SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds

1. Comparing (Similarities and
Differences) Properties of Alkanes
and Alkenes
Physical
Properties
Physical state

Electrical
conductivity.
Boiling points and
melting points

Density

Solubility in water

Chemical
Properties

2. Isomerism
Isomerism phenomenon that two or
more molecules are found to have the
same molecular formula but different
structural formulae.

Alkanes

Isomerism in alkanes
Alkenes

Physical state
changes from gas
to liquid when
going down the
series.
Do not conduct
electricity at any
state.
Low boiling points
and melting points
(number of carbon
atoms per
molecule
increases).
Low densities
(number of carbon
atom per molecule
increases).
Insoluble in water
(soluble in organic
solvent)
Alkanes

Molecular
formula Number of
Same
with alkanes.
isomers
CH4
- (no isomer)
C2 H 6
- (no isomer)
C3 H 8
- (no isomer)
Same with alkanes.
C4H10
2
C5H12
3

(Substitution
reaction)
Reactivity
Combustion

Unreactive
Burn in air and
produce yellow
sooty flame.

Reaction with
bromine solution
Reaction with
acidified potassium
manganate(VII)
solution

No reaction.
No reaction.

Same with alkanes.

Structure name

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane2-methylp
Pentane2methylbutane2,2
dimethylpropane

Isomerism in alkenes
Molecular Number of Structure
formula
isomers
name
Same
with alkanes.
C2 H 4
- (no
Ethene
isomer)
C3 H 6
- (no
Propene
Same with alkanes.
isomer)
C4 H 8
3
But-1-eneBut2-ene2Alkenes
methylpropene
C5H10
5
Pent-1(Addition reaction)
enePent-2ene2methylbut-1Reactive
ene
Burn in air and
3-methylbut-1produce yellow and
ene
sootier flame compare
to alkanes.
2-methylbut-2Decolourise brown
ene
bromine solution.
Decolourise purple
acidified potassium
manganate(VII)
solution.

SPM Chemistry Form 5

Terminology and Concepts:
Carbon Compounds

properties that change gradually as

the number of carbon atoms in a
molecule increases.

1. Organic compounds carbon

containing compounds with
covalent bonds.

Carbon
Compounds
Alkane

General Formula

2. Inorganic compounds nonliving things and usually do not

contain carbon but few carbon
containing inorganic compounds
such as CO2, CaCO3 and KCN.

Alkene

CnH2n

Alkynes

CnHn

Arenes

CnH2n-6

Alcohol

CnH2n+1OH

Carboxylic Acids

CnH2n+1COOH

Esters

CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1

3. Hydrocarbons organic
compounds that contain
hydrogen and carbon atom only.
4. Non-hydrocarbons organic
compounds that contain other
elements (oxygen, nitrogen,
iodine, phosphorus)
5. Saturated hydrocarbons
only single bonded (CarbonCarbon) hydrocarbons.

CnH2n+2

6. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
at least one double / triple
bonded (Carbon-Carbon)
hydrocarbons.
7. Complete combustion
organic compounds burn
completely which form CO2 and
H2O.
Example: C2H5OH (l) + O2 (g) >
2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
8. Incomplete combustion
organic compounds burn with
limited supply of O2 which form
C (soot), CO, CO2 and H2O.
Homologous Series
Homologous series organic
compounds with similar formulae and
properties. It have the physical

Sources of Hydrocarbon:
1.
Coal from the lush
vegetation that grew in warm shallow
coastal swamps or dead plants slowly
become rock. Mainly contains of
hydrocarbon and some sulphur and
nitrogen. It is used to produce:
fertiliser, nylon, explosives and
plastics.
2.
Natural gas from plants and
animals and trapped between the
layers of impervious rocks (on top of
petroleum). Mainly contains of
methane gas and other gas such as
propane and butane. It is used for:

n=
2, 3

n=
3, 4

n=
3, 4

n=
7, 8

n=
2, 3

n=
1, 2
n=
1, 2

m=
1, 2
3,

cooking, vehicle and generate

electrical power.
3.
Petroleum from plants and
animals and trapped between the
layers of impervious rocks. It is a
complex mixture of alkanes, alkenes,
aromatic hydrocarbons and sulphur
compound. These compounds can be
separated by using fractional
distillation.

< 35C petroleum gas

35C 75C Petrol (gasoline)

75C 170C Naphtha

170C 230C Kerosene

230C 250C Diesel

250C 300C Lubricating oil

300C 350C Fuel oil

> 350C Bitumen

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds

Methanoic
acid(Formic acid)
Ethanoic acid(Acetic
acid)
Propanoic acid
Butanoic acid

Name

3. The functional group in alcohols is

carboxyl group, COOH.
Name of carboxylic
acids

Molecular formula of
alcohol

C2H5COOH
C3H7COH

Molecularform Boiling point

ula
(C)
HCOOH
101

Methanoic
acid(Formic
acid)
Ethanoic
CH3COOH
acid(Acetic acid)
Propanoic acid C2H5COOH
Butanoic acid
C3H7COH

118
141
164

Solubility in water generally

in carboxylic acid (the less than
four carbon atoms) are very
soluble in water and ionise
partially to form weak .

Density of carboxylic acid

density of carboxylic acid
increases due to the increases
in the number of carbon atoms
in a molecule.

Boiling points all carboxylic

acid in general have relatively
high boiling points than the
corresponding alkanes. This is
due to the presence of carboxyl
group in carboxylic acid.

Smell carboxylic acid (< 10

carbon) are colourless and
pungent smell. Carboxylic acid
(>10 carbons) are wax-like
solids.

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 (n =
number of carbon)

2. Carboxylic acids are nonhydrocarbons which contain carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

CH3COOH

4. Physical properties of carboxylic

acid

Non-Hydrocarbon Carboxylic
Acids
1. General formula: CnH2n+1COOH

HCOOH

5. Preparation of carboxylic acid

Oxidation of an alcohol
The oxidation of ethanol is used
to prepare ethanoic acid.
C2H5OH + 2[O] > CH3COOH +
H 2O
Carried out by refluxing*
ethanol with an oxidising agent
[acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution
orange colour turns to green /
acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution
purple colour turns to
colourless]
* reflux = upright Liebig
condense to prevent the loss of
a volatile liquid by vaporisation.

Reaction with bases

acid neutralises alkalis (sodium
hydroxide).
CH3COOH + NaOH >
CH3COONa + H2O
In this reaction, a salt (sodium
ethanoate) and water are
formed.

Reaction with carbonates

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal
carbonates (calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, zinc
carbonate).
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 >
Ca(CH3COO)2 + CO2 + H2O
In this reaction, a salt (calcium
ethanoate), carbon dioxide and
water are formed.

6. Chemical properties of carboxylic

acid

Reaction with alcohols

(Esterification)
Ethanoic acid reacts with
alcohol (ethanol, propanol,
butanol)
CH3CO-OH + H-OC4H9 >
CH3COOC4H9 + H2O
(Concentrated H2SO4 is a
catalyst)
In this reaction, an ester
(colourless sweet-smelling
liquid) (butyl ethanoate) and
water are formed.

Acid properties
Ethanoic acid is a weak
monoprotic acid that ionises
partially in water (produce a low
concentration of hydrogen ions).
CH3COOH <> CH3COO- + H+
Ethanoic acid turns moist blue
litmus paper red.

Reaction with metals

Ethanoic acid reacts with
reactive metals (copper and
metals below it in the reactivity
series cannot react with
ethanoic acid).
(K, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn,
Pb, Cu, Hg, Au)
2CH3COOH + Zn >
Zn(CH3COO)2 + H2
In this reaction, a colourless
solution (zinc ethanoate) is
formed.
2CH3COOH + Mg >
Mg(CH3COO)2 + H2
In this reaction, a colourless
solution (magnesium
ethanoate) is formed.

7. Uses of Carboxylic Acid

Carboxylic acid (methanoic acid

and ethanoic acid) is used to
coagulate latex.

Vinegar (dilute 4% of ethanoic

acid) is used as preservative
and flavouring.

Ethanoic acid is used to make

polyvinvyl acetate which is used
to make plastics and emulsion
paints.

Benzoic acid is used as food

preservative.

4. More than one side chains are

present, prefixes are used.

Butanoic acid is used to produce

ester (artificial flavouring).

5. Root the parent hydrocarbon

(denotes the longest carbon
chain).

SPM Chemistry Form 5

Terminology and Concepts:
Carbon Compounds (Part 2)
A) IUPAC (International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry) is
used to name organic compound.
Organic compound is divided into
three portions which is Prefix + Root +
Suffix.
1. Prefix name of the branch or
side chain.
General formula: CnH2n+1 Where
n = 1, 2, 3, (n = number of
carbon)
Formula
CH3 C2 H 5 C3 H 7 C4 H 9 C5H11 -

Number of carbon atoms Root name

1
meth2
eth3
prop4
but5
pent6
hex7
hept8
oct9
nan10
deco

The longest continuous

(straight chain) carbon
chain is selected.

Branch or name of group

methyl
o Identify the number of
carbon.
ethyl
propyl
6. Suffix functional group.
butyl
pentyl
Homologous
Functional
series
group
2. Alkyl group signifies that it is
Alkane
-CCnot part of the main chain.
Alkene
-C=CAlcohol
OH
3. Two or more types of branches
are present, name them in
Carboxylic acid
COOH
alphabetical order.
Ester
COO
Number of side chain Prefix
2
Di3
Tri4
Tetra5
Penta6
Hexa-

7. Example: 4-methylhept-2-ene.
8. Prefix + Root + Suffix
B) Family of Hydrocarbon Alkane
1. General formula: CnH2n+2
Where n = 1, 2, 3, (n = number of
carbon)

Suffix
-ane
-ene
-ol
-oic
-oate

2. Each carbon atom in alkanes is

bonded to four other atoms by single
covalent bonds.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon.

3. Physical properties of alkanes

Name

Molecularformula

Name of alkane Molecular formula of

alkane
Methane
CH4
Ethane
C2 H 6
Propane
C3 H 8
Butane
C4H10
Pentane
C5H12
Hexane
C6H14
Heptane
C7H16
Octane
C8H18
Nonane
C9H20
Decane
C10H22

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane

CH4
C2 H 6
C3 H 8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22

Molecular formula is a chemical

formula that shows the actual number
of atoms of each type of elements
present in a molecule of the
compound.
Example: molecular formula of butane
is C4H24+2 = C4H10

RMM Density(g Physi

cm-3)
state
25C
16
Gas
30
Gas
44
Gas
58
Gas
72
0.63
Liquid
86
0.66
Liquid
100 0.68
Liquid
114 0.70
Liquid
128 0.72
Liquid
142 0.73
Liquid

Alkanes with more than 17 carbon

atoms are solid.

Solubility in water all

members in alkanes are
insoluble in water but soluble in
many organic solvent (benzene
and ether).

Density of alkane the

density of water is higher than
Name
Condensed structural formula of alkane density of alkane.
When going down the series,
Methane CH4
relative molecular mass of
Ethane
CH3CH3
alkanes is higher due to the
Propane
CH3CH2CH3
higher force of attraction
between molecules and alkane
Butane
CH3CH2CH2CH3
molecules are packed closer
Pentane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
together.
Hexane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Heptane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Electrical conductivity all
Octane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
members in alkanes do not
conduct electricity.
Nonane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
Alkanes are covalent
Decane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
compounds and do not contain
freely moving ions.
Structural formula is a chemical
formula that shows the atoms of
Boiling and melting points
elements are bonded (arrangement of
all alkanes in general have low
atoms) together in a molecule by what
boiling points and melting
types of bond.
points.

Alkanes are held together by

weak intermolecular forces.

The rate of reaction between

bromine and alkanes is slower
than the rate of reaction
between chlorine and alkanes.

4. Chemical properties of alkanes

Reactivity of alkanes
Alkanes are less reactive
(saturated hydrocarbon).
Alkanes have strong carboncarbon (C C) bonds and
carbon-hydrogen (C H) bonds.
All are single bonds which
require a lot of energy to break.
Alkanes do not react with
chemicals such as oxidizing
agents, reducing agents, acids
and alkalis.
Combustion of alkanes
Complete combustion of
hydrocarbons
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 > xCO2 +
y/2 H2O
CH4 +
2O2 > CO2 +
2H2OIncomplete combustion
occurs when insufficient supply
of oxygen
CH4 + O2 > C + H2O
2CH4 + 3O2 > 2CO + 4H2O
Substitution reaction of
alkanes (Halogenation)
Substitution reaction is one
atom (or a group of atoms) in a
molecule is replaced by another
atom (or a group of atoms).
Substitution reaction of alkanes
take place in ultraviolet light.
Example:
Alkanes react with bromine
vapour (or chlorine) in the
presence of UV light.
CH4 + Cl2 > HCl + CH3Cl
(Chloromethane)
CH3Cl + Cl2 > HCl + CH2Cl2
(Dichloromethane)
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 > HCl + CHCl3
(Trichloromethane)
CHCl3 + Cl2 > HCl + CCl4
(Tetrachloromethane)

SPM Chemistry Form 5

Terminology and Concepts:
Carbon Compounds (Part 3)
Family of Hydrocarbon Alkene
1. General formula: CnH2n
Where n = 2, 3, 4 (n = number of
carbon)
2. Alkenes are unsaturated
hydrocarbons which contain one or
more carbon-carbon (C = C) double
bonds in molecules.
3. The functional group in alkenes is
carbon-carbon double (C = C) bond.
Name of alkene Molecular formula of
alkene
Ethene
C2 H 4
Propene
C3 H 6
Butene
C4 H 8
Pentene
C5H10
Hexene
C6H12
Heptene
C7H14
Octene
C8H16
Nonene
C9H18
Decene
C10H20

Molecular formula is a
chemical formula that shows
the actual number of atoms of
each type of elements present
in a molecule of the compound.
Example: molecular formula of
butene is C4H2x4 = C4H8

4. Physical properties of alkenes

Name

Molecularformula

RMM Density(g Physi

attraction. Hence, the boiling

and melting points increases.

cm-3)
Ethene
Propene
Butene
Pentene
Hexene
Heptene
Octene
Nonene
Decene

C2H4
C3H6
C4H8
C5H10
C6H12
C7H14
C8H16
C9H18
C10H20

28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140

0.0011
0.0018
0.0023
0.6430
0.6750
0.6980
0.7160
0.7310
0.7430

Solubility in water all

members in alkenes are
insoluble in water but soluble in
many organic solvent (benzene
and ether).

Density of alkene the

density of water is higher than
density of alkene.
When going down the series,
relative molecular mass of
alkenes is higher due to the
higher force of attraction
between molecules and alkene
molecules are packed closer
together.

Electrical conductivity all

members in alkenes do not
conduct electricity.
Alkenes are covalent
compounds and do not contain
freely moving ions.

Boiling and melting points

all alkenes in general have low
boiling points and melting
points. Alkenes are held
together by weak attractive
forces between molecules
(intermolecular forces) van der
Waals force. When going down
the series, more energy is
required to overcome the

5. Chemical properties of alkenes

Reactivity of alkenes
Alkenes are more reactive
(unsaturated hydrocarbon).
Alkenes have carbon-carbon (C
= C) double bonds which is
more reactive than carboncarbon (C-C) single bonds. All
the reaction occur at the double
bonds.

Combustion of alkenes
Complete combustion of
hydrocarbons (alkenes)
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 > xCO2 +
y/2 H2O
C2 H 4 +
3O2 > 2CO2 +
2H2O
(Alkenes burn with sootier
flames than alkanes. It is
because the percentage of
carbon in alkene molecules is
higher than alkane molecules
and alkenes burn plenty of
oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water)
Incomplete combustion occurs
when insufficient supply of
oxygen
C2H4 + O2 > 2C + 2H2O
C2H4 + 2O2 > 2CO + 2H2O
(The flame in the incomplete
combustion of alkenes is more
smoky than alkanes)

Polymerisation reaction of
alkenes
Polymers are substances that
many monomers are bonded
together in a repeating
sequence.
Polymerisation is small alkene
molecules (monomers) are
joined together to form a long
chain (polymer).

nCH2 = CH2 > -(- CH2 CH2 -)-n

ethene (monomer)(unsaturated
compound) > polyethene
polymer (saturated compound)
It must be carry out in high
temperature and pressure.

Addition of hydrogen
(Hydrogenation)
Addition reaction is atoms (or a
group of atoms) are added to
each carbon atom of a carboncarbon multiple bond to a single
bond.
C2H4 + H2 > C2H6 (catalyst:
nickel and condition: 200C)
Example: margarine (produce
from hydrogenation of
vegetable oils).
Addition of halogen
(Halogenation)
Halogenation is the addition of
halogens to alkenes (no catalyst
of ultraviolet light is needed).
Alkene + Halogen >
Dihaloalkane
C2H4 + Br2 > C2H4Br2
In this reaction the brown colour
of bromine decolourised
(immediately) to produce a
colourless organic liquid.
Bromination is also used to
identify an unsaturated
(presence of a carbon-carbon
double bond) organic compound
in a chemical test.
Addition of hydrogen halides
Hydrogen halides (HX) are
hydrogen chlorine, hydrogen
bromide, hydrogen iodide and
etc. This reaction takes place
rapidly in room temperature
and without catalyst.
CnH2n + HX > CnH2n+1X
C2H4 + HBr > C2H5Br
(Bromoethane)
(There are two products for
additional of hydrogen halide to

propene. The products are 1bromopropane and 2bromopropane).

Addition of water
(Hydration)
Alkenes do not react with water
under ordinary condition. It can
react with a mixture of alkene
and steam pass over a catalyst
(Phosphoric acid, H3PO4). The
product is an alcohol.
CnH2n + H2O > CnH2n+1OH
C2H4 + H2O > C2H5OH

Additional of acidified
potassium manganate(VII),
KMnO4
CnH2n + [O] + H2O > CnH2n(OH)2
C2H4 + [O] + H2O > C2H5(OH)2
The purple colour of KMnO4
solution decolourised
immediately to produce
colourless organic liquid. Also
used to identify the presence of
a carbon-carbon double bond in
a chemical test.

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds
Part 4
1. Comparing (Similarities and
Differences) Properties of
Alkanes and Alkenes
Physical
Properties
Physical state

Electrical
conductivity.

Alkanes

Alkene

Physical state
changes from
gas to liquid
when going
down the
series.
Do not conduct
electricity at
any state.

Same w
alkanes

Same w
alkanes

Boiling points and

melting points

Density

Solubility in water

Chemical
Properties

Low boiling
points and
melting points
(number of
carbon atoms
per molecule
increases).
Low densities
(number of
carbon atom
per molecule
increases).
Insoluble in
water (soluble
in organic
solvent)
Alkanes
(Substitution
reaction)

Reactivity
Combustion

Reaction with
bromine solution
Reaction with
acidified
potassium
manganate(VII)
solution

Unreactive
Burn in air and
produce yellow
sooty flame.

C4H10

isomer)
- (no
isomer)
- (no
isomer)
2

C5H12

C2 H 6
C3 H 8

Propane

Butane2methylpropane
Pentane2methylbutane2,
dimethylpropan

Isomerism in alkenes
Molecular
formula
C2 H 4
C3 H 6
C4 H 8

Number of
isomers
- (no isomer)
- (no isomer)
3

C5H10

No reaction.
SPM Form 5 Terminology and
Concepts: Carbon Compounds
(Part 5)
Non-Hydrocarbon Alcohol

Isomerism phenomenon that

two or more molecules are found to
have the same molecular formula
but different structural formulae.

1. General formula: CnH2n-1OH

Number of
isomers
- (no

Ethene
Propene
But-1-eneBut
methylpropen
Pent-1-enePe
ene2-methylb
ene

2-methylbut-2

No reaction.

Isomerism in alkanes

Structure nam

3-methylbut-1

2. Isomerism

Molecular
formula
CH4

Ethane

Where n = 1, 2, 3 (n =
number of carbon)

2. Alcohols are non-hydrocarbons

which contain carbon, hydrogen and
Structureoxygen
name atoms. 3. The functional group
in alcohols is hydroxyl group, OH.
Methane

Name of alcohol

Molecular formula of
alcohol
Methanol
CH3OH
Ethanol
C2H3OH
Propanol / Propan-1- C3H5OH
ol
Butanol / Butan-1-ol C4H7OH
Pentanol / Pentan-1- C5H9OH
ol
Hexanol / Hexan-1-ol C6H11OH
Heptanol / Heptan-1- C7H13OH
ol
Octanol / Octan-1-ol C8H15OH
Nonanol / Nonan-1-ol C9H17OH
Decanol / Decan-1-ol C10H19OH

Combustion of alcohol
Complete combustion of
alcohol. C2H5OH + 3O2 > 2CO2
+ 3H2O (Alcohol burns with
clean blue flames. Alcohol burns
plenty of oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and water. This
reaction releases a lot of heat.
Therefore, it is a clean fuel as it
does not pollute the air.) Other
example: 2C3H7OH + 9O2 >
6CO2 + 8H2O

Oxidation of ethanol In the

laboratory, two common
oxidising agents are used for
the oxidation of ethanol which
are acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution (orange
to green) and acidified
potassium manganate(VII)
solution (purple to colourless).
C2H5OH + 2[O] > CH3COOH +
H2O Ethanol oxidised to
ethanoic acid (a member of the
homologous series of carboxylic
acids will be discussed in Part
6). Other example: C3H7OH +
2[O] > C2H5COOH + H2O

Removal of water
(Dehydration) Alcohol can
change to alkene by removal of
water molecules (dehydration).
It results in the formation of a
C=C double bond. CnH2n+1OH >
CnH2n + H2O C2H5OH > C2H4 +
H2O Two methods are being
used to carry out a dehydration
in the laboratory. a) Ethanol
vapour is passed over a heated
catalyst such as aluminium
oxide, unglazed porcelain chips,
pumice stone or porous pot. b)
Ethanol is heated under reflux
at 180C with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid,
H2SO4. Other example: C3H7OH
> C 3H 6 + H 2O

4. Physical properties of alcohol

Name

Molecular
formula

Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Butanol
Pentanol

CH3OH
C2H3OH
C3H5OH
C4H7OH
C5H9OH

Melting Boiling
point (C) point
(C)
-97
65
-117
78
-127
97
-90
118
-79
138

Solubility in water all

members in alcohol are very
soluble in water (miscible with
water).

Volatility all alcohols are

highly volatile.

Colour and Smell alcohols

are colourless liquid and have
sharp smell.

Boiling and melting points

all alcohols in general have low
boiling points (78C).

5. Chemical properties of alcohol

6. Uses of Alcohol

Alcohol as a solvent (cosmetics,

toiletries, thinners, varnishes,
perfumes).

Ethanoic acid(Acetic CH3COOH

acid)
Propanoic acid
C2H5COOH
Butanoic acid
C3H7COH

Alcohol as a fuel (fuel for racing

car, clean fuel, alternative fuel).

4. Physical properties of carboxylic

acid

Alcohol as a source of chemicals

(polymer, explosives, vinegar,
fiber).

Name

Alcohol as a source of medical

product (antiseptics for skin
disinfection, rubbing alcohol).

7. Misuse and Abuse

Depressant drug

Alcoholic drinks

Addictive drug

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds Part
6

Methanoic
acid(Formic
acid)
Ethanoic
CH3COOH
acid(Acetic acid)
Propanoic acid C2H5COOH
Butanoic acid
C3H7COH

Density of carboxylic acid

density of carboxylic acid
increases due to the increases
in the number of carbon atoms
in a molecule.

Boiling points all carboxylic

acid in general have relatively
high boiling points than the
corresponding alkanes. This is
due to the presence of carboxyl
group in carboxylic acid.

Smell carboxylic acid (< 10

carbon) are colourless and
pungent smell. Carboxylic acid
(>10 carbons) are wax-like
solids.

3. The functional group in alcohols is

carboxyl group, COOH.
Name of carboxylic
acids
Methanoic
acid(Formic acid)

Molecular formula of
alcohol
HCOOH

141
164

Solubility in water generally

in carboxylic acid (the less than
four carbon atoms) are very
soluble in water and ionise
partially to form weak .

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 (n =
number of carbon)

2. Carboxylic acids are nonhydrocarbons which contain carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

118

Non-Hydrocarbon Carboxylic
Acids
1. General formula: CnH2n+1COOH

Molecularform Boiling point

ula
(C)
HCOOH
101

5. Preparation of carboxylic acid

Oxidation of an alcohol
The oxidation of ethanol is used

to prepare ethanoic acid.

C2H5OH + 2[O] > CH3COOH +
H 2O
Carried out by refluxing*
ethanol with an oxidising agent
[acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution
orange colour turns to green /
acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution
purple colour turns to
colourless]
* reflux = upright Liebig
condense to prevent the loss of
a volatile liquid by vaporisation.
6. Chemical properties of carboxylic
acid

Acid properties
Ethanoic acid is a weak
monoprotic acid that ionises
partially in water (produce a low
concentration of hydrogen ions).
CH3COOH <> CH3COO- + H+
Ethanoic acid turns moist blue
litmus paper red.

Reaction with metals

Ethanoic acid reacts with
reactive metals (copper and
metals below it in the reactivity
series cannot react with
ethanoic acid).
(K, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn,
Pb, Cu, Hg, Au)
2CH3COOH + Zn >
Zn(CH3COO)2 + H2
In this reaction, a colourless
solution (zinc ethanoate) is
formed.
2CH3COOH + Mg >
Mg(CH3COO)2 + H2
In this reaction, a colourless
solution (magnesium
ethanoate) is formed.

Reaction with bases

acid neutralises alkalis (sodium
hydroxide).

CH3COOH + NaOH >

CH3COONa + H2O
In this reaction, a salt (sodium
ethanoate) and water are
formed.

Reaction with carbonates

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal
carbonates (calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, zinc
carbonate).
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 >
Ca(CH3COO)2 + CO2 + H2O
In this reaction, a salt (calcium
ethanoate), carbon dioxide and
water are formed.

Reaction with alcohols

(Esterification)
Ethanoic acid reacts with
alcohol (ethanol, propanol,
butanol)
CH3CO-OH + H-OC4H9 >
CH3COOC4H9 + H2O
(Concentrated H2SO4 is a
catalyst)
In this reaction, an ester
(colourless sweet-smelling
liquid) (butyl ethanoate) and
water are formed.

7. Uses of Carboxylic Acid

Carboxylic acid (methanoic acid

and ethanoic acid) is used to
coagulate latex.

Vinegar (dilute 4% of ethanoic

acid) is used as preservative
and flavouring.

Ethanoic acid is used to make

polyvinvyl acetate which is used
to make plastics and emulsion
paints.

Benzoic acid is used as food

preservative.

Butanoic acid is used to produce

ester (artificial flavouring).

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds
(Part 7)

acetate
Ethyl butanoate
Pineapple
Octyl ethanoate
Orange
Isoamyl isovalerate Apple

Simple esters are colourless

liquid and are found in fruits
and flowers.

Esters have sweet pleasant

smell.

Esters are covalent compounds.

Esters are insoluble in water but

soluble in organic solvent.

Esters are less dense than

water.

Esters are neutral and cannot

conduct electricity.

The higher and more complex

esters have higher boiling
points and less volatile.

Non-Hydrocarbon Esters
1. General formula: CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1
Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 and m = 1, 2, 3
(n and m = number of carbon)
RCOOR where R and R represented
the same or different alkyl groups.
2. Esters are non-hydrocarbons which
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms.
3. The functional group in ester is
carboxylate group, COO -.
CnH2n+1COOH + CmH2m+1OH >
CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 + H2O

First part: taken from the

alcohol (alkyl group)

Second part: taken from the

carboxylic acid (-oic to -oate)

Name of ester
Ethyl methanoate

Molecular formula of
ester
HCOOC2H5

Methyl ethanoate

CH3COOCH3

Propyl ethanoate

CH3COOC3H7

Ethyl propanoate

C2H5COOC2H5

4. Physical properties of ester

Natural sources:

Vegetable oils (palm oil) and

liquids esters can be found in
plants derived from glycerol and
fatty acids.

Fats are solid esters (milk fat)

derived from glycerol and fatty
acids.

Waxes (beewax) are solid ester

derived from long-chain fatty
acids and long-chain alcohols.

5. Uses of Esters

Name
3-metylbutyl

Odour
Banana

Preparation of cosmetics and

perfumes (esters are volatile
and have sweet smell).

Synthetic esters used as food

additives (artificial flavour).

Natural esters serves as storage

reserve of energy in living
things.

In plant, wax (esters) helps to

prevent dehydration and attack
of microorganisms.

Esters used as solvents for glue

and varnishes.

Esters used to make plastics

softer.

Esters used to produce

polyester (threads and
synthetics fabrics)

Esters used to produce soap

and detergents.

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds
(Part 8 )

Stearic
acid*
Oleic
oxide **
Linoleic
acid***
Linoleni
c
acid***

CH3(CH2)16COOH
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7
COOH

* Saturated: C-C single bonds

** Unsaturated (monounsaturated):
C=C double bonds
*** Unsaturated (polyunsaturated):
C=C double bonds
4. Animal fats have higher percentage
of saturated fatty acids than
unsaturated fatty acids.
5. Plant oils have higher percentage of
unsaturated fatty acids than saturated
fatty acids.
6. Physical properties of fats

Non-Hydrocarbon Fats
1. Fatrs are non-hydrocarbons which
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms.
2. Fats (lipids / triglycerides) are
belonging to the group in ester.
3. Natural esters are formed from
glycerol and fatty acids.
Name
of fat

Molecular formula of ester

Lauric CH3(CH2)10COOH
acid*
Palmitic CH3(CH2)14COOH
acid*

Types of fatty acids

Bonding
Melting point
Sources
Cholesterol
State at room
temperature

Saturated
Unsatura
C-C single bonds C=C doub
single
double
higher
lower
animals
plants
high
low
solid
liquid

Fats (animal) in general are solids at

room temperature and acted as:

thermal insulator

protective cushion to protect

the vital organ

provide energy and stored in

body

carry Vitamin A, D, E, K
(insoluble in water)

Steps in extraction of palm oil:

1. sterilising (oil palm fruit)
2. stripping

Example: butter, fish oil (liquid

in room temperature)

Fats (plant) are called oils. Oils

are liquids at room temperature.

4. squeezed out the oil

Example: olive oil, peanut oil,

palm oil and bran oil

5. extraction (separate the oil from

water)

7. Chemical properties of fats

Unsaturated fats can be

converted into saturated fats by
hydrogenation (additional
reaction) in 200C and 4 atm in
the presence of nickel catalyst.
Example: production of
margarine from sunflower oil of
palm oil.

3. digestion (crushing the husk

and fruit and separate the oil by
heating)

6. purification the oil (palm oil is

treated with phosphoric acid
and then steam is passed
through to separate the acid)
7. vacuum
Palm kernel oil extracted from the
kernel or seed.
Steps in extraction of palm oil:

8. Effect of fats

1. sterilising (oil palm fruit)

Fatty food produce high energy but

high consumption of fatty food will
results:

2. stripping
3. crushing the husk and fruit

obesity

4. extracting kernel oil

raise the level of cholesterol

5. purification (purify the oil from

kernel)

deposition will cause block the

flow of blood which lead to
stroke and heart attack.

9. Palm oil

It is extracted from fresh oil

palm fruits.

Palm oil extracted from the

pulp of the fruits.

Goodness in palm oil:

higher proportion of
unsaturated fats.

easy to digest and absorb.

rich in vitamin A (carotenoid)

rich in vitamin E (tocophenols

and tocotrienols)

resist oxidation in high

temperature.

SPM Form 5 Terminology and

Concepts: Carbon Compounds
(Part 9 Final)
Polymers
1. Polymer many small units
(monomers) joining together to
formed large molecule.

phosphorus and other

elements)

Monomer: amino acids

Amino acids have two functional

group which are carboxyl group
(-COOH) and amino group (-NH2)

Reaction to form polymer:

condensation reaction (- H2O)

5. Natural polymer: Natural rubber

Extracted from the latex of

rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis)
which the tree originates from
Brazil.

A molecule of rubber contains

5000 isoprene units.

Monomer: isoprene, C3H8 or 2methylbuta-1,3-diene.

Reaction to form polymer:

additional polymerisation (one
of the double bond in isoprene
becomes single bond)

2. Polymer can be classified into two

groups:

synthetic polymers / man-made

polymers (polythene; PVC
polyvinyl chloride; artificial silk;
and polypropene)
natural polymers (natural
rubber; starch; cellulose; and
proteins)

3. Natural polymer: Carbohydrates

(polysaccharides) (starch, glycogen
and cellulose)

6. Structure of rubber molecule

General formula: Cx(H2O)y with

the ratio of H:O = 2:1

Latex is colloid (35% rubber

particles and 65% water).

Carbohydrates have cyclic

structure.

Monomer: glucose (C6H12H6)

Reaction to form polymer:

condensation reaction (- H2O)

Rubber particle contains rubber

molecules which are wrapped
by a layer of negatively-charged
protein membrane. Same
charge of rubber molecules
repels each other. This prevent
rubber from coagulate.

4. Natural polymer: Protein

(polypeptide)

Protein consists of carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
(some have sulphur,

7. Coagulation process of latex

The process for the coagulation of
latex is summarised as:

1. Acid (H+) can neutralise the

negatively-charged protein
membrane. Example of acid:
formic acid, methanoic acid,
suphuric acid and hydrochloric
acid.

elastic

cannot withstand heat (become

sticky and soft above 50C;
decompose above 200C; hard
and brittle cooled)

2. The rubber molecules will

collide after the protein
membrane is broken.

easily oxidised (present of C=C)

insoluble in water (due to the

long hydrocarbon chains)

soluble in organic solvent

(propanone, benzene, petrol
etc.)

3. Rubber molecules (polymers)

are set free
4. Rubber molecules combine with
one another (coagulation).
8. Natural coagulation process of
latex
For the natural coagulation of latex:
1. Latex is exposed to air without
adding acid (duration
overnight).
2. Coagulation process occurs in
slower pace due to the bacteria
(microorganism) action which
produce acid)

11. Vulcanisation of rubber

Vulcanisation process of hardening
rubber and increases rubber elasticity
by heating it with sulphur or sulphur
compounds.
Methods:

heating natural rubber with

sulphur at 140C using zinc
oxide as catalyst or

dipping natural rubber in a

solution of disulphur dichloride
(S2Cl2) in methylbenzene.

9. Prevent coagulation process of

latex
The following are latex coagulation
prevention method:
1. Alkaline / Basic solution is
added to the latex. Example:
ammonia (NH3).
2. Positively-charged hydrogen ion
/ H+ produced by bacteria can
be neutralised by negativelycharged hydroxide ion / OHfrom ammonia solution.
10. Properties of natural rubber

12. Properties of vulcanisation of

rubber

The sulphur atoms are added to

double bonds in the natural
rubber molecules to form
disulphide linkages (-C-S-S-C-) /
sulphur cross-links between the
long polymer chains. Therefore,
vulcanised rubber is more
elastics and stronger.

This increases the molecular

size and the intermolecular
forces of attraction between
rubber molecules. Therefore,

vulcanised rubber is more

resistant to heat (does not
become soft and sticky when
hot).

Strength and
hardness

Strong and hard

(depends on degree of
vulcanisation)

This also reduces the number of

carbon-carbon double bonds in
rubber molecules. Therefore,
vulcanised rubber is more
resistant to oxygen, ozone,
sunlight and other chemicals.

Resistant to
heat
Oxidation

Resistant to heat

13. Comparison between the

properties of vulcanised rubber
and unvulcanised rubber
Properties
Double bonds
Melting point
Elasticity

Resistant to oxidation
(reduction of number of
double bonds per
rubber molecule)

14. R & D of rubber

RRIM Rubber Research

Vulcanised rubber
Unvulcanised
rubber
Institute of Malaysia
Decreases (formation of More number of
sulphur cross-links)
double bonds
MRB Malaysian Rubber Board
High (presence of
Low
sulphur)
Rubber Technology Centre
More elastic (sulphur
Less elastics
cross-links prevents the
Various local higher institutions
polymer chain or rubber
of learning
from slipping past.

Weak and s
(polymer ch
rubber will
rubber is ov
stretched.
Poor resista

Easily oxidis
oxygen, UV
(presence o
double bon
rubber mole