AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY

Guideline on Management of the Developing

Dentition and Occlusion in Pediatric Dentistry
Originating Committee

Clinical Affairs Committee Developing Dentition Subcommittee

Review Council
Council on Clinical Affairs

Adopted
1990

Revised
1991, 1998, 2001, 2005, 2009

Purpose
The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) recognizes the importance of managing the developing dentition
and occlusion and its effect on the well-being of infants, children, and adolescents. Management includes the recognition,
diagnosis, and appropriate treatment of dentofacial abnormalities. This guideline is intended to set forth objectives for
management of the developing dentition and occlusion in
pediatric dentistry.

Methods
This revision is based upon a new MEDLINE search using
the following parameters: Terms: ankylosis, anterior crossbite,
Class II malocclusion, Class III malocclusion, dental crowding,
ectopic eruption, impaction, obstruction sleep apnea syndrome
(OSAS), occlusal development, oligodontia, oral habits, posterior crossbite, space maintenance, and tooth size/arch length
discrepancy; Fields: all; Limits: within the last 10 years,
humans, English, and birth through age 18. Papers for review
were chosen from this search and from references within selected articles. When data did not appear sufficient or were
inconclusive, recommendations were based upon expert and/or
consensus opinion by experienced researchers and clinicians.

Background
Guidance of eruption and development of the primary, mixed,
and permanent dentitions is an integral component of comprehensive oral health care for all pediatric dental patients. Such
guidance should contribute to the development of a permanent dentition that is in a stable, functional, and esthetically
acceptable occlusion. Early diagnosis and successful treatment
of developing malocclusions can have both short-term and
long-term benefits while achieving the goals of occlusal
harmony and function and dentofacial esthetics.1-4 Dentists
have the responsibility to recognize, diagnose, and either
appropriately manage or refer abnormalities in the developing
dentition as dictated by the complexity of the problem and
the individual clinicians training, knowledge, and experience.5

Many factors can affect the management of the developing dental arches and minimize the overall success of any
treatment. The variables associated with the treatment of the
developing dentition that will affect the degree to which treatment is successful include, but are not limited to:

chronological/mental/emotional age of the patient
and the patients ability to understand and cooperate

in the treatment;

intensity, frequency, and duration of an oral habit;

parental support for the treatment;

compliance with clinicians instructions;

craniofacial configuration;

craniofacial growth;

concomitant systemic disease or condition;

accuracy of diagnosis;

appropriateness of treatment.

A thorough clinical examination, appropriate pretreatment
records, differential diagnosis, sequential treatment plan, and
progress records are necessary to manage any condition affecting
the developing dentition.

Clinical examination should include:

1. facial analysis to:
a. identify adverse transverse growth patterns includ ing asymmetries (maxillary and mandibular);
b. identify adverse vertical growth patterns;
c. identify adverse sagittal (anteroposterior) growth
patterns and dental anteroposterior (AP) occlusal
disharmonies;
d. assess esthetics and identify orthopedic and ortho dontic interventions that may improve esthetics and
resultant self-image and emotional development.

2. intraoral examination to:

a. assess overall oral health status;
b. determine the functional status of the patients

occlusion.

3. functional analysis to:
a. determine functional factors associated with the

malocclusion;
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b. detect deleterious habits;

c. detect temporomandibular joint dysfunction,
which may require additional diagnostic pro cedures.
Diagnostic records may be needed to assist in the evaluation of the patients condition and for documentation purposes.
Prudent judgment is exercised to decide the appropriate records
required for diagnosis of the clinical condition.6
Diagnostic orthodontic records fall into three major categories of evaluation: (1) health of the teeth and oral structures,
(2) alignment and occlusal relationships of the teeth, and (3)
facial and jaw proportions which includes both cephalometric
radiographs and facial photographs. Digital images rapidly are
replacing film, but both are acceptable as records.6

Diagnostic records may include:

extraoral and intraoral photographs to:
supplement clinical findings with oriented facial
and intraoral photographs;
establish a database for documenting facial changes
during treatment.

diagnostic dental casts to:
assess the occlusal relationship;
determine arch length requirements for intraarch

tooth size relationships;
determine arch length requirements for interarch

tooth size relationships;
determine location and extent of arch asymmetry.

intraoral and panoramic radiographs to:
establish dental age;
assess eruption problems;
estimate the size and presence of unerupted teeth;
identify dental anomalies/pathology.

lateral and AP cephalograms to:
produce a comprehensive cephalometric analysis of

the relative dental and skeletal components in the

anteroposterior, vertical, and transverse dimensions;
establish a baseline growth record for longitudinal

assessment of growth and displacement of the jaws.

other diagnostic views (eg, magnetic resonance ima ging, computed tomographic scans) for hard and soft
tissue imaging as indicated by history and clinical
examination.
A differential diagnosis and diagnostic summary are
completed to:
establish the relative contributions of the dental and
skeletal structures to the patients malocclusion;
prioritize problems in terms of relative severity;
detect favorable and unfavorable interactions that may
result from treatment options for each problem area;
establish short-term and long-term objectives;
summarize the prognosis of treatment for achieving
stability, function, and esthetics.

A sequential treatment plan will:
1. establish timing priorities for each phase of therapy;

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2.

3.

establish proper sequence of treatments to achieve

short-term and long-term objectives;
assess treatment progress and update the biomechanical protocol accordingly on a regular basis.

Stages of development of occlusion

General considerations and principles of management: The stages
of occlusal development include:
1. Primary dentition: Beginning in infancy with the
eruption of the first tooth, usually about six months
of age, and complete from approximately three to
six years of age when all primary teeth are erupted.
2. Mixed dentition: From approximately age six to thir teen, primary and permanent teeth are present in the
mouth.
3. Adolescent dentition: All primary teeth have exfoli ated, second permanent molars may be erupted or
erupting, and third molars have not erupted.
4. Adult dentition: All permanent teeth are present and
eruptive growth is complete.7-10
These stages may further be divided and referenced as
early and late (eg, early primary, late primary, early mixed,
late mixed).7-10
Evaluation and treatment of occlusal and skeletal disharmonies may be initiated at various stages of dental arch
development, depending on the problems, growth, parental involvement, risks and benefits of treatment and of withholding
treatment, and interest/ability of the practitioner.5
Historically, orthodontic treatment was provided mainly
for adolescents. Interest continues to be expressed in early treatment as well as in adult treatment. Treatment and timing options for the growing patient, especially in the mixed dentition
and early permanent dentition, have increased and continue to
be evaluated by the research community.9,11-13 Many clinicians
seek to modify skeletal, muscular, and dentoalveolar abnormalities before the eruption of the full permanent dentition.7
A thorough knowledge of craniofacial growth and development of the dentition, as well as orthodontic treatment,
must be used in diagnosing and reviewing possible treatment
options before recommendations are made to parents.9 Early
treatment is beneficial for many children but may not be indicated for every patient.
Treatment considerations: The developing dentition should
be monitored throughout eruption. This monitoring at regular
clinical examinations should include, but not be limited to,
diagnosis of missing, supernumerary, developmentally defective, and fused or geminated teeth; ectopic eruption; and
space and tooth loss secondary to caries.
Radiographic examination, when appropriate14 and feasible, should accompany clinical examination. Diagnosis of
anomalies of primary or permanent tooth development and
eruption should be made to inform the patients parent and to
plan and recommend appropriate intervention. This evaluation
is on-going throughout the developing dentition, at all stages.6-10

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1. Primary dentition stage: Anomalies of primary teeth

and eruption may not be evident/diagnosable prior to
eruption, due to the childs not presenting for dental
examination or to a radiographic examination not
being possible in a young child. Evaluation, however,
should be accomplished when feasible. The objectives
of evaluation include identification of:
a. all anomalies of tooth number and size (as previ ously noted);
b. anterior and posterior crossbites;
c. presence of habits along with their dental and
skeletal sequelae.
Radiographs are taken with appropriate clinical indi
cators or based upon risk assessment/history.
2. Early mixed dentition stage: Palpation for unerupted
teeth should be part of every examination. Panoramic,
occlusal, and periapical radiographs, as indicated at
the time of eruption of the lower incisors and first
permanent molars, provide diagnostic information
concerning:
a. anomalies of tooth numbers (eg, missing, supernu merary, fused, geminated);
b. tooth size and shape (eg, peg or small lateral
incisors);
c. positions (eg, ectopic first permanent molars).
Space analysis can be used to evaluate arch length/

crowding at the time of incisor eruption.
3. Mid-to-late mixed dentition stage: Ectopic tooth
positions should be diagnosed, especially canines, bi cuspids, and second permanent molars.
4. Adolescent dentition stage: If not instituted earlier,
orthodontic diagnosis and treatment should be
planned for Class I crowded, Class II, and Class III
malocclusions as well as posterior and anterior cross bites. Third molars should be monitored as to posi tion and space, and parents should be informed.
5. Early adult dentition stage: Third molars should be
evaluated. If orthodontic diagnosis has not been ac complished, recommendations should be made as
necessary.
Objectives: At each stage, the objectives of intervention/
treatment include reducing adverse growth, preventing increasing dental and skeletal disharmonies, improving esthetics
of the smile and the accompanying positive effects on selfimage, and improving the occlusion.
1. Primary dentition stage: Habits and posterior crossbites
should be diagnosed and addressed as early as feasible.
Parents should be informed about findings of adverse
growth and developing malocclusions. Interventions/
treatment can be recommended if diagnosis can be
made, treatment is appropriate and possible, and parents
are supportive and desire to have treatment done.
2. Early mixed stage: Treatment should address: (1)
habits; (2) arch length shortage; (3) intervention for
crowded incisors; (4) intervention for ectopic molars

and incisors; (5) holding of leeway space; (6) cross bites; and (7) adverse skeletal growth. Treatment
should take advantage of high rates of growth and
prevent worsened adverse dental and skeletal growth.
3. Mid-to-late mixed dentition stage: Intervention for
ectopic teeth may include extractions and space mainte nance to aid eruption and reduce the risk of need for
surgical bracket placement and orthodontic traction.
Intervention for treatment of skeletal disharmonies
and crowding may be instituted at this stage.
4. Adolescent dentition stage: In full permanent denti tion, final orthodontic diagnosis and treatment can
provide the most functional occlusion.
5. Early adult dentition stage: Third molar position or
space can be evaluated and, if indicated, the tooth
removed. Full orthodontic treatment should be rec ommended if needed.

Recommendations
Oral habits
General considerations and principles of management: The habits
of nonnutritive sucking, bruxing, tongue thrust swallow and
abnormal tongue position, self-injurious/self-mutilating behavior, and airway obstruction (OSAS) are discussed in this
guideline.
Oral habits may apply forces to the teeth and dentoalveolar structures. The relationship between oral habits and unfavorable dental and facial development is associational rather than
cause and effect.15-17 Habits of sufficient frequency, duration,
and intensity may be associated with dentoalveolar or skeletal
deformations such as increased overjet, reduced overbite, posterior crossbite, or long facial height. The duration of force is
more important than its magnitude; the resting pressure from
the lips, cheeks, and tongue has the greatest impact on tooth
position, as these forces are maintained most of the time.18,19
Nonnutritive sucking behaviors are considered normal in
infants and young children. Prolonged nonnutritive sucking
habits have been associated with decreased maxillary arch width,
increased overjet, decreased overbite, anterior open bite, and
posterior crossbite.16,18,19 As preliminary evidence indicates that
some changes resulting from sucking habits persist past the
cessation of the habit, it has been suggested that early dental
visits provide parents with anticipatory guidance to help their
children stop sucking habits by age 36 months or younger.16,18,19
Bruxism, defined as the habitual nonfunctional and forceful contact between occlusal surfaces, can occur while awake
or asleep. The etiology is multifactorial and has been reported
to include central factors (eg, emotional stress,20 parasomnias,21 traumatic brain injury,22 neurologic disabilities 23) and
morphologic factors (eg, malocclusion24, muscle recruitment25).
Reported complications include dental attrition, headaches,
temporomandibular dysfunction, and soreness of the masticatory muscles.20 Preliminary evidence suggests that juvenile
bruxism is a self-limiting condition that does not progress to
adult bruxism.26 The spectrum of bruxism management ranges

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from patient/parent education, occlusal splints, and psychological techniques to medications.20,22,27,28

Tongue thrusting, an abnormal tongue position and deviation from the normal swallowing pattern, may be associated
with anterior open bite, abnormal speech, and anterior protrusion of the maxillary incisors.17 There is no evidence that
intermittent short-duration pressures, created when the tongue
and lips contact the teeth during swallowing or chewing, have
significant impact on tooth position.17,18 If the resting tongue
posture is forward of the normal position, incisor displacement is likely, but if resting tongue posture is normal, a tongue
thrust swallow has no clinical significance.18
Self-injurious or self-mutilating behavior (ie, repetitive
acts that result in physical damage to the individual) is extremely rare in the normal child.29 Such behavior, however,
has been associated with mental retardation, psychiatric disorders, developmental disabilities, and some syndromes.30 The
spectrum of treatment options for developmentally disabled
individuals includes pharmacologic management, behavior
modification, and physical restraint.31 Reported dental treatment
modalities include, among others, lip-bumper and occlusal bite
appliances, protective padding, and extractions.29 Some habits,
such as lip-licking and lip-pulling, are relatively benign in
relation to an effect on the dentition.29 More severe lip- and
tongue-biting habits may be associated with profound
neurodisability due to severe brain damage.31 Management
options include monitoring the lesion, odontoplasty, providing
a bite-opening appliance, or extracting the teeth.31
Research on the relationship between malocclusion and
mouth breathing suggests that impaired nasal respiration
may contribute to the development of increased facial height,
anterior open bite, increased overjet, and narrow palate, but
it is not the sole or even the major cause of these conditions.32
OSAS may be associated with narrow maxilla, crossbite,
low tongue position, vertical growth, and open bite. History
associated with OSAS may include snoring, observed apnea,
restless sleep, daytime neurobehavioral abnormalities or sleepiness, and bedwetting. Physical findings may include growth
abnormalities, signs of nasal obstruction, adenoidal facies, and/
or enlarged tonsils.32-34
The identification of an abnormal habit and the assessment of its potential immediate and long-term effects on the
craniofacial complex and dentition should be made as early as
possible. The dentist should evaluate habit frequency, duration,
and intensity in all patients with habits. Intervention to terminate the habit should be initiated if indicated.17
Patients and their parents should be provided with information regarding consequences of a habit. Parents may play a
negative role in the correction of an oral habit as nagging or
punishment may result in an increase in habit behaviors;
change in the home environment may be necessary before a
habit can be overcome.16
Treatment considerations: Management of an oral habit is indicated whenever the habit is associated with unfavorable
dentofacial development or adverse effects on child health or

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when there is a reasonable indication that the oral habit will

result in unfavorable sequelae in the developing permanent
dentition. Any treatment must be appropriate for the childs
development, comprehension, and ability to cooperate. Habit
treatment modalities include patient/parent counseling, behavior modification techniques, myofunctional therapy, appliance therapy, or referral to other providers including, but not
limited to, orthodontists, psychologists, myofunctional therapists,
or otolaryngologists. Use of an appliance to manage oral habits
is indicated only when the child wants to stop the habit and
would benefit from a reminder.17
Objectives: Treatment is directed toward decreasing or eliminating the habit and minimizing potential deleterious effects
on the dentofacial complex.
Disturbances in number
Congenitally missing teeth
General considerations and principles of management: Hypodontia, the congenital absence of one or more permanent teeth,
has a prevalence of 3.5 percent to 6.5 percent.35,36 Excluding
third molars, the most frequently missing permanent tooth is
the mandibular second premolar followed by the maxillary
lateral incisor.36,37 In the primary dentition, hypodontia occurs
less (0.1 percent to 0.9 percent prevalence) and almost always
affects the maxillary incisors and first primary molars.39 The
chance of familial occurrence of one or two congenitally missing teeth is to be differentiated from missing lateral incisors in
cleft lip/palate40 and multiple missing teeth (six or more) due
to ectodermal dysplasia or other syndromes41 as the treatment
usually differs. A congenitally missing tooth should be suspected in patients with cleft lip/palate, certain syndromes, and
a familial pattern of missing teeth. In addition, patients with
asymmetric eruption sequence or ankylosis of a primary
mandibular second molar may have a congenitally missing
tooth.
Treatment considerations: With congenitally missing permanent maxillary incisor(s) or mandibular second premolar(s),
the decision to extract the primary tooth and close the space
orthodontically versus opening the space orthodontically and
placing a prosthesis or implant depends on many factors. For
maxillary laterals, the dentist may move the maxillary canine
mesially and use the canine as a lateral incisor or create space
for a future lateral prosthesis or implant.17,41
Factors that influence the decision are: (1) patient age,
(2) canine shape, (3) canine position, (4) childs occlusion and
amount of crowding, (5) bite depth, and (6) quality and quantity of bone in the edentulous area.42,43 Early extraction of the
primary canine and/or lateral may be needed.42,43 Opening
space for a prosthesis or implant requires less tooth movement,
but the space needs to be maintained with an interim prosthesis, especially if an implant is planned.41,42 Moving the
canine into the lateral position produces little facial change,
but the resultant tooth size discrepancy often does not allow
a canine guided occlusion.42,44

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For a congenitally missing premolar, the primary molar

either may be maintained or extracted with subsequent placement
of a prosthesis or orthodontically closing the space. Maintaining
the primary second molar may cause occlusal problems due to
its larger mesiodistal diameter, compared to the second premolar. Reducing the width of the second primary molar is a
consideration, but root resorption and subsequent exfoliation
may occur.17 In crowded arches or with multiple missing premolars, extraction of the primary molar(s) can be considered,
especially in mild Class III cases.17 For a single missing premolar,
if maintaining the primary molar is not possible, placement of
a prosthesis or implant should be considered.17,41 Consultation
with an orthodontist and/or prosthodontist may be required.
In addition, preserving the primary tooth may be indicated in
certain cases.
Objectives: Treatment is directed toward an esthetically pleasing
occlusion that functions well for the patient.
Supernumerary teeth (primary, permanent, and mesiodens)
General considerations and principles of management: Supernumerary teeth, or hyperdontia, can occur in the primary or
permanent dentition but are five times more common in the
permanent.36 Prevalence is reported in the primary and mixed
dentitions from 0.52 percent to two percent.36,38,46 Between
80 percent and 90 percent of all supernumeraries occur in the
maxilla, with half in the anterior area and almost all in the
palatal position.36,47 A supernumerary primary tooth is followed
by a supernumerary permanent tooth in one third of the cases.48
During the early mixed dentition, 79 percent to 91 percent of anterior permanent supernumerary teeth are unerupted.46,49 While more erupt with age, only 25 percent of
all mesiodens (a permanent supernumerary incisor located
at the midline) erupt spontaneously.47 Mesiodens can prevent
or cause ectopic eruption of a central incisor. Less frequently,
a mesiodens can cause dilacer-ation or resorption of the
permanent incisors root. Dentigerous cyst formation involving the mesiodens, in addition to erupt-ion into the nasal
cavity, has been reported.47,50 If there is an asymmetric
eruption pattern of the maxillary incisors, delayed eruption,
an overretained primary incisor, or ectopic eruption of an
incisor, a supernumerary can be suspected.36,45 Panoramic,
occlusal, and periapical radiographs all can reveal a supernumerary, but the best way to locate the supernumerary is two
periapical or occlusal films reviewed by the parallax rule.47
Treatment considerations: Management and treatment of hyperdontia differs if the tooth is primary or permanent. Primary
supernumerary teeth normally are accommodated into the
arch and usually erupt and exfoliate without complications.48
Extraction of an unerupted supernumerary tooth during the
primary dentition usually is not done to allow it to erupt;
surgical extraction of unerupted supernumerary teeth can
displace or damage the permanent incisor.47 Removal of a
mesiodens or other permanent supernumerary incisor results
in eruption of the permanent adjacent normal incisor in 75
percent of the cases.51 Extraction of an unerupted supernu-

merary during the early mixed dentition allows for a normal

eruptive force and eruption of the permanent adjacent normal
incisor.52,53 Later removal of the mesiodens reduces the likelihood that the adjacent normal permanent incisor will erupt
on its own, especially if the apex is completed.47 Inverted
conical supernumeraries can be harder to remove if removal
is delayed, as they can migrate deeper into the jaw.45 After removal of the supernumerary, clinical and radiographic followup is indicated in six months to determine if the normal incisor
is erupting. If there is no eruption after six to 12 months and
sufficient space exists, surgical exposure and orthodontic
extrusion is needed.47
Objectives: Removal of supernumerary teeth should facilitate
eruption of permanent teeth and encourage normal alignment.
In cases where normal alignment or spontaneous eruption
does not occur, further orthodontic treatment is indicated.
Localized disturbances in eruption
Ectopic eruption
General considerations and principles of management:
Ectopic eruption (EE) of permanent first molars occurs due to
the molars abnormal mesioangular eruption path, resulting in
an impaction at the distal prominence of the primary second
molars crown. EE can be suspected if asymmetric eruption is
observed or if the mesial marginal ridge is noted to be under
the distal prominence of the second primary molar. EE of
permanent molars can be diagnosed from bitewing or panoramic radiographs in the early mixed dentition. This condition
occurs in up to 0.75 percent of the population,54 but is more
common in children with cleft lip and palate.554 The maxillary
canine appears in an impacted position in 1.5 percent to two
percent of the population,56,57 while maxillary incisors can erupt
ectopically or be impacted from supernumerary teeth in up to
two percent of the population.47 Incisors also can have altered
eruption due to pulp necrosis (following trauma or caries) or
pulpal treatment of the primary incisor.58
EE of permanent molars is classified into two types.
There are those that self correct or jump and others that remain impacted. In 66 percent of the cases, the molar jumps.59
A permanent molar that presents with part of its occlusal surface clinically visible and part under the distal of the primary
second molar normally does not jump and is the impacted
type.60 Nontreatment can result in early loss of the primary
second molar and space loss.
Maxillary canine impaction should be suspected when the
canine bulge is not palpable or when asymmetric canine eruption is evident. Panoramic radiographs would show the canine
has an abnormal inclination and/or overlaps the lateral incisor
root. EE of permanent incisors can be suspected after trauma
to primary incisors, with pulpally-treated primary incisors, with
asymmetric eruption, or if a supernumerary incisor is diagnosed.
Treatment considerations: Treatment depends on how severe
the impaction appears clinically and radiographically. For
mildly impacted first permanent molars, where little of the
tooth is impacted under the primary second molar, elastic or

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metal orthodontic separators can be placed to wedge the permanent first molar distally.16 For more severe impactions,
distal tipping of the permanent molar is required. Tipping
action can be accomplished with brass wires, removable appliances using springs, fixed appliances such as sectional
wires with open coil springs, sling shot-type appliances,60 a
Halterman appliance,61 or surgical uprighting.62
Early diagnosis and treatment of impacted maxillary
canines can lessen the severity of the impaction and may
stimulate eruption of the canine. Extraction of the primary
canine is indicated when the canine bulge cannot be palpated
in the alveolar process and there is radiographic overlapping of
the canine with the formed root of the lateral during the mixed
dentition.63 Even when the impacted canine is diagnosed at a
later age (11 to 16), if the canine is not horizontal, extraction
of the primary canine lessens the severity of the permanent
canine impaction and 75 percent will erupt.64 Extraction of the
first primary molar also has been reported to allow eruption
of first bicuspids and to assist in the eruption of the cuspids.
This need can be determined from a panoramic radiograph.61,65
Bonded orthodontic treatment normally is required to create
space or align the canine. Long-term periodontal health of
impacted canines after orthodontic treatment is similar to
nonimpacted canines.68
Treatment of ectopically erupting incisors depends on
the etiology. Extraction of necrotic or over-retained pulpallytreated primary incisors is indicated in the early mixed dentition.58 Removal of supernumerary incisors in the early mixed
dentition will lessen ectopic eruption of an adjacent permanent
incisor.47 After incisor eruption, orthodontic treatment involving
removable or banded therapy may be needed.
Objectives: Management of ectopically erupting molars, canines,
and incisors should result in improved eruptive positioning of
the tooth. In cases where normal alignment does not occur,
subsequent comprehensive orthodontic treatment may be necessary to achieve appropriate arch form and intercuspation.
Ankylosis
General considerations and principles of management: Ankylosis is a condition in which the cementum of a tooths root
fuses directly to the surrounding bone. The periodontal ligament
is replaced with osseous tissue, rendering the tooth immobile to
eruptive change. Ankylosis can occur in the primary and permanent dentitions, with the most common incidence involving
primary molars. The incidence is reported to be between seven
percent and 14 percent in the primary dentition.49 In the
permanent dentition, ankylosis occurs most frequently following luxation injuries.67
Ankylosis is common in anterior teeth following trauma
and is referred to as replacement resorption. Periodontal ligament cells are destroyed and the cells of the alveolar bone
perform most of the healing. Over time, normal bony activity
results in the replacement of root structure with osseous tissue.67
Ankylosis can occur rapidly or gradually over time, in some
cases as long as five years post trauma. It also may be transient

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if only a small bony bridge forms that can be resorbed with

subsequent osteoclastic activity.69
Ankylosis can be verified by clinical and radiographic
means. Submergence of the tooth is the primary recognizable
sign, but the diagnosis also can be made through percussion
and palpation. Radiographic examination also may reveal the
loss of the periodontal ligament and bony bridging.
Treatment considerations: With ankylosis of a primary molar,
exfoliation usually occurs normally. Extraction is recommended
if prolonged retention of the primary molar is noted. If a severe marginal ridge discrepancy develops, extraction should
be considered to prevent the adjacent teeth from tipping and
producing space loss.3 Replacement resorption of permanent
teeth usually results in the loss of the involved tooth.67
Mildly to moderately ankylosed primary molars without
permanent successors may be retained and restored to function
in arches without crowding. Extraction of these molars can assist
in resolving crowded arches in complex orthodontic cases.65,70
Surgical luxation of ankylosed permanent teeth with forced
eruption has been described as an alternative to premature
extraction.71
Objectives: Treatment of ankylosis should result in the continuing normal development of the permanent dentition. Or,
in the case of replacement resorption of a permanent tooth,
appropriate prosthetic replacement should be planned.
Tooth size/arch length discrepancy and crowding
General considerations and principles of management: Arch
length discrepancies include inadequate arch length and crowding of the dental arches, excess arch length and spacing, and
tooth size discrepancy, often referred to as a Bolton discrepancy.72 These arch length discrepancies may be found in conjunction with complicating and other etiological factors including
missing teeth, supernumerary teeth, and fused or geminated
teeth. Inadequate arch length with resulting incisor crowding
is a common occurrence with various negative sequelae and is
particularly common in the early mixed dentition.73-76 Studies
of arch length in todays children compared to their parents
and grandparents of 50 years ago indicate less arch length,
more frequent incisor crowding, and stable tooth sizes.77-79
This implies that the problem of incisor crowding and ultimate arch length discrepancies may be increasing in numbers
of patients and in amount of arch length shortage.77,78
Arch length and especially crowding must be considered
in the context of the esthetic, dental, skeletal, and soft tissue
relationships. Mandibular incisors have a high relapse rate
in rotations and crowding.73,75 Growth of the aging skeleton
causes further crowding and incisor rotations.82 Functional
contacts are diminished where rotations of incisors, canines, and
bicuspids exist.83 Occlusal harmony and temporomandibular
joint health are impacted negatively by less functional contacts.83
Initial assessment may be done in early mixed dentition,
when mandibular incisors begin to erupt.73 Evaluation of available space and consideration of making space for permanent
incisors to erupt may be done initially utilizing appropriate

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radiographs to ascertain the presence of permanent successors.

Comprehensive diagnostic analysis is suggested, with evaluation of maxillary and mandibular skeletal relationships, direction and pattern of growth, facial profile, facial width, muscle
balance, and dental and occlusal findings including tooth
positions, arch length analysis, and leeway space.
Derotation of teeth just after emergence in the mouth implies correction before the transseptal fiber arrangement has
been established.73,83 It has been shown that the transseptal
fibers do not develop until the cementoenamel junction of
erupting teeth pass the bony border of the alveolar process.83
Long-term stability of aligned incisors may be increased.84
Treatment considerations: Treatment considerations may include, but are not limited to:
making space for permanent incisors to erupt and
become straight naturally through primary canine
extraction and space/arch length maintenance;
orthodontic alignment of permanent teeth as soon as
erupted and feasible, expansion and correction of arch
length as early as feasible;
utilizing holding arches in the mixed dentition until
all permanent bicuspids and canines have erupted;
extractions of permanent teeth;
maintaining patients original arch form.83
Other treatment modalities may include, but are not
limited to: (1) interproximal reduction, (2) restorative bonding, (3) veneers, (4) crowns, (5) implants, and (6) orthognathic
surgery.
Objectives: Well-timed intervention can:
prevent crowded incisors;
increase long-term stability of incisor positions;
decrease ectopic eruption and impaction of perma nent canines;
reduce orthodontic treatment time and sequelae;
improve gingival health and overall dental health.73, 85,86
Space maintenance
General considerations and principles of management: The
premature loss of primary teeth due to caries, trauma, ectopic
eruption, or other causes may lead to undesirable tooth movements of primary and/or permanent teeth including loss of
arch length. Arch length deficiency can produce or increase
the severity of malocclusions with crowding, rotations, ectopic
eruption, crossbite, excessive overjet, excessive overbite, and
unfavorable molar relationships.87 The dental profession has recommended the use of space maintainers to reduce the prevalence and severity of malocclusion following premature loss of
primary teeth.17,88,89 Space maintenance may be a consideration
in the primary dentition after early loss of a maxillary incisor
when the child has an active digit habit. An intense habit
may reduce the space for the erupting permanent incisor.

Adverse effects associated with space maintainers include:
(1) dislodged, broken, and lost appliances, (2) plaque accumulation, (3) caries, (4) interference with successor eruption, (5)
undesirable tooth movement, (6) inhibition of alveolar growth,

(7) soft tissue impingement, and (8) pain.87,90-92 Premature loss

of a primary tooth of any type has the potential to cause loss
of space available for the succeeding permanent tooth, but
there is a lack of consensus regarding the effectiveness of space
maintainers in preventing or reducing the severity of malocclusion.87,93-95
Treatment considerations: It is prudent to consider space maintenance when primary teeth are lost prematurely. Factors
to consider include: (1) specific tooth lost, (2) time elapsed
since tooth loss, (3) pre-existing occlusion, (4) favorable space
analysis, (5) presence and root development of permanent
successor, (6) amount of alveolar bone covering permanent
successor, (7) patients health status, (8) patients cooperative
ability, (9) active oral habits, and (10) oral hygiene.17,87 If a
space analysis is required prior to the placement of a space
maintainer, appropriate radiographs and study models should
be considered.96
The literature pertaining to the use of space maintainers
specific to the loss of a particular primary tooth type include
expert opinion, case reports, and details of appliance design.17,88,89
Treatment modalities may include, but are not limited to:
fixed appliances (eg, band and loop, crown and loop,
passive lingual arch, distal shoe, Nance appliance,
transpalatal arch);
removable appliances (eg, partial dentures, Hawley
appliance).17,88,89
The placement and retention of space maintaining appliances requires ongoing compliant patient behavior. Follow-up
of patients with space maintainers is necessary to assess integrity of cement and to evaluate and clean the abutment
teeth.91 The appliance should function until the succedaneous
teeth have erupted into the arch.
Objectives: The goal of space maintenance is to prevent loss of
arch length, width, and perimeter by maintaining the relative
position of the existing dentition.17,88
The AAPD supports controlled randomized clinical trials
to determine efficacy of space maintainers as well as analysis
of costs and side effects of treatment.
Space regaining
General considerations and principles of management: Some of
the more common causes of space loss within an arch are (1)
primary teeth with interproximal caries, (2) ectopically erupting
teeth, (3) alteration in the sequence of eruption, (4) ankylosis
of a primary molar, (5) dental impaction; (6) transposition of
teeth, (7) loss of primary molars without proper space management, (8) congenitally missing teeth, (9) abnormal resorption
of primary molar roots, (10) premature and delayed eruption of
permanent teeth, and (11) abnormal dental morphology.17,87,97
Loss of space in the dental arch that interferes with the desired
eruption of the permanent teeth may require evaluation.
Space loss may occur unilaterally or bilaterally and may
result from teeth tipping, rotating, extruding, being ankylosed,
or translating or from extrusion of teeth and the deepening of
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The degree to which space is affected varies according to

the arch affected, site in the arch, and time elapsed since tooth
loss. The quantity and incidence of space loss also are dependent upon which adjacent teeth are present in the dental arch
and their status.17,87 The amount of crowding or spacing in
the dental arch will determine the degree to which space loss
has a significant consequence.1,98
Treatment considerations: Treatment modalities may include,
but are not limited to, fixed appliances or removable appliances (eg, Hawley appliance, lip bumper, headgear). Space loss
and dentofacial skeletal development may dictate that space
regaining not be indicated. This should be determined as the
result of a comprehensive analysis. The timing of clinical intervention subsequent to premature loss of a primary molar is
critical.1
Objectives: The goal of space regaining intervention is the
recovery of lost arch width and perimeter and/or improved
eruptive position of succedaneous teeth. Space regained should
be maintained until adjacent permanent teeth have erupted
completely and/or until a subsequent comprehensive orthodontic treatment plan is initiated.
Crossbites (dental, functional, and skeletal)
General considerations and principles of management: Anterior and posterior crossbites are malocclusions which involve
one or more teeth in which the maxillary teeth occlude lingually with the antagonistic mandibular teeth.99,100 If the midlines undergo a compensatory or habitual shift when the teeth
occlude in crossbite, this is termed a functional shift.101 A
crossbite can be of dental or skeletal origin or a combination
of both.102
A simple anterior crossbite is of dental origin if the molar
occlusion is Class I and the malocclusion is the result of an
abnormal axial inclination of maxillary anterior teeth. This
condition should be differentiated from a Class III skeletal
malocclusion where the crossbite is the result of the basal bone
position.100 Dental crossbites result from the tipping or rotation of a tooth or teeth. The condition is localized and does
not involve the basal bone. Skeletal crossbites involve disharmony of the craniofacial skeleton. Aberrations in bony growth
may give rise to crossbites in two ways:
adverse transverse growth of the maxilla and mandible;
disharmonious or adverse growth in the sagittal (AP)
length of the maxilla and mandible.99,101
Such growth aberrations can be due to inherited growth
patterns, trauma, or functional disturbances that alter normal
growth.
Treatment considerations: Crossbites should be considered in the
context of the patients total treatment needs. Anterior crossbite correction can: (1) reduce dental attrition; (2) improve dental
esthetics; (3) redirect skeletal growth; (4) improve the tooth-toalveolus relationship; and (5) increase arch perimeter. A simple
anterior crossbite can be aligned as soon as the condition is
noted, if there is sufficient space; otherwise, space needs to be
created first. Such appliances as acrylic incline planes, acrylic

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retainers with lingual springs, or fixed appliances all have been

effective. If space is needed, an expansion appliance also is
required.99 Posterior crossbite correction can accomplish the
same objectives and can improve the eruptive position of the
succedaneous teeth. Early correction of unilateral posterior
crossbites has been shown to improve functional conditions
significantly and largely eliminate morphological and positional asymmetries of the mandible.103,104 Functional shifts
should be eliminated as soon as possible with early correction101
to avoid asymmetric growth. Treatment can be completed with:

equilibration;

appliance therapy (fixed or removable);

extractions; or

a combination of these treatment modalities to correct

the palatal constriction.
Fixed or removable palatal expanders can be utilized until
midline suture fusion occurs.101,102 Treatment decisions depend
on the:
amount and type of movement (tipping vs bodily
movement, rotation, or dental vs orthopedic move ment);

space available;

AP, transverse, and vertical skeletal relationships;

growth status;

patient cooperation.
Patients with crossbites and concomitant Class III skeletal
patterns and/or skeletal asymmetry should receive comprehensive treatment as covered in the Class III malocclusion section.
Objectives: Treatment of a crossbite should result in improved
intramaxillary alignment and an acceptable interarch occlusion and function.103
Class II malocclusion
General considerations and principles of management: Class II
malocclusion (distocclusion) may be unilateral or bilateral and
involves a distal relationship of the mandible to the maxilla or
the mandibular teeth to maxillary teeth. This relationship may
result from dental (malposition of the teeth in the arches),
skeletal (mandibular retrusion and/or maxillary protrusion), or
a combination of dental and skeletal factors.6
Results of randomized clinical trials indicate that Class II
malocclusion can be corrected effectively with either a single
or two-phase regimen.105-108 Growth-modifying effects in some
studies did not show an influence on the Class II skeletal
pattern,107,109,110 while other studies dispute these findings.111,112
There is substantial variation in treatment response to growth
modification treatments (headgear or functional appliance)
and no reliable predictors for favorable growth response have
been found.105,111 Some reports state early treatment does not
reduce the need for either premolar extractions or orthognathic surgery,106,107 while others disagree with these findings.113
Two-phase treatment results in significantly longer treatment
time.101,106,114
Clinicians may decide to provide early treatment based
on other factors.106,111 Preliminary evidence suggests that, for

AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY

some children, early Class II treatment improves self-esteem

and decreases negative social experiences.115 Incisor injury that
is more severe than simple enamel fractures has been associated positively with increased overjet and prognathic position
of the maxilla.116 Some studies indicate early treatment for
Class II malocclusions can be initiated, depending upon patient cooperation and management.117
Treatment considerations: Factors to consider when planning
orthodontic intervention for Class II malocclusion are: (1)
facial growth pattern, (2) amount of AP discrepancy, (3)
patient age, (4) projected patient compliance, (5) space analysis, (6) anchorage requirements, and (7) patient and parent
desires.
Treatment modalities include: (1) extraoral appliances (headgear), (2) functional appliances, (3) fixed appliances, (4) tooth
extraction and interarch elastics, and (5) orthodontics with
orthognathic surgery.102
Objectives: Treatment of a developing Class II malocclusion
should result in an improved overbite, overjet, and intercuspation of posterior teeth and an esthetic appearance and profile
compatible with the patients skeletal morphology.
Class III malocclusion
General considerations and principles of management: Class III
malocclusion (mesocclusion) may be unilateral or bilateral and
involves a mesial relationship of the mandible to the maxilla or
mandibular teeth to maxillary teeth. This relationship may result from dental factors (malposition of the teeth in the arches),
skeletal factors (asymmetry, mandibular prognathism, and/or
maxillary retrognathism), or a combination of these factors.118
The etiology of Class III malocclusions can be hereditary,
environmental, or both. In a study of 320 orthodontic patients in 155 sibships, the hereditary effect on molar relationship was determined to be 56 percent.119 Hereditary factors
include clefts of the alveolus and palate and other craniofacial
anomalies that are part of a genetic syndrome. Some environmental factors are trauma, oral/digital habits, caries, and early
childhood OSAS.120
Treatment considerations: Treatment of Class III malocclusions
is indicated to provide psychosocial benefits for the child
patient by reducing or eliminating facial disfigurement and to
reduce the severity of malocclusion by promoting compensating growth. Early Class III treatment has been proposed for
several years and has been advocated as a necessary tool in
contemporary orthodontics.121-126 Factors to consider when
planning orthodontic intervention for Class III malocclusion
are: (1) facial growth pattern, (2) amount of AP discrepancy,
(3) patient age, (4) projected patient compliance, (5) space
analysis, (6) anchorage (headgear), (7) functional appliances,
(8) fixed appliances, (9) tooth extraction, (10) interarch elastics,
and (11) orthodontics with orthognathic surgery.127
Objectives: Early Class III treatment may provide a more
favorable environment for growth and may improve occlusion, function, and esthetics.128 Although early treatment can
minimize the malocclusion and potentially eliminate future
orthognathic surgery, this is not always possible. Typically,

Class III patients tend to grow longer and more unpredictably

and, therefore, surgery combined with orthodontics is the
best alternative to achieve a satisfactory result for some
patients.102

Treatment of a Class III malocclusion in a growing patient
should result in improved overbite, overjet, and intercuspation of posterior teeth and an esthetic appearance and profile
compatible with the patients skeletal morphology.

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