You are on page 1of 111

, ., , ., , ., , .

, (2003)
, : .

2.1 ( )


,
.

.




, ,
.

, , , , , ,
, , a priori, a posteriori, ,
,

, .

, ,
, .


.

, .. ,


.
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5


To ,
-,
1920. Hans Hahn ( ),
Philipp Frank ( ) Otto Neurath (
).
Moritz Schlick ( )

1922,

. O Moritz Schlick,
,
1906
Ludwig
Boltzmann ( ). O Boltzmann
Ernst Mach ( ). Schlick

.
Rudolf Carnap ( ), Gustav Bergmann ( ),
Herbert Feigl ( ), Victor Kraft ( ), Friedrich Waismann
( ), Kurt Gdel ( ) Karl
Menger ( ).

, Hans Reichenbach
( ), Carl Hempel ( ) Kurt Grelling (
), Jan Lukasiewicz (

) Alfred Tarski ( )
,
. Frank Ramsey
( ) A.J. Ayer (), ,
,
Language,
Truth and Logic (, ).
W.v.O Quine ()

Two Dogmas of Empiricism ( ),
.
,
Neurath 1929 Wissenschaftliche
Weltauffassung: Der Wiener Kreis ( :
),
Albert Einstein ( ),
Bertrand Russell ( ) Ludwig Wittgenstein (
). , Karl Popper ( )
, . Neurath
. , Popper
Logik der Forschung (H ), , ,
,
1934 Schlick Frank1.

, , 1962, Thomas S. Kuhn The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions ( )
,
,

International Encyclopedia of Unified Science

Rudolf Carnap.

Popper 1959 The Logic of Scientific


Discovery ( )
3



,
, ,
19 20,
, , .

,
(. Neurath), .


, ,
.

. Schlick
1936,
.
,
.
, , .

. ,
.
( ,
, , ),
,
.

, ,
,
.
(received view)
, ,
,


.

(.
Friedman1991, Haller 1982).
, ,

,
.

2.1
.
.

.

O

,
,
.

.

2.1.1
16, 17 18 ,
Fransis Bacon ( ), John Locke ( ), George
Berkeley ( ) David Hume ( ) ,
,
,
.
5

Fransis
Bacon. Bacon, ,
,
, .
, , ,

, , . ,
, ,
, ,
, , .
Bacon . , ,
( ),
( ).
Tycho Brahe ( ) 16 . ,
,
, , Johannes Kepler ( )

.
Bacon ,
. , ,
,
(idola tribus),
(idola specus),
(idola fori) (idola theatri).


. ,
, Bacon Novum Organum (N
),
(
) ( ).
Bacon,
, 18 , Immanuel

Kant Kritik der reinen Vernuft (


) :
, () ,
,
, , ,

. ()

. , ,
. , ..,
,
.
.


.
, Karl Popper. E
David Hume

,
,
,
. .
Hume ,
,
.
,
,
, ,
, .
,
.

. ,
,
,
, .
,
, , ,

.
Hume
; O ume, , ,
, (relations of ideas)
(matters of fact). ,
,

ant 18 .
,

. ,

. ..,
, (pV-p),
. ,

.
.
, .

, , ,
.
, ,
.
.
,

(q) .
. ,
. (q),
, , .
, .
a priori,

, , ,
a posteriori,
,
. Kant a priori
.
Hume, ,
, , ..,
,
.
. ..,
, , , ,
. ,
a priori,
.
, Hume,
;
,

,
.
, ..,
, ,
. , ,
.

; E


, .
. ,
Hume,

, .
.
,
Bacon, .
; N
;
, , ,
. Hume
.
, . ,
(constant conjunction)
. ,


. , Hume, , ,
, .
.

.
.
Popper, ,
. Bertrand Russell

,
.
,
. ,

10

. ,
Russell .
.
Kant,

, ,

Hume,
, , , 18 ,
, .
.
( )
a priori. ,
,
,
. . ..,
, ,
a priori , Kant,

. a priori , Kant,
, ,
.

a priori .
, 19
20 ,
, , .


a priori, , ,
(. . 6).

. ,

19

11


2.1.1

.
.
.
2.1.1
.
.
.
.
.
.

2.1.2
Gottlob Frege ( )
Bertrand Russell.
19 20
. ,
Leibniz,
. Frege
, 19 ,
.
.


.
, Frege

Russell. Russell Frege
12


.
(..
) (..
),
, .
, ,
, .

.
Frege o Russell A.N. Whitehead ()
Principia Mathematica. Russell

. ,


. , Russell
.
..
Russell . ,

Kurt Goedel Ueber formal unentscheidbare
Saetze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme, Principia Mathematica
1931. Goedel
, ,
.
,
. , ,
,
, Russell Whitehead
Principia Mathematica .
,

13

(/ )
,
.

2.1.3
Saint-Simon (-),
18 ,
. , 19 , Auguste Comte (
), ,

Comte o

. Comte

: , ,
,
,
. O

. ,
, ,

.
, 19 , Ernst Mach (. 6.3.1)
,
. Mach, ,
,
.
.

Berkeley,
.
, , Mach,

14


.

. ,
-
-,

. ,

.
, ,
,

.


2.1.3 :


.

2.1.4 .
18 David Hume , (perceptions)
.

O, ,

, , , , ,
, . ,

. ,
.
. , , Hume,
, .
, .. ,

15

. ,

.
, .. ,
,

.
,
,

,
. ,
Hume,
.

( ),
,
; ,
. (Hume 1975, . 22)
Hume An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
( ) :
, [
],
; ,
, , ,

; .
; .
:
. (ume 1975, . 165)
,


, .
, ,
.

16

(universals /particulars),
, , ,
. ,
.
20 Ludwig Wittgenstein

Hume , Kant
, 18
. Kant

. ant

. Wiitgenstein,
, , ,
. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus ( ) Philosophical Investigations
( )
Wittgenstein , ,

.
, Wittgenstein, -, ,
( )
.
, Wittgenstein, .
.
, , ,
.
, . ,
,
Tractatus,
.

17

(Tractatus,
4.21).
Wittgenstein ,
-,
, ,
.
.
, , .
, , (
), (
). Wittgenstein,
,
. :
:
,
-
-,
, ,
, .
-
-
(Tractatus, 6.53).
O :
,
- -
. (, ,
, .)

(Tractatus, 6.54).
Wittgenstein
.
, , ,
Wittgenstein : , Wittgenstein,
, .
.
Wittgenstein
,

18

. ,
Tractatus ,
, Wittgenstein, ,
. , ,

.
Rudolf Carnap The Elimination of Metaphysics Through
Logical Analysis of Language, (
),
Erkenntnis (Vol. II, 1932),

.
, Carnap, , . ,
, . , ,


.


, Carnap,
, , , , , , -,
, , , .
, Carnap,

.
.
, ,
Carnap Martin Heidegger
Was ist Metaphysik? ( ;) 1929,
, ,
. :

19


[ ]
[ ]; . . .
, ;
;
; . . . : . . . .
; . . . .
. . . . . . . .
,
[]. : . . . .
; . ( Carnap 1959,
. 69)
, Carnap, ,
Fichte (), Schelling (), Hegel (), Bergson
(), .
, ,
- . ,
,
. Carnap
Principia
Mathematica , ,
.
Carnap

, , ,
, ( ).
,
,
.
,
, , Carnap,
.
,
. , .
-

. Carnap

20


, , .
,

, .

. , , ,
, . (Carnap 1959, . 79)
o Carnap Nietzsche ()
,
,
.
,
,
,
,

(emotive) (cognitive)
; Carnap,
, , ,
: ,
-
,
.
.

. ,
,
,
.
, Reichenbach The Old and the
New Philosophy: A Comparison ( : ),
. .
, Kant,
,

21


.
Reichenbach ,
,
(context of discovery) (context of
justification). , Reichenbach,
,

.
,
,
, .

, ,

. , ,

(., Friedman 1991).

. , Reichenbach
, .

. , ,
;


2.1.4
.
.
.

2.1.5 To
22


.
,
. ,

,
,

.

Wittgenstein Tractatus ( 4. 024),
. Waismann
Wittgenstein
(Waismann 1983, . 227, 240),
.
,

Wittgenstein

. , ,
, ,

. , ,
.
,



. ,

.

.
,
,

23

,
,
, , .
, Schlick:
()
.
()
; ()

, ,
, ... (
Hanfling 1981, . 19).

.
, . , Wittgenstein
,
.

o ..
, ,
.
.

:

. ..,
, ,
. ,
.

,
,

. ..

; ,

24

;

.

.
, O. Hanfling (1981a),



,
. ,
.
. ,
,
.

. Satz
.
sentence proposition. sentence

, proposition

. ,
,
Mary draws a circle .
,

.
,
(proposition)
.
: .
, ,

25

.

. ,
.
, ,
.
; ;
,
, . ,
, .
. ,
, ,
.
,
, , ,
. ,
, , .
Schlick
, Carnap Ayer


(factually meaningful statement).


.
.
, .
,
, .
,
,
, , , - .
,

26

,
.
. Schlick, ..

. Schlick
,
, , , ,
, .

( ) corpus
, ,
.
.


.

,
, .
.
, ,
. ,
,
.

.

. Carnap (1936, . 425)
.. -

.

27

,
:
Schlick , ,
,
.
..
.
.

.
Ayer ,
,
,
.

..,



. , Ayer ,
.
(yer 1971, . 15):
,
. ,
Ayer, ,
-, .
,
(. .. Hempel 1965, 4)
.
Carnap
.
,
,
(particular sentences)
.

,
. ,

28

,
(Carnap 1936, . 425).
3.2.

. Carnap,

, . ..

, ,
.
. ,
Carnap,
. , ,
. ,
. Carnap,
,
.
.
Waismann

. , Waismann
(Waismann 1960) , ,
. , ..
, . ..
.

.
. Waismann
.
.
:
, ( , .
122). Waismann

29


,
,

( , . 128).

,

. ,
.
.
, , .

,
.
.

. ,

. ..

.
,
.
Schlick

() ,
.
, ..
. Schlick ,
.
Schlick ,
, .

30


, , , .
Carnap, The Logical Structure of the World (H
) Der Logische Aufbau
der Welt,
.
( )
,
Russell

. ,


.
, , ,
Neurath.
O Neurath, Berkeley Locke Schlick
Passmore (1966, . 375),


. , , ,
, Neurath
,
.
. Neurath

:
3:17: [ 3:16
: ( 3:15
)] (Neurath 1959, . 202) 2
Neurath

,

31

,
,
.


. ,

. Neurath,
,
,
, ()
(). ..,


Neurath. O Carnap

.
- .

.

. , ,

, .
,
.
.


.

.
32


2.1.5

.
.
.
2.1.5

H
.

1. .
;
2. ;
3. ;
4.
;
5. ;

1.
, ,
.


o (
) .
2. , , ,
. ,

.
33

,
.
3.
Frege Russell
.
4.
,

.
5.

.

.

34

2.2 Popper

Popper

.
.


Popper



Popper

, , , ,
-

Karl Popper , ,

60.
.
2.2.1 -:

2.2.2
2.2.3

35


Sir Karl Popper 1902. , ,
, ,
.
Cantebury University College London School of
Economics .

. The Open Society and Its Enemies (
) The Poverty of Historicism (H
)
Logik der Forschung (
) 1934
. 1959
(The Logic of Scientific Discovery)
. ,
,
Rudolf Carnap .
Karl Popper 1994.

2.2.1 -:

Karl Popper
, ,
.

,

.
Popper .
, ..,
, ,
.

36


,
Alfred Adler ( ). Popper ,
,

.

.

,

. ,
:
. ,
.
,
, ,
,
(Popper
1988, . 21)
Freud ()
(Popper1983, 18). Freud, Die Traumdeutung (H
), .

, Freud
. ,

.

Freud
.
Freud
.
Freud ,

, .

37

Popper
, .
, , ,
.
.

.

, .
, , ,
. , Popper
.
,
, , ad hoc
. ad hoc,
, ,

. , Popper,
.

. Einstein, ..,
, ,
.

.
[
] .
.
.
, ,
, , Popper,
.
, ,

38

, Adler
, Freud ,

.
.
.
, Popper,
.

(Oedipus Effect)

.


.
Popper
.
,
.
,
, - (Popper 1983, . 175).

.
. Popper
, ,
-,
.

3. -
Popper
.

, , ,
3

Popper Popper 1983,


. 191-192. , Popper 1992,
.167- 180.
39


- .

.
.

.
( , ,
) . ,


.
( ,
) ( , ).
.
. , 2.1.3,
. (
) , ,
, ,
. Popper


.

, ,
. Popper
. ..,
72
.
.

.

40

Popper,
, .
,
, ,

. ,
.

:
1.
2. , ..,
3. ,

.
: --. (Popper 1994, . 101)

,

:

(Popper 1992, . 115).

,
Popper, ,
, .
, , , , ,
, ,
.
,
, . ,
,
. ,
,

.
, ..,
, ,

41


.
.
Popper
(Popper 1959, 31, 35, 41-46).
Popper

Bacon. E Bacon
,
Popper . , Popper,
(anticipations)

.
, .
, ,

,
, ,
Bacon. (Popper 1959, . 279)
E, Popper, Bacon,

. [] Bacon
!
: . (Popper 1994, . 86)
Conjectures and Refutations ( ) :
[]
, .

, ,
Royal Society (
) .

.


: . ,
, ! , ,
. !
. () .

42

., , ,
, . (Popper 1963, . 46)
Popper , 4.1

50 .
Popper

.
[]
:
. ()
[]

.
(Popper 1994, . 53)
,

Popper . 2.1.1
,

. ,
4.

.

. , , ,
,

. ,

. ,
, ,

4


, 2.2.2 . 3
Duhem-Quine.
43

. ,
Popper
.
.
.
, ,
, Popper
o,
. ,
. Popper
.
.
. , ,
, Popper ,
, . , ..,


.

. ,
, Popper , , ,

.
,
, ( ) -,
, , .
,
, .
,
:
( ). (Popper,
1963, . vii)
, Popper ,
,
. . ,
,

44

. ,
3 ,
, .. Duhem () Quine (),


.

. ,
, ,
, ,
. Popper,
,

.
,

.
.

. (Popper 1994, . 94)

,

.


2.2.1
, , ,
Popper,
.
.
.
.
2.2.1

45

:
Popper .

2.2.2
,

.
. ,

.
, , ;
.

- -
. Popper
Neurath .

.

,
, ,
.
Neurath,
.
,
o ,
, .

. Neurath

:

.

46

tabula rasa.
,

. (eurath 1959, . 201)
Popper Neurath
. , ,

.
[ Neurath] ,
:

( ) .
Neurath ,
, . ,
,
.
(
Neurath )
. (Popper 1959, . 97)
Popper, ,

.

.
. Popper
. ,
, (,
) ,
. , ,
.. , ,
Popper, .
Popper
.
,
, .

.

47

.
,
,
,
.

. .
, ,
. .
,
.
, .

, . (Popper 1959,
. 111)

2.2.2 Popper
.
.
.
.

2.2.3


.
.

,
, ,

. ,


. Popper

48

(Popper 1983, . 217), ,


, Ersatz : ,
,
, (
, . 222).
Popper , , , ,


, ,
. ,
(confirmation)
, (corroboration)
. (degree of corroboration)
(degree of confirmation)
(probability) . O
Popper

.

, ,
, ,
.
.
:

, ,
.
, ,
. ,
, Maxwell (),
,
Fresnel () . , Popper,
Maxwell

49

Fresnel, ,
,
Fresnel. , Popper,


.
Popper

. , ,
.
()
(/) [ , , ]
, , .
,
, . ,
, ,
. (Popper 1983, . 222) [
]
, Popper
.
, Popper, ,
, .

, ,
.

. ,
! ad hoc . ( , . 223)
Popper ,
, , .
,
, . ,
. ( , . 222)


2.2.3 :

50

1. , Popper,
;
2.
;
3. Popper ad hoc ;
4. Popper;
5. , ,
; .


1.

. .
2.
- .
, , ,
.
3. ad hoc
, ,
, Popper, .
4. Popper, Bacon,

.
.
5.

. ,

51


.


.
Popper .
Popper -
. .

.
.


2.1: () ,
(orthodox) (standard) ,

.
.
2.1.1:
,
, .

, , .
2.1.1: ,, , , .

.

52

2.1.3: . ,
Mach,
.
2.1.4:
.
2.1.5: ().
.

. ,
.
2.1.5: .

,
.
2.2.1: ().
, .
Popper

.
2.2.1: . Popper,
. ,
.
2.2.2: (). Popper,
.
.
2.2.3: .
.

Ayer, A.J. (1971), Language, Truth and Logic, Harmondsworth: Penguin.


E: , , . . -, :
, 1994.

Carnap, Rudolf. (1936/37), Testability and Meaning, Philosophy of Science,


vol. 3, no.4, 420-468, vol.4, no.1, 1-40

53

Carnap, Rudolf. (1959), The Elimination of Metaphysics through Logical


Analysis of Language A.J. Ayer (ed.), Logical Positivism, Glencoe, Illinois:
The Free Press, . 60-81.

Carnap, Rudolf. (1967), The Logical Structure of the World, Berkeley: The
University of California Press.

Feigl, Herbert. (1970), The Orthodox View of Scientific Theories: Remarks in


Defence as well as a Critique M.Radner S. Winokur (eds), Minnesota
Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. IV, Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, . 3-16

Friedman, Michael. (1991), The Re-Evaluation of Logical Positivism, The


Journal of Philosophy, vol. LXXXVIII, no. 10, 505-523.

Haller, Rudolf. (1982), New Light on the Vienna Circle, The Monist, vol.65,
no.1, 25-35.

anfling, Oswald. (1981a), Logical Positivism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell

Hempel, Carl. (1965) Aspects of Scientific Explanation and Other Essays in the
Philosophy of Science, New York: Free Press .

Hempel, Carl. (1970), On the Standard Conception of Scientific Theories


M.Radner S. Winokur (eds), Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science,
vol. IV, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . 142-163.

ume, David. (1975), Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding and


Concerning the Principles of Morals, L.A. Selby -Bigge (ed.), Oxford: Clarendon
Press

Neurath, Otto. (1959), Protocol Sentences A.J. Ayer (ed.), Logical


Positivism, New York: Free Press

Passmore, John. (1966) A Hundred Years of Philosophy, Harmondsworth:


Penguin.

Popper, Karl. (1959), The Logic of Scientific Discovery, New York: Harper &
Row Publishers

Popper, Karl. (1963), Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of Scientific


Knowledge, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Popper, Karl. (1983), Realism and the Aim of Science, W.W. Bartley III, (ed.),
Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield

54

Popper, Karl. (1988), Science: Conjectures and Refutations E.D. Klemke et


al (eds.), Philosophy of Science, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books

Popper, Karl. (1992), Unended Quest. An Intellectual Autobiography, London:


Routledge

Popper, Karl. (1994), he Myth of the Framework, (ed. M.A. Notturno), London:
Routledge

Reichenbach, C. (1963), The Old and the New Philosophy: A Comparison


The Rise of Scientific Philosophy, Berkeley: University of California Press, .
303-326.

Russell, Bertrand. (1910), Principia Mathematica, Cambridge: Cambridge


University Press.

Waismann, F. (1960), Verifiability, Anthony Flew (ed.), Essays on Logic


and Language (First Series), Oxford: Basil Blackwell, . 117-144.

Wittgenstein, L. (1953), Philosophical Investigations, New York: Macmillan.


: , . . , :
, 1977

Wittgenstein, L. (1961), Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, London: Routledge &


Kegan Paul. : Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, . . ,
: 1978

55

, . (1998), , :
.

Brown, Harold, I. (1977), Perception, Theory and Commitment, Chicago: The


University of Chicago Press. E: A, ,
: , 1993
.

Carnap, Rudolf. , :

R. Carnap Philosophy and Logical Syntax


.

Chalmers, A,F. (1978), What is this Thing Called Science?, Milton Keynes: The
Open University Press (2nd ed.). : ,
: , 1996
, ,
.

Feigl, Herbert and Brondbeck, May (eds.). (1953), Readings in the Philosophy of
Science, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
.

Hanfling, Oswald (ed.). (1981), Essential Readings in Logical Positivism, Oxford:


Basil Blackwell
.

Kraft, Victor. (1953), The Vienna Circle, New York. E:


, : , 1986

.

Losee, John. (1980), An Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science,


Oxford: Oxford University Press. : ,
: , 1993
, ,

Popper, Karl. (1983), Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford:


Clarendon Press

56

. Popper.

Schilpp, P.A.(ed.) (1963), The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, La Salle, Ill.: Open
Court

R. Carnap.

Schilpp, P.A. (ed), (1974), The Philosophy of Karl Popper, in The Library of
Living Philosophers, La Salle: Open Court

K. Popper.

A Posteriori: .
a posteriori
.
Priori: .
a priori

.
: ,
: ( )
.
:
.

.
(): Popper
- .
.
:

.
(): Popper
.

57

:


.
( ):
.
():
.

.
: , .
, ,
.
: ,
,
.
:
.
: .
: .
/ : 20

.
:
.
:
.

.
:
.

58

:
,
.
:
, .
:

.
:
.
:

.
:
.
:
.
:
.
:
.

59

4.

4.1 -

,

,
-
(theory ladenness of
observation).


-

, , , ,
.

2
.
, ,

,
.
.

60

4.1.1. H
4.1.2.

4.1.1 H
,

.
,
.

, ,
,

. ,
,
.

.

.
.
,
,
, , ,
.

,

,
.
,
, , .
, ,
. ,

61

.

.

.
, ,
.

()

().
,
. ,
,
,
.

, ,
(internal principles) (postulates)
. ,

, :
, .
, ,
(
) .
, ,

.

.

. .

62

(correspondence rulesCarnap)
(operational definitions-Bridgman), (bridge principlesHempel), (coordinative definitions-Reichenbach),
(dictionary-Campbell).
O
.
:
, -
. , ,
, . ,
( , ,
, )
, ,

.

. , ,
, , , ,
, , . ..,
,

. Carnap
,
, .., , , ,
,
, .
, ..
, ,
, , ., ,
.. ,
,
.

63


.
, ,
.
Feigl . 4.1.
.
,
.

.

. ,
- . ,
,
. , .

. ,

. , ,

.
;


. ..,
, -
.

,

, , , - .

64

.
.
,

.
, ,
, .


4.1.1

.
.

.
.

4.1.2

.
Popper Bacon



.

(theory-ladenness of observation),
Hanson ( 1958) Patterns of
Discovery ( ). ,
,
,
, .
Hanson Wittgenstein,
Kant,
65

(
) .

. Hanson
Gestalt 1920.
,

.
Hanson Gestalt
. ,
- (. 4.2) - (. 4.3),
Gestalt,
. , Hanson ,

. , Brahe,
,
, Kepler
. Hanson,

. Brahe
Kepler , .


. , Hanson,
, .
.
. Brahe Kepler, ,
, ,
.
Brahe Kepler
, , . ,
,
. Hanson

66

. , ,
.
Pierre Duhem ( ) La theorie physique (
)
. Duhem:
.
: ,
, , ,
.
.
,
.

.
.
; ,
.
,
,

. (Hanson 1958, . 16-17)
, Hanson,
.

.
, . .
,
. .
.
,
. (1958, . 16) ,
, ..
. .
.. .
; ,
.

67



. , , ,
.
Hanson Polanyi ()
Thomas Kuhn ( )
Paul Feyerabend ( ). , ,
.
, ;

, ,
;
.


4.1.2 :
Hanson

.

68

4.2 O Thomas Kuhn

T.S. Kuhn

.

Kuhn


.


Kuhn

Kuhn
.

,

, , ,

Kuhn .

Karl Popper. T
.
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3 , ,
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6 -

69


Thomas Kuhn ( )
, 1962,
,
, ,
.

. N.R. Hanson
() (1958), M. Polanyi () (1958), S. Toulmin () (1961)
Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism (,
) Paul Feyerabend () (1962),
,
Karl Popper () . ,
Kuhn, ,
, ,
,
, ,
.
Kuhn .

: ,


, ,
, ,
, .
Thomas Kuhn,
5, 6

, (1957),
.
6
Kuhn
, (, 1997).
70

. ,
, ,
Kuhn (paradigm).

4.2.1

, ,

.
, (Almagest)
, Principia
,
, (Kuhn 1981, . 73). Kuhn

(Kuhn 1990)
25 (Kuhn
1970, . 181).

,
, , .
.


.
(disciplinary matrix)
(exemplar) Kuhn (Postscript)7

.
. , ,
(theory), (lexicon), (lexical network),
7

Postscript (1970)
.
71

(lexical taxonomy), (conceptual


scheme).
.
(..,
F=m.a), , , ,
(., ), (..,
),
(.., , ),
.
(..,
) , ,
, ,
, (1981, . 107-110 1970, . 186-187).


,
, .
Kuhn
. , .

.
,
, .
,
,
.


4.2.1 :
Kuhn
.

72

4.2.2

, ,
Kuhn (normal science).

, (puzzles).
,
,
,

.
, ,
,
,
. (jigsaw
puzzles), ,
,
, Kuhn,

, ,

, ,
.
.

,
. .
.
,
, , ,
,
. H ,
, .

.

73

4.2.3 , ,
, ,

, , , ,
Kuhn, .
, , (
), ,
,
.

, , ,
. :
, , ,
,
. (1981, . 135)

, , , (anomaly).
,
,
.
. Kuhn,

. , ,
, , ,
.
,
.

. .
, ,
, ,
,
Kuhn (crisis).

74

.

(..,
Maxwell ()),
(..,
,
(..,
)8.

.
.
Kuhn
(extraordinary science)


. ,
,
. ,


4.2.3 :

.

4.2.4
, Kuhn
:


Kuhn . Vii .
75

1. ,
,

.
2. , ,
,
, .
3.
.
Kuhn (revolution).
,

( , . 167).
Kuhn

.

.
, Kuhn,
.
:
,
,
,
.
,
,
(
, . 159)
, Kuhn, Herbert Butterfield
() .
.
.

.

76

, ,
,
.. ;
;
;
Kuhn , ,
, . ,
,
, ( , . 174).

,
.

.
,
.
Kuhn

. Kuhn , ..,
,
.
,
, , ,
.


. (
,
.
, )
( , . 178)
, Kuhn
,
,
,

77

.

,
,

.
,
.
,
,
, , ( , .
176).
,

. ,

.
Kuhn .

,

, ,
.

.


.

,
.
.
,

78

, . Kuhn


,


.


4.2.4 :
,
Kuhn,
.

4.2.5
Kuhn () ,
, ,
( , . 180).
(incommensurability) Kuhn

.
Kuhn , ,
. ..,
9.
Kuhn , , ,
,

, ,
.
.

9

, , ,
2.
79

, ,
.
Kuhn : ,
.
, ,
. ..,

.
. ,

.

, , ,
,

.
,


.
19 , ,
,
, ,
Einstein, o
.

, , ,
, ,
. , ,
, ,
.

80

,

. Kuhn ,
.
( )
,
. ( , . 200)
Kuhn, ,
, .

. ,

,
. Kuhn .
,
, .
, ,
.

.
, ,
.
; , Kuhn,
,
Kuhn (intuition).


. , Kuhn,

,
Gestalt. 10
10

Kuhn
Gestalt .
Gestalt . ,
,
81


,
, .
, Kuhn,

. , , ,
, . ,
. ,
, . ,
, ( , . 53).
,
, ,

,
,
. Kuhn,
,
, ,
, ,

,
.
, Kuhn, .
,
, ,

( , . 228-230).



, ,
. , Kuhn,
.

Kuhn, .
.
82


, Descartes,

(
, . 204-205). , Kuhn,
,

,

, ,
, , .
.
Kuhn


. Kuhn ,
, .
,
.


4.2.5 Kuhn
.
.
.
.

4.2.6 -

Kuhn,

. Kuhn
.
83

.

,
,
,
, ,
,
.
Kuhn

.

. , ,
(Kuhn, 1992, p 14).
, Kuhn,
,
.

, ,
. .
,
,
, ,
,
. ,

,
, , ,
,
.
, , , uhn, .
, .
,

84

, .
.
, uhn,
.

.
.
.

,

.
uhn
, ,
, . uhn
.
.

.
;
,
. ,


(1981, . 49-250).
, ,
, , uhn,
( , . 251).


. ,
uhn,

85


.
uhn
.

, ,
Kuhn
,

.
.
uhn
.
, ,
,
, .
, . ,
uhn
, , ,
.
, , , .
,
,
, 11.
,

, , .
, ,
.

11

whig history , .
Herbert Butterfield The Whig Interpretation of History (1931, New York: 1965). O
Butterfield

86

uhn
uhn, . -
,
,

. uhn,
,

. uhn
,
.


4.2.6 Kuhn
.
.
.

.

1.
;
2. ;
3. Kuhn
;
4.
;
5.
;

Whigs ,
.
87

6. , Kuhn,
;
7. Kuhn
;


1.

.
.

.
2.

.
,
.
. 132
.
3. , Kuhn,

.
.

.
,

.
4. Kuhn
. Kuhn,
, ,
. ,
Kuhn,

88

,
Kuhn , Kuhn
.
5. . . 140-141
.
6.
, ,
. ,
,
,
.
7. 2,

.
. ,
,
. To Kuhn


. , Kuhn

.

89

4.3 Paul Feyerabend

Paul Feyerabend ,
Explanation, Reduction and
Empiricism (, ) Against Method
( ).


Feyerabend

Feyerabend

Feyerabend


,
,


Paul Feyerabend
. ,
Kuhn ,
.
Kuhn, Popper
, Feyerabend
,
.

90

4.3.1 -
4.3.2
4.3.3


Paul Feyerabend , , ,
, , , , ,
(1985, . 127). Popper ,
Wittgenstein

. , ,

60 70.

12,
, , -.

,
.
(1995)
.
Feyerabend The New York Times Anti-science
philosopher dies ( ).
,
,
. ,
, ,
,
,
,
. , Kuhn, o Feyerabend

91

60.

,


.
Thomas Kuhn Paul Feyerabend
.
: - ,
,
,
, ,
,

, ,

. , ,
(Huene 1995,
et al: 1997)
,
. O Kuhn


, Feyerabend

,
.

4.3.1 A -
O Feyerabend, Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism,

12

: 20

92

Kuhn, .
, ,
(
.. ) ,
, ,

. (
Ernest Nagel ( ), 1949),
(.. Hempel
Oppenheim, 1948). ,
( )
( ), ,
.

.
o Feyerabend
,
. ,
,
, (impetus)
(momentum),
,


. , ,
.
( ),
(rules of usage), ,
.

.
93


(Feyerabend 1962, . 82).
Feyerabend
(contextual theory of meaning),

. , ,

, .

, Feyerabend
,
& [
] (Feyerabend 1981, . x).
Feyerabend
-.
(pragmatic
theory of observation)
,
,

(Feyerabend 1962, . 36). ,

. -
Feyerabend
. , ,
- .

Feyerabend
, (..
),
. ,
Feyerabend,
.

94

(underdetermination thesis)
. , Feyerabend, : ,
,

,
.


. , Feyerabend,

,

.
, Feyerabend
.
,

,
, ,
.

(Feyerabend
1962, . 50). ,
,
( , . 30).
, Feyerabend,

(Preston 1997, .
126)
(Feyerabend 1962, . 66)13,
.
,
13

.
95

,
ad hoc ,
. , Feyerabend,
,
, ,
.
, , Feyerabend,

,
. ,


, ,

Feyerabend
:
H , ,
&
,
,
,
(Feyerabend 1981, . 107).
,
Feyerabend,
,
,

( , . 105).

. Feyerabend
,
(relational) Berkeley
(), Huygens (), Leibniz () Mach () (. 6.3).
.

96




, ,
.


,
a fortiori
(Feyerabend 1962, . 71).
, Feyerabend, ,
,

.
,

. Kuhn.
Kuhn Feyerabend
. Kuhn,
, , ,
.
, ,
.
Kuhn :
. ,

Feyerabend. Feyerabend
.
,
. Feyerabend

. ,
Feyerabend, ,
.. (Feyerabend
1978, . 279).
Feyerabend ,

97

, . ,

Feyerabend.


4.3.1 , Feyerabend,
.
.
.

4.3.2
,
, Feyerabend

.
, ,
,
.
,
,

. Feyerabend ,

, . .
,

, ,

.
.

,
, , , .
98


.
,
( ) ,
.


( Feyerabend 1983, . 78) .
,
.., , ,
, ad hoc ,
, Feyerabend, ,

.
,

,
, ,
( ,
, , ),
,

,
( , . 54).
Feyerabend Einstein , Feyerabend,



.
[ ] ,
Einstein ( , . 49). O Feyerabend Einstein
:
(anything goes). ad hoc ,
, , , , ,
, ( , . 103,
223-224). Feyerabend
,

99

.
.
, , ,
Feyerabend .14
, ( ,
. 223). ,
( , . 68),
,
Feyerabend

Feyerabend . Feyerabend
, , , ,
,
,
( , . 211). ,
.
, ,
.

. ()

(
, , .) ( , . 64).
Feyerabend
.
Kuhn.
Kuhn ,
, . Feyerabend
,
, .
Feyerabend
. .
14

Feyerabend uhn

.
100


4.3.2 :
Feyerabend,
.

4.3.3
Feyerabend, :
, , ,
, ,

. Feyerabend . ,
,
.
, ,
( , ,
). , Feyerabend,
, ,
( , . 362). ,

( , . 76).
.
,

. , Feyerabend,
.

,
.
, ( , . 358).
, ,
.
,
;
101

,
. , ,
Feyerabend, .
,
, , ,
.
, Feyerabend,
. , ,
. Feyerabend
.
, ,
,
, ,
. / - ,
.
.
-extra
scientiam nula salus- .

,
(),

(),
( ,
) ( , . 366)
,
,
. .

, 15. ,
. ,
, ,
Feyerabend, .

15



.
102

,
,
.
Feyerabend
, ,
.
. , ,
(..

),
,
. ,

.
Feyerabend
.
.

.


4.3.3 :
Feyerabend
.

1. Popper
Feyerabend;
2. Kuhn
Feyerabend;
3.

.
103

4.
;


1. Popper Feyerabend
. Popper
,
Feyerabend
.

,
.
2. , ,

.


.
3. . 158-159 .
4.

.


.




. Kuhn

104

Feyerabend ,
.

4.1.1:

. ().
, , ,
.
.
4.1.2: . Hanson , , ,

.
4.2.1: . , Kuhn,
, ,
, . ,
(
,
)
. , ,
Kuhn, .
4.2.3: . Kuhn,
.
.

.
4.2.4: .
,
.
4.2.5: (). Kuhn
,
.

105

4.2.6: (). Kuhn,



. ,
Kuhn
.
4.3.1: (). Feyerabend
.
4.3.2: . Feyerabend
, .
4.3.3: . Feyerabend

.

106

, ., , ., , ., (1997), Thomas S.
Kuhn: , 6 ,
. 73-143.

Feigl, Herbert. (1970), The Orthodox View of Theories Michael Radner


Stephen Winokur (eds), Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. IV,
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . 3-16

Feyerabend, Paul. (1962), Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism, H. Feigl


G. Maxwell (eds), Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. III,
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . 28-97

Feyerabend, Paul. (1978), Against Method, London: Verso. :


, . . , . , :
, 1983.

Feyerabend, Paul. (1981), Realism, Rationalism and Scientific Method:


Philosophical Papers, vol. , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Feyerabend, Paul. (1985), , 38, 117-135

Feyerabend, Paul. (1995), Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend,


Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. : ,
M. . , : , 1997

Hanson, N.R. (1958), Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University


Press

Hempel, C. G. and Oppenheim, P. (1948), Studies in the Logic of Explanation,


Philosophy of Science, vol. 15, 135-175

Hoyningen-Huene, Paul. (1995), Two Letters of Paul Feyerabend to Thomas S.


Kuhn on a Draft of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Studies in the History
and Philosophy of Science, Vol. 26, No 3, 353-387

Kuhn, T.S. (1957), The Copernican Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge


University Press

Kuhn, T.S. (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: The


University of Chicago Press; 2nd ed.(1970) Enlarged. :
, . . , . , :
, 1981

107

Kuhn, T.S. (1970), Logic of Scientific Discovery or Psychology of Research


I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave (eds), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kuhn, T.S. (1990), The Road Since Structure, Philosophy of Science


Association, Vol. 2, . 3-13

Kuhn, T. S. (1992), The Trouble with the Historical Philosophy of Science.


Robert and Maurine Rothchild Distinguished Lecture, 19 November 1991.
Cambridge: An Occasional Publication of the Department of the History of
Science, Harvard University

Nagel, E. (1949), The Meaning of Reduction in the Natural Sciences R.C.


Stauffer (ed.), Science and Civilization, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press

Polanyi, M. (1958), Personal Knowledge, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

Preston, John. (1997), Feyerabend: Philosophy, Science and Society, Cambridge:


Polity Press.

Toulmin, S. (1961), Foresight and Understanding, New York: Harper and Row

Gutting, G. (ed.) (1980), Paradigms and Revolutions. Applications and Appraisals
of Thomas Kuhns Philosophy of Science, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame
Press
T.S. Kuhn.

Hacking, I. (ed.) (1981), Scientific Revolutions, Oxford: Oxford University Press



.

Horwich, P. (ed.) (1993), World Changes. Thomas Kuhn and the Nature of
Science, Boston: MIT Press
T.S. Kuhn
.

Hoyningen-Huene, P. (1993), Reconstructing Scientific Revolutions. Thomas


Kuhns Philosophy of Science, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
T.S. Kuhn.

, . (1993), Kuhn Wittgenstein, :

108

T.S. Kuhn L.
Wittgenstein.

:
: ,
.

.
: Kuhn
. Kuhn, , ,
,
.
:
.
,
.

, .
: Feyerabend

.
: Kuhn
,

.
: Feyerabend
,
,
.
:

.

109

:
,
, .
:
,
.
.
: .

, .
:
.
: ., .
: Kuhn

,
.
:
.

110

You might also like