CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 3L2 AND 4L2

Guidelines for Laboratory Reports in Chemical Engineering

Revised January 2001
The purpose of these Guidelines is to ensure that laboratory reports are presented in a
clear and readable format that will make it easier for instructors to mark them fairly. In the past,
some reports have been hard to evaluate because of confused presentation. In the broader
context, the advantages of good technical report style to the professional engineer are obvious.
The course Ch.E. 2C2 gave examples of many types of written communication:
laboratory reports are one class of these. These Guidelines apply to both 3L2 and 4L2 reports.
Generally 3L2 reports are shorter (and can be either Memo or Formal Reports as described in the
ChE Course Outline) that 4L2 reports. Students in 3L2 are asked to keep the Guidelines, as they
will be used for 4L2.
Remember that context and style of the report are both important. You should outline
and revise your report through several drafts. First Draft submissions are usually quite poor
and receive low grades.

CONTENTS:
page
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
7
8

Preparation of report
Cover
Title page
Summary page
Contents page
Introduction
References
Equations and symbols
Experimental section
Figures
Results and discussion
Tables and numerical data
Conclusions and Recommendations
Appendices
Tenses and grammar
SI Units

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PREPARATION OF REPORT
Good quality paper, letter size (8 x 11 inch) must be used. Reports normally should be
typed or produced by word-processor on unlined paper (bond); neatly handwritten reports, on
lined paper in pen, are acceptable. If a word processor is used, printing must be of best quality;
coarse low-resolution dot matrix printing is unacceptable. Subscripts and superscripts must
appear properly, for example m2 (m^2 is not acceptable). Equations should also be properly
inserted using the equation editor provided with the word processor. Use only one side of the
paper, with double spacing.
A 1 1/4 inch (3.25 cm) margin must be left on both sides of the page. Top and bottom
margins should be 1 inch. This applies equally to text, Tables and Figures. The left hand margin
is necessary to avoid loss of information in the binding. The right margin (which need not be
justified) allows the instructor to write comments when grading the report. Pages must be
numbered 1,2,.......... starting from the title page and including appendices. On the title page itself
the page number (1) is not shown. On all other pages, the numbers should be at the top centre or
top right of each page.
No letter of transmittal is needed unless specifically requested by your instructor.

COVER
Reports must be bound in a cover, which may be an inexpensive 3-pin folder or a plastic
slip-in type folder. It is NOT acceptable to staple the pages with no cover. If the report cover is
of transparent plastic, no label is needed: but if the cover is opaque then the front should carry a
label giving:
Title of Report
Authors name
Course number and date
This information is necessary for easily identifying and sorting the reports, and is standard
format.

TITLE PAGE
The first page of the report should list the following:
Title
Authors name (plus in brackets the names of others in the project team)
Date of submission of report
Start and finish dates of experimental work
Names of instructor and teaching assistant to who report are addressed.

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SUMMARY PAGE
This should follow the title page and is alternatively called an Abstract. In about 100
words (no more that 150 words), you should describe the experiment and the principal results and
conclusions. Include essential quantitative information, e.g., size of apparatus, range of
magnitudes of results obtained. Despite its short length, the summary is a very important part of
a report and is usually written last.

CONTENTS PAGE
This is headed Contents and consists of a left hand column listing headings and subheadings used, and a right hand column showing the corresponding page numbers. The number
of heading depends, of course, on the length and nature of the report. Use the style of the
following example:
Title Page

Summary

Contents

1. Introduction

1.1 Practices of Importance of Ion Exchange

1.2 Types of Ion Exchange Process

1.2.1

Batch Processes

1.2.2

Semi-batch Processes

1.2.3

Continuous Processes

1.3 Purpose of this Project

2. ........etc
Remember to include in the contents list the later parts of the report, e.g. reference list,
appendices.

1.

INTRODUCTION
This is the first major section of the report. It may include background material,
theory, etc., leading to a statement of the purpose of your project. The purpose
(objective) should be highlighted as a separate paragraph or subsection; if there is a
multiple purpose it can be presented in point form.
In giving the background material, avoid copying large amounts of theory from
the lab handout or standard texts. A brief summary with the working theoretical
equations should be accompanied by a reference to the source of the information.
Frequent reference to the lab handout sheet is desirable.

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REFERENCES
Use these to refer to standard texts or to research articles of particular significance. In the
text, references must be cited by number (1), (2), etc., in order. The detailed references should be
listed in a section References immediately following the Conclusions section. All references
must be cited in the text. Examples:
(1)

Miller, S.A. et al., Sect. 19 in Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook (ed. R.H. Perry,
D.W. Green and J.O. Maloney), 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1984).

(2)

Carman, P.C., Trans. Instn. Chem. Engrs., 16, 174 (1938).

EQUATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Most reports include mathematical and/or chemical equations. All equations must be
shown on separate lines and numbered sequentially so that they can be referred to in the text.
Give the equation number in brackets, for example:
E = Q In (k t/A)

(7)

When only a few equations (<3) are used, symbols may be defined in the text
immediately following. The definition must include units used, e.g. Q = water flow rate (L/s).
When many equations and symbols are used, a separate list entitled List of Symbols Used
should appear after the Conclusions and before the References. In that case, definitions of
symbols in the text are not needed.
Units should be in S.I. using the most convenient form, e.g., 10 mL rather than 10-5 m3;
200 kPa rather than 2 x 105 N m-2. See p. 10 for details on S.I. policies.

2.

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
This major section, usually just headed Experimental, can be subdivided into:
Apparatus Description
Systems used
Procedures
Safety Hazards and Precautions

The apparatus section consists of a text clearly describing each major item of apparatus
(reactor, absorber, etc.) and the flow diagram. Accompanying Figures may include a drawing of
the apparatus items(s) and/or a schematic flow diagram as appropriate (please refer to later
section on Figures).
The system being used is the group of substances in the experiment. If this is simple (e.g.
air or water), a separate section is not needed. If on the other hand there are special substances in
use whose properties are significant, a section is needed. This should include a Table of relevant

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properties and statements of the suppliers of the chemicals and the degree of purity (e.g., AR
grade, Technical grade, etc.).
Procedures are highly important. If these are spelled out in detail in the written lab
instructions it is not necessary to repeat them, but cite the instructions as a reference. However, if
you use special procedures not described in the instructions, you should write them up in enough
detail that someone else reading your report could repeat the procedure.
The Safety section is also important. You should indicate any special hazards including
system properties such as flash point or threshold limit value (TLV); also list the safety
precautions that you took, e.g., use of fume hood, gloves, etc. Remember to allow for the
dilutions used; for example the hazards with 0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution are not the
same as those for solid NaOH.

FIGURES
Figures must be numbered in sequence as they appear. Figures include all graphs,
drawing and other non-tabular material. All Figures must be cited in the text and discussed.
Figures should normally be on a separate 8 x 11 sheet, but if the Figures are small it may be
possible to include two Figures on one sheet. But do not include Figures on the same sheet as
text. The Figure pages should be bound into the report as close as possible to the text in which
they are referred; not separately at the end of the report. Include the Figure pages in the page
numbering sequence. If a Figure is wider than it is tall, then the figure and the corresponding
caption can be drawn sideways. Sideways Figures should face so that they are read from the
RIGHT, i.e., with the top of the Figure nearest to the binding.
All Figures must carry a caption beneath, giving the figure number, its title, and the
meanings of any symbols used on the Figure, for example:
RC = reactor (in a drawing)

x data for benzene (in a graph)

+ data for toluene (in a graph)
This caption should be sufficiently descriptive such that the figure is able to stand-alone
without the reader having to search through the text of the report to understand the material
presented.
Drawings should be neatly done using a computer graphics program or drawn with a
sharp black pencil. Freehand sketches are unacceptable unless a qualitative effect is being
sketched, e.g. a flow pattern. Watch for accurate right-angle corners, proper circles, etc. It is
recommended to use a good quality stencil for geometric shapes (large variety available at
Bookstore). Although it is usually not necessary to have drawings to scale, the principal
dimensions (e.g., a column height and diameter) should be shown on an equipment drawing.
Each item of equipment should be labeled; congestion may be avoided using abbreviations such
as RC for reactor, TC for thermocouple, etc.
In Figures containing graphs, the horizontal axis should show the independent variable
and the vertical axis should show the dependent variable. For example, a graph entitled The
Effect of Flow Rate on Pressure Drop will show flow rate along the horizontal axis and pressure
drop plotted vertically. Often a third variable is included in a graph; for the above example,
pressure drop may be plotted versus flow rate for different viscosities. This can be handled by

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using different point symbols (cross, circle, triangle....) for different viscosities. In this case, the
Figure caption should list the symbols and the corresponding values of the viscosities. If you use
a computer package for graphs, ensure that the labeling, symbols, etc., are clearly shown.
Computer graphs may be amended manually. Experimental points should be represented by
symbols while trendlines are shown as lines. Include error bars on the experimental points where
possible.
Note that the default appearance of Figures drawn with most computer graphics packages
is unacceptable. These programs are designed for making presentations with overheads or slides
and are not suitable for scientific style reports. For example, large-font titles at the top of a
Figure should be replaced with longer descriptive captions at the bottom of the Figure.

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In short reports it is possible to have a combined Results & Discussion section.

Longer reports may require separate sections, Results and then Discussion.
Results should preferably be presented as graphs (see above) but tables (see below) may
be used if the amount of data is limited. In either case, analyzed data should be presented, i.e.
Pressure drops, not manometer readings
Flow rates, not flow meter readings
Heat transfer coefficients, not temperature readings
Etc.
The raw data (readings actually taken) should appear in an Appendix at the end of the report.
All Figures and Tables presented in the Results section should be referenced in the text prior to
the Figure or Table. This referencing should include some comment on the data presented.
Discussion may include comparison of data with theory or other data in the literature
(give references). Or you may compare multiple results generated for the same experiment. The
discussion should relate closely to the background and objectives of the project as given in the
Introduction. Include a discussion of possible sources of error and (if appropriate) a regression
analysis to correlate the data. It is very important that your discussion should clearly show what
conclusions you reached and how you reached them. Indicate the degree of certainty of your
conclusions, both in words (in all cases, in most cases....) and by reporting statistical
parameters.

TABLES AND NUMERICAL DATA

These should be captioned, above the table, and numbered in sequence (Table 1, 2.....)
and they may appear either on a separate page of (if small) on the same page as part of the text.
Include tables in the main numbered sequence, as close as possible after the section of text in
which they are discussed, and not as a separate part of the report. The tables should be fully
boxed in. Labels for rows and columns should show all units used. Wide tables may be

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mounted sideways, in which case they should always be readable from the RIGHT, as noted
earlier (pg. 6) for Figures.
Computers will print out numerical data in a form like 29.67532 unless otherwise
instructed. This may give the impression that the data are extremely accurate! The following
simple rules are recommended.
(1)

When carrying items through calculations (e.g., unit conversion) it is correct to use as
many figures as the computer can provide. In that way there is no loss of information
through intermediate rounding errors.

(2)

When quoting FINAL RESULTS the significant figures must be reasonable in terms of
the assessed accuracy of data. For example, suppose the computer gives a final result as
29.67532 and the assessment of the accuracy of that result is 0.3. The result should
reasonably be given as 29.7; the accuracy estimate indicates that the answer could lie
between 29.4 and 30.0. Do not round the result to 30 because then it would look as if
values were between 29.7 and 30.3.

4.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This is a short, but important section. Conclusions must all have been previously arrived
at in the Discussion and should be presented concisely in point form. If you discover a new
conclusion while writing this section then you must revise your discussion section to include
this new point. Use point form also for recommendations, e.g., possible improvements to the
apparatus, further experiments that should be done, etc.

List of Symbols Used if needed, place after Conclusions and Recommendations.

References these come after List of Symbols Used.
Appendices
As noted earlier, there may be one or more appendices. All appendices must be cited in
the text of the report. These should be lettered, i.e., Appendix A, B, C...... An appendix should be
used for listing the raw data (flow meter readings, etc) and calibration curves. Another
important Appendix is Sample Calculations which should clearly show how you processed the
raw data to obtain your results; e.g., how reaction rate constants were calculated from
concentration data, etc. If calculations were done by computer, the program listing (with clear
explanations) should be included as an Appendix. Computer printouts should be good quality
and should be cut and pasted onto 8 by 11 sheets; do NOT fold and bind printouts directly
into your report.

TENSES AND GRAMMAR

The present tense is appropriate for information that continues to be true, for example:
Drying is an important operation in the paper industry...

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The apparatus is shown in Figure 1 and consists of ...

However the past tense is more appropriate when describing the actual work done or previous
work, for example:
The pressure drop was calculated from equation (1)....
The pressure drop increased with flow rate....
McCabe and Smith (3) stated that plate efficiency was...
Waddell et al. (4) found that the friction factor varied...
Do not use personal pronouns such as I, you or we. It, its and its are often ambiguous
and should be avoided (i.e., the gauge was calibrated not it was calibrated). The word
data is plural (i.e., data were collected at not data was collected at ); datum is the
singular form. Structures such as This verb . should be replaced with This noun verb
(i.e., This result was found for ).

SUMMARY OF POLICY ON THE USE OF SI UNITS

Reference:

Canadian Metric Practice Guide, CAN3-Z234. 1-79, Canadian Standards

Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Rexdale, Ontario, Canada M9W 1R3.
Section numbers in brackets refer to the above guide.

General Policy of the Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering

Preferred practice is to use the base units (m, s kg, mol, K, A, cd) and the derived units
(N, Pa, J, W, V, rad, sr, etc.) in the Nomenclature and in all equations. Data, however, may be
reported in suitable multiples of these units provided the units are clearly stated.

1.

Rules for Writing SI Symbols (2.6)

1.1

Lower case letters are used throughout except:

(a) for the first letter of the abbreviation of a unit named after a person (A for
amperes, K for kelvin, Pa for pascales),
(b) for the prefixes larger than kilo, namely, M, G, T, P, E,
(c) for the abbreviation of litre, namely L, to avoid confusion of the lower case ell
with unity,
(d) when writing out degrees Celsius.

1.2

No full stop is used except at the end of a sentence.

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2.

3.

4.

1.3

A space is left between the numerical values and the first letter of the symbols, if
any. Thus 35C but 2 m/s.

1.4

Symbols should be used with numbers, but the unit is spelled out when no number
is involved (3 h but a few hours).

1.5

Where different usages of an SI unit exit, the precise meaning can be specified in
the text or in parentheses after the unit. Thus 100 mV (dc), 15 kPa (gauge), 1000
m3 (STP) but not 15 kPag, 1000 std m3.

Rules for Writing Numbers (2.7)

2.1

The decimal marker should be the point not the comma.

2.2

Long numbers (>4 digits left and/or right of the decimal point) in groups of three
separated by a space, not a comma, beginning from the decimal point. Columns
should be vertically aligned.

2.3

The dot must not be used for multiplication of numbers. The cross (x) should be
used where absolutely necessary.

SI Units and Their Multiples (2.9)

3.1

If possible, use numbers between 0.1 and 1000 with the appropriate multiple in
reporting data. Thus 3.1 x10-8 s = 31 ns. An exception is in a table or figure when
the same unit should be used for comparison.

3.2

Do not use powers of 10 attached to the units or variable symbols in tables and
figures. Thus D, cm2/s x102 probably means D, mm2/s, but confusion can arise.

3.3

In the nomenclature, list the base units of the variables. Thus, use ! - density,
kg/m3, even if other multiples are used in reporting data.

3.4

Do not mix units where avoidable. Thus power consumption per unit volume flow
rate should be W s/m3 = J/m3, not W min/m3.

3.5

At most, one prefix should be used and preferably on a symbol in the numerator
(except kg which is a base unit). Thus, V/mm should be kV/m and kJ/g should be
MJ/kg.

Multiplication and Division of Units (2.10)

4.1

The product of two units should be indicated by a dot . Thus m N = metre

newton, mN = millinewton, m s-1 = metre per second and ms-1 = per millisecond.

4.2

Division can be shown by one solidus (/) or by negative exponents. Thus

W m-2 K-1 or W/(m2 K), but not W/m2/K. Also do not use W/m2 K which is
confusing.

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4.3

5.

A hyphen may be inserted when using a value as an adjective. Thus: 2-h test or
35-mm film.

Units Outside the SI System (3.)

5.1

5.2

Accepted Units
Time

minute
hour
day
year

min
h
d
a

Angle

degree
minute
second

()
()
()

Volume

litre

1 L = dm3

Temperature

degree Celsius

Mass

tonne

1 t = 1000 kg = 1Mg

Not Permitted in SI
Pressure

bar
torr
atm

(conversion to acceptable units)

1 bar = 100 kPa
1 torr = 1 mm Hg = (101.325/760) kPa
1 atm =101.325 kPa

Length

angstrom
micron

1 = 0.1 nm
1 = 1 m

Force

dyne
1 dyne = 10 N
kilogram force 1 kgf = 9.80665 N

Energy

calorie
erg

1 cal (thermochemical) = 4.184 J

1 erg = 0.1 J

Viscosity

poise
stokes

1 poise = 0.1 Pa s
1 St = 1 cm2/s

Concentration normality N
molality
molarity M

N depends on chemical reaction involved

Use mol/kg
M = mol /L prefer kmol/m3

Molecular weight

Use molar mass kg/kmol or g/mol

Specific gravity

Use relative density (specific = per unit mass)

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6.

Preferred Units (4.)

The first listed is the base unit, the others are commonly used multiples
Length
m, cm, mm, m
Area
m2, cm2, mm2
Volume
m3, dm3 (=L), cm3
Velocity
m/s
Mass
kg, g, mg
Density
kg/m3
Diffusion coefficient, m2/s, cm2/s
axial dispersion
coefficient
Force
N, kN, mN
Energy, Work
J, kJ, MJ
Quantity of heat,
J, kJ, MJ
Enthalpy
Power
W, kW, MW
Pressure, Stress
Pa, kPa, MPa
Viscosity,
dynamic
Pa s, mPa s
kinematic
m2/s, mm2/s
Temperature
K, C
Thermal conductivity W/(m K)
Heat capacity
J/K, kJ/K
Specific heat capacity, J/(kg K), kJ/(kg K)
Entropy
Heat transfer coefficient W/(m2 K)
Angular velocity
rad/s
Frequency
s-1 or Hz, kHz, MHz
Amount of substance mol (not g-mole), kmol (not kg-mole), mmol
Molar mass
g/mol, kg/kmol
Molality
mol/kg, mmol/g
Molar concentration
mol/m3, kmol/m3, mol/L

7.

Values of Selected Physical Constants

Avogadros constant
NA
Gas constant
R
Standard gravitational
acceleration
g

6.022045 x1023 mol-1

8.31441 J mol-1 K-1
9.80665 m s-2