get Seton C, °F by another, after whieh the enntingeney de- by general properties of (sng the ist of such properties provide iq sel canot rie for any variable. ‘Lena 5) ar eft to the reader, excepting that of aration for the A) Hereafter for new derived rues the facts respecting dependence and of (V) Beloe treating this x Lemma 9}, we prove the following tne ation wil be as one would expect, with ay exceptions pote, an all Jenmas. ae ng Yas wun variation may be ntadced indicated by supercrptson on [ ngenrt, in» subsidiary deduction rule having assumption formulas Tmow Ga fe given and reclting deductions in obvious comespondence: The com 0 Dy Pye By FE | ahs depends on (Aven variable varied for ven one of thea thr fj— hob ly thin arabes yy Pri fe option formals of he resting dota oes om Ge he 1, (toes Yj ed mt be dine! from the varia Gneponding ascemplion formula of the given deduction or of ether Pate fro te ie SS | tian Ese Pree 3a 44 oe seen) [Toad 16 §24, the formal induction rule §98, 1 (0) and (©) $73, 42 1) bine MYDD Mae WagDeD «64g My DID) HD(V) and 49 (VIIa) (VIII) § 74, $9 and 0 (02}~(d $8 and conser. 1 Soxe V-rrontctIo asp dtixariog, Occasionally its wscfal Fr ({1) follows from (2) by Y-elininations and 2-intructins |W amply Y-introduction and 3-A) HCO WEAtos Fowar nenucrion oy berasence an vant 100 Using this ised of the posted rule 9 in ofr pa Inara § 23), neem 9 io ‘ Denivnn sous ayo mrsencrive postotarts. We call Pot feo Hb and Bema 954 72a ery rm an amp oe 1, Consider the deduction (6) of §21, By the analysis, ia) atte we Ja, Tb and 2 the postudates jor >, Postulates 3, 4a and 4b the &-postnl tom formula @ is an: immediate consequence of 7 and 5, Let us kets 12018 Jo the intone sate 7 and 8) thea and Simmel abe 8 Then met come estulats, etc, Postulates for > are used in establishing all the deriyg, “™y and 6; so we write 1 and 6 just over 7; ete. cing just at the Ie of Thearem 2 nei Sem sr oe cas the fing fig ot Lasota 11. For eacit selection of one or more of the logical oo 2.8 Ver. an Se Phra Thos Se aad ml Chlting or ¥ an 3 estos vse, fri he ‘ys a atin na of a a i ra son whe a spas yh oes oa a sve th now unter 1"—9 an the {ater te smal in gto, evel tates he yt nh ag 8H ormaas temo ih ew LW bad not & the ¥-postulaies include am additionat axiom schema a foil atl3%)- 8 have the deduetion in tree here, A(s) and C are subject to he same siplations a fo Rue 3 sec som oa vse Dati) 9 avean i ventana spy an ecepson inthe case the sya nde ¥ but oma Shen 4b 2h sinc the treatment of Case (¢)Subease (i) of Theorem 1 22) ola] ASB. 2 ARBIB ea 7. 43830 tse of the &-potulates. With the ailonal schema, howeres ial eee can be replaced by the flowing {we eppe b AD(C> AK) — as beter sO bet. AB cd aay — fates ; p42, Ys(C3AQ) 3(COVuA(a) — Aviom Stems Oa T tarry, fom ths deduction im tot foom of € from A2(B26) eh ie (cares of) formulas as a Tinea = Action from ptt and pea) and AB, by arranging the (ocearrences of) a 5 fven by (8): fond 2) qunce sayin the order ofthe umersI'—9, we obtain ove in sequen D412 AD(CO¥sAIa), few (oot the orginal one). Depvcrios 1 TaEE Fora. We have been taking a deduction) ely describe, branch ofa dveton in tee form costs ofthe bean ser arene af i. Semin a, ec fers nea o, g ewan lnstead to conser the (ceicences of) formulas in partial odie ee strctre, beginning wth a fom carting as a sao or hie represents the opel structure dly. In th ordering, th” aunpton fora, and erating inthe concise. (0 ender) froma or each infeene ate witen inet over he concn te duction. The high oa daduton i te form i he gt of asin the statement of the rules of inerence; and no oceerrnce of age branch or nother words, the mamber of evel oecrenc of) formal sree ab rere for more than one inference. deduction (fara sd to be as anotbe (a the te ob ow the fom), roof inthe former arrangement we sey iin spunc farm, in hsm he formers above theater in these abe Ire frm {uote 1 (concaded). The duction (2) has § branches, namely: The metho converting dedeton of F from T gten in aeguens| 31971 2,949" 56,89 8.6,8,°7, 7, 8.9. The bogie 4 form, with ge assis intone in re for (led “rslaton nT crac aaa ave bat ot aoye