COMBUSTION ENGINES GROUP

A NEW CLASS OF ROTARY PISTON MACHINE

SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
J. M. Clarke,

BSc, CEng, MIMechE*

D. F. Walker, CEng, MIMechE*

P. H. Hamilton*

The mechanisms and porting requirements of a new class of rotary piston machine are described. The
machines can be regarded as a generalization to three dimensions of that class of planetary motion machine
which includes the Wankel. Important features of the Wankel engine are retained, namely a compact arrangement, a sliding contact seal grid and multiple chambers on each rotor, but these new machines have twice as
many chambers on each rotor, and they apply results of three-dimensional rigid body dynamics to select piston
motions which involve very low inertial forces. An experimental engine is described with some results.

1 INTRODUCTION

PATENT
LITERATURE contains hundreds of devices of great
ingenuity which stem from a desire to avoid the reciprocating piston and yet connect chambers of varying volume
with a rotating shaft. Only the Wankel engine has achieved
any great commercial interest.
The machines outlined in this paper form a new group
also based on compound rotation, i.e. rotation about a
moving axis. But while the rotor axis of the Wankel
engine sweeps a circular cylindrical surface the rotor axis
in these machines sweeps a circular conical surface so that
its centre of gravity, at the apex of the cone, does not move.
These machines are not featured in surveys (1)-(3)t
of rotary piston machines although Dr Felix Wankel was
clearly aware (I) (4) that there were possibilities in this
direction. The machines are free from vane or flap type
components and they retain the very important internalaxis feature which allows the adoption of a sliding continuous contact seal arrangement so that use as an engine
is practicable as in the case of the Wankel engine and the
Hamilton-Walker engine (5)$. In the latter the seal line is
also a mechanical constraint on the motion of the piston.
External axis machines such as the helical screw compressor (a), the Dean gear engine (7) and the Marshall
tri-dyne engine (8) suffer from their inherent inability to
use contacting seals. Other important features of the
Wankel such as the elegant use of ports to avoid valve
mechanisms and the compact arrangement are shared by
this new group.
It is demonstrated in Appendix 1 that the dynamics of
the rotors in these machines are favourable. In some of
them the inertial forces applied to the bearings are so small
This paper is intended for presentation at an Ordinary Meeting on
18th October 1972. The M S . was received on 8th May 1972 and
accepted for publication on 21st July 1972. 22
* Turbo Machinery Department, National Gas Turbine Establishment, Pyestock, Farnborough, Hants.
References are given in Appendix 2.
$ No connection with the authors.

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

that it is possible to think in terms of the much higher

speeds normally associated with turbomachines.
This paper outlines the mechanisms involved; the
porting configurations suitable for various applications ;
the sealing requirements and some of the experience
obtained from tests of an experimental engine at the
National Gas Turbine Establishment. Finally, some important differences between these machines and their
parallel axis equivalents are outlined.
The motions and shapes are intrinsically three-dimensional and are unfamiliar to engineers. This makes their
presentation difficult and explains the large number of
illustrations in this paper. The machines themselves,
however, are not inherently very difficult to mass produce.
1.1 Notation
m,/m3,m2/m3ratios of principal moments of

inertia.
Effective area for leakage through seal gaps
and clearances.
Constant having dimensions of angular momentum.
Couple magnitude.
Functions of and /3.
Function of Ap/p.
Shaft moments of inertia about axes of rotation.
Mass of rotor.
Principal rotor moments of inertia.
Initial fluid mass in chamber.
Mass of fluid leaked through seals.
Defined by equation (15), for a machine with
fixed ports it is an integer greater than 1
and equals the number of chambers on
each side of a rotor.
Fraction of cycle period for which outflow
can occur from chamber.
Pressure in a chamber.
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744

Pressure drop across seals, positive for outflow from chamber

Gas constant or tip radius.
Absolute temperature.
Time.
Mean speed of rotor tip.
Initial volume of chamber.
Angle between shafts in the Hookes coupling.
Eulerian angle between rotor polar axis and
fixed direction of maximum angular momentum, i.e. in precessing mechanism the
angle between the rotor and mainshaft
axes.
Density of fluid in chamber.
Initial density of fluid in chamber.
Cycle period.
Eulerian angle defining rotation of plane containing 0 about fixed (mainshaft) direction.
Eulerian angle defining rotation of rotor
about its polar axis relative to plane containing %, it is zero when principal axis m 2
is normal to plane containing 8.

AP

R
T
t

V
vc

B
R

P
Pc
7

shaft is controlled by the bevel and layshaft gears. The two

examples show gear proportions appropriate to the frequency ratios of most practical interest. The case where
= -24 leads to applications involving one cycle of
volume variation for each rotor revolution; the case where
= -3$/2 leads to applications such as the four cycle
engine in which two cycles of volume variation occur during
each rotor revolution. Many alternative arrangements of
gears involving different bevel shaft and layshaft rotation
rates are possible. More compact arrangements can be
made using sun and planet gears instead of a layshaft. The
straight-through mainshaft and large bearing areas give
a robust mechanism suitable for application in high
pressure machines such as internal combustion engines.

2.2 Hookes coupling

Fig. 2 is the familiar Hookes coupling. In this case the
central member (rotor) is outside the coupling and the
shafts are constrained by fixed bearings with intersecting
but angled centre lines. It has the disadvantage compared
with the precessing mechanism that the shafts and
trunnion bearings are overhung and the bearings are

2 MECHANISMS
-Rotor

In the discussion in Appendix 1 the three mechanisms

outlined in Figs 1, 2 and 3 can be described as arrangements for connecting compound rotations of a near free
body type, i.e. motions involving low inertial forces, with
simple rotation of a shaft. The reasons for this are discussed in Appendix 1.
2.1 Precession
In Fig. 1 the motion of the rotor is a precession. Rotation
of the mainshaft at a rate causes simultaneous rotation
of the rotor at a rate relative to the tilted portion of the
mainshaft. The ratio between the speeds of the rotor and

Rotor

Bevel shaft
\

Fig. 2. Hookes coupling mechanism

Slidi

-.

,-

Layshaft-

Bevel shaft\

n-/

I
I

Rotor

Mainshaft

i
I

I
I
!

.
\

Layshaft

a Two shaft revolutions for each rotor revolution.

b Three shaft revolutions for each rotor revolution.
Fig. 1. Precessing rotor mechanisms
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

ku

Contact
- -face
. F

Rotor

Fig. 3. Sliding apex mechanism

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745

Fig. 4. Precessing rotor w i t h four working chambers

necessarily limited for space. However, it avoids the use of

gears. The motion of the rotor resembles that of precession
with $ = -24 and the possible applications overlap with
that case.

ment devices by providing means for altering the angles.

In the former the angle between the shafts is variable and
in the latter the angle between the shaft and the normal to
the face F is variable.

2.3 Sliding apex

The third mechanism, Fig. 3, causes the rotor to have
exactly the same motion as in the Hookes coupling but the
constraint of the second shaft is replaced by sliding contact between the flat circular face, F, and the cylindrical
apex, C , of the rotor. This contact is practical in some
cases because the inertial loads transmitted through the
contact can be made small and fluid pressures in the two
chambers exert no extra loads at that point. The avoidance
of a second shaft and hub sphere clearly simplifies the
construction enormously when compared with that of
Fig. 2. Both the Hookes coupling and the sliding apex
mechanisms can be incorporated into variable displace-

It is shown in Appendix 1 that each of the above mechanisms constrains the rotor to move in a manner which
satisfies the condition for making a positive displacement
device with ports in a static casing. The shape of the casing
is defined by fixing a seal line in the rotor and then moving
the mechanism. As the rotor moves this line sweeps a
surface which is continuous. In the case of the Wankel
engine the casing surface is an epitrochoidal cylinder. The
remainder of the rotor outline can then be defined as the
largest rigid object which does not touch this surface.
Figs 4 and 5 show computer generated pictures of precessing rotors moving relative to fixed static surfaces

3 SEAL SURFACE S H A P E S

Fig. 5. Precessing rotor with six working chambers

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

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J. M. CLARKE, D . F. WALKER AND P. H. HAMILTON

746

defined in this way. In the particular cases drawn the apex

seal lines have been chosen straight and the apex seals on
each side lie in a plane. The two sides are the same
shapes. Four separate chambers are confined between the
rotor and the static surfaces in Fig. 4 and six in Fig. 5.
The spherical surface round the outside has been omitted
to show the rotor at various positions in its cycle. A rather
surprising result evident from Fig. 4 is that the stator seal
surfaces appear to be flat. They are not exactly flat but the
difference causes seal movements small enough to be
accommodated by a normal seal grid so that in practice it
is not necessary to generate seal sliding surfaces any more
complex than flat and spherical. The faces of the rotor can
also be made flat.
The above discussion has been based on the use of line
seals in the rotor. An alternative is to define surface seals
in the rotor representing for instance a cylindrical surface
on the rubbing nose of an apex seal. In the case of the
Hookes coupling and sliding apex mechanisms cylindrical
apex seal surfaces on the rotor having axes concentric
with a pair of trunnion bearings define exactly flat surfaces
for the casing.

4 PORTING

Ports for fluid to enter and leave the various chambers at

appropriate times can be positioned in the outer spherical
surface. Figs 6-9 show projections (geographically they
would be known as Mercators projections) of this spherical surface on a cylinder. The position of the rotor against
this surface is shown at intervals during a rotor revolution.
It can be seen from these schematic diagrams that movement of the rotor periphery over the surface can be used
to open and close suitably positioned ports for the four
most important working cycles. This ability of the rotary
piston to avoid valve mechanisms, camshafts, etc., is one
of its most attractive and economic features. The only
one of these cycles for which a reciprocating piston can
achieve the same effect is the two-cycle engine and even in
this case more advantageous timing can be achieved with
the rotary piston. For instance the exhaust port may be
opened and closed before the inlet port.
Because several chambers use the same ports there is
greater continuity of flow through them than can be
obtained with reciprocating machines which need multibranched manifolds. For example, in each case, the single
inlet port is never closed. The only cycle for which the
porting requirements have compromised the rotor shape

120

240

360SHAFT480

600

120
60

Fig. 6. Two-cycle engine

120

180
ROTOR

240

300

360

Fig. 8. Sliding apex pump

__
.--..
Volume
,pK-\.
Inlet area -/ Outlet area
4
/!-\
_ c -

\<,

->A
0
F i g . 7. Four-cycle engine
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

_c

60

120

\/f\h*.
I80
ROTOR

240

300.

360

Fig. 9. Compressor
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747

is the compressor-expander where a recess in the rotor

is used to communicate with the high pressure port and
the width of the rotor at its tip has been increased to
allow room for that port.

which A p is significantly positive and assuming A , is constant during the cycle gives

5 THRUST L O A D S A N D B A L A N C I N G

as the mass lost from a chamber during a cycle.

The fresh fluid held initially by the chamber is approximately

All the machines present surfaces to the fluid which lead to

thrust loads on the shafts. In systems using more than one
rotor these loads may be balanced within the shaft system,
otherwise substantial thrust bearing surfaces are needed.
Symmetry of a rotor ensures that there need be no timeaverage thrust even with a single rotor. The alternating
nature of the load allows the powerful squeeze film effect
to be used on the load bearing surfaces.
The mechanisms were all chosen to comply with a
requirement for low inertia loads between the rotor and its
mechanical constraints. Nevertheless, the constraints do
experience some loads and it is desirable that these are
balanced within the machine and not transmitted to its
mountings.
There is a considerable difference between the balancing
of the processing and Hookes coupling mechanisms. For
the former the small out-of-balance couple can be compensated entirely by weights on the mainshaft but for the
latter there is no shaft rotating at twice rotor speed and
this simple solution is not possible. One answer in this
case is a second rotor or its dynamical equivalent; a second
rotor also balances thrust loads within the rotating system.
6 SEALING

It is not practical to give geometric details of the various

seal configurations appropriate to the many different
applications. The analysis of this section provides a
relatively simple figure of merit for any positive displacement machine and shows how this may be compared with
the requirements of the cycle and fluid for which the
machine is intended. It allows, for instance, a rational
basis for deciding whether it is practicable to use closeclearance sealing as opposed to the more expensive contacting grid seals. So many machines have failed in the
past because their design did not recognize the magnitude
of the sealing problem that it seems probable that this
analysis will also be of interest outside the subject of this
particular paper.
As a criterion it is assumed that the mass flow leaked
should not exceed 5 per cent of the mass flow of the perfectly sealed machine. Furthermore, for analytical simplicity it is assumed that the leakage does not significantly
alter the cycle pressures and temperatures. A more
accurate and complex method of analysis has been
developed at N.G.T.E. for assessing the effects of leakage
but a description of it is outside the scope of this paper and
its results are not significantly better from a designers
point of view.
The mass flow rate mL for a fluid leaking through an
effective leakage area A , from a chamber at pressure p and
density p is given by

niL=ALdGfe)

. . .

where A p is the pressure drop across the seal and f is a

function of Aplp.
Integrating for the fraction n of the cycle period T for
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

m, = p , V c
.
. . (3)
where rn, is the trapped mass; V , is the initial chamber
volume and p , is an appropriate initial charge density.
The 5 per cent leakage criterion may be written
rn, > 20m,
. . . . (4)
and using equations (2) and (3) this can be expressed in the
form

The terms collected on the left give a figure of merit for a

machine; they depend on the size, V,, speed, T , and seal
standard, A,, for a particular machine. The terms on the
right-hand side (r.h.s.) can be evaluated for a particular
thermodynamic cycle of an engine or pump. Inequality (5)
therefore provides a criterion by which a particular
machine design may be compared with the requirehents
of its cycle.
I n the case of two particularly important cycles the
right-hand side may be simplified and approximated
further. Firstly, in the case of internal combustion engines
or high pressure compressors the leakage is mainly
through choked flows so that for a perfect gas with a
specific heat ratio of 1.4

p =-

RT

and f = 0.6847

so that inequality (5) becomes

V,

&

. .

(:)

20~0.6847J p
dRp,
oTTd-

(6)

(7)

For a four-diesel engine the r.h.s. of inequality (7) is

typically 17 000 m/s and for a petrol engine more like
5600 m/s.
Secondly, for low pressure blowers or liquid pumps
where compressibility is negligible
p = p,

and f =

iy

furthermore A p is almost constant and n

inequality (5) becomes

. .
N

4 so

(8)

that

For an atmospheric blower with d p = 10 kN/m2 and

pc = 1.21 kg/m2 this gives a r.h.s. of 1285 m/s and for a
water pump with A p = 1 MN/m2 and p c = 1000 kg/m3

the r.h.s. is 448 m/s.

The above analysis illustrates for instance that in any
positive displacement machine with a 500 cm3 chamber
and a 3000 rev/min shaft speed leakage areas less than 0.75
mm2, 2.2 mm2, 19 mm2 and 56 mm2 are needed for the
diesel, petrol, blower and liquid pump respectively to avoid
prohibitive performance deficiencies arising from leakage.
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J. M. CLARKE, D. F. WALKER AND P. H. HAMILTON

748

Table 1
~

cycle

~~

i
Two-cycle engine

Precessing

Mechanism

Hookes
coupling

Sili

N.G.T.E.

Four-cycle engine

Not

Not

suitable

suitable

N.E.L.

Liquid p v p motor or zur blower

Compressor-

expander
7 A TWO-CYCLE EXPERIMENTAL U N I T

By combining different porting arrangements with different mechanisms many different machines can be constructed. The possibilities are conveniently identified in
Table 1.
The National Engineering Laboratory is examining a

sliding apex blower. Effort at N.G.T.E. has concentrated

on the precessing machine in the form of an experimental
two-cycle rig supplied with scavenge air from the permanent test facilities. Fig. 10 shows a longitudinal
section and Fig. 11 shows a part-sectioned model. The
254 mm (10 in) diameter rotor forms four working chambers each of 510 cm3 (31.1 in3) swept capacity. The rotor
and casings are cast in S G iron with integral cooling
passages for oil in the rotor and water in the casings.
Rotor bearing lubricating oil and rotor cooling oil are
supplied by separate drillings in the mainshaft. If it were
successfully developed as a turbocharged compression
ignition unit with a b.m.e.p. (brake mean effective pressure) of (say) 1400 kN/m2 (203 lb,in2)such a unit would
deliver 118 kW (160 b.h.p.) at a rotor speed of 2500
rev/min. For application as a compression ignition engine
a separate chamber was provided for combustion on the
lines of the Ricardo Comet.
The design rotor speed was limited to 2500 revlmin in
order to stay within normal limits on injector pump
speeds and seal sliding speeds. These restrictions mean

Rotor cooling oil

Mainshaft

Lay shaft
Ports
Fig. 10. Longitudinal section through t h e experimental two-cycle engine

Fig. 11. Part-sectioned view of t h e experimental engine

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

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749

ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES

%crion shown in fJgures 13 and 14

.Apex real

a Rotor close to casing.

b Rotor away from casing.

Fig. 14. Section through third design of apex seal

pox seal -/
Fig. 12. Seal configuration

that this particular rig did not exploit the potential for
high speed operation and, at the same time, it made heavy
demands on the standard of sealing required.
7.1 Seals

Fig. 12 shows the seal grid in schematic form to illustrate

the names used for the various seals and the position of the
enlarged section shown in Figs 13 and 14. The sealing of
each chamber is made up from four pieces.
(1) A leading apex seal.
(2) Half the circumference of the hub ring.
( 3 ) A trailing apex seal.
(4) A tip seal.

The two apex seals are the least conventional because,

like the apex seals of the Wankel engine, they tilt as they
slide and are therefore limited to line contact as opposed to

asing

osing

Apex seal

Apex seal

Rotor

Principal
leakage
areas

a Rotor close to casing.

b Rotor away from casing.
Fig. 13. Section through first design of apex seal
Prac I nstn Mech Engrs 1972

surface contact. Also, like the Wankel the seal grid contains four corners. The tip seal is semicircular like half
a piston ring in the rotor. The circular hub seal is located
in the casing, and seals by inward acting forces as it slides
against the rotor hub sphere. The apex seals are located
by grooves in the rotor and slide on the casings. All the
seals are spring-loaded to ensure correct seating for starting but are mainly loaded by gas pressure in the conventional manner. The tip seal has not changed much during
development and has been made from a piston ring grade
of cast iron. Hub seals were originally cast iron but more
recently have been made in En 31 steel. Apex seals have
been tried in several materials including carbon and cast
iron.
Fig. 13 is a section through the apex seal of the first
design. Radial support of the apex seal is on the rotor.
The components are drawn in the extreme positions they
may occupy during operation. This movement between
extremes can arise from a combination of bearing clearances, different thermal expansions, load deflections,
surface form and position errors and timing gear backlash.
I n the first design, Fig. 13a, when the gas pressure forces
the rotor away from its casing leakage areas of up to 6 mm2
can be opened up at each apex seal.
The third design is shown in a similar fashion in Fig. 14.
The apex seal is now supported radially by sliding contact
on the casing and is made smaller and lighter. This simplifies the corner problems between the tip and apex seals.
The hub ring secondary sealing surface has been moved
out of the locating groove so that the latter no longer provides a circumferential leakage path. The part of the hub
ring on the expansion side of the engine has been provided
with an integral water-cooling passage and its expansion
gap has been sealed with a stepped design. The threepiece design of apex seal can accommodate changes of
seal-line length by relative motion of its members. The
maximum area exposed by clearance allowances is now
0.5 mm2 and at the most important period when gas
pressure forces the rotor away from the casings the corner
leakage disappears. Many other detail differences not
apparent in the diagrams have been introduced. I n particular the surface finish and form have been much
improved by lapping. All surfaces are either flat or spherical so that they lend themselves to this kind of precision
finishing operation.
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150

7.2 Test performance

At the time of its design the crucial nature of the sealing
was not adequately recognized. The analysis in Section 6
is hindsight. The first tests, however, were disappointing
and the engine would not drive itself in spite of using
petrol and spark ignition. The only consolation was that
the mechanism ran remarkably smoothly. The trouble
was diagnosed as a mixture of poor combustion and poor
sealing in proportions depending on the mood of the
moment. Subsequent analysis, however, showed sealing to
be the predominant problem. Pressure diagrams during
motoring tests were analysed to establish leakage levels
which were expressed in terms of effective leakage area,
mm2. A simpler static method of testing leakage was also
used in which with one chamber at t.d.c. (top dead centre)
the pressure in the chamber was maintained by supplying
measured quantities of compressed air through a sparking
plug hole. The quantity of air needed gives a direct indication of the leakage. This static method of testing the seals
has proved invaluable and correspondence between the
leakage areas estimated in this way and by analysis of
motoring results has been good. Fig. 15 shows the progress
made with the sealing effectiveness first by detail modifications of the original design and then by two new designs. The first of these new designs did not live up to
expectations, particularly at higher speeds, but the second
appears to have provided the sort of improvement
necessary. The method of measuring seal performance by
analysis of motored pressure diagrams becomes inaccurate
for leakage areas of the order of 1 mm2 at the higher
speeds.
Remembering that there are two seal lines on each
element there are 1500 mm of seal line round each
chamber (twice the length including valve seatings for a
reciprocating piston of the same capacity). The initial
seal standard (21 mm2) therefore represents an average gap
of 0.014 mm (0.0006in) and the current average gap at
speed is about 0.0015 mm (0.000 06 in). The analysis does
not apply accurately to such small clearance but nevertheless it is obvious from these figures that any machine
adopting a non-contacting seal design, say 0.01 mm clearance, would be inadequate for use as an engine.
Measured chamber pressure diagrams and some results
of a computer simulated analysis of the pressures are compared in Fig. 16. The upper graph shows clearly the
shortcomings of the original seal performance and the
middle graph shows the current standard. At the time of
the first tests, rig limitations prevented the use of rotor

LEAKAGE AREA mmz

0
First design
before modifications
First design
after rnodificotions
after
First design
rnodificotions
Second design

Identified

PI

de/ -

Third design

Fig. 15. Seal effectiveness improvement

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

631compratio

4 8 0 120 -60 0 60 120 1

ROTOR ANGLE d q n c
a Motoring test on first seal design.
b Motoring test on third seal design.
c Power test on third seal design.
Fig. 16. Measured and simulated pressure diagrams

motoring speeds above 750 rev/min so that there is no

direct comparison possible with the higher speed motoring
results. The lower graph represents the best torque
achieved so far by using petrol and spark ignition. The indicated mean effective pressure is 400 kN/m2 which is still
low due to leakage and the measured brake power at these
conditions was 18-1kW (24.3 b.h.p.). This corresponds to
an average b.m.e.p. of 300 kN/m2 for the four chambers
and a mechanical drag of about 100 kN/m2.
8 COMPARISON WITH OTHER ENGINES
The principal advantages of rotary piston machines over
their reciprocating equivalents are their smaller size and
greater smoothness. The rotary piston machines should in
the long term reduce costs because material costs are a
high proportion of the cost of mass produced mechanical
items. The latter is the direct result of the improved
balancing and the removal of valve gear. Clearly, if seal
materials develop sufficiently to ensure satisfactory life,
the long term prospect for the rotary engine is good. In the
short term, however, if manufacturers are forced to write
offa part of their enormous investment in reciprocating
machines it will be the result of other pressures such as the
need in cars for more underbonnet space to accommodate
air-conditioning, anti-pollution and extra silencing, or in
lorries the saving of cab space in the face of increasing
installed horsepower requirements.
The most highly developed rotary piston machine to
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ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES

date is the Wankel planetary motion engine. Significant

technical differences between this and the compound
rotation machines discussed here include:
(1) The inertial loads in the Wankel engine with a
stationary trochoid* are of similar magnitude to those in a
reciprocating piston engine of the same power, shaft speed
and firing impulses per revolution. The question of inertial
loads in this new family of compound rotation units is discussed in Appendix 1 but they are very much smaller so
that these new engines should be capable of development
to higher speeds.
(2) The new compound rotation units can use both
faces of the rotor and therefore have twice as many
working chambers per rotor.
(3) The geometry of the trochoid and the need to provide a transfer passage in the rotor flank places an upper
limit on the feasible compression ratio in the Wankel
engine. This limit is very much higher in the precessing
rotor versions so that it should be possible to achieve compression ignition in one stage.
(4) The timing gears are more complex in the precessing machines but by way of compensation they do not
impose a limit on the mainshaft diameter as they do in the
Wankel engine.
( 5 ) The porting arrangements outlined in Figs 6 to 9
employ single inlet and outlet ports communicating with
from two to six chambers. This ensures much greater
continuity of flow than can be achieved in a conventional
manifold arrangement. This is an advantage from the
point of view of mixture distribution in carburetted
engines and it helps maintain reactor temperatures in
exhaust emission control devices. Peripheral ports, i.e.
ports in the trochoid, on the Wankel engine are said to be
suited to high speeds but have too much overlap for optimum low-speed running. Side ports are less suited to high
speeds because they involve sharp turns in the flow. The
corresponding precessing rotor machine can use a port
arrangement like that shown in Fig. 7. It features large
port areas with no flow turning and no overlap.

The original Wankel engine used a moving trochoid and avoided

inertial loads but the complications inherent in moving ports led to
the adoption of the present configuration.

75 1

(6) In the four cycle engines there is another considerable difference in the combustion chamber airflow near
t.d.c. Fig. 17 shows successive combustion chamber
shapes for both engines from which it can be seen that
the rapid transfer of gas across the waisted portion of the
Wankel engine chamber is absent from the precessing
version and so is the persistence near the trailing apex seal
of a pocket of gas which is remote from the combustion
process until late in the cycle. These differences may help
reduce heat loss and exhaust emissions when compared
with the Wankel engine.
(7) In the two-cycle casing machines the surfaces can
be made without special generating or cam-following
machinery and where flat and spherical surfaces are used
a high degree of precision and good finish is obtainable by
lapping.
9 CONCLUSION

Attention is drawn to a new class of rotary piston machines

for the exchange of fluid energy with a rotating shaft. The
machines are characterized by the near free body motion
(precession in some instances) of their working elements
and a compact arrangement with several chambers on
each rotor. They offer a unique combination of freedom
from inertial loads, the ability to seal by continuous
sliding contact and freedom from valve mechanisms with a
stationary casing containing-inlet and outlet ports.
One of these machines has been built and tested as a
two-cycle engine and extensive effort has been necessary
to improve the sealing effectiveness. However, recent
results have pointed the way to a solution of the seal
effectivenessproblem for certain compressor duties and a
high speed engine. A much more extensive programme of
work is necessary to improve seal life and to satisfy the
effectiveness requirements of low speed engines but it
seems probable that improvements can be made if the
development effort is forthcoming.
There are similarities with the Wankel engine but there
are also significant differences many of which favour the
new machines.
10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the

efforts of many of their colleagues at N.G.T.E. who contributed to this work and also the staff of the Computer
Aided Design Centre at Cambridge for the use of their
facilities to produce Figs 4 and 5. This paper is published
by permission of the director of the National Gas Turbine
Establishment and is Crown Copyright Reserved.

a Precessing rotor.

b Wankel.
Fig. 17. Comparison of combustion chamber shapes
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

Fig. 18. Gimbals mechanism and Eulers angles

Vol 186 62/72

J. M. CLARKE, D. F. WALKER AND P. H. HAMILTON

752

APPENDIX 1
I N E R T I A L FORCES FOR C O N S T R A I N E D P R E C E S S I O N ,
HOOKE'S C O U P L I N G M O T I O N A N D THE
WANKEL ENGINE

Precession and free-body motion

Fig; 18 shows gimbals arranged to allow three independent
rotations of a rigid body or rotor about its centre of gravity.
Rotations measured on each axis correspond to changes in
the Eulerian angles 0, J, and 4. If no frictional or other
forces act on the rotor and the inertia of the frames is
negligible the body will move freely (9) so that
B=a-

m1-m2

sin $ cos J, sin 6'

. .

(10)

11111712

tj

=a

1 cos2 $
(-----)
m,
m3

+-

sin2 J,
cos 8
m2

$1

. (11)

(cos2 J, sin2
a . . ,
m,
m2
The principal moments of inertia are m,, m2 and m3 and
m3 corresponds to the polar ($) axis and m2 to the 6' axis
when J, is zero. The multiplier, a, is a constant of the
motion having dimensions of angular momentum. Simple
rotation is the case when 6' = 0 because then
0 and $+$ = p / m , . . (13)
Steady precession occurs when m, = m2 because then
=

e=

e=O

and

c:

$ =cos6' --1

. (14)

For rotors with repeating geometry such as those shown

in the text m, = m2 so that for this class of rigid bodies
free-body motion is steady precession.

Condition f o r a positive displacement machine in a $xed

housing
The Wankel engine achieves its sealing using a three-fold
repeat of rotor geometry with an eccentric shaft which
rotates three times for each rotor revolution. In the more
general case a rotor with an N-fold repeat of geometry
moving cyclically so that 0 returns to its initial value and J,
decreases by 2 4 N - l ) / N in the interval needed for 4 to
increase by 2~ can be sealed in an analogous manner.
In the case of precession the constraints are such that
N- 1
8 = 0 and * = --$
. . (15)
N
Equations (14) and (15) cannot be satisfied simultaneously
because N is a positive integer greater than 1, cos 6'
1
and m,/m3 > +. The closest approach to free-body
motion is achieved for N = 2, 0 small and mJm3 N so
that the rotor should be thin relative to its diameter.
In the case of Hooke's coupling the Eulerian angles
satisfy

The precession with N = 2 and the motion of the

Hooke's coupling are very similar. For /3 = 20' and the
same values of #J the maximum difference is 0.22 in # and
0.16 in 6'.
Both precession with N = 2 and the motion of the
Hooke's coupling therefore satisfy the requirements for
sealing of the Wankel engine type but are also near freebody so that inertial loads are low.

Inertial couple for steady precession

The only external force applied through the bearings to
balance the rotor inertia takes the form of a constant
couple rotating in phase with the shaft (and 4) having a
magnitude C given by (9) and (10)

-C

- N s i n O(l-N(l-cos
O(1-2)))
(18)
m,Q2
where Q is the apparent rotor rotation rate defined by
Q = d+$ and 6' is the fixed tilt angle of the shaft. This
formula holds for non-integer values of N although only
integer values from 2 upwards permit positive displacement machines in stationary casings.
Fig. 19 shows contours of constant couple covering the
range of positive N values from simple rotation ( N = 0)
through the swash plate ( N = 1) to the wobble plate
( N = a).

Inertial couple for Hooke's coupling motion

The shafts are inclined at angle ,6 to each other and the
axis of 4coincides with one shaft. We assume first that the
motion of this shaft is known so that it can be written

$ = .Q(F{#J})-'" . . . (19)
where 0 is a constant and F ( 4 ) is a known function of 4.
The Langrangian equations of motion can then be used to
give the couples C, and C, conjugate to the Eulerian
angles 6' and 4. They are

. . . (20)

<

. . .
- 112

1-sin2gsin2

4)

(16)
(17)

where /3 is the angle between the shafts, and the axis of #J

is inclined at /3/2 to both shafts.
An increase of 277 in 4 returns 6' to its initial value and
reduces 4 by T so that this mechanism permits sealing of a
rotor having a two-fold repeat of geometry.
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

PRECESSION

RATE^+^-,

Fig. 19. Contours for constant couple for precessing

motion
Vol 7 86 62/72

ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES
I

and

c*

2 tan /3 cos
1+tan2 ,6 cos2

G
F

w = -

m3Q2

153

l + B tan2 /3 cos2
d+ 2F2(1 tan2 /3 cos2 +) (21)

dF
--

where G = tan /3 sin q5/( 1 tan2 ,6 cos2 +), A = ml/m3and

B = m2/m3.
It will normally be more convenient for bearing calculations to express these results relative to the shafts.
If C, is the couple having an axis parallel to that of
and the first shaft and C B is the couple having an axis
normal both to the second shaft axis and its trunnion
bearing axis (couple C, controls the normal force on the
apex of the sliding apex machine), then

CA = C,+Co sin

+ tan ,!?/(I+tan2 /3 cos2 +)

+

C, = - C,/(cos ,6( 1 tan2 /3 cos2 +)12)

(22)
(23)

One simple case arises when the first shaft is forced to

rotate at constant velocity then F = 1. A second case
corresponds to free rotation of both shafts then CA = 0,
or equivalently the kinetic energy is constant and

F=

+
+

A tan2 ,!3 sin2

+Btan2,!3cos2++1
1 tan2 /3 cos2
(1 tan2 ,6 cos2 +)

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

60
90
120
SHAFT ANGLE $
shaft speed
p = 200

150

180

Fig. 20. Couple for Hookes coupling motion

(27)

where V is the mean apex seal velocity. This formula can

be derived as a special case in the limit of equation (18) or
by considering the circular motion of the rotor centre of
gravity.
A four-cycle ( N = 3) precessing rotor engine of similar
power would have a rotor of similar mass My tip speed V
and radius R. It would have a value for ml/ma of about
13/24 (corresponding to the proportions of a disc with
thickness equal to half its radius) and a value for 6 of
about 10. The couple magnitude from equation (18) can
be expressed as

30

------ Free rotation

Comparison with the Wankel engine inertia forces

A typical Wankel engine with rotor mass M, rotor radius
R and shaft eccentricity R/7 experiences an inertial force
between rotor and shaft of magnitude

ICl = 0.1682MV2

0
-Constant

Some values of C, and C, are shown in Fig. 20.

The preceding results can be used with shafts of finite
inertia by making adjustment to the rotor inertia. If the
shaft inertias are ZA and I , for the first and second shafts
then the equivalent rotor has principal moments of
inertia given by
m: = m,+Z,
. . . . (25)
mi=m2+ZA
. . . * (26)
mi=m3+zA+IB

-0.06

(29)

If this is supported by bearing surfaces a distance R

apart the load on each is
MV2
P , = 0.1682- R
. (30)
*
.
Comparing equations (28) and (30) shows that for
similar rotor masses and tip speeds the Wankel engine
inertial forces exceed those of the precessing rotor engine
by a factor of about 7. The corresponding factor for N = 2
is about 17.
APPENDIX 2
REFERENCES

(I) WANKEL,
F. Rotary piston machines 1965 (Iliffe Books Ltd,
London).
(2) SISTO, F. Comparison of some rotary piston engines,
770B, SAE National Powerplant Meeting, October 1963.
(3) CHINITZ,W. Rotary engines, Scienr. Am., February
1969.
(4) WANKEL,F. A slant-shaft rotary piston engine, U.K.
Patent Specification No. 805370, December 1954.
(5) The Walker rotary, Motor, February 1969.
(6) WICHERT,
K. W. Characteristics of helical, rotary, positive
displacement compressors, A.S.M.E. 61-MYD-18, May
1961.
(7) DEAN,W. C. A new rotary piston engine, Mech. Engng,
October 1964.
(8) Marshall tri-dyne rotary engine, The Engineer, March 1968.
(9) WHITTAKER,
E. T. AnaZytica2 dynamics 1944 (Dover Publications Inc., New York).
(10) THOMSON,W. T. Introduction to space dynamics 1961
(John Wiley and Sons, New York and London).

Vol 186 62/72

D261

Discussion
A. J. S. Baker Member
I should like to make a few comments regarding the
mechanical specifics of this very unusual class of machine.
Like the Wankel epitrochoid machine, the torque is not
transferred between the rotor and crank via the gearing.
However, the gearing plays an important part in keeping
the rotor accurately phased; in doing so it is subject to
significantloadings due to inertial forces induced by torque
fluctuations. These forces are usually of short duration and
reverse during the cycle. It is difficult to compute the
precise value of the gear loadings instantaneously as they
are influenced by several dynamic components. T o contain this, the gearing may need to be more generously
designed than would at first be supposed if scuffing and
other difficulties are to be avoided. The drive requirements
are somewhat similar to the zero power requirements of
dynamic balancers used in reciprocating engines, which,
in fact, sometimes need a drive capacity close to the average
engine torque.
The Clarke engine offers better scope for combustion
chamber design than some other rotary machines, since
it does not suffer from parasitic volumes at minimum
combustion volume. However, in the current examples
on show, it would appear that cooling around the chamber
may be inhibited by the thinness of the rotor section.
Could the authors state whether there is any geometric
objection to making the basic rotor rather thicker at the
section occupied by the chamber ?
Examination of the crank-displacement diagram shows
this to be sinusoidal. However, first approximation calculations suggest that this is not quite so. Could the authors
define the divergence ?
The machines promise exceptionally high volumetric
efficiency since the flow through them is pulsatory but
virtually continuous. In these circumstances, unit heat
fluxes for given gas conditions should be relatively low
owing to the absence of turbulence. Many data are now
available on the heat fluxes at the sort of fluid pressures
and temperatures to be expected for the Clarke-HamiltonWalker engine. Had the authors considered any comparisons with the relatively large swept areas of their
machines ? Some data from current Wankel epitrochoid
machines suggest that they at least may be somewhat
critical in this direction.
It would appear that the length of seals subject to
lubrication by constant loss methods is somewhat higher
than that of the Wankel and significantly more than an
engine with reciprocating pistons. In the prototype engine
it appeared that the opportunity to make the circumferential end seals recirculate oil had been avoided. Could
the authors give their comments on this point which
appears of importance to pollution and chamber fouling ?
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

The use of lubricant on a constant loss or sacrificial basis

appears at first sight a retrograde step and the oil industry
might be more interested in developing future oils which
could be recirculated rather than a new breed to be used
sacrificially.
Continuing on the circumferential end seals, it would be
interesting to see any in-cycle pressure diagrams taken
between the rings. The seals represented an application of
the normal Ramsbottom piston ring pack which depends
upon static and dynamic leakage reaching the betweenring spaces sufficiently quickly in the cycle to pressurize
these spaces and hence partly relieve the sealing
force acting upon the first ring (11). I n the case of the
Clarke machine, only part of the first ring is subject to
pressure at any time; thus before any between-ring
pressure could accumulate, gas from the pressurized
segment would have to pass around the between-ring
annulus and in a normal cylinder pressure diagram this
delay would result in considerable pressure reversals
within the pack. Could it be that dynamic leakage between
segments had been partially responsible for some loss of
performance ?
A further problem of using rings in this manner is the
effect of wrapping such as that used in a capstan. Clearly
the ring would be prevented from rotating with the rotor
under pressure, as the total side forces and areas exceed
the radials. In these circumstances it depended upon the
circumferential position of the ring ends in respect of
maximum load on the ring as to whether the ring might
wrap or unwrap on the rotor. I n either case, the effect
might be to reduce sealing.
In connection with these rings, it was interesting to note
that they were made of En 31, and this reminded one of
the late R. C. Cross who pioneered rolled steel rings of this
material with great success. In particular, Cross rings
never break and this might explain why they had been
chosen in this application.
Finally, rather than attempt to find a name for this type
of engine which might satisfy an academic minority and
mean very little to practical engineers, it would be better
to call this new class simply Clarke machines. Unlike
Wankel, Clarke had not apparently considered other
types of rotary, thus the description would be quite
specific.
REFERENCE
(11)

BAKER,A. J. S., CASALE,

P. G. and SLOAN,H. Piston ring
loading factors and a method of wear measurement in
engine cylinders, 9th CIMAC Congress 1971, paper
No. A.29.

S. A. Egberongbe Guildford
Rotary piston machines are not a novelty, but because of
Vol 186 62/72

D262

DISCUSSION ON J. M. CLARKE, D. F. WALKER AND I?. H. HAMILTON

an almost infinite variety of possible arrangements, both

of moving components and power taken off, they have
confused engineers as to where to begin. The adoption of
precision motion, resulting in low inertia forces and consequent high speed capability, gives this new type of rotary
machine an advantage over all others.
The use of integral cooling passages for oil in the rotor
and water in the casing appears inadequate for an engine
with high power/weight ratio. Could the authors give an
indication of the magnitude of the thermal loading at a
rotor speed of 2500 rev/min when the unit delivers 118kW?
Could the authors also explain how they hope to avoid the
risk of oil seeping into the combustion chamber.
F. Feller Fellow

I found the introduction, which establishes the category

into which the new machines can be placed, most helpful.
Both the engine commonly referred to as the Wankel
engine and the group of engines described in the paper
have precessing rotors and internal axes. Why not then
refer to the former as the parallel axis rotary engine and
to the latter as the slant axis rotary engine ?
Of particular interest to me was the Comparison with
other engines., I agree completely with the summary of
rotary engine virtues, vis-a-vis the reciprocating engine,
but I am not convinced that any of the differences between
the slant axis rotary engine and the parallel axis rotary
engine give the former an overriding advantage in
practice, for instance:
(1) The parallel axis rotary engine has proved itself to
be a very smooth engine capable of running up to high
speeds. In fact the only limitation to speed has been apex
seal wear and the rate of combustion. How could inertia
loads help in this respect ?
(2) Having twice as many working chambers per rotor
could become a thermal problem and hence a disadvantage.
(3) T o be able to have a higher compression ratio
and a more compact combustion chamber is attractive
for a diesel version, but I would set against this
advantage the need for a very large end-thrust assembly
and the more difficult gas seal configuration, wherein the
hub seal sits in the casing, while the rest of the seals are in
the rotor, and where the apex seal has to cope with
different wear conditions along its length and perhaps also
different lubricating conditions as, under centrifugal force,
droplets of oil are carried to one end of the seal.
In my view the other differences cited do not significantly change the balance in favour of the slant axis
rotary machine, but I hasten to add that this does not
detract from the work done by the authors in extending
our knowledge and testing the possibilities of this unexplored configuration of the rotary engine.
D. P. Hutchinson Member
I see many, and vet a few, of the considerable number of
rotary engines that are being offered for consideration at
the present time.
Many inventors have not studied their thermodynamics
fundamentals adequately and even more have little idea of
the basic mechanisms required to make their machines a
sound engineering proposition, let alone an economic one.
These criticisms cannot justifiably be levelled at this
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

rotary machine. Ingenuity, backed up by a great deal of

careful engineering thought, characterizes this work.
It is perhaps unfortunate that there are so many
variations available and but one brief paper to discuss
them. The two cycle version selected for detail development appears theoretically ideal as a compressionignition variant; this is mentioned on page 748. However,
the high pressures involved would impose a stringent
sealing requirement and there is no further mention of a
C.I. version. The choice of this form of the engine further
clouds the assessment of its capability since a supply of
compressed air is needed to scavenge the engine and it is
not clear what contribution this makes to the measured
power output of the engine. Including this contribution,
the 18 kW obtained (p. 750), or even nearly double this
figure (mentioned by J. M. Clarke), is still far short of the
118 kW anticipated (p. 748) and it does seem a pity that
development of this interesting form of engine has
apparently had to be curtailed before achieving even more
convincing output figures. We are also left wondering
whether the 4-cycle version might be better, particularly in
the spark-ignition version.
In detail I feel that too much emphasis has been placed
on low inertia leading to high-speed operation. Surely the
latter depends much more on combustion rate than inertia
of moving parts and it is not clear how much turbulence
can be achieved in the combustion chamber in order to
improve it. The low inertia is an advantage when rapid
accelerations and decelerations of the engine are required.
This is undoubtedly one of the most interesting and
promising rotary piston engine designs so far produced.
A. M. Laws Member
My comments fall into three distinct categories-sealing,
engine bulk and comparative costs.
Fig. 10 shows the cross-section of a 2 litre unit and
this has been used to draw comparisons with other
engine types.
The minimal extent of the directly oil-wetted portion of
the sealing grid and relatively high frictional losses
referred to in the paper of 100 kN/m2 in an indicated
mean effective pressure of 400kN/m2 at 1775 rotor
rev/min stimulates an interesting comparison:

4 Chamber N.G.T.E.

P==f+E
2 Rotor 2 htre Wankel
4 Cylinder 2 litre reciprocating

2850

32

2200

85
54

m*

Inclusive of valve seats.

The comparison is further illustrated in Fig. 21

which depicts frictional losses taken from dynamometer
tests at Associated Engineering Developments Ltd on
production reciprocating and Wankel engines, together
with the single point result from the paper.
It would seem from its configuration that the National
Gas Turbine Establishment engine could readily suffer
from an excess of lubricant in the combustion chamber,
leading to high emissions and plug fouling, unless stringent
oil control measures and maybe capacitor ignition were
employed. It would be instructive if the authors could
Vol 186 62/72

ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES

TRAILING

D263

LEAD1N G

-.

,TRAIL
4

I2

10

.
78
E
E

LL

0
0

2000
3000
4000
ROTATION SPEED rev/min

rn

(I) N.G.T.E. engine.

(11) 4-cylinder reciprocating engine.
(111) 2-rotor Wankel engine.
Fig. 21. Frictional losses in different engine types
HIGH PRESSURE ROTOR ROTATION degrees
SHAFT SPEED 500 rev/min MOTORED

Fig. 23. Computed seal contact force

Ir1 J- IJ
I,

-N.G.T.E.
engine.
4-cylinder reciprocating engine.
- - - - 2-rotor Wankel engine.

Fig. 22. Comparison of overall engine size

comment on any lubrication problems encountered, and

the palliatives used.
With regard to engine bulk, the proposed type compares
favourably with orthodox reciprocating engines of both
in-line and vee configuration (Fig. 22); indeed, it shares
with the second generation of Wankel engines the size
advantages so familiar with rotary types.
No details of cost have been given, but in view of the
generally high level of finish, abundance of spherical
forms and multiplicity of gears, one wonders if it shares
with the Wankel the necessity for substantial investment
in high precision machine tools; some comment on this
important aspect might be appropriate in view of the
promising nature of the whole concept.
B. Lawton Graduate
I n the main I wish to discuss sealing problems for engines
of the type developed by the authors.
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

The authors have made great progress in reducing

static leakage area from 20 mm2 to 2 mm2. At the Royal
Military College of Science we have measured the leakage
area of a 500 cm3 per chamber diesel-Wankel engine and
found it to be 1 mm2. However, the achievement of a low
static leakage area is one problem; the maintenance of low
leakage in a working engine is another. It is convenient to
imagine a dynamic leakage area superimposed on static
leakage area when an engine is operating.
Dynamic leakage is illustrated in Fig. 23. This shows
computed seal contact force for one revolution of a rotor.
The calculation was made for a motored 500 cm3 per
chamber diesel-Wankel engine. At many points in the
cycle there is zero contact force and hence zero contact
between apex seal and trochoid. Regions of zero contact
are regions where dynamic leakage occurs and this is
superimposed on static leakage.
It seems to me that the comparatively poor performance,
to date, of the authors engine can largely be attributed to
poor sealing when the engine is in motion. Sealing must be
aggravated by relative motion between seal and rotor
which is caused by the use of a plane stator seal surface
rather than a suitably curved seal surface. Could the
authors comment on the feasibility of using a curved stator
seal surface. Also, if the authors agree that it is dynamic
leakage rather than static leakage that is now the problem,
do they have any suggestions for improving the dynamic
performance of their seals ? Have chatter marks been
observed in the authors engine similar to those that are so
characteristic of Wankel engines ? Has sufficient running
been done to indicate wear rates for the seals ?
Fig. 16 was puzzling at first because the compression
pressure seems high. Could the authors give the air
supply pressure and also the volumetric efficiency of their
engine ?
Finally, in order for us to form an assessment of the
combustion chamber could the authors tell us the surface
area: volume ratio and the proportion of dead volume at
the minimumvolume position? Perhaps wecould have these
data for both two-stroke and four-stroke arrangements.
Vol 186 62/72

DISCUSSION O N J. M. CLARKE, D. F. WALKER AND P. H. HAMILTON

D264

E. Markland Member
Anyone interested in this class of machine as an engine
will naturally ask what was the net power output and fuel
consumption of the experimental unit. Neither of these is
given in the paper. The value quoted for measured brake
power, 18-1 kW, is quite meaningless-even misleadingin the absence of the corresponding figure for input
power to the supercharger which is necessary to run the
engine. Will the authors please give us their estimate of
this, on the basis of air consumption and supercharge
pressure used? May we also have the figure for fuel
consumption ?
The authors diagnosed the early failure of the engine as
a mixture of poor combustion and poor sealing and have
pursued the latter with apparent disregard of the former.
However, they now assert that combustion is satisfactory.
How can this be reconciled with the statement made, on
presentation of the paper, that large quantities of unburnt
fuel are discharged in the exhaust ?

A. Moore Glasgow and R. A. Meir Glasgow

We should like to comment on some of the critical

features associated with these machines when they are
designed as compressors.
When introduced to these machines by the authors we
were impressed with two particular attributes : their high
speed capability and their apparent mechanical simplicity.
Our work has largely been devoted to analysing and
assessing compressor designs which exploit these two
features.
If one wishes to run a rotary machine at tip speeds in
excess of 50 m s - l then contact seals may be eliminated.
Acceptable volumetric efficiencies are obtainable with
controlled clearances between rotor and casing. I n our
analysis we have assumed that the effective leakage gap can
be held within 0.1 per cent of the nominal spherical radius.
It is essential in the case of a high speed compressor to
take account of all the dynamic head losses. In our
analysis head losses incurred in both sets of ports along
with those associated with the changes in angular momentum given to the gas in passing through the compressor
are included.
If one analyses the authors design of compressor using
the ports suggested in Fig. 9 at the stage pressure ratio
3 : 1, then one finds that the performance is dominated by
the dynamic head losses. These losses are attributable in
the main to the restricted exhaust port area.
Some of the results of this analysis are given in Table
3. From the results of this work we would suggest that
Table 3

Pressure ratio = 3: 1

Volumetric&deaCy
Tipspe.d(ms-)
Dynarmchead loss
Useful
head
__

0.8

40
0.1

0-9

80
0-25

Siugle rotor

Hookes coupling

Modified
Hookes coupling

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

Fig. 24

it is unlikely that the overall adiabatic efficiency of such a

compressor could exceed 60 per cent.
We are presently engaged in evaluating a modified
version of the basic Hookes coupling compressor which
alleviates the exhaust port restriction. Initial estimates
suggest that tip speeds up to 100 m
are possible
without the overall adiabatic efficiency falling below 70
per cent when the pressure ratio is 3: 1.
Mechanical simplicity is exemplified by the sliding apex
machine. Fig. 24 shows a simple blower of this type built
at the National Engineering Laboratory. When tested in
its crudest form it was found to be noisy. This noise was
attributed largely to knocking at the apex associated with
the couple C, (equation (23)). Subsequent work involving
the use of resilient material to control the preload in the
axial direction encourages us to believe that this problem
may be overcome.
The sliding contact suggests a tip speed limit of about
10 m s-l. With such a limitation a machine of the simple
type shown is not suitable for pressure ratios greater than
1.1.
As the rubbing action at the apex already limits the tip
speed, the machine lends itself to sealing. A sealed sliding
apex blower appears to be suitable for low capacity duties
and pressure ratios up to about 1.5: 1.
J. M. Clarke Member, D. F. Walker Member and
P. J. Hamilton Pyestock (Authors)
F. Feller suggests that this class of rotary piston
machine be referred to as slant axis as opposed to parallel
axis for the Wankel and this seems eminently sensible.
It is a descriptive term and unlike precessing it is easily
enunciated. Other titles such as wobble and skew axis
have been suggested but contain undesirable undertones
of loose motion and misalignment. The use of an inventors
name would be unfair applied to the whole class since
similar Hookes coupling machines have been seen before.
Inertia loads are not an important consideration at low
speeds and the parallel axis engine like the reciprocating
engine works satisfactorilyin spite of them. However, high
output versions will run faster and racing reciprocating
piston engines certainly fatigue from inertia induced loads.
If there was as much freedom to choose combustion
chamber geometry in the parallel axis device as there is in
Vol 186 62/72

ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES

the slant axis device perhaps there would be rotaries with

more rapid combustion, higher speeds and higher outputs
available now.
Cooling of conventional piston crowns is achieved without force-fed cooling oil. In the slant axis rotary it is much
simpler to supply oil under pressure for cooling purposes
and with proper design of passages it appears possible to
cool the rotor adequately in this way.
We would like to thank R. A. Meir and A. Moore for
their observations on the possible compressor applications,
and wish them success with their researches in that
direction. It may be worth remarking that the relative
importance of port aerodynamic losses and inertia loads
depends on the gas used so that, for instance, the lighter
gases such as ammonia and helium permit much higher
fluid speeds and therefore offer more scope for using the
basically low inertia loads.
A. M. Laws makes some unfavourable comparisons
with the parallel axis unit on grounds of oil wetted seal
length and friction drag. It is assumed that the circumferential tip seal in the rotor is not directly wetted by oil.
Although we have not done so it would be possible to feed
oil through the outer casing at a point never crossed by the
tip seals and on their low pressure side so that they then
become wetted. The comparison of friction mean
effective pressure (m.e.p.) with indicated m.e.p. implies
by using the ratio that our problem is a high friction drag.
Actually it is our low indicated m.e.p. attributable to
leakage which is the trouble. It is also worth noting that
our bearing areas are probably greater than necessary
since they were originally sized for a compression-ignition
duty. In our experience friction drag compares favourably
with conventional compression-ignition engine experience
(12). A computer simulation of the test conditions corresponding to the results in Fig. 16c gives 778 kN/m2
i.m.e.p. the friction m.e.p. would not rise much, so that
point (I) in A. M. Laws Fig. 21 would probably move
below curve (111). Concerning the number of gears it
should be stressed that for 4-cycle designs it should be
possible to dispense with both the layshaft and bevel shaft
and simply use a static bevel pinion. This also achieves a
smaller unit. Regarding the size of an investment in
machine tools, a transition to any rotary engine involves
such an investment. We suspect that differences in
investment needs between rotary engines are very much
smaller than the basic cost of a change to a new production
line.
A. Egberongbe asks about thermal loadings. These
would indeed be more severe on the rotor than those of a
reciprocating piston. Heat to the rotor cooling oil depends
on the extent to which the rotor is cooled by seal contact
with the casings and here a long seal length tends to offset
a large exposed area. It is difficult to make accurate
estimates. We have, however, measured rotor tip temperatures of about 260C. The quantity of oil needed for
lubrication of the seals is very small-perhaps as little as
0.5 per cent of fuel. With oil control of an adequate
standard past the hub rings there need be no serious
accumulation of oil in the combustion chambers. I n the
preferred configuration of a 4-stroke spark-ignition engine
described below there would not be a combustion chamber
in the casing.
B. Lawton raises a number of interesting points concerning cyclic variation of seal performance and loads. The
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

D265

understanding of dynamic seal behaviour is important to

the development of rotary engines whether parallel axis or
slant axis. Our experience,however, has been that statically
tested leakage areas have given the performance under
running conditions which could be estimated by assuming
constant leakage area throughout the cycle. We would not
expect to achieve measured performance if the seal left
the surface for substantial periods as implied by Fig. 23.
Surface markings too suggest that apex seals remain in
contact, On the other hand our experience with soft seals
in a parallel axis machine confirms Fig. 23 to the extent
that wear on the apex is greatest at an angle corresponding
approximately to B. Lawtons calculated peak loading. The
hard chrome surfaces used on the end casings have tended
to crack from thermal strains and poor adhesion but there
seems to be no sign of chatter marks. Perhaps this is
because there is no apex seal ski-jump in the 2-cycle slant
axis machine. We have approximated the exact surface by
a flat one to avoid manufacturing complications. I n terms
of extra apex seal movement relative to the rotor this costs
about f0.3 mm. The expression for the difference
between a flat surface and the actual surface is
r{sin x(1-cos2 O)+sin x sin2 8 cos 2t,h
-cos x sin e( 1-cos 0) sin 2+ cos t,h}
where r is the distance of the seal from the centre, r sin x is
the distance of the seal from the central plane of the rotor,
and 0 and t,h correspond to the main text. Seal movement
is less than this if the seal uses a large radius apex.
Table 4 gives figures for surfaces and volumes and a
comparison with a reciprocating unit. The Am,J Vmlnratio
is normally closer than this comparison indicates because
rotary engines having equal power to their reciprocating
equivalents normally use larger chambers.
Regarding the remarks by D. Hutchinson and E.
Markland we would not like the results obtained to be

Slant axis rotary piston*

2 4 e

4-cJrde

Reciprocptins
PB-t
0.164 m3

Minimum possible
clearance

volume

Am*.
Vmm

I 0

I oLessthan
-Wm3I

82-33m-

70.0 m-l

34-5

Vol 186 62/72

D266

DISCUSSION ON J. M. CLARKE, D. F. WALKER AND P. H. HAMILTON

taken as representing the potential of the machine-far

from it we believe. In trying to put our results into context
and to explain the high levels of compression pressure
observed in Fig. 16 the following points deserve mention.
(1) The basic arrangement was intended for compression-ignition operation. Using spark-ignition so that
lower compression pressures and leakage losses were
feasible (i) it was not possible to provide an ideal combustion chamber having all its volume in a rotor cutout
because the rotor was too narrow to accommodate both
combustion chamber and coolant passages, and (ii) the
scavenge-blowing arrangement meant that some fuel
added in the inlet manifold by-passed the cycle and
flowed directly down the exhaust.
(2) Given a further stage of work on this unit it is felt
desirable (i) to transfer to the 4-stroke version so that the
unit is self-contained, (ii) to place the entire seal grid
within the rotor and (iii) to place the whole combustion
chamber within the rotor.
(3) The compression pressures are high in Fig. 16c
because (i) the supply pressure was 125 kN/m2 with an
atmospheric exhaust of 100 kN/m2 and (ii) the pressure
when the inlet port finally closes is higher than the supply
pressure (152 kN/m2) according to our simulator programme, because by this time the chamber volume is being
reduced rapidly and flow is reversed through the inlet port.
(4) When the running conditions are repeated on the
simulator and there is no seal leakage the indicator
diagram appears as in Fig. 25 having an indicated mean
effective pressure (i.m.e.p.) of 778 kN/m2, Evidently a t
the present leakage levels the i.m.e.p. is approximately
half the ideal value.
(5) Using a rig compressor to supply higher air pressure
than the exhaust tends to raise the expected shaft output
because (i) with the asymmetric port timing pumping
work can be done by the charge air on the rotor, (ii) the
density of the charge air is increased and (iii) the shaft
power output could be debited with the necessary compression work of the blower; on the other hand part of
this work is normally supplied by an expander. Taking the
results for which a 400 kN/m2 i.m.e.p. is quoted the
pumping work m.e.p. is of the order of 2 kN/m2 and the
compression work of the blower requires a torque corresponding to 45 kN/m2. The same charge air density has
been used for the simulated ideal case as for the measured
case. Making these allowances illustrates that the machine
is certainly not being blown round by pumping work from
its supply air pressure and the claim to have reached about
half ideal (no leakage) i.m.e.p. is valid after allowance for
blower work. Fuel consumption has to be higher than
normal because i.m.e.p. is lower due to leakage and
because by-passing of excess scavenge air, not necessarily
inadequate combustion, causes unburnt fuel to be discharged into the exhaust.

A. J. S . Baker asks about cyclic loads on timing gears. It is

quite true that rotor inertia will tend to oppose fluctuations
in mainshaft speed through the timing gears. It seems
very difficult to calculate the magnitude of these loads.
Such cyclic loads would have to cause gear backlash
oscillations if they exceed the relatively small steady
torque caused by the difference between rotor bearing drag
and seal drag. We would expect to detect chattering of the
gears in this event but we did not. Except for instances
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

Fig. 25

where cold backlash was too small there were no mechanical troubles attributable to the gears. All gears incidentally
were milled. The rotor can be made thicker at the design
stage simply by siting the seals further from the centre
plane of the rotor. In the case of designs having all the
seals in the rotor, the combustion chamber can be situated
partly in the hub sphere of the rotor. I n this way low
compression ratios could be accommodated without using
thicker rotors. Our calculations have shown volume
variations to be sinusoidal to within f0.06 per cent of the
sine semi-amplitude. We cannot agree entirely with the
suggestion that the turbulence may be low in the incoming air since the individual chambers will see a cyclic
variation in mass flow similar to that in the conventional
engine. Air motions within the chambers must affect heat
fluxes and probably differ between engines much more
significantly than the surface areas. It seems certain that
in this slant axis engine as in the parallel axis engine heat
losses are higher than those of the reciprocating engine
but the effect on fuel consumption may be partly offset by
lower friction. The hub rings have in fact been designed
to recirculate oil using the oil scraper and tapered land
technique but a poor surface finish of both hub and grooves
did lead to excessive oil passing this arrangement.
Pressures were in fact measured between the end seals.
Any detectable rise (3 kN/m2) presaged failure of the hub
compression ring. The capstan effect is relevant to the hub
and tip seals and the proper positioning of their anchor
points relative to the rotation direction. In fact the hub
ring was anchoredso that three-quarters ofthe circumference
wrapped on while a quarter wrapped off. The tip seals
were located so that their half-circumference lengths
wrapped off. This latter choice was based on discussion
Vol 186 62/72

ROTARY PISTON MACHINE SUITABLE FOR COMPRESSORS, PUMPS AND I.C. ENGINES

rather than experience of worse arrangements, but the hub

ring anchor point followed less satisfactory experience
using full circumference wrap off. The late R. C . Cross
was in fact responsible for the supply of the steel hub
rings, and they never broke.
Since the paper was written higher powers were
obtained, the highest being 30 kW at a rotor speed of
2325 rev/min corresponding to a b.m.e.p. of 380 kN/m2.
At the inlet air conditions used for this particular test the
air blower would absorb about 133kN/m2, but scavenge
was excessive and exhaust back pressuring could supply a
proportion of this by allowing expansion work.
Table 5 represents an attempt to summarize our view
of the position of the slant axis rotary engine. Any rotary
having an attraction commercially should offer over the
reciprocating engine a smaller size and the absence of
valve gear. To succeed in performance it must use sliding
contact seals which precludes numerous external-axis
machines such as the Tri-Dyne. It should have low
inertia induced external forces for comfort and silence and
low inertia induced internal forces for low stresses at
speed and to allow potential for development to high
speeds. For possible development to compression ignition
and to allow options in combustion chamber shape it should
have potential for high compression ratio.
The kind opening remarks by many contributors to the

Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

D267

Table 5

Compactness

No valves

I - 1 4 4

Sliding contact seals

Low internal inertia

forces

Low external inertia

forces

Potentially high
compression ratio

-4
J I
-J-J
J

discussion are acknowledged with gratitude. Having

reached this stage it is our earnest hope that the potential
of the slant axis rotary piston machines will be explored
much further.
REFERENCE

(12)MILLINGTON,
B. W. and HARTLES,
E. R.

Frictional losses in
diesel engines, S.A.E. Paper No. 680590, September 1968.

Vol 186 6211 2