Career Management

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT
CAREER MANAGEMENT
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................... 3
Lecture 1: Work ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Lecture 2: Variables Associated with Work ............................................................................................. 9
Lecture 3: Variables of Work.................................................................................................................. 14
Lecture 4: Career Concepts ..................................................................................................................... 20
Lecture 5: Career Management Models .................................................................................................. 30
Lecture 6: Life and Career Stages Childhood-Adolescence (Phase I) .................................................... 34
Lecture 7: Life and Career Stages Early Adult Life Late Life (Phase II) ............................................. 40
Lecture 8: Career Choice Theories ......................................................................................................... 56
Lecture 9: Organizational Choice ........................................................................................................... 62
Introduction
This course introduce the learners to the concept of work, career, career models, career life stages
and career choice and organizational choice
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this course the learner should be able to:
i)
ii)
iii)
Explain the concept of work and the variables that define work.
Discuss the various career concepts and models in career management.
Elucidate the career life stages that an individual goes through in their careers.
Lecture 1: Work
1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the first lecture on the definition of work and the different concepts associated with
work. We shall begin the lecture by highlighting meaning of work. We will further explain the
other related terms;
1.2 Specific objectives:

i) At the end of the lecture you should be able:
ii) Define work and enumerate its various meaning.
iii) Discuss the historical contexts that give rise to changing meanings of work over time.
1.3 Lecture Outline

1.1 Meaning of Work
1.2 Historical Context that Give Rise to Changing Meaning of Work Over Time
1.1 Pre-Industrial Times
1.2 The Industrial Times
1.3 The Post Industrial Times
1.4 The 21st Century Workplace
1.5 End of Lecture activities (self-tests)
1.6 Summary
1.7 Suggestions for further reading
Introduction
The meaning of work embraces the significance that work or working has in peoples lives.
Work sustains life in the sense of biological survival, and it can also sustain the quality of
life.
Different meanings can be derived from different concepts associated with work; Work
can be construed in the following ways;
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(i) As a means of making a living,

(ii) Being occupied,
(iii)Fulfilling a vocation,
(iv) Developing and utilizing skills
(v) Fulfilling needs,
(vi) Contributing to an all-embracing lifestyle.
(vii)
Fulfilling a life purpose
Individual meanings of work are also derived directly or indirectly from socio-cultural
influences in the context of;
i) Family socialization.
ii) School socialization.
iii) Group affiliations and
iv) Work experience
Historical contexts that give rise to changing meanings of work over time;
Pre- Industrial Times

Meanings associated with work in pre-industrial times are;
i.
ii.
iii.
Work as drudgery, hard menial or dull work.

Work as an instrument to spiritual or religious ends, and
Work as intrinsically meaningful for its own sake.
The Industrial Times

With industrialization, the meaning of work became a problem area, in that meaning was not selfevident. Industrialization involved, inter alia;
i) Mass production of objects in factories, with accompanying structural changes in the work
process.
ii) Division of labor became more extensive; work tasks became fragmented and reduced to
mechanistic, repetitive functions that adversely affected workers commitment to their jobs.
iii) The high rates of production expected by industry
iv) Long working hours led to a decline in the will to work and to a seeking of meaning outside
work.
The Post Industrial Times
In post-industrialism the focus is on
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i) Information rather than in industry.

ii) Production is associated with producing ideas in offices in addition to manufacturing
objects in factories.
iii) The proliferation of new technologies, in, for example, computerization and
communications, and
iv) Interaction of different cultures, involves heterogeneity in beliefs and tasks in society.
The cultural climate of post-industrialization, which is referred to as post-modernism, is
characterized by;
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Recognition of differences,
Plurality,
Paradox, and
Eclecticism, which involves various possibilities and choices
The 21st century workplace is putting under focus the changing meaning of work.
i) Shifts from national to global markets
ii) Shift from technological to information,
iii) Service-based economies that signal dramatic changes that are also reflected in the nature
of work and how it is performed
iv) Organization transitioning; three types of organizational transitioning have received
increasing attention in the 21st century. This are;
a) Mergers and acquisitions,
b) Restructuring and downsizings, and
c) Privatizations
v) Some of the dramatic changes resulting from these transitions and that are affecting work
and organizations include
a) Increased global competition,
b) The impact of information technology,
c) The re-engineering of business processes
d) Smaller companies that employ fewer people and
e) Shift from making a product to providing a service, and
f) The increasing disappearance of the meaning of job as a fixed collection of tasks.
1.7 Activities
1. What is the significance of work in peoples lives? What is the significant of work
in your life?
2. Why is it important to understand the significance of work in peoples lives?
3. Does the pre-industrial meaning of work still influence the significance of
working in the 21st century? Discuss and explain
1.8 Self Test Questions
What advice would you offer todays employees regarding the frustrations they may
experience in the organization due to unfulfilled needs relating to work?
1.9 Summary
In this lecture you have learnt that:
1. Evolution of meanings associated with work

2. Work as a central life interest
3. Work in the 21st century does not have a single meaning but can constitute various
meanings.
4. Diversity in the 21st century will be evolutionary rather than revolutionary
1.7 Suggestion for further reading
Ackah, C and Heaton, N (2003) The reality of new careers for men and women.
Journal of European Industrial Training, 28(2/3/4), 141-158
Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of

Career Development, 486-493, New Delhi: sage publication
Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old

problems: Avant-garde solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Ballout, HI (2009) career commitment and career success: moderating role of Selfefficacy. Career Development International, 14 (7), 655-670
Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing

traditional and contemporary viewpoints: Human Resource Management Review, 16,
125-138
Careers an Organizational Perspective 4th Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetzee
Lecture 2: Variables Associated with Work

2.1 Introduction
Welcome to the second lecture. In the first lecture, we went through the meaning of work, in this
lecture we shall attempt to go through the variables that define work.
2.2 Specific objectives
At the end of the lecture you should be able:

1. Explain in depth work as a sense of belonging in the society.
2. Work as Power structures
3. Work as influenced by values.
2.3 Lecture Outline

2.4 A Sense of Belonging in Society
2.5 Values
2.6 Power Structures
2.7 Status
2.8 End of lecture activities (self tests)
2.9 Summary
2.4 A sense of belonging in society:
Work provides a basis for integrating people into society by providing connections
between people.
Work involves membership of social groups, which is a means of satisfying the needs for
affiliation and interpersonal contact, and of providing social identity.
2.5 Values
The term values is used interchangeably to denote norms, beliefs, principles, preferences, needs,
interests, intentions, codes, criteria, world-view or ideology.
Such terms suggest that values can be seen as orientations or dispositions that selectively determine
modes of behavior and life forms, including work behavior and work form.
Values develop as a result of external socio-cultural forces and internal psychological factors that
influence the individual.
Socio-cultural norms become personal objectives of the individual that are transformed to values
or orientations that are socially sanctioned
Since values can have an impact on work performance. Measured performance values include the
work ethic, pursuit of excellence, status aspiration, and authoritarianism, the need for material
gain, mastery, and competitiveness.
The relation between values and the meaning of work can be direct or indirect and imperceptible,
and it can be complicated by the fact that the meaning of work associated with values does not
necessarily constitute the goals of work.
2.6 Power Structures

Dominant groups in society and organizations transmit values and goals to the workplace by virtue
of their positions of power and control over economic activity.
As power groups subscribe to different values, different meanings of work come into practice. In
democratic power structures, for example, the meaning of work revolves around human dignity,
liberty, equality, and solidarity, which are values that have little meaning in autocratic power
structures.
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Power groups also determine the ways in which decision are made in organizations, for example,
whether decisions with regard to change are made unilaterally by management or by participation
of workers.
How organizational values are communicated to workers and how workers are assisted to
understand values incorporated in the design of jobs.
Power structures in society are constantly changing.
Formerly power was mainly concentrated in large, centralized organizations such as government,
the civil service, and the bureaucratic organizations in the public and private sectors, which were
seen as equipped to plan on behalf of the society.
Individuals now have self-ownership of their careers, which can be defined in terms of individual
actions that structure their careers.
This brings about the concept of the boundary less career, which refers to a sequence of job
enactments which goes beyond the single employment scenario.
2.7 Status
Status arises largely from the tendency to categorize people according to work related factors.
Work therefore determines the individuals place in the status hierarchy of the community.
Status is ascribed to individuals by society, family, friends, and co-workers.
Generally it is ascribed to individuals according to material achievement (that is the financial
income which work generates), and to social achievement (that is, prestige associated with a type
of job).
Beside the job, social achievement can include non-work activities and social roles, for example
membership of exclusive clubs, societies, or other social groups. Such groups can have social
norms that influence and reinforce the individual to comply with correct behaviors and in this
way social norms associated with status can become personal meanings.
2.8 Activities
1. Name and briefly describe the various work values that influence the meaning of
work.
2. Which of these values apply to the significance that work has in your life
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1. Are power structures and status still relevant in todays rapidly changing
environment? Discuss and explain
2.10 Summary
In this lecture you have learnt that:

1. Work values being used to interchangeable to denote norms, beliefs, principles,
preferences, needs, interests, intentions, codes, criteria, world-view or ideology.
2. Power structures in society are constantly changing
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Ackah, C and Heaton, N (2003) The reality of new careers for men and women. Journal of
European Industrial Training, 28(2/3/4), 141-158
Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of Career

Development, 486-493, New Delhi: sage publication
Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old problems:
Avant-garde solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Ballout, HI (2009) career commitment and career success: moderating role of Self-efficacy.
Career Development International, 14 (7), 655-670
Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and
contemporary viewpoints: Human Resource Management Review, 16, 125-138
Careers an Organizational Perspective 4th Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetze
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Lecture 3: Variables of Work

3.0 Introduction
Welcome to the third lecture. In the second lecture, we went through the following variables that
define work; work as sense of belonging in the society, work as defined by values, work as defined
through power structure and work as status. In this lecture we shall attempt to go through the
remaining variables that define work.
At the end of the lecture you should be able to:

1. Explain in depth work as a central Life Interest.
2. Discuss the Leisure variable that defines work.
3. Explain Self Actualization variable of work.
4. Discuss competency and spirituality as a work variable.
3.2 Lecture Outline

3.3 Central Life Interest
3.4 Leisure
3.5 Self Actualization
3.6 Competency
3.7 Spirituality at Work
3.9 Summary
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3.3 Central Life Interest

A fundamental factor in the meaning of work is the centrality of work, which is the degree of
importance that working has in the life of an individual at any given point in time.
The idea of work as central life interest is stimulated by the fact that for most adults working
occupies a large part of their lives.
Research shows that, for the majority of people, work is not a central life interest, although it has
a different centrality for different occupational groups.
It has been suggests that work has more centrality for professional people. Because professional
practice is creative, it involves personal responsibility for the outcomes of ones work
performance, and it involves a degree of risk and uncertainty, which requires personal
accountability.
Work as central life interest does not refer to the content of work, but to the value outcomes- that
is, rewards of working- relative to the outcomes of other life roles. Therefore individuals who have
high work centrality will probably see job performance as instrumental in obtaining many rewards,
such as self-worth, growth, and personal satisfaction while Individuals with low centrality, on the
other hand, may perceive performance as related only to pay.
3.4 Leisure
Leisure involves activities that fall outside the context of work, and which are not necessarily
instrumental in sustaining income, but can constitute ways in which work is connected to nonwork.
The relation between work and leisure is not clear cut.
Work may have a spillover effect on leisure as, if work has positive meaning for individuals, they
will possibly have positive attitudes to leisure activities, whereas if work is not meaningful to
individuals they will probably engage in non-working that are likewise meaningless.
The pursuit of leisure can create values distinct from work values.
More leisure time means more time for interactions between members of families and, as the
interactions occupies more time, communication between family members changes.
Leisure can involve activities that are work activities. Making things, selling things, providing
services, running small scale enterprises, can provide meaning in terms of the value of the products
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and services themselves. Such activities can also acquire meaning in the context in which they are
done.
Learning how to utilize free time effectively and realizing that in utilizing self-determined time
individuals can create their own meaning, it is also a coping with non-work in terms of
employment.
3.5 Self Actualization

Self-actualization is a process of inner directedness through which the individuals give expression
to their intrinsic nature. It involves the tendency to enrich oneself by psychological growth and by
seeing meaning in being (Rogers, 1978).
Characteristics associated with self-actualized people include autonomy in the sense of relative
independence of the physical and social environment, democratic orientation, feeling of
connectedness with others, freshness of appreciation, feeling at ease with complexity and
ambiguity (Maslow, 1970).
Self-actualization contributes to ones sense of identity, identity centers around questions such as
what do I want to make myself? and what do I have to work?
It therefore involves ones self concept and these self-concepts can find expression through selfactualization in work.
Self-concept can be expressed or repressed in varying degrees by various work factors. If a selfconcept is not congruent with a requirement of a job, work loses its meaning and authentic part of
the self is repressed.
If self-concepts are in harmony with job activities, individuals find intrinsic meaning in their work
and feel sense of being whole.
3.6 Competency
Finding intrinsic meaning and sense of identity in work amounts to a career competency that
characterizes the individual.
The accumulation of competencies has become important in the contemporary milieu of job,
organizational and career structures. It serves as dual purpose- equipping the individual to adapt
to change, and contributing to satisfying organizational requirements.
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The increasing practice of downsizing the workforce by termination and lay-offs in favor of hiring
part-time, contract and seasonal workers, means that workers are hired by virtue of their existing
capabilities, are not offered training by the organization and do not become committed to a
particular organization. Thus individuals have to take responsibility for and finding meaning in
their performance per se.
Fluctuations in utilizing competencies may be understood in terms of three modes of career growth
and development which are;
i) The performance mode, which involves a quest for success and mastery of a job or skills
and finding a standard of excellence in a particular work context to prove oneself worthy;
ii) The learning mode, which is a quest for novelty and variety for self-improvement by
acquiring new competencies beyond mere mastery of a job.
iii) And the development mode, which is a quest for meaning by seeking work/life events that,
will be conducive to finding a calling or purpose.
These three modes of career development are applicable when a career is seen as lifelong
development.
At a particular point in their careers, individuals will be functioning mainly in one of the modes,
but since they are recurrent they may revert back to a former mode.
Thus an individual who changes jobs may once again experience the excitement of mastering skills
in the performance mode or be revitalized by novelty in the learning mode, or discover a new
meaning of work in the development mode.
3.7 Spirituality at Work

Spirituality represents the quest to unite ones inner and outer world, to provide meaning and
purpose to ones life.
The search, and consequent realization, provides an individual with a sense of alignment and ordera spiritual cohesiveness, which instills a sense of rightness and well-being. Spiritual cohesiveness
is a sense of wholeness, an oneness with who we are and an awareness of how we fit with our
external environment.
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Because work is a central part of peoples existence, much of this search for spiritual wholeness
occurs within the context of the context of workplace.
In the modern workplace many people are increasingly embarking upon a spiritual journey,
seeking to discover their true selves through the search for higher purpose that provides meaning
to their lives.
The spiritual journey is a process of focusing within.
Spirituality also represents the emerging values, priorities, and skills related to the meaning that
work represents in peoples lives in the modern workplace.
Spirituality refers to a set of whole system, time honored, life-affirming and unifying values which
enable the human spirit to grow and flourish.
Spirituality or higher purpose is a growing movement in the modern workplace and a rising priority
for employees and should not be confused with organized religion.
Spirituality in the workplace means creating an environment of trust, respect, and ethics were
diverse groups of individuals can do their best work.
The modern workforce will increasingly demand something that is both greater than us and yet
within us.
Spirituality at work requires the following from employees, their co-workers, and managers:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Acting with integrity and authenticity.

Treating people with respect.
Encouraging a work/ life balance.
Connecting a culture which embodies core values/ethical principles.
Establishing decision-making processes that include reflection on the complex values at
stake, and consideration of justice for those affected.
vi) Doing business in a socially responsible manner.
3.8 Activities
Take time and talk to an elderly person who has had illustrious career for say the last
20years. While engaging him find out what has constituted his central life interest and
spiritually over the years.
What kind of leisure activities does he engage in? What constituted his views on selfactualization? Can he describe himself as a self-actualized person?
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1. Discuss the concept of competency as a modern career management variable.

2. Discuss How older staff can affect the younger staff with their with the spirituality
variable perspectives.
3.10 Summary
We have discussed the concept of life as a central interest, self-actualization, competency,
spirituality and leisure

Ackah, C and Heaton, N (2003) The reality of new careers for men and women. Journal
of European Industrial Training, 28(2/3/4), 141-158
Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of
Career Development, 486-493, New Delhi: sage publication
Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old
problems: Avant-garde solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Ballout, HI (2009) career commitment and career success: moderating role of Selfefficacy. Career Development International, 14 (7), 655-670
Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional
and contemporary viewpoints: Human Resource Management Review, 16, 125-138
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Lecture 4: Career Concepts

4.0 Introduction
A career is a sequence of positions or jobs held by a person during the course of his working life.
According to Flippo, a career is a sequence of separate but related work activities that provide
continuity, order and meaning to a persons life.
It is not a series of work related experiences but a sequence of attitudes and behavior associated
with work related activates over the span of a persons life.
A persons career is shaped by many factors e.g. heredity, parents, culture, age level, job
experience, e.t.c.
Normally, employees want to advance and grow in their careers.
Most individuals develop quite early in life and idea or a mental image of what a career they would
like to pursue.
An individual with a managerial potential joins a firm not for a job but for a career.
But organizations have their own requirements and constraints which limits their capacity to meet
the employee expectations.

1. Discuss the concept of career management.
2. Explain the various concepts that are related to career management.
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4.2 Lecture Outline

4.3 Career management
4.4 Career Planning
4.5 Career Development
4.6 Career Paths
4.7 Career Self-Management
4.8 Career maturity and Career self-efficacy
4.9 Career Counseling
4.10 End of lecture activities
4.11 Self tests Question
4.12 Summary
4.2 Career management

Career management can be described as an ongoing process whereby the individual:
1) Obtains self-knowledge (interests, values, abilities, personality, career patterns, career
anchors)
2) Obtains a knowledge of employment opportunities (jobs, work roles, skills demand, skills
acquisition opportunities, venture creation possibilities, work places)
3) Develops career goals,
4) Develops a strategy,
5) Implements the strategy and experiments with various employment possibilities, and
6) Obtains feedback on the effectiveness of the strategy and the relevance of the goals.
The career management process involves making realistic choices which includes greater attention
to ones own skills and the demand for those skills in the labour market.
Emphasis on training the new entrant to the world of work on career management should be made.
Such training should include;
i) Self-knowledge,
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ii) Occupational knowledge,

iii) Technical skills and
iv) General employability skills.
The employer plays a career planning training role and provides facilities such as career
workshops, career workbooks, career centers, counseling, and other arrangements to assist
employees in making better career decisions.
4.3 Career planning

Career planning is the systematic process by which one selects career goals and the paths to these
goals.
From the organizations viewpoint it means helping the employees to plan their career in terms of
their capacities within the context of organizations needs.
It involves designing an organizational system of career movement and growth opportunities for
employees from the employment stage to the retirement stage.
Individuals who fill planned future positions are identified and prepared to take up these positions.
This requires discovery, development, planned employment and re-employment of talents.
Career planning can therefore be described as the process by which individuals;
i) Obtain knowledge about themselves (their values, personality, preferences, interests, etc
ii) Obtain information about the working environment, and then
iii) Make an effort to achieve a proper match by determining short and long term career goals
further on their own or with organizational assistance.
Career planning is important because the consequences of career success or failure are linked
closely to each individuals self-concept, identity, and satisfaction with career and life.
The responsibility for career planning rests primarily with the individual.
Self-knowledge is a prerequisite for successful career planning.
This involves knowledge of ones interest, skills, values, strengths, and weaknesses.
People who know themselves well can make more rational decisions.
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4.3.1 The characteristics of career planning

1)
2)
3)
4)
Career planning is a process of developing human resources rather than an event.

It is not an end in itself but a means of managing people to obtain optimum results.
Career planning is a continuous process due to an ever changing environment.
It is an individuals responsibility. While the organizations responsibility is to provide
guidance and counseling to its employees.
5) The basic aim of career planning is the integration of individual and organizational needs.
4.3.2 Some Important terms used in connection with career planning:

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Career goals: The future positions one strives to reach as part of a career.
Career path: The sequential pattern of jobs that form a career.
Career progression: Making progress in ones career through promotions.
Career counseling: Guiding and advising people on their possible career paths and what
they must do to achieve promotions.
v) Mentoring: The process wherein an executive or senior employee serves as a teacher,
advisor, guide, friend, philosopher, and confidante to the new entrant.
vi) Career anchor: The basic drives that give the urge to take up a certain type of career.
These drives are as follows;
a) Technical competence- providing for professional satisfaction, continuous learning and
updating ones expertise in a technical or functional area.
b) Managerial competence- career providing opportunities for higher responsibility,
decision making, control and influence.
c) Security- ensuring security of career through compliance with the organizations
prescriptions.
d) Autonomy- career providing freedom of action and independence.
e) Creativity- entrepreneurial and innovative opportunities.
4.3.3 Differences between Career planning and manpower planning
Career planning is an integral part of manpower planning which in turn is an important part
of corporate planning.
Manpower planning cannot be effective without proper career planning.
Manpower planning provides valuable information to facilitate career planning. However,
there are important differences between career planning and manpower planning.
First, manpower planning provides an inventory of skills and potentials available within an
organization.
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On the other hand, career planning determines who (on the basis of performance and
potential) could be groomed for higher level assignments, where when and how (i.e. after
what kind of training).
Secondly, manpower planning provides information on the human resources available
within the organization for expansion, growth and technological innovations.
But career planning only tells us who could succeed in case of retirement, death,
resignation, etc of existing personnel.
4.3.4 Succession planning

A succession of persons to fill key positions over time is essential for the survival and success of
an organization.
The purpose of succession planning is to identify and develop people to replace current incumbents
in key positions in cases of resignations, retirement, promotions, growth, expansion and creation
of new positions.
Succession by people from within provides opportunities to employees for progress in their
careers.
4.3.5 Differences between Career planning and a Succession planning

i) Career planning and succession planning are similar but not synonymous.
ii) Career planning covers all levels of employees whereas succession planning is generally
required for higher level executives.
iii) A succession plan involves identification of vacancies that are likely to occur in the higher
levels and locating the probable successors while Succession planning motivates
employees and facilitates continuity of the organization.
iv) Career planning may consist of chart showing the career paths of different categories of
employees showing how they can advance up in the organization. But a succession plan
consists of a runner up chart or succession chart.
4.3.6 Objectives of career planning
Career planning seeks to achieve the following aims;
i.
ii.
iii.
To attract and retain the right type of persons in the organization

To map out careers of employees suitable to their ability, and their willingness to be trained
and developed for higher positions.
To ensure better use of human resources through more satisfied and productive employees.
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iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
To have a more stable workforce by reducing labor turnover and absenteeism.

To increasingly utilize the managerial talent available at all levels within the organization.
To improve employee morale and motivation by matching skills to job requirements and
by providing opportunities for promotion.
To ensure that promising persons get experiences that will equip them to reach
responsibility for which they are able.
To provide guidance and encouragement employees need to fulfill their potentials.
To achieve higher productivity and organizational development.
4.4 Career Development

Career development can be defined as an ongoing process by which individuals progress through
a series of stages, each of which is characterized by relatively unique set of issues, themes or tasks.
A career consists of different stages and the individuals are confronted with the different
issues during each of these stages.
Effective career management requires knowledge of the distinctive physical and
psychological needs of the individual.
Career development involves the following activities:
i) Career need assessment: Career needs of employees can be judged by evaluating their
aptitudes, abilities, and potential. The organization should assist employees in assessing
their career needs and in identifying their career goals.
ii) Career opportunities: career opportunities that can be met should be identified through job
analysis. Job description, job specification and job redesign reveal lines of advancement
for employees.
iii) Need-opportunity alignment: In the next stage of career development, employee needs are
aligned with available career opportunities. The organization can design appropriate
development programmes to help employees integrate their development needs with
organizational opportunities.
Some of these programmes are as follows.
a) Individualized techniques
b) Performance appraisal
c) Management by objectives
d) Career counseling
iv) Monitoring career moves: it is necessary to maintain a record of career movements of
employees and to monitor their progress towards the predetermined career goals. This will
enable the personnel department to identify discrepancies and to adopt corrective measures
at the right time.
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v)
How to make career development programme effective;
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Creating awareness about individual strengths and weaknesses.

Developing appreciation of organizational constraints.
Making employees believe that their superiors care for their development.
Developing appropriate career plans.
Providing support systems to give a fair and equal opportunity for all to move within
and among different job families.
4.5 Career Paths
Employees move from one job to another. These moves very often indicate a sequential
pattern of jobs, which can be referred to as a career path.
Career paths are objective descriptions of sequential work experiences, as opposed to
subjective, personal feelings about career progress, personal development or satisfaction.
Career paths exist on an informal basis in almost all organizations.
However, career paths are much useful when formally defined and documented.
Career path Career pathing is most useful when used as part of the overall career-planning
process.
The perception of promotion as the only purposeful career route is now outdated.
Career paths should:
i) Represents real progression possibilities, whether lateral or upward.
ii) Be tentative and responsive to changes in job content, work priorities,
organizational patterns, and management needs.
iii) Be flexible, taking into consideration the compensating qualities a particular
employee, managers, subordinates, or others who influence the way that work is
performed;
iv) Specify the skills, knowledge, and other attributes required to perform effectively
at each position along the paths and specify how the can be acquired.
4.6 Career self-management
Career self-management is the ability to keep pace with the speed at which change occurs
within the organization and the industry and to prepare for the future through continuous
learning and career planning efforts.
26
Career self-management emphasizes the need of individuals to keep learning because jobs
that are held today may evolve into something different tomorrow, or may simply disappear
entirely.
Career self-management also involves identifying and obtaining new skills and
competencies programmes and experiences for employees.
4.7 Career maturity and Career self-efficacy

This is a concept that is linked to career resilience. Individuals who make career decisions that
reflect decisiveness, involvement, independence, task orientation and willingness to compromise
between needs and reality have usually achieved a high degree of career maturity.
4.8 Career Counseling

Career planning may require advising and guiding employees in their possible career paths and the
direction in which they ought to be heading. Such advising and guiding is called career counseling.
The need for such counseling arises when employees have to plan their own careers and develop
themselves for career progression in the organization.
The main objectives of career counseling are as follows:
To provide guidelines that helps an individual to understand himself more clearly and
develop his own thinking and outlook.
To help individuals achieve and enjoy greater personal satisfaction, and pleasure.
To enable individuals to study the immediate and personal world in which they live.
To help individuals understand the forces and dynamics operating in a system.
One major consequence of the boundary less careers and multi-directional career paths is the
emergence of the so-called test-and learn career planning and development models. The
traditional career management models emphasized the plan-and-implement aspects related to
career management.
27
4.9 Activities
A local secondary school has invited you to give a career talk to their students.
They have tasked you to ensure that in your talk you have covered various
aspects of career management. Briefly outline key issues your talk will encamps
to fulfill this request.

1. Explain and discuss the steps you will follow in planning and managing your career.
2. Discuss the skills, attitudes, attributes and behavior that helped you to achieve success in
your career
3. Why do some people seem to find the perfect career, while others struggle through a series
of unsuccessful jobs?
4. Distinguish between traditional and contemporary definitions of career.
5. Differentiate between job satisfaction and career satisfaction.
6. Why is self-knowledge critical in career planning?
7. Distinguish between career maturity and career self-efficacy
4.11 Summary
1. Career Management is an ongoing planning and development process.
2.
1. Self-knowledge is the basis for career planning
28


Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old problems: Avantgarde solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Ballout, HI (2009) career commitment and career success: moderating role of Self-efficacy. Career
Development International, 14 (7), 655-670
29
Lecture 5: Career Management Models

5.0 Introduction
Welcome to lecture five, in this lecture we shall learn about career models. There exists two types
of career models, the traditional plan- and-implement and Modern test and learn career model
which we shall now explore in details

1. Distinguish between traditional plan and implement career model and the modern test and
learn career model.
2. Explain the various career model concepts.
5.2 Lecture Outline

5.3 The Traditional Plan-and-Implement Career Model
5.4 The Modern Test-and-Learn Career Model
5.5 Summary
5.3 The traditional Plan-and-implement career Model
The traditional plan-and-implement career models view career management as a linear

process in which dissatisfaction with the status quo leads to setting a goal, from which
flows an implementation plan.
30
The end goal is fixed, with the ideal of identifying the end goal as clearly as possible at the
outset.
The process of career management is deductive, with career progress in stages, each
building on the preceding step.
Individuals require explicit knowledge of themselves and the working environment as an
input to the career-management process (for examples what jobs exist, what skills they
prefer to use, what occupation areas interest them, what their personality is.
The plan-and-implement career models also view the individuals career self (the
individuals subjective or psychological sense of their careers, their vocational identity and
self-concept) as being based on one true-self which has been fully formed by adulthood.
Individuals use introspection to find an inner truth linked to their one true self to help them
identify the desired end goal.
Career management then consists of devising and implementing an action plan to get to
that goal.
5.4 The Modern test-and-learn career model
In contrast, the modern test-and-learn career models view career management as a

developmental process that is circular in nature.
Career planning and management is a process in which iterative rounds of action and
reflection lead to updating personal career goals and possibilities.
The emphasis is on change that accompanies frequent career transition with the ideal of improving
individuals ability to formulate and test hypotheses about future possibilities and multiple work
roles or identities they could explore along their life journey.
This process is inductive in nature, with progress by iteration with leaps of insight. Individuals
require implicit knowledge which is continuously created throughout the career planning and
management process (for example, exploring and testing what is feasible and what is appealing to
them).
The modern test-and-learn career models view the individual as having many possible career
selves which are always changing, with some selves more developed or appealing than others.
These possible selves reside in both peoples minds and their actions. They exist as images of the
future, which are linked to a core life purpose or mission to be fulfilled.
31
The career self is shaped and revealed through testing and experimenting with the multiple
possibilities available in a boundary less workplace. Individuals learn from direct experience to
recombine old and new skills, interests, and ways thinking about themselves, and to create new
opportunities that correspond to the evolving self.
The modern test-and-learn career models are developmental in nature and the emphasis is on
continuous reinvention and renewal. The individual and his or her environment shape each other
in ways that can produce possibilities that did not reside in either at the start of the planning
process.
Both the traditional plan-and-implement career models and the modern test-and-learn career
models will be useful for individuals in managing their careers in the 21st century workplace.
Young adults in the early career stage who do not have a clearly developed career self or selfconcept, will still require the basic steps and principles underlying the traditional plan-andimplement career models to kick start their careers.
The modern test-and-learn career models may be more appropriate for unemployed adults who are
experiencing the turbulence and uncertainty of the contemporary workplace and who have to deal
with frequent career transitions. The modern test-and-learn career models represent a proactive
and creative approach toward career planning and development in the 21st century workplace.
5.5 Summary
In this lecture you have learnt two types of career models; the traditional plan-and-implement
career model and, the modern test-and-learn career model.
The traditional plan and-implement and the modern test-and-learn career models can be
used by both the individual and the organization to plan and manage multi-directional career
paths that provide meaning to peoples working lives.
5.6 Activities
Commission for University education is under pressure to remodel their structures to enable
students a part from choosing traditional careers like medicine, law or engineering to also allow
students to choose modern test and learn career in consultancy, music, art, Entrepreneurship
etc. As an adviser to the commission, indicate how the commission should go about integrating
the two careers to ensure that students choose via the traditional or modern models freely.
32

1. Discuss the concept of protean career as a modern career concept.
2. Distinguish between the traditional plan and-implement and the modern test-and-learn
career models


33
th
Careers an Organizational Perspective 4 Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetzee
Lecture 6: Life and Career Stages Childhood-Adolescence (Phase I)

6.0 Introduction
Traditionally the chronological age (of the person) has been used to determine developmental
turning points in the person's life.
A person's career age is a more meaningful indicator to organizations and to a person's selfunderstanding (the career self) than one's chronological age development
Life/career stages therefore must not be seen as discrete entities with clear-cut time, psychological,
or social boundaries. They are distinguished by developmental factors that are generally typical of
certain stages of life as well as other issues and social factors that are significant in the work life.

1. Discuss in details the childhood career life stage.
2. Explain the adolescence career life stage.
6.2 Lecture Outline

6.3 Childhood
6.4 Adolescence
6.6 Summary
34
6.3 CHILDHOOD
Childhood can be divided into the sub-stages of;
i.
ii.
iii.
Infancy,
Early childhood (2 to 6 years of age)
Middle childhood (6 to 12 years of age).
6.3.1 Infancy
Is characterized by rapid spurts of development.

Physical movements are at first diffuse, gradually becoming functionally differentiated.
Cognition develops through the maturation of movement and the senses.
Infancy is referred to as the sensory-motor stage of cognitive development, during which
infants gain knowledge of their environment through looking at, touching, and
manipulating objects.
The significance of the mother-child relationship becomes noticeable in adulthood, in the
individual's ability to bond with other people.
This may lead to what is referred to as secure attachment and insecure attachment, which
lead respectively to the ability to form affectionate bonds with other people and to engaging
in self-regulatory pursuits akin to secure infants' pursuits in exploring their world, or to
avoiding closeness in interpersonal relationships, or to having mixed feelings with regard
to acceptance and rejection.
Inadequate infant nurturing may result in unconsciously retaining a need for mothering.
As a worker, the individual may unconsciously experience dependency on an imaginary
parental figure or on an organizational system.
If dependency needs are not met, the individual feels helpless and powerless, which may
manifest in seeking structure through serving on committees or through wanting more
support from the boss.
6.3.2 Early Childhood
In early childhood, body awareness develops - children know that they have a body and
learn that they can control it.
They learn to control their excretory functions, thereby acquiring a sense of mastery,
which in adulthood influences mastering tasks.
Cognitive development in early childhood is seen as pre-conceptual in that thinking is
based on perception and intuition, and is not conceptual or logical.
35
Children internalize their perceptions of the concrete world through visual images and
language.
If autonomy is not acquired, children starts to doubt themselves and May, as adults, be
self-effacing rather than self-assertive.
The next life task confronting the child is learning to take initiative, for example by sharing
responsibilities with regard to caring for younger siblings and pets.
By sharing responsibilities children can learn how to take initiative as a provider, a role
that they will have to play in adulthood.
If initiative is not learned, a sense of guilt emerges, which, in adulthood, may manifest in
avoiding responsibility for making decisions.
The pre-school child also learns about social concepts, such as rules and regulations,
fairness, honesty, and respect for others, by, for example, being a big brother or a friend.
Rivalry among siblings or friends can result in aggression, which, in the work situation,
may manifest in fight reactions, such as competitiveness, jealousy, and fighting for a
position
in
a
group,
or
a
privileged
position with authority figures.
It may also manifest in flight reactions, such as avoidance behavior.
During this phase, the child also learns social roles through play.
Play has an expressive and constructive function. Children express their own versions of
the adult world by construing make-believe realities in an 'as-if realm. Playing house or
father and mother become internalizations of these roles, which form part of their identity.
Initially play is governed by a pleasure principle, which later makes way for a reality
principle in that games have outcomes.
Finding a balance between pleasure and reality can later manifest in integrating play and
work in the work life.
If the child does not move psychologically from the pleasure principle to the reality
principle, work may be experienced as a burden, that is, a reality that cannot be avoided
but that is not necessarily enjoyable.
6.3.3 Middle childhood
In middle childhood, physical development is more gradual than the rapid spurts of growth
experienced during infancy and early childhood.
Variations in growth occur as the child's stature becomes more like that of an adult.
Through schooling, cognitive functions of children are guided towards rationality, as
society expects rationality from professional adults.
This first stage is referred to as concrete operational, in that the child approaches problems
in various ways but thoughts are based on objects in the concrete world.
The next stage, called formal operational, the child can use abstract thinking and no longer
needs to test ideas in the concrete world, but tests hypotheses through logical thinking.
36
Children also acquire Meta cognitive abilities, which may start developing in early
childhood.
These abilities enable children to monitor their own thinking in that they become aware of
their strengths and weaknesses, how difficult or easy a particular task is, and which
strategies to apply when performing cognitive tasks.
Certain aspects of moral behavior start to emerge as cognitive abilities develop.
The child learns that it is right to obey rules and those in authority, and to avoid harming
people and damaging property.
At this stage, the child is not concerned about the interests of others and the aim of
obedience is merely to avoid punishment.
In the second stage, the aim of obedience is to obtain rewards. Children realize that besides
their own interests, other people also have their individual interests.
What is right is following rules if it is in someones interest and if it involves fairness and
equal exchanges.
In the third stage, sharing interests and being good in one's own eyes and the eyes of others
are important.
Relationships are more important than individual interests. The child learns the importance
of living up to the expectations of others and showing loyalty and respect.
As moral laws start to emerge, the child learns about customs, conventions, manners,
conformity, and group identity.
The psychosocial task of middle childhood is seen as acquiring industry.
Through formal schooling children acquire characteristics of industry; that is, being
productive, persevering, completing tasks, and gaining understanding of concepts, such as
division of labor, specialization, competition, cooperation, and teamwork.
In essence, children in middle childhood learn to work out relationships in the context of
adult living activities. For example by helping with household management tasks, and
buying necessities from the shop.
6.4 Adolescence
During adolescence, the child develops into an adult on a physical, cognitive, and social
level.
The age demarcation may vary but usually adolescence is seen as starting at puberty. At
puberty, sexual interest is a biological certainty.
Teenagers are confronted with the complex task of establishing a 'structure' for their
biological maturation by incorporating the various social suggestions that are received
from the outside world.
Whatever structure is chosen, eventually role relationships in adult social roles are
accepted, for example, that of marriage.
During this second stage of development, formal operational thinking equips the adolescent
with the ability to construct theories, either about aspects of the world or the self.
37
These theories do not necessarily comply with requirements for scientific theories, such as
being empirically valid in terms of objective evidence or even being useful.
With the Meta cognitive ability to analyze their own thinking, adolescents also
conceptualize the thoughts of others during the third stage of development but do not
necessarily differentiate what is important to others.
They therefore develop a kind of self-absorption and create personal fables, such as being
invulnerable and immortal.
On a moral level, a fourth stage emerges as adolescents become socially conscious.
The concern is not so much with individual rights but with the welfare of society or the
group in terms of the roles and rules of the system.
An action is considered right if it involves fulfilling the duties to which they have agreed
and obeying rules that they can identify with.
At stage four and a half, the sense of duty becomes arbitrary as moral thinking becomes
more subjective and personal.
At this stage, there is not a generalized commitment to society as adolescents see
themselves as individuals capable of making their own decisions. The fifth stage of moral
thinking concerns rights that are agreeable to all in a fair, democratic society. The moral
and legal aspects of society are acknowledged, but the adolescent cannot always integrate
the two points out that moral thinking also does not necessarily imply moral behavior.
Adolescents create their own inner culture and motivation. They construe themselves in
various ways and may even transgress social norms by seeking new thrills and trying out
new ways of conduct beyond socially defined boundaries. Through introspection and their
cognitive apparatus they have to organize their various attributes into role-related selves,
and
as
multiple
selves
proliferate, they experience conflict regarding the different roles.
Adolescence is seen as the quest [or identity in terms of self and gender roles and roles in
the broader society. The different expectations and opinions of others can cause role
confusion, which the adolescent carries into adulthood.
Confusion may also be generated by different value systems operant in their society.
6.5 Summary
Childhood can be divided into the sub-stages of;
i.
Infancy,
ii.
Early childhood
iii.
Middle childhood
Adolescence is as stage between the middle childhood and early adulthood. A lot of
developmental activities take place in this stage which has a great impact on career that
one settles on later on.
38
6.6 Activities
As a career coach pinpoint the various aspects of career that manifest during infancy, early
childhood , middle childhood and adolescence which has a bearing on how individuals perform
later on and settle in their careers.

1. Discuss how infancy stages affect the career of an individual later on.
2. Distinguish between early childhood and middle childhood career stages.
3. How does developmental phenomena in the adolescence stage affect one on the choice of
career.


Ballout, HI (2009) career commitment and career success: moderating role of Self-efficacy.
Career Development International, 14 (7), 655-670
39
Lecture 7: Life and Career Stages Early Adult Life Late Life (Phase II)
7.0 Introduction
Career management involves understanding both personal and career developmental issues. Career
self-management in the forties and fifties involves dealing with life issues that are different from
those of people in their twenties and thirties. In this lecture we shall explore career life stages in
the early adult life, in the midlife and in the late life stages of a career person.

1. Discuss in details the early adulthood career life stage.
2. Describe the midlife career life stage.
3. Explain the stages in the late life career stage.
7.2 Early Adult Life/Career Stage

7.3 Mid Life Career Stage
7.4 Late Life Career Stage.
7.6 Summary
7.2 Early Adult life/career stage
In early adulthood physical and cognitive development is at its peak. Physically it is a time
of energy, health, and biological vigor with high instinctive drives.
Cognitive functioning is characterized by good memory, abstract thinking ability, problemsolving ability, and learning new skills.
40
Kohlbergs fifth stage of moral development, which starts in adolescence, characterizes

most young adults as well.
In some adults, a sixth stage emerges in which what is right is determined by universal
ethical and moral principles, such as justice, equality of human rights, and respect for
human dignity.
Adults who develop this sixth stage are not merely aware of these principles by
comprehending them with their abstract cognitive abilities - they are committed to these
principles which determine their actions.
Life tasks of early adulthood include;
(i) Challenges concerning achieving independence and responsibility,
(ii) Establishing one's identity,
(iii)Finding a place in and contributing to society, and
(iv) Becoming established in an occupation and in family life
Men, in comparison to women, are less motivated to marry and are more concerned about
their future careers, while women are concerned about both career and family
considerations.
Younger women in the early career stage try to balance family and career needs through
following the 'superwoman approach', with career needs often dominating.
They tend to focus on career and family only, not recognizing that they also need personal
time besides time for work and family. They have strong needs for advancement, which is
traditionally associated with success.
The first fifteen years of adulthood (approximately between ages 17 and 33) is described
as a novice phase during which the individual is a novice adult, that is, a novice lover, a
novice spouse, and a novice worker.
In all these aspects of life, new relationships have to be found, including relationships with
family, mentors, bosses, and seniors at work.
Primarily the task of this phase is finding a place for oneself in the adult world by exploring
the adult world and creating a stable life structure.
Exploring the adult world implies;
(i) Options are kept open,
(ii) Commitments are avoided;
(iii)Alternatives are maximized with a sense of adventure and wonderment.
Creating a stable adult life structure involves becoming responsible for establishing family
relations and a stable work structure. A balance between the above two is needed to avoid
confusion and stress.
A further phase of early adulthood is a transitional phase that is called the 'age thirty
transition', which lasts for approximately three to five years.
In this phase the individual experiences life as becoming more serious, and has a sense of
having to change before it is too late for change
41
This transition can be smooth or amount to a crisis, but in general, it involves modification
of
some
aspects of life, but not revolutionary changes.
The 'age thirty transition' phase may now occur between the ages 20 and 35 due to the
changing characteristics of the contemporary workplace and dynamic nature of the 2 I st
century career. This phase is generally being referred to as the quarter-life quandary and
can be quite overwhelming for the young adult.
Individuals in their early life/career stage experiencing the quarter-life crises or quandary
are confronted by life questions such as:
What career should I focus on? Careers in the contemporary workplace offer numerous
possibilities and young adults have multiple interests.
(i) Where should I live? Should I stay with my family, follow my friends, or follow
my heart?
(ii) Shouldn't I be more settled by this stage of my life? Is it okay to still be
experimenting with my life's options?
(iii)Where do I belong?
(iv) Am I useless just because I can't define what my life's dream is?
(v) Don't people expect bigger and better things from me at this stage?
(vi) What if I try something new and I fail?
(vii)
Why is it that everyone seems surer of themselves than me?
The quarter-life quandary is usually followed by a phase that is called settling down.
During this phase, the self has to become engaged in the world; in other words, individuals
have to fulfill goals and aspirations set earlier, and they have to find a niche in society.
'Becoming one's own man', and advancement in the sense of 'making it' become important.
Self-reliance or autonomy is a characteristic which is regarded as typifying maturity.
Self-reliance must, however, not be confused with independence.
Dependence on others in the sense of needing others is not necessarily a mark of immaturity
Man's involvement in social and intimate situations, such as marriage and certain types of
work, necessarily brings out dependency, for example the interdependence of husband and
wife, or that of colleagues.
Healthy dependence is instrumental to social involvement, in which a person can function
as a self-reliant being as well as a being that is connected with others.
The developmental task of early adulthood is regarded as developing intimacy), which
refers to commitment and involvement.
This task is realized through relationships with a loved one, with a co-worker, with a boss,
or, to a certain extent, through involvement in a commitment to an organization.
Young adults' sense of ego identity revolves around intimacy, which has developed from
role, testing in adolescence to more stable affiliations in early adulthood.
42
This is based on a readiness to develop ethical strength by binding themselves to that to

which they are committed, although it may involve sacrifices and compromises.
Some young adults encounter problems because their newly found sense of ego identity is
still fragile and they fear that they may lose it. Consequently, they avoid involvement in
life aspects that provide intimacy, and which may lead to isolation.
This can harm the development of healthy task orientation which for work adjustment must
occur in harmony with healthy ego orientation.
It is Indicated that young adults between the age of 20 and 30 are experiencing the
following life/career challenges:
(i) Earning a living.
(ii) Finding a job matching one's qualifications.
(iii)Continuously furthering one's qualifications.
(iv) Gaining more experience.
(v) Being more assertive.
(vi) Work disillusionment.
(vii)
Up skilling oneself, and
(viii)
Living ones dream
Objective responsibilities, which are expectations that the organization has of new
employees, but which are not necessarily priorities or characteristics of new employees
include:
i) Competence to get a job done
ii) Ability to accept organizational realities, such as office policies
iii) Ability to generate and implement ideas
iv) Patience and perseverance in wanting acceptance for new ideas
v) Ability to translate technical solutions into practical terms
vi) Ability to handle interpersonal relations
vii) Loyalty and commitment to the goals and values of the organization
viii)
High personal integrity and the ability to compromise, and
ix) Capacity to grow and learn from experiences.
7.3 Mid life/career stage
The mid-life transition and middle adulthood is dominated by conscious ageing, an

acknowledgement of mortality and, with that, a potential for increased illness and diseases.
Middle adulthood involves physical changes such as
a. bone loss
43
b. decline in muscle activity

c. lung capacity, visual acuity, reaction time,
d. The strength or endurance required for strenuous tasks.
Concerns with the body remain of primary importance, and may become issues when, in Freudian
terms, the body ego is threatened when it is perceived as disintegrating.
The likelihood of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases increases stress, while stress in itself can
give rise to these diseases.
The way stress is experienced, however, depends on the personality style of the individual and the
meaning that stress has for the individual - for some people it is debilitating while for others it is
challenging
At age 50 and older, women experience the physical changes of menopause that is regarded as
being symbolic of death.
The time that follows menopause is labeled as post-menopausal zest.
Menopause is a time of physical changes that create the need for emotional and psychological
accommodations.
A survey conducted by Coetzee and Schreuder (2004) amongst a group of 167 students
indicated that adults in the 31 to 50 age group are facing the following life/career challenges:
i) Earning a living,
ii) Up skilling oneself / further development,
iii) Living one's dream,
iv) Achieving one's goals,
v) Recognition,
vi) Plateauing, and
vii) Downsizing / redundancy.
Psychological benefits in midlife are more wisdom, more autonomy, being less driven by
instinctual drives, coming to terms with limitations, having social concerns, and a broader life
perspective. Cognitive functioning is characterized by being able to look at matters more
objectively, being able to see several points of view regarding a matter, and finding a synthesis
that integrates opposing points of view.
Some aspects of intelligence show continuity and others change.
Crystallized intelligence, which involves knowledge that has been acquired through
experience, education and training, shows continuity and can improve up to beyond the age of
seventy.
Fluid intelligence, which involves inborn abilities such as
i) The speed of memorizing,
ii) Perception of relationships
iii) And inductive ability may decline.
44
At midlife many individuals are at the height of their powers and feel that they are in the prime
of their lives. For some, however, responsibilities are experienced as draining their time and
energy.
It is typically a time of self-questioning and inner seeking, referred to as greater interiority.
Life tasks include redefining ones identity, clarifying ones values and philosophy of life,
adjusting to changes in family life, utilizing more leisure time, finding new occupational
satisfactions as training and experience become consolidated.
Adults in that middle life/career stage struggle to find a balance between agency and
communion.
Agency expresses itself through control over the environment and is manifested in selfprotection, self-assertion and self-expansion.
In contrast, communion manifests itself in the sense of being one with other individuals and
the environment. Communion is part of a wider context of openness and flexibility to the
environment.
The individual acquires a stronger sense of identity in the middle years through greater
individuation.
Individuation clarifies the boundaries between individuals and the outside world, as well as
individuals understanding who they are and what they want to be and do.
In order to achieve individuation, certain psychological polarities must be resolved, namely
young/old, destruction/creation, masculine/feminine and attachment/ separateness.
If individuals can integrate these contradictory feelings, they attain greater individuation which
provides the necessary self-confidence and independence to modify the structure of their lives.
Young/old involves feeling young by having a sense of initiation, possibility, energy, and
potential, yet feeling old by having a sense of
Researchers generally use the term generativity in a broader sense of adult development,
involving giving and growing.
They maintain that a sense of generativity can be achieved through the development of
theories,
discoveries or products,
through guiding younger colleagues,
And in developing organizations.
They further indicate that everyone has a generativity script; that is, leaving a legacy for the
next generation, and attaining a kind of immortality by creating something that will outlive the
self.
It involves an expression of oneself that others will share,
i) be it through parenting,
ii) teaching, leading,
iii) Or doing something for the community.
45
During the late thirties or early forties, a so-called mid-life crisis can occur. In the mid-life
crisis, some individuals once again have to contend with identity questions like 'What have I
achieved?' or 'Where am I going?'
The person stands on the delicate threshold between the outcomes of exploration,
establishment, and maintenance, and the threat of decline.
Researchers agree that the transition to the middle years can be just as critical and, in some
respects, more agonizing than adolescence.
Mental torment about disappointments, thwarted hopes, anxiety about health problems, such
as heart disease, obesity, and cancer, and a sense of 'now or never' can cause various kinds of
crisis behavior, such as:
i) anxiety,
ii) depression,
iii) hypochondria,
iv) alcoholism
change of work, home, and/or spouse,
obsession with denigrating one's life at present,
attempts to regain youth through dieting and youthful clothing, and
work holism, recklessness, and ruthlessness
The crisis behavior arises when the individual denies the unavoidable realities of the middle
years and still clings to the 'mania' and idealism of early adulthood when 'everything' seemed
possible
A mid-life crisis may manifest in what is referred to as organizational sleepwalking.
Some individuals become alexithymia, which in Greek means no word for emotion.
Such individuals are unable to understand or struggle with their emotions and negate that
they exist.
They appear to be unruffled, become robot-like mechanics with no self-awareness and are
preoccupied with the concrete and objective.
The origin of this type of behavior is traced back to
childhood by some psychologists.
According to them it stems from an unhealthy symbiotic relationship with an overprotective
mother who frustrated her children's individuality and play, not allowing them to feel for
themselves.
A critical issue in mid life can be the spiritual search for authenticity.
Authenticity can be accomplished by disassembling the self to renew it. The self that is
disassembled was constructed by the individual to satisfy society or other people, It forms
part of individuals' identities that they relied on before,
These identities are used to stabilize individuals before they have the personal reserves to
rely on their own inner authority; Examples of such
identities are the ambitious executive, the fearless politician, the super mother, and the
submissive wife.
46
Such a self is narrow and should be expanded to incorporate positive as well as negative
aspects of the real or total person.
In the work context, mid life is generally a time of reappraisal of the past and appraisal of
long-term career plans - an assessment of real progress measured in terms of ambitions.
The 'dream' is compared to the 'reality' of progress. If a disparity exists, individuals may
resolve the problem by re-evaluating long-term goals and aspirations or by trying to modify
the nature of their work as well as their view of work.
Practical solutions may be found by viewing this as a period for growth and enrichment,
rather than one of stagnation or decline.
By setting new goals and acquiring new knowledge and skills individuals can optimally reengage exploratory needs, and by acquiring emotional intelligence they can gain selfknowledge concerning their motivation.
Establishment and achievement are seen as two overriding early career issues that have to be
dealt with by the individual as well as the organization.
For the individual, establishment generally involves learning, testing competence, fitting in,
seeking approval, coping with dependence and insecurity.
Achievement generally involves contributing, increasing competence, moving up, seeking
authority, finding independence and self-confidence.
The protean career concept gives the individual the responsibility to meet specific mid-career
needs, that is, realistic self-assessment, opportunity to learn new skills, and sharing of skills
and expertise, with the shift from the traditional organization career to the protean career,
organizations can assist older workers with a new career contract, which is based on
continuous learning rather than retraining.
Continuous learning is required for continued success and the keys to mid-career success are
the ability to self-reflect about one's identity and to develop adaptability.
These are known as Meta skills in that they are skills with which one learns to learn.
Individuals become responsible for their own success, whereas in retraining, the employer is
seen as the source of individuals' career direction, as well as their career wisdom,
Retraining by experts is costly and timely, skills and tasks are usually theoretical or
simulated, whereas continuous learning occurs in the real work situation.
It is facilitated by organizations that are designed for adaptability and are characterized by
decentralization (that is, employing core full-time as well as contract contingent personnel),
diversity (that is, age, gender, ethnic, and life-style diversity), and delegation of authority
(that is, empowerment).
Adaptability and the possibility to remain productive in older workers.
Remaining productive can be hampered by career issues such as job loss, obsolescence, and
discrimination.
Discrimination is more prevalent among women than men, and mid-career women report
less income, career satisfaction, and boss appreciation than men.
47
It has been found that women who have reached mid-career and have achieved
accomplishment, list being prepared for changes over the next ten years as a major priority.
As the nuclear family changes and older children require less time and attention, mid-career
women have, and desire, more personal time besides time for spouse, children and work.
They see success in terms of personal meaning and choice rather than in terms of social
definitions of success.
They express the need to be perceived as valuable to the organization and can therefore be
retained by the organization if the latter fosters satisfaction by encouraging mid-career
women to engage in entrepreneurial activities,
by moving them to top management,
And by allocating equitable rewards with regard to pay as well as positive feedback on
performance.
The flexibility needed by employees has translated into insecurity, financial pressures,
overwork, and increased risk of income and quality of work life especially for older workers.
The contemporary workplace demands proactively and creativity on the part of the midcareer individual.
One aspect of this proactively is anticipating how one's work, one's industry, and/or one's
organization will change during the next three to five years.
Organizations also need to discuss with mid- career employees the different ways in which
they can prove themselves useful to employers.
Essentially, employees should be helped to decide among four developmental directions:
task development,
specialist development,
vertical development
And niche development.
These developmental directions involve three levels of mid-career development:
1. job oriented, work maintenance (task development in multiple employer contexts),
2. and work growth mid-career development (the employee seeks growth
3. And change although he or she must still select a developmental direction).
The following actions can be taken by the organization to help employees manage their
careers during the mid-career stage:
(i) help employees understand mid-career experiences,
(ii) provide expanded and flexible mobility opportunities,
(iii)let them utilized the current job,
(iv) encourage and teach mentoring skills,
(v) provide training and continuing education,
(vi) broaden the reward system, and
(vii) Allow for creativity and provide challenge and variety in the workplace.
7.4 Late life/career stage
48
Although a late life/career stage is distinguished, in that the life activities of some
individuals in late adulthood include work-related tasks, generalizations about the
relation between late adulthood and work
Besides the generalized hypotheses, research also focuses on various components of
cognition or intelligence that affect problem-solving ability, and on the
influence of health because diseases that increase with old age, depress cognitive
functions.
Significant individual differences characterize individuals between 60 and 70 and 70 and
80 years of age.
Late life workers or pensioners should thus rather be studied as individuals than as a
group that is associated with stereotypes such as unproductive, unmotivated, or
intellectually too rigid to adapt to change.
Physical decline in late life is inevitable, as for example, motor coordination and speed
declines, blood vessels become less elastic, and chronic conditions such as arthritis, high
blood pressure or dementia become possibilities.
Decline in all areas of cognition is not inevitable. Research based on psychometric
measurement, is generally inconclusive about cognitive decline, but upholds the
following hypotheses;
speed of information processing declines with aging,
cognitive abilities decline with disuse, and
Aspects of the environment such as decreased sensory and intellectual
stimulation and lack of social support result in cognitive change, irrespective
of the individual's abilities.
In late adulthood, individuals are confronted with not only bodily and possible cognitive
decline, but also with socio-emotional losses, such as losing recognition and authority as
they retire from work. As a result, individuals become less interested in the rewards of
society and more interested in utilizing their inner resources, thereby finding a new
balance of involvement with society and with self.
In late adulthood, individuals are confronted with not only bodily and possible cognitive
decline, but also with socio-emotional losses, such as losing recognition and authority as
they retire from work. As a result, individuals become less interested in the rewards of
society and more interested in utilizing their inner resources, thereby finding a new
balance of involvement with society and with self.
Life tasks include establishing an explicit affiliation with one's age group, establishing
satisfactory physical living arrangements, and adjusting to changes concerning one's
spouse.
Individuals also have to accept their life cycle, which relates to the life task of ego
integrity versus despair. Ego integrity refers to emotional integration which provides egoidentity. If the ego is strong enough to integrate the life experiences of previous life
stages, individuals have a spiritual sense of
order and meaning in their lives.
49
Lack of ego integrity is characterized by despair, involving concern with regrets or a fear
of death. Integrity amounts to identity maintenance in the face of changing life
circumstances when the individual accepts that this is 'what/who I am'. Identity is seen as
the resolution of conflict between ego pre-occupation and ego transcendence. Related to
this, could be Kohlberg and Ryncarz's (1990) view of a seventh stage of moral reasoning
that develops over adulthood.
This stage of reasoning goes beyond previous stages that develop from egoistic thinking
to social consciousnesses, which are based on development from concrete to abstract
thinking in Piagetian terms. It relies on reflective thinking provided by some type of
Transcendental experience in which an intimate bond between the self and the
cosmos is experienced. It offers the individual solutions to fundamental ethical
questions, such as why be moral and just in an unjust society.
Although not generally seen as such, work issues can comprise a significant part of the
late career life cycle.
Higher life expectancy, for example, influences people's availability for work.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, life expectancy averaged 37 years, while it
has since increased to approximately 47 years.
In late adulthood individuals still make valuable contributions to the organization.
Some individuals only then move into senior positions, with more responsibilities and
decision-making requirements.
Research findings with regard to the performance of employees in the late career are
varied.
Some, for example, report that older managers are unwilling to take risks, while others
indicate that age has little effect on the performance of manual and clerical workers.
Studies on older workers also indicate lower turnover rates and no differences in
attendance records in comparison to younger employees.
Generally, late adulthood is associated with retirement.
For most people retirement is associated with a modification of identity rather than an
identity crisis.
Factors influencing it include;
(i) the self-concept,
(ii) the extent to which goals have been attained,
(iii)attitudes and expectations of other people,
financial status, and
(iv) Health.
Although old age is associated with progressive physical deterioration and social loss, it is not
necessarily a frustrating period psychologically.
Depending on the individual, retirement from a career can be enriching or impoverishing.
It may be welcome if it means freedom from unsatisfying work and/or freedom to do what one
wants to do.
50
Generally a distinction is drawn between retirement and retirement from a particular

occupation. Retirement from a particular occupation can be associated simply with a change
of existing or traditional work roles, for example changing to pensioner work, while retirement
- that is, disengagement from work - can be perceived by the individual who stops working as
a downward change, involving a loss of status with consequent feelings of lowered self-esteem.
Men
who
have
been mainly career orientated may feel the loss of achievement through climbing the
organizational hierarchy, while women may adapt more easily to retirement because they are
used to fulfilling different life roles.
Adjustment to retirement is also influenced by motivational factors in the late career. Neutrally
motivated individuals will have few problems, because they have already 'retired', and that
success-oriented individuals could die soon after retirement if they do not do other work, while
someone who fears failure will flourish after retirement.
Research also indicates that retirement has the most detrimental effect if it occurs shortly before
the traditional retirement age of 60 to 65.
However, some people retire earlier than this from meaningful career activities or from a
particular organization.
The retirement age varies from 55 to 60 or 65. Individual reasons vary, but, if such individuals
remain engaged in some constructive task, they may still feel socially acceptable because they
would still, to some extent, be functioning within the framework of the majority, that is, the
working population.
The task should, however, be such that the sense of self-esteem it inspires is equal to that
engendered by the individual's previous job.
Adjustment to retirement is also influenced by the degree of self-actualization reached
throughout the course of life.
If individuals have attained self-actualization, they will probably be able to adapt to enforced
retirement or retirement from a particular occupation and be able to function as a psychically
growing person, for example, through part-time work or hobbies, according to their abilities
and interests.
If work, however, merely means 'keeping busy', in other words, if individuals function only on
the basis of a lower level need such as the search for activity then this need may become even
stronger when directed job activity is lost and these people can become a burden to themselves
and others.
Organizational flexibility in handling older workers, for example allowing leave for trial
retirements, shorter work weeks, and transitions to less demanding job assignments may be
undertaken.
Individuals whose identities are tied to work will have difficulty adjusting to full-time
retirement and are likely to accept bridge employment (that is, part-time, temporary or selfemployment) similar to their current work.
Individuals who retire early because of perceived discrimination against older workers are
likely to accept bridge employment that differs from their current occupation.
51
Implications for life after retirement. In particular, participating in bridge employment (paid
employment after one's career job ends and before permanent full-time retirement begins) and
leisure activities have positive effects on retirement satisfaction.
The quality of the career process therefore contributes to the quality of retirement.
Effective adjustment to retirement is explained by various theories, which include the
following:
Continuity theory,
This theory postulates that activities and roles during retirement should be similar to those
undertaken before retirement. This approach is applicable to people who derived
satisfaction from their work.
Activity theory,
This theory accepts that work, has different meanings for different people and that
substitutes have to be found for work roles. This approach is applicable to success-oriented
people who have potential for the future with regard to work-related activities.
Disengagement theory,
This theory contends that effective adjustment to retirement, involves withdrawal from
work-related activities. This approach applies to people, who felt threatened in their work
by conflict or failure, or success-oriented people who suffered so many losses in the past
that they have stopped growing psychologically, or people who are no longer work
oriented.
Differential disengagement theory,
This is whereby people retire only from certain aspects of work and continue with other
activities. Adjustment can be successful if the latter are available. The effectiveness of
various ways of adjusting depends on the interaction between career factors, the meaning
of work, environmental factors, and the individual's self-perception.
Organizations can assist employees in preparing for the transition to retirement by;
(i) Encouraging them to accept themselves
(ii) To broaden their interests and develop new skills,
(iii)Providing a phasing out programme like allowing them to do part-time consulting
work.
52
(iv) Providing pre-retirement programmes a few years before retirement. Individuals who
attend pre-retirement programmes experience more satisfaction and fewer
psychological and financial problems than individuals who do not.
These programmes usually address the following topics:

(i) Psychological aspects of retirement. such as developing personal interests and
activities,
(ii) housing,
(iii)healthcare during retirement,
(iv) financial planning and investments, and
(v) Estate planning.
Preparing for retirement also requires learning how to use leisure time.
This can be facilitated by scheduling working hours and vocational leisure time in ways that
help individuals to learn how to use leisure time effectively.
Leisure activities can provide alternative sources of self-esteem and a continued source of
identity, particularly if they are regarded as useful by society.
Such activities can include voluntary services, or activities that generate income.
Changing structures of work result in organizations offering early retirement packages.
These packages consist mainly of offering employees financial benefits as inducements to
leave the organization.
Older people may perceive such offers as discriminatory. Therefore, offers of early retirement
must include an employee benefit plan, justify age-related distinctions for eligibility for early
retirement, and allow employees to choose early retirement voluntarily.
Whether retirement is voluntary or enforced influences the individual's perception of
retirement and, whichever it is, requires that the individual be psychologically prepared.
Voluntary retirement before the age of 60 is steadily increasing.
The following factors lead to early retirement:
(i) staying in the same occupation for a long, uninterrupted period of time,
(ii) being married to a working spouse,
(iii)major physical illness,
(iv) certainty about future plans,
(v) working for large firms in declining manufacturing industries,
(vi) higher current wages and pension benefits,
(vii) extensive pre-retirement counseling,
(viii) negative impact of age on performance,
(ix) self-identity tied to work,
53
7.5 Summary
Career development stages that focus on issues in the early adult life, middle adult and late adult life
were discussed and they include;
Early Adult Life/Career Stage

Mid Life Career Stage
Late Life Career Stage.

1. Discuss the life tasks of early adulthood.
2. Describe what young adults between the age of 20 and 30 experience the following life/career
challenges.
3. Discuss the actions that can be taken by the organization to help employees manage their careers
during the mid-career stage.
4. Effective adjustment to retirement is explained by various theories, Discuss FOUR of such theories
54

Ackah, C and Heaton, N (2003) The reality of new careers for men and women. Journal of European
Industrial Training, 28(2/3/4), 141-158
Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of Career Development, 486493, New Delhi: sage publication
Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old problems: Avant-garde
solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and contemporary
viewpoints: Human Resource Management Review, 16, 125-138
55
Lecture 8: Career Choice Theories

8.0 Introduction

1. Discuss the theories of career choice.
2. Discuss the Jungs theory of career choice.
3. Describe in details aspects of career choice and Counseling..
4. Explain the stages of career choice.
8.2 Lecture Outline

8.3 Jungs Theory
8.4 Bordins Theory
8.5 Ginsbergs Theory
8.7 Summary
8.3 Jungs theory.
Carl Gustav Jung developed a theory of personality in which he posits psychological type as a
major construct by which personality can be understood. Psychological type is akin to
personality type, in that it refers to a personality pattern which involves certain psychological
processes that determine the individuals orientation to life. Individuals vary according to
different combinations of the processes that constitute their types.
56
The attitudes are extraversion and introversion, and the functions are sensing (sensation),
intuition, thinking and feeling.
Extraversion. Involves an attitude in which individuals focus their psychic energy on the
external and the objective outside themselves. They think, feel, and act in relation to the
object in a direct and observable fashion. Their interest is in the immediate environment,
in people and things, and that which is objectively possible.
Introversion. Is the opposite of extraversion, and involves an attitude in which
individuals focus their psychic energy on subjective factors within themselves. Although
they are aware of objective data or external conditions, they select subjective data to
think, feel, and act. Their interest is motivated by the inner word of concepts and ideas,
while the objective and external events are of secondary importance to them.
Sensing. (Sensation) refers to a perceptual mode mediated by the sense organs and body
senses-that is, perception of external and internal physical stimuli. Since the sense
provides perception of the present moment, it involves an orientation to experience that
which is present, visible, or concrete.
Intuition. Is the opposite of sensing, and refers to a perceptual mode mediated by the
unconscious. It is not based on objective facts, but involves an instinctive kind of
apprehension beyond the visible, in which something is experienced as whole or as
complete-that is, one knows something without knowing the reason why.
Thinking. Refers to a mode of judging by which individuals try to understand things and
link their ideas by means of a concept. It involves judging that can be intentional or
unintentional.
Feeling. Is the opposite of thinking, and refers to a mode of judging by which the
individual accepts or rejects things or ideas because of the pleasant or unpleasant feelings
they evoke. It is a totally subjective process by which the individual imparts a value
judgment.
8.4 Bordins theory.
Edward S Bordin applies psychodynamic theory to career choice. In psychodynamic theory

childhood experiences are associated with personality development. In Bordins theory,
childhood experiences are seen as basic to the relation between personality and work.
This relation is rooted in the urge to play. Play is an intrinsically satisfying activity that gives the
individual a sense of wholeness and joy and, in work, involves the search for a self-satisfying
57
vocation. All individuals seek this wholeness and joy in almost all aspects of life, including
work.
The urge to play may be unconscious and unarticulated, yet it functions as a guidance
mechanism that influences personality development and its relation to career choice with regard
to training, job entry, and job change.
The nature of play changes as the individual develops. In childhood, play is initially
spontaneous, but as it becomes linked with effort, it becomes more complex, intense, and
directed.
Closely related to effort is compulsion. The individuals experience regarding effort and
compulsion determines the degree to which play and work become fused. This fusion is
influenced by external pressures exerted by parents and other caretakers. If these pressures are
coupled with love, the child internalizes them as concepts of conscience, duty, and expectations
that society has of the individual. Compulsions thereby involve the individuals coming to terms
with the wishes and expectations of others.
Compulsions may, however, become extreme to the extent that effort becomes compulsion. As
such, compulsion is self-alienating and the fusion between play and work is severed. Piano
playing or athletic, for example, may change from being self-satisfying activities to selfalienating compulsions that amount to the drudgery of enforced practicing if the individual is no
longer provided with intrinsic satisfaction.
A compulsory may remain active even when parents or others no longer enforce it. Some
individuals become so highly sensitized to compulsions that they seek to keep play and work
apart.
8.5 Ginsbergs Theory.

The theory was formulated in terms of the following propositions:
Choice is a developmental process that takes place in three stages from childhood to the
late teens or early twenties.
The process is largely irreversible due to pressures such as cost of training or aspects of
self-such as values, time perspective, and reluctance to admit consciously to poor
planning. Time, education, and the process of choice cannot be repeated and early
decisions set limitations or later decision.
The process ends in a compromise between individual factors and environmental realities
such as the availability of jobs, and the income and social prestige associated with a
particular job. After consideration of career alternatives, an occupation is chosen in which
58
the individuals interests, capacities, and values can be satisfied as far as possible. The
compromise lies in seeking a balance between these three aspects of self and external
realities.
The three stages in which choice takes place are the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
Fantasy (age 6-11), during which children form images of adult roles, such as engine
driver or doctor, and believe that they can become whatever they desire, without
understanding the true nature and implications of the roles.
Tentative choices (age 11-16), in which choice is first focused on interests, capacities,
and values, but later comes to include objectives that involve consideration of external
realities. This is a transitional stage during which a more profound concept of reality
begins to crystallize in the face of higher education and work.
Realistic choices (age 17-21),
8.6 Other Theories of Career Choice.
Career choice: Defined as the subjective context of the individuals preferences, aspirations,
orientations, images, intentions, economic conditions and sociological factors.
Individual career choices are influenced by the prevailing job environment. Todays job
environment is marked by fewer job opportunities, changes in organizational and work
structures, and the changes in employee/organizational relationship. The theories can be broken
into content and process theories.
Content theories predict career choice based on certain specific factors, while the content
theories treat career choice as a dynamic process that evolves
Content Theories
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Trait and factor theory

Hollands theory
Dawis and Lofquist theory
Krumboltz theory
post modern approach
59
Process theories
1. Ginzberg theory
2. Supers theory
3. Tiedeman, Ohara and Miller Tiedemans theory.
8.7 Stages of Career Choice
The attitudes are extraversion and introversion, and the functions are sensing (sensation),
intuition, thinking and feeling.
Extraversion.
Involves an attitude in which individuals focus their psychic energy on the external and the
objective outside themselves.
They think, feel, and act in relation to the object in a direct and observable fashion.
Their interest is in the immediate environment, in people and things, and that which is
objectively possible.
Introversion. Is the opposite of extraversion, and involves an attitude in which individuals

focus their psychic energy on subjective factors within themselves. Although they are
aware of objective data or external conditions, they select subjective data to think, feel, and
act. Their interest is motivated by the inner word of concepts and ideas, while the objective
and external events are of secondary importance to them.
Sensing.
(Sensation) refers to a perceptual mode mediated by the sense organs and body senses-that
is, perception of external and internal physical stimuli.
Since the sense provides perception of the present moment, it involves an orientation to
experience that which is present, visible, or concrete.
Intuition.
Is the opposite of sensing, and refers to a perceptual mode mediated by the unconscious.
It is not based on objective facts, but involves an instinctive kind of apprehension beyond
the visible, in which something is experienced as whole or as complete-that is, one knows
something without knowing the reason why.
60
Thinking. Refers to a mode of judging by which individuals try to understand things and
link their ideas by means of a concept. It involves judging that can be intentional or
unintentional.
Feeling. Is the opposite of thinking, and refers to a mode of judging by which the individual
accepts or rejects things or ideas because of the pleasant or unpleasant feelings they evoke.
It is a totally subjective process by which the individual imparts a value judgment.
8.7 Summary
The following theories of career choice have a bearing on the career one chooses.
Jungs Theory
Bordins Theory
Ginsbergs Theory

1. Discuss the Carl Gustav Jung theory of personality?
2. Describe the three stages in which choice takes place.
3. Discuss the other theories related to career choice
Careers an Organizational Perspective 4th Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetzee.
61
Lecture 9: Organizational Choice

9.0 INTRODUCTION
Organizational choice refers to an individual's choice of a specific organization for
which to work.
Although there are many tests and instruments available to assist individuals in making a career choice,
there are few available to assist people in choosing an organization. Career counselors also devote little
attention to advising individuals
in organizational choice. Organizational choice refers more to an event, while occupational choice is
more of a process. Organizational choice is usually made over a shorter period; it is a more conscious
decision and can be more easily reversed than career choice. The choice of an organization is a matching
process, which is a major theme of organizational entry.
Organizational entry is the process whereby individuals move from outside to inside organizations to
become more involved in a particular organization for a period of time.
Two processes are involved in organizational entry. One process takes place where individuals evaluate
different organizations to determine which one will best meet their career aspirations, needs, and values.
The other process concerns the organizations assessment of the candidates' qualities to determine which
one will fit best into the organization with the highest likelihood of success.

1. Discuss the theories that govern an individual choice of the organizations they would establish their
career with.
2. Explain the various theories of position selection in organizations.
3. Enumerate the factors that influence an Individual organizational choice.

4. Discuss the concept of career management in a changing Environment
5. Describe the Changing Work and Family Values in the employees work context.
62
9.2 Lecture Outline

9.3 Theories of Organizational Choice
9.4 Objective Factor Theory
9.5 Subjective Factor Theory
9.6 Critical Contact Theory
9.7 Social Compassion Theory
9.8 Supers Theory
9.10 Summary
9.3 THEORIES OF ORGANISATIONAL CHOICE

9.3.1 Expectancy theory
Vrooms expectancy theory (1964) is the theory most often used in research on organizational choice.
According to the expectancy model, the selection of an organization is based on its motivational force,
which is the result of the extent to which individuals expect a job offer from the organization
(expectancy), their perception that the organization will provide certain outcomes (instrumentality), and
the extent to which each of these outcomes attracts individuals (valence).
Expectancy theory
Unprogrammed
decision-making
The selection of an organization based on its motivational force, which is

the result of the extent to which individuals expect a job offer from the
organization (expectancy), their perception that the organization will
provide certain outcomes (instrumentality), and the extent to which each of
these outcomes attracts individuals (valence).
A non-compensatory model which suggests that job seekers make use of a
two-phase process when they choose an organization. In the first phase, they
evaluate the various choices according to a few important factors and
eliminate those that do not meet their minimum criteria on these factors.
Once a Job has been found that meets these criteria, applicants will regard
it as their 'implicit choice'. During the second phase, they will confirm this
implicit choice, even going so far as to distort information if this should
be necessary.
Theories of position selection

The process by which the individual determines for which organization to work.
63
Objective factor
theory
Subjective factor
theory
Critical theory
Social comparison
theory
Supers theory
A graduate chooses a job by ranking and evaluating a limited number of

clearly measurable features of each job offer.
Individuals select a position on the basis of what they perceive their
personal and emotional needs to be, and the extent to which the image of
the organization meets these perceived needs.
Candidates for a job cannot differentiate between the companies that offer
them employment. The factors that influence their choices are therefore
neither objective nor subjective. Candidates simply lack the experience to
evaluate the job offers that they receive and will therefore base the final
decision on the experience gained during their contact with the various
organizations.
Individuals tend to compare themselves to people similar to themselves
with regard to sex, age, culture, education, and status.
Although largely a theory of occupational choice, the theory can also be
extended to organizational choice in that the choice of an organization
may also be a means of implementing an individual's self-concept. The
relationship between the individual's self-concept (perceptions of the self)
and the organizational image (individual's perception of the organization)
could be a determinant of organizational choice.
Unprogrammed decision-making
The unprogrammed decision-making process has been studied by Soelberg (1967), who analyzed the
organizational choices of master's and doctorate students. He observed that students had a mental picture of
the type of organisations for which they wanted to work. This non-compensatory model suggests that job
seekers make use of a two-phase process when they choose an organization. In the first phase they evaluate
the various choices according to a few important factors and eliminate those that do not meet their
minimum criteria on these factors. Once a job has been found that meets these criteria, applicants will
regard it as their 'implicit choice'. During the second phase, they will confirm this implicit choice, even
going so far as to distort information if this should be necessary.
9.3.2 Theories of position selection in organizations

The process by which the individual determines for which organization to work is the position called
selection process. They outline three theories which review the factors on which individuals base their
decisions in this regard.
i) Objective factor theory
The objective factor theory states that a graduate chooses a job by ranking and evaluating a limited number
of clearly measurable features of each job offer, for example, the salary, type of work, and opportunities
for further development. Although each individual may rank these factors in a different order, a pattern
will emerge which, if detected and used as a basis for structuring the firm's offers of employment, will
significantly improve the recruitment effectiveness of the
organization.
64
Subjective factor theory

According to the subjective factor theory, individuals select a position on the basis of what they perceive
their personal and emotional needs to be, and the extent to which the image of the organization meets these
perceived needs. Such decisions are made on the grounds of personal preferences and emotions.
Critical contact theory
The critical contact theory states that typical candidates for a job cannot differentiate between the companies
that offer them employment. The factors that influence their choices are therefore neither objective nor
subjective. Candidates simply lack the experience to evaluate the job offers that they receive and will
therefore base the final decision on the experience gained during their contact with the various
organizations, for example the friendliness of the person who conducted the interview, the facilities offered
by the company, and the speed with which their Job application is processed.
Social comparison theory
According to the social comparison theory we tend to compare ourselves to people similar to ourselves with
regard to sex, age, culture, education, and status. Kilduff (1990, 1992) uses the social comparison theory as
a framework to study the effects of social networks on the organizational choice process. Kilduff's (1990)
research supports the predictions derived from the social comparison theory. His research shows that two
individuals who are friends or who regard each other as similar tend to make similar organizational choices.
This is true even if their academic orientation and job preferences differ considerably.
Super's theory
Super's theory is seen largely as a theory of occupational choice. Tom (1971) postulates that Super's theory can
also be extended to organizational choice in that the choice of an organization may also be a means of
implementing an individual's self-concept. The relationship between the individual's self-concept and the
organizational image (individual's perception of the organization) could be a determinant of organizational
choice. An important career decision would then be to find a fit between the self-concept of the individual
and the image of the organization.
9.4 Factors influencing organizational choice
Besides these theoretical formulations, earlier researchers have found factors that influence
organizational choice per se. These findings indicate that organizational choice is influenced by;
i)
Nature of work
ii)
Starting salary,
iii)
Opportunity for promotion,
iv)
Intellectual aspects,
v)
And recognition.
vi)
Homogeneity also plays a role in organizational choice. People who are attracted to a
particular organization prove to be more homogeneous than the applicant pool in general.
65
vii)
viii)
Organization reputation,
Corporate culture and policies are also found to be an important factor when considering
an organization.
Figure showing factors influencing organizational Choice.

Nature of work
e.g. intellectual
aspects,
recognition, job
satisfaction,
relationships.
Starting salary/
remuneration
package
Organizational
reputation
Opportunity for
promotion
Homogeneity
Trust
Good leadership
Way change is
managed
Factors influencing
organizational
choice
Informal sources
Training
Internal
communication
system
Corporate
culture & policies
Evaluation of site
visit:
Preparations of
location
Host likeableness
employee) can derive from highly skilled employees. Through the continuous development and
9.5 Career Management in a Changing Environment

Organizations that operate in the world today are faced with changes in terms of structure,
labour composition, reward systems, technology, information etc.
Competition is on the increase and the globalization of the world economy brings in international
competition.
66
Large organizations are downsizing, as organizations are being forced to do more with less and
to be more flexible.
The organizations operating today are characterized by the following features;
Knowledge based
Virtual
Flexible in terms of functions and number
Without boundaries
Composed largely of specialists
Flatter in structure/flat organization structure
Shrinking workforce
Active in learning
Less command and control
Offer less defined jobs
Outsource components
Diverse workforce
Committed to the developed of their people
Implications of the changing organization for careers

In light of the changes taking place in the organizational set up, a new working relationship is
emerging where emphasis is put on individual responsibility and a broader range of skills the
characteristics of this working relationship can be summarized as
Less job security

Individuals being in charge of managing their own career
Pay that is performance related
Flexible employment
Little trust between employee and employer
Rewarding of good performance
The implications of changing work environment for careers and career management can be
viewed from the following perspectives
1)
Careers to become more protean

67
Careers of the future will become more protean and they will be marked by the following
2)
-
3)
-
High levels of psychological success

Career being managed by the individual not by the organization
Continuous learning
Chronological age being unimportant
High levels of self-awareness
High degree of mobility
Employer does not blindly trust the organization with his/her career
Flexible career curse characterized by moves between different lines of work
Enlargement of career space that will allow workers to integrate work and family
issues
Workers will be able to work from home
Boundarless Careers
A career in which the individual have ownership of their careers. The person
manages his or her own career in relatively autonomous fashion between jobs.
Companies and professions.
In a boundarless career, employability is determined by performance and flexibility
and success is measured by meaningful work
Careers are not constrained by original boundaries, as individuals can move in
between different organizations if they have transferable skills
Boundarlyssness however cannot be applied to all occupations and work settings
Redefine Career Progress and Success
A measure of career success is the vertical progress and mastery of the job. However,
success is now being viewed in terms of psychological success feeling of
achievement of personal goals.
Lateral moves rather than upward career moves have become the order of the day
In the new environment, employees will be able to survive if they base they base their
feeling of security on processes rather than structures, on skills rather than job titles
and on satisfaction form fulfilling a certain role, rather than advancing up the career
ladder
The amount of learning that has taken place over a period, outputs, marketable skills
acquired by the individual, will be a major determinant of career success.
68
4)
Individuals can also increase their career success through doing something they feel
passionate about, achievement of new career goals of the individual is marketed more
successfully etc.
Continuous Learning
This is an important feature of a protean career
Its a crucial requirement for all employees at all levels as the emerging organizations
and jobs require new skills and knowledge
Its the process by which a person acquires knowledge, skills and abilities throughout
ones career in reaction to and in anticipation of changing performance criteria.
To live up to the new expectations and to be able to change organizations and careers
more often, continuous learning is a must for all employees
Those who cannot adapt to this kind of change might find themselves sidelined by the
organization at an early age.
Creation of culture of continuous learning
This can be done through networking via the computer, encouraging innovation and
experimentation team building across different hierarchies and the focus on projects
rather than function.
Establishment of a transfer of training climate. This will facilitate the acquisition of

skills or knowledge through training courses which can then be reinforced by being
applied in the organization
Giving the employees constructive feedback that addresses the causes of the
individuals performance correctly is fair, helpful and considerate to the person
Management of performance by establishing directions for future development and by

future job analyses that assist the employee in identifying dimensions of leadership in
management
Focusing on professionalism in order to enhance employees expertise in their own

areas;
69
This will prepare them for future jobs as well as make them re-employable in the
event f downsizing by the organization
Retraining of displaced workers through equipping them with coping skills, new
skills and knowledge.
4)
Career Resilience
-
The ability to adapt to changing environments/circumstances

The individual develops career resilience by acquiring a motivation to be strong in the
face of inordinate demands
Individuals who have acquired a resilience in their career have learnt to take charge of
their own careers, contribute skills aligned to business needs are dedicated to
continuous learning and are committed to personal excellence.
To achieve career resilience, the following suggestions have been proposed by Collad et al
(1996)
Employees to be encouraged to take control of their careers

Emphasis to be placed on continuous learning as an important element of career
development
Work content and work strategy to be included as part of career assessment
Employees to be made aware of the changing environment in order to develop a
future focus
5)
New Employment Relationships Forged
More and more people will be work on a permanent basis for organization although
not actually employed by these organizations
Predictions show that in future all work that does not follow the career ladder will be
contracted out
People will become freelance providers by skills and services
70
Outsourcing will enable work in the organization to be performed not by its members
but by others who work elsewhere and have no history or future with that
organization.
The emerging types of employment relationships can be summarized as;
7)
Long term insiders the core employees

help to promote the stability of the organization
Possess critical skills and expertise to help in focusing the activities of the
organization (guiding the organization towards, its objectives).
Short-term insiders career sits and jugglers career sits someone whose aim is to
making a career within a certain industry not within a certain industry not within
certain company jugglers: - individuals whom a career is not the most important part
of their lives.
Short-term insiders get employed by the company, though they are not very much
part of the prevailing organization culture
Need not invest very much in them in terms of money or commitment
Long-term outsiders pooled workers
Are called to work for a company for a long period of time in the capacity of a
substitute for another employee or as pooled workers who prefers working shorter
hours due to personal commitments e.g. a pool of part-time lecturers employed by the
University.
Short-term outsiders: temporary and independent contractors
Security that lies in employability other than in employment
Security has shifted from the organization to the individual as there isnt anyone who
can provide it any more the organization scene.
Security is therefore to be found more in employability promotes security by virtue of
the accumulation of skills and reputation that can be invested in new opportunities as
they arise.
Individuals should strive to have the competitive skills required to obtain work when
necessary
Employability demand from the individual a commitment to on-going development of
skills and abilities to such an extent that the individual is able to offer what is required
in future.
9.6 Changing Work and Family Values

71
Emerging work values and family values can be identified as follows:
1.
Individualism being more valued than organizational loyalty. In the modern

organization loyalty will have to be redefined in terms of professional standards. This
is as a result of the following reasons;
Working under different leaders where a chair of command cannot be easily

identified
People are increasingly being challenged traditions and to move to new directions
Decentralization of decision making with people at all levels being expected to make
their own decisions
Loyalty is shifting more to the career than to the company. This is because the future
depends on ones own skills and abilities and reputation
Performance criteria dictated by professionalism not by management.
9.7 Changing Role of the Manager
New demand are being made of the management

Managers are being called upon to be initiators, facilitators, leaders, persuaders and
contributors.
To ensure success, managers should acquire different skills such as
The use of ideas and networking
Being more of negotiators, facilitators rather than watchdogs
Acquisition of skills in collaboration of participative leadership styles
Replace command and coeraon with influence and persuasion
Be humble and prepared to learn
Be aware that how things are done is equally important as what is to be done
Communicate clearly to workers
Ability to manage results
Develop intercultural competence ( as organizations become part of the global
economy
72
Enhance reputation in professional careers
21st career planning model
Honour resistance
Evaluate and
Reformulate plans
Quest for personal
development
execute plans
Draft tentative plan and

explore it with others
In light of all these changes in the organization, a new career planning model is
necessary
Long term career planning will concern the individuals well being
Model is based on the quest for personal development. Personal development is
facilitated by the interaction of factors relevant to career planning for the 21st
Quest for Personal Development
Focuses on becoming aware of ones inner depths (spiritual and emotional) which
will help us to understand who we are and how to seek vitality and joy in life
73
Honour Resistant
Gain an understanding of the reasons for not growing or getting stuck i.e.
understanding or discovering why one is resistant to personal growth e.g. listening to
certain pasts of oneself.
Resistance occurs when one gets stuck and fails to focus on personal development
Clarify ideal future in terms of an

-
deal role one would like to be in 2-3 years time

Involves fantasizing about the details of what an ideal work day, week or month
would constitute.
Helps in gaining a deeper knowledge of oneself, aspirations, desires, fears and doubts
Can lead to creation of a job that at present does not exist.
Study Self
Deeper self-understanding, not as a configuration of traits but as are capable of

creating meaning analysis of past competencies
Previous phases can be critically examined as they may result to surprises
One may find that he/she has developed more skills than they need realized.
Analysis competencies needed in ideal future
What are the competencies necessary in an ideal career
Some competencies may already exist while other will require to be achieved or
acquired. This helps in planning ones learning goals.
Draft Tentative Plan
Plan will show how the goals one aspires for will be achieved in logical simple steps
Explore Plan with Others

74
Trusted others/individuals can be of much help in exploration of the tentative plan as

they can provide useful feedback ones goals and can understand ones fears and
aspirations
Execute Plan Incrementally and Reflect on Learning
Work on skills that are required to achieve goals

Make career choices that are consistent with the future vision
Evaluate and Reformulate Plans
Revision of the plan to be done periodically and discussing the results with trusted friends.
Introduction
Changes in the organization are as a result external pressures

Political economic and business scenes are changing dramatically and are set to
change further
These change will ultimately affect the workers and career management in the
organization setting
The challenge is to remain employable and individuals should regard themselves as
entrepreneurs, despite being permanently employed
Career of the 21st is about experience skills, flexibility and personal development,
does not have a pre-defined career path and employment security
A new career planning model has emerged that emphasizes the need to experience
personal meaning in work which individuals should strive for in their careers.
75
9.8 Summary
1. There are various theories that govern an individual choice of the organizations they would establish their
career with, these includes; Expectancy theory and unprogrammed decision making theory.
2. Theories of position selection in organizations include; Objective factor theory, Subjective factor theory,
Critical theory, social comparison theory and Supers theory
3. The factors that influence an Individual organizational choice include;

i)
Nature of work
ii)
Starting salary,
iii)
Opportunity for promotion,
iv)
Intellectual aspects,
v)
And recognition.
vi)
Homogeneity also plays a role in organizational choice. People who are attracted to a
particular organization prove to be more homogeneous than the applicant pool in general.
vii)
Organization reputation,
viii)
Corporate culture and policies are also found to be an important factor when considering an
organization.

1. Distinguish between the two theories that govern the choice of an organization.
2. Explain the Five theories of position selection in the organizations relating it to your own career and
work environment.
3. Discuss the factors that influence how an individual will go about choosing an organization to work for.
4. Discuss the concept of career management in a changing Environment

5. Describe the Changing Work and Family Values in the employees work context
76
Ackah, C and Heaton, N (2003) The reality of new careers for men and women. Journal of European
Industrial Training, 28(2/3/4), 141-158
Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of Career Development, 486493, New Delhi: sage publication
Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old problems: Avant-garde
solutions. Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 9 (5), 13-21
Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and contemporary
viewpoints: Human Resource Management Review, 16, 125-138
77

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CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

1.2 Specific objectives:

1.3 Lecture Outline

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

(i) As a means of making a living,

Pre- Industrial Times

Work as drudgery, hard menial or dull work.

The Industrial Times

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

i) Information rather than in industry.

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

1.8 Self Test Questions

In this lecture you have learnt that:

1. Evolution of meanings associated with work

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

1.7 Suggestion for further reading

Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of

Appelbaum, SH and Finestone, D (1994) Revisiting career plateauing: some old

Baruch, Y (2006) Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing

Careers an Organizational Perspective 4th Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetzee

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

Lecture 2: Variables Associated with Work

2.2 Specific objectives

At the end of the lecture you should be able:

2.3 Lecture Outline

2.4 A sense of belonging in society:

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

2.6 Power Structures

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

2.9 Self Test Questions

In this lecture you have learnt that:

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

2.11 Suggestion for further reading

Allen TD (2006) Mentoring. In JH Greenhaus and GA Callahan (eds) Encyclopedia Of Career

Careers an Organizational Perspective 4th Edition, AMG Schreuder, M Coetze

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

Lecture 3: Variables of Work

At the end of the lecture you should be able to:

3.2 Lecture Outline

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

3.3 Central Life Interest

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

3.5 Self Actualization

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

3.7 Spirituality at Work

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

Acting with integrity and authenticity.

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

3.9 Self Test Questions

1. Discuss the concept of competency as a modern career management variable.

3.11 Suggestion for further reading

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

Lecture 4: Career Concepts

4.1 Specific objectives

At the end of the lecture you should be able:

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT

4.2 Lecture Outline

4.2 Career management

CMS 206 CAREER MANAGEMENT