THE UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP

WELDING PROCESSES
PART-II

ME 473
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Instructor: Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Plasma arc welding (PAW): Introduction

PAW is an arc welding process that

uses a constricted arc between a
nonconsumable electrode and the weld
pool (transferred arc) or between the
electrode and the constricted nozzle
(nontransferred arc).
The process is used without the
application of pressure. Filler metal
may or may not be used.
Shielding is obtained from the ionized
gas issuing from the torch, which may
be supplemented by an auxiliary
source of shielding gas.
PAW is also used for metal cutting and
for metal spraying.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

PAW: Principles of operation

If an electric arc between a tungsten

electrode and the work is constricted
or reduced in cross-sectional area, its
temperature increases since it carries
the same amount of current. This
constricted arc is called plasma.
There are two modes of operation:
nontransferred arc and transferred
arc.
In nontransferred arc mode the
current flow is from the electrode
inside the torch to the nozzle
containing the orifice and back to the
power supply.
In the transferred arc mode the
current is transferred from the
tungsten electrode inside the welding
torch through the orifice to the
workpiece and back to the power
supply.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

The modes of plasma arc welding

The transferred arc mode is the most used for

welding except for very low-current applications.
The plasma acts as an extremely high
temperature heat source to form a molten weld
pool in the same manner as the TIG.
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Welding Technology

PAW: Advantages and major uses

Advantages of PAW when compared to TIG stem from the fact that PAW has a
higher energy concentration. Its higher temperature, constricted cross-sectional
area, and the velocity of the plasma jet create a higher heat content.
The torch-to-work distance is less critical than for TIG more freedom to observe
and control the weld.
The HAZ and the form of the weld are more desirable. The HAZ is smaller than
with TIG, and the weld tends to have more parallel sides, which reduces angular
distortion.
The higher heat concentration and the plasma jet allow for higher travel speeds.
PAW has deeper penetration and produces a narrower weld.

PAW is used the manufacturing of tubing, components made of thin metal, root-pass
welds on pipe.
PAW is normally applied as a manual process. Automatic and mechanized app. (limited)
Join practically all of the commercial metals.
Filler rod is used for making welds in thicker materials.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

PAW: Equipment required

Power source; A CC drooping characteristic power source supplying dc welding

current is recommended, however ac/dc power source can be used.

80 V open circuit voltage and max. 500 A for PAW applications.

Control circuit; The plasma torch connects to the control console or to the power
source. The control console includes a power source for the pilot arc, a timer,
water and gas valves, separate flowmeters for the plasma gas and the shielding
gas. Usually the console is connected to the power source.
A wire feeder may be used for mechanized or automatic welding.

Circuit diagram of PAW

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

PAW torch and wire feeder

Welding Technology

PAW: Materials required

Filler metals is used except when welding the thinnest metal. The composition
of the filler metal should match the base metal. The size of the filler metal rod
depends on the thickness of the base metal and the welding current.

Plasma and shielding gas: An inert gas, either argon, helium, or a mixture, is
used for shielding the weld area from the atmosphere. Argon is more
commonly used since it is heavier and provides better shielding at lower rates.

For flat and vertical welding;

The shielding gas flow rate 7 to 14 lt/min
For overhead positions;
Argon is usually used for plasma gas and flow rate 0.5 lt/min to 2.4 lt/min
depending on the torch size and application.

Limitations: Equipment and apparatus are delicate and complex. The torch must be
water cooled. The tip of tungsten and orifice must be maintained within very close limits.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Arc welding with consumable electrode

Electrode is melted and the molten

metal is carried across the gap.
A uniform arc length is maintained
between the melting end of the
electrode and weld pool.

Shielded metal arc welding

Gas metal arc welding
Flux cored arc welding
Electro slag welding
Submerged arc welding

The electrode is continiously fed

into the arc and is melted by the
heat of the arc as a deposition.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Arc region of the consumable electrode arc

Welding Technology

Arc welding with consumable electrode

Good quality of welding and highproductivity welding depend on two major

factors:

The penetration of the weld into the base

metal
The melt-off rate of the electrode

The maximum heat normally occurs at

cathode.

When straight polarity welding (DCEN), the

melt-off rate is high, but the penetration of
the base metal is low.
When DCEP welding, the max. heat still
occurs at cathode, deep penetration occurs.
High current electrode melt-off rapidly
Low current melt-off slowly
Melt-off: The heat required to melt the electrode
is a physical relationship between the current
and the weight of metal melted, known as meltoff or burn-off rate which is the weight of metal
melted per unir time.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Polarity and heat relationship

Welding Technology

Melt-off rate and its factors

Factors that affect the melt-off rate:

Melting point of the material (i.e. Al has higher melt-of rate)

The size of electrode wire: based on current density I / cross-section area
Electrode extension: resistance to heat
Steel-Wire size

Magnesium-Wire size

Aluminium -Wire size

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Metal transfer across the arc

The forces that cause metal to

transfer across the arc are similar for
all the cosumable electrode arc
welding.
The metal being transferred ranges
from small droplets, smaller than the
diameter of the electrode, to droplets
much larger in diameter than the
electrode.
The mechanism of transferring liquid
metal across the arc gap is
controlled by:

Surface tension
The plasma jet
Gravity
Electromagnetic force

Electromagnetic force on drop about to transfer

Causes the surface of the liquid to contract to the smallest possible area
Molten metal drops in flight are accelerated toward the workpiece

Tends the detach the liquid drop

Acts to detach a molten drop at the tip of the electrode.

The combination of these forces that acts on the molten droplet and determines the transfer
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Dr.mode.
Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Modes of metal transfer

The mode of metal transfer across the arc is related to the welding process;

The metal involved

The arc atmosphere
The size, type and polarity of the electrode
The characteristics of the power source
The welding position
Welding current, current density, and heat input

The most common way to classify metal transfer is according to size and
frequency and characteristics of the metal drops being transferred.
Four major types of metal transfer:

Spray transfer
Globular transfer
Short-circuiting transfer
Pulsed-spray metal transfer
There is an intermediate form of transfer in the transition zone between two modes
where both types of transfer may occur simultaneously.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

Modes of metal transfer

Spray transfer: The drops of molten metal are

approximately the same size as the electrode
wire. It occurs in an inert gas atmosphere, %80
argon. Smooth transfer, large weld pool, good
penetration, not used for thin materials.
Globular transfer: The molten globule can grow
in size until its dia reaches 1.5 to 3 x D electrode.
It usually occurs when CO2 shielding gas used.
Very deep penetration, only used in flat pos.
Used for heavy steel sections.
Short-circuiting transfer: It is a low-energy
mode of transfer. The molten tip may grow up to
1.5 times the electrode dia. Weld pool is small,
not used on nonferrous metals.
Pulsed-spray metal transfer: It produces
droplets of approximately the same or smaller
size than the electrode dia. It is based on a
special pulsed waveform of the welding current.
Type of pulsing is difficult to adjust, never
become popular.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Spray transfer

Short-circuiting
transfer

Globular transfer

Pulsed-spray
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transfer

Welding Technology

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

SAW is an arc welding

process with an arc between a
covered electrode and the
weld pool.
The process is used with
shielding from the
decomposition of the electrode
covering, without the
application of pressure, and
with filler metal from the
electrode.
SAW is also known as stick
electrode welding.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SMAW: Principles of operation

It consists of an arc between a covered electrode and the base metal.

The arc is initiated by touching the electrode momentarily to the workpiece.
The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal to form a molten
pool. The metal melted from the electrode is transferred across the arc into
the molten pool.
The size of the weld pool and the depth of penetration determine the mass of
molten metal under the control of welder.
If current is too high, the depth of penetration will be excessive and the
volume of molten weld metal will become uncontrollable.
A higher speed of travel reduces the size of the molten weld pool.
The weld metal deposit is covered by a slag from the electrode covering.
The arc in the immediate arc area is enveloped by an atmosphere of
protective gas produced by the disintegration of the electrode coating.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SMAW: Advantages and major uses

It is the most popular arc welding

process.
It has maximum flexibility and can weld
many metals in all positions from near
minimum to maximum thickness.
The investment for equipment is small.
It is used in manufacturing and in field
work for construction and
maintenance.
The method of application is manual.
Semiautomatic and mechanised
methods are not used. Automatic
method can be used.
Welding in the horizontal, vertical and
overhead positions are possible
depends on the type and size of the
electrode, as well as the welding
current and the skill of the welder.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SMAW: Equipment required

The welding machine or power

source: to provide electric power of
the proper current (CC, 25A-500A)
and voltage (15 to 35V).

Electrode holder, held by the welder.

It firmly grips the electrode and
transmits the welding current to it.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SMAW: Material used

The covered electrode is the only item of material normally required.

The selection of the covered electrode is based on the electrode usability
and the composition and the properties of the deposited weld.
The coating on the electrode provides:

gas from the decomposition of certain ingredients of the coating to shield the
arc from the atmosphere.
the deoxidizers for scavenging and purifying the weld deposited
slag formers to protect the deposited weld
ionzing elements to make the arc more stable
alloying elements to provide special characteristics to the deposited weld
iron powder to improve productivity of the electrode.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

It is an arc welding process that uses an

arc between a continious filler metal
electrode and the weld pool.

The process is used with shielding from

an externally supplied gas and without the
application of pressure.

This is also called as metal inert gas

(MIG) or metal active gas (MAG) welding.

There are many variations depending on

the type of shielding gas, the type of metal
transfer, the type of metal welded etc.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

MIG: Principles of operation

MIG welding utilizes the heat of an arc

between a continiously fed consumable
electrode and the work to be welded.
The heat of the arc melts the surface of
the base metal and the end of the
electrode.
The metal melted off the electrode is
transferred across the arc to the molten
pool.
The penetration is mainly controlled by
welding current.
The width of the molten pool is mainly
controlled by the travel speed.
Shielding of the molten pool, the arc,
and the surrounding area is provided
by an envelope of gas fed through the
nozzle.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

The shielding gas may be an inert gas,

an active gas, or a mixture, surrounds
the arc area to protect it from
contamination from the atmosphere.
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Welding Technology

MIG: Advantages and major uses

MIG welding is one of the most popular arc welding process.

Continuous wire feed
Automatic self-regulation of the arc length
High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations
Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line
Little or no post weld cleaning
Can be used in all positions
Wide range of application: sheet metal industry, pipe welding.

Disadvantages:
High level of equipment maintenance
No independent control of filler addition
Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values
Joint and part access is not as good as TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding
The MIG process uses semiautomatic, mechanised, or automatic equipment.
In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are controlled automatically.
In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic control.
With automatic equipment, there is no manual intervention during welding.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

MIG: Equipment required

A MIG system consists of:

Power source, 50-500A and 10-50V

The electrode wire feeder and
control system
The welding gun and cable
assembly for semiautomatic welding
or the welding torch for automatic
welding
The gas and water control system
for the shielding gas and cooling
water
Travel mechanism and guidance for
automatic welding

MIG welding requires high current at a relatively low voltage.

Three generic types of power source are suitable for MIG welding: AC/DC transformer
rectifier or inverter, and DC generator.
Wire feed unit is to feed the consumable wire at a constant rate.
High performance feed units are capable of delivering wire at up to 30m/min.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

MIG: Material used

Two materials are used for the MIG welding process:

The electrode: following factors govern the selection of the electrode;

Metal to be welded: the composition and mechanical properties of the base

metal are of primary importance.
Thickness and joint design: thicker sections and complex joint designs
require filler metals that provide high weld metal ductility.
Surface conditions: the surface of the base metal
Specifications or service conditions

The shielding gas

Selecting of the shielding gas involves;

Electrode,the base metal and welding position

The shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc and metal
transfer and the behaviour of the weld pool, in particular, its penetration.
General purpose shielding gases for MIG welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and CO2,
and special gas mixtures may contain helium. The gases which are normally used for the
various materials are:
Steels CO2, argon +2 to 5% oxygen, argon +5 to 25% CO2
Non-ferrous argon, argon / helium
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

SAW is an arc welding process that uses

an arc or arcs between a bare metal
electrode or electrodes and the weld pool.
The arc and molten metal are shielded by
a blanket of granular flux on the
workpieces.
The process is used without pressure and
with filler metal from the electrode and
sometimes from a supplemental source
(welding rod, flux, or metal granules).
It is normally automatic process.
It is also known as under powder welding
or smothered arc welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SAW: Principles of operation

SAW utilizes the heat of an arc between a continiously fed electrode and the
work.
The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal and the end of the
electrode.
Shielding is obtained from a blanket of granular flux, which is laid directly
over the weld area.
The flux close to the arc melts and intermixes with the molten weld metal
and helps purify and fortify it.
The flux forms a glasslike slag that is lighter in weight than the deposited
weld metal and floats on the surface as a protective cover.
The electrode is fed into the arc automatically and travel can be manual or
by machine.
The metal transfer mode is less important in SAW.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SAW: Advantages and major uses

High quality weld metal

Extremely high deposition rate and speed
Smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter
Little or no smoke
No arc flash, thus minimal need for protection
High utilization of electrode wire
Easily automated for high operator factor

Highly used in heavy steel plate fabrication work:

welding of structural shapes and the longitudinal seam of larger diameter pipe
manufacture of machine components of heavy industry
vessels and tanks for pressure and storage
Shipbuilding (fabrication of subassemblies)
Steels in medium and heavy thickness

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SAW: Equipment required

Welding machine or power source (CC, ac or dc can be supplied)

Wire feeder and control system
Welding torch for automatic welding
Flux hopper and feeding mechanism
Travel mechanism for automatic welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

SAW: Material used

Two materials are used in submerged arc welding:

The welding flux:

Shields the arc and molten weld metal from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
The flux contains deoxidizers and scavengers, which help remove impurities from the
weld metal.
Introducing alloys into the weld metal
The flux that melts and forms the slag covering must be removed from the weld (easily
done after the weld cools)
The flux is selected based on the mechanical properties required of the weld deposit.

Fluxes may be neutral or active:

Neutral fluxes will not produce any significant changes in weld metal chemistry and used
for multi-pass applications.
Active fluxes contain small amounts of maganese and/or silicon used to reduce porosity
and weld cracking and used for single pass applications.

The consumable electrode:

In SAW, it is necessary to select and electrode and flux combination to match the
base metal composition and properties.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

Gas welding: Oxyfuel gas welding

Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a group of welding processes that produce

coalescence of workpieces by heating them with an oxyfuel gas flame.
The processes are used with or without the application the pressure, and with or
without filler metal.
Major processes are:

Oxyacetylene welding (most popular, uses acetylene as the fuel gas)

Oxyhydrogen welding (uses hydrogen as the fuel gas, not popular)
Pressure gas welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

OAW process consist of high temperature flame

produced by the combustion of acetylene with
oxygen and directed by a torch.
The intense heat of the flame 3482C melts the
surface of the base metal to form a molten pool.
Filler metal is added to fill gaps or grooves. As
the flame moves along the joint, the melted
base metal and filler metal solidify to produce
the weld.
The temperature of the oxyacetylene flame is
not uniform throughout its length and the
combustion is also different in different parts of
the flame.

The temperature is the highest just beyond the

end of the inner core and decreases gradually
toward the end of the flame.

Flame temp C

Outer envelope

nner core
Acetylene feather

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

OAW: Chemical reactions

The chemical reaction for a 1:1 ratio of acetylene and

oxygen plus air is:

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + Heat

This is the primary reaction, however, both carbon monoxide
and hydrogen are combustible and will react with oxygen
from the air:
2CO +H2 + 1.5O2 = 2CO2 + H2O + Heat
This is the secondary reaction, which produces carbon
dioxide, heat and water.

Neutral flame

There are three basic flame types:

Neutral (or balanced): 1:1 ratio of oxygen and

acetylene. It obtains additional oxygen from the air for
complete combustion. Generally preferred.
Excess acetylene (carborazing): indicated in the flame
when the inner cone has a feathery edge extending
beyond it. It may add carbon to the weld metal.
Excess oxygen (oxidising):has a shorter envelope and
a small pointed white cone. The flame tends to oxidise
the weld metal and is used only for welding specific
metals.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Carburising flame

Oxidising flame
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Welding Technology

OAW: Advantages and uses

The equipment is very portable, relatively inexpensive, versatile, and can be used
in all welding positions.
OAW can be used for welding, brazing, soldering, and with proper attachments,
flame cutting.
The equipment can also be used for bending, forming, straightening, hardening
and so on.
Normally used as a manual. It can be mechanised (not common), Semiautomatic
applications (rarely)
Welding is possible for most of the common metals
Normally used for welding thinner materials up to 6.4mm.
Industrial applications are in the field of maintenance and repair, and welding
small-diameter pipe.
The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by changing the
ratio of the volume of oxygen to acetylene.
Gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be used for joining lower
melting point non-ferrous metals, and for brazing and silver soldering

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

OAW: Equipment required

The apparatus and equipment:

Welding torch and tips: the function

of mixing the fuel gas with oxygen
and provides the required flame. It
contains a handle and valves for
regulating the gases.
Oxygen and acetylene hose
Oxygen and acetylene regulators:
reduce the pressure of the gas in the
cylinder or supply system to the
pressure used in the torch. Oxygen
1 to 25 psi, acetylene 1 to 12
psi, reduced working pressures.
Oxygen cylinders, 2200 psi (15.2
MPa)
Acetylene cylinders, 250psi (1.7 MPa)

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

OAW: Material used

Gases:

Oxygen: stored within a high

temperature cylinders and supplied
through a piping system to the
welding station.
Acetylene: or fuel gases, supplied
in a cylinder to the welding station.
The acetylene may be supplied to
the piping system by manifold
cylinders or by an acetylene
generator which produces
acetylene at the plant site by the
reaction of carbide and water.

Welding rod: selected according to

base metal.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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Welding Technology

End of the chapter.

Thank you

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

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