B737

Performance
Takeoff & Landing
Last Rev: 02/06/2004

Takeoff Performance

Takeoff Performance Basics

Definitions: Runway Takeoff Distances
Definitions: Takeoff Speeds
JAR 25 Requirements
Engine failure
Optimisation improved climb
Reduced takeoff

Takeoff Performance Basics

What is the Gross Takeoff Flight Path ?
It is the vertical flight path that a new aircraft flown by
test pilots under ideal conditions would achieve. It is
adjusted for the Minimum Engine. It starts where the
aircraft passes 35ft and ends at a minimum of 1500 ft

What is the Net Takeoff Flight Path ?

This is the vertical flight path that could be expected in
operation with used aircraft. It also starts at 35ft and ends
at a minimum of 1500ft

Takeoff Performance Basics

The Net Gradient would be calculated as follows:
Gross Gradient

p% x D
Net Gradient

Distance = D

Takeoff Distances
RUNWAY This is the ACN capable hard surface
CLEARWAY - This is an area, under the control of the airport,
152 m (500 ft) minimum width, with upward slope not exceeding
1.25%. Any obstacles penetrating the 1.25% plane will limit the
Clearway
STOPWAY - A surface capable of supporting the aircraft in
an RTO. Its width must be greater than or equal to that of the
runway. It may not be used for landings

Takeoff Distances
CLEARWAY

RUNWAY

STOPWAY

TORA
ASDA
TODA

MAX
1.25%

Takeoff Distances
TORA- TakeOff Run Available. This is the physical runway
limited by obstacle free requirements
ASDA - Accelerate-Stop Distance Available. This is the distance
available for accelerating to V1 and then stopping. It may include
the physical runway and any stopway available
TODA - TakeOff Distance Available. This is the distance
available to achieve V2 at the appropriate screen height. It may
include physical runway, stopway and clearway
Note: Not more than the Air Distance may be in the Clearway
(Air Distance is distance from lift-off to 35 ft)
The Takeoff Run is defined as the distance from brake release to
the Air Distance
Wet Runway calculations do not allow use of Clearway

Takeoff Performance Basics

The Takeoff Phase is from brake release to 1500 ft or the
point where the last obstacle has been cleared, if higher
Three basic limitations must be taken into account:
Field Length
Climb Gradients
Obstacle Clearance
Other limitations are also restrictive and are covered during
discussion on these basic limitations. They are:
Structural
Tire Speed
Brake Energy

Takeoff Speeds

V1

Takeoff Speeds
V1 official definition
pilot's initiation of the first action (e.g. applying brakes,
reducing thrust, deploying speed brakes) to stop the
aeroplane during accelerate-stop tests
JAR 25.107(a)

Takeoff Speeds
V1, the Takeoff action speed, is the speed used as a reference in the
event of engine or other failure, in taking first action to abandon the take-off.
The V1 call must be done so that it is completed by V1.

V2
VEF

VEF

V1

V1

35

Takeoff Speeds

VR
VR is the speed at which rotation is initiated, so that in the
case of an engine failure, V2 will be reached at a height of
35 feet using a rotation rate of 2-3 / second
Regulations prohibit a RTO after rotation has been
initiated, thus VR must be greater than V1. VR V1

Takeoff Speeds

V2
V2 is the takeoff safety speed. This speed will be reached
at 35 feet with one engine inoperative.

Takeoff Speeds

HEIGHT AT END OF TODA

Effects on the screen height of continuing a takeoff with an

engine failure prior to VEF

35 Ft

10 Ft

2 Engine
1 sec

-16

-8
0
SPEED OF ENGINE FAILURE RELATIVE TO VEF

+4

+8

Takeoff Speeds
V1(MCG) - The Minimum Ground Control Speed
This is the speed at which, in the case of a failure of the Critical Engine, it is possible to control the aeroplane
by aerodynamic means only without deviating from the runway centreline by more than 30 ft, while
maintaining takeoff thrust on the other engine(s). Maximum rudder force is restricted to 68 Kg (150 lbs)
In demonstrating V1(MCG), the most critical conditions of weight, configuration and CG will be taken into
consideration
Crosswind is not considered in V1(MCG) determination
Obviously VEF must be greater than V1(MCG) , or the aircraft would be uncontrollable on the ground with an
engine inoperative:

VEF V1(MCG)

Takeoff Speeds
VMC - The Minimum Control Speed
This is the speed, when airborne, from which it is possible
to control the aeroplane by aerodynamic means only with
the Critical Engine Inoperative while maintaining takeoff
thrust on the other engine(s)
The demonstration is made with not more than 5 Bank
into the live engine, Gear retracted (as this reduces the
directional stability) and the most Aft CG (as this reduces
the Rudder Moment.)
(VMC may increase as much as 6 Kts. / Bank from
demonstration with wings level and Ball centred)

Field Length Criteria

The Takeoff distance required for a given weight and given V1 is the
greater of three different distances:
Actual All-Engine Takeoff Distance x 1.15
Actual All-Engine Takeoff Distance (As Demonstrated in Tests)

V1

One Engine Inoperative Takeoff Distance

VEF V1

VEF V1

One Engine Inoperative Accelerate-Stop Distance

V > V2
35 ft
15% Safety
Margin

V2
35 ft

Field Length Criteria

The greater of the 3 distances is the JAR Field Length required
If V1 is chosen such as the 1-Engine-Inoperative Accelerate-Go and
Accelerate-Stop distances are equal, the necessary field length is
called Balanced and the corresponding V1 is known as a Balanced
V1
Balanced V1

Field Length Criteria

MTOW

Fixed Runway Length

ACCELERATE GO

RANGE OF POSSIBLE WEIGHTS

ACCELERATE STOP

BALANCED V1

V1

JAR 25 Takeoff Flight Path

Flap retraction
400 Ft Min

Gear Retracted

Lift-Off

V2

V2

Clean

Acceleration

TO Thrust
35 ft

TWIN

1500 Ft
or
Clear of Obstacles

Clean

MCT

Max 5 min

1st Segment

2nd Segment

3rd Segment

>0

2.4%

acceleration
or 1.2% avail.

4th Segment

1.2%

Obstacle Clearance
For Obstacle Clearance a Net Takeoff Flight Path is considered
It is not demonstrated, but rather calculated from the Gross
Flight Path by reducing the gradients by a safety margin:
Twin

0.8%

It also will take wind into account, using 50% of the Headwind
Component and 150% of the Tailwind Component, thus giving
a further safety margin.
The Net Takeoff Flight Path must clear all obstacles by 35 Ft

Obtacle Vs Climb
1st Segment

2nd Segment

3rd Segment

4th Segment
Gross Flight Path

V2

Net Flight Path

35 ft
35 ft
35 ft
35 ft

Obstacle Clearance
The minimum height for flap retraction is 400ft AAL (gross)
TNT A B737 : we use 800 ft AAL minimum
If there is a high obstacle in the 3rd or 4th segment, we could
extend the second segment to ensure that the obstacle was
cleared by 35ft. Provided it still remains in the 3rd or 4th
Segment
We now have a Minimum Gross and Minimum Net
Acceleration Height which is then corrected for elevation and
temperature to give a Minimum Gross Acceleration Altitude

Obstacle Clearance

Extended Second Segment

Minimum Gross Acceleration Height

Minimum Net Acceleration Height

35 Ft
400 Ft

Acceleration Altitude

The extension of the second segment and raising of the

EFFRA (JAR : EOAA) is limited as takeoff thrust must be
maintained until acceleration altitude is attained
The Takeoff Thrust is limited to 5 minutes and this
restricts the extension of second segment

Engine Failure Procedure

The Standard Engine Out Procedure (EOP) is

therefore:
Maintain Runway Track
Climb to the EFFRA at V2
Accelerate and Retract Flaps
Set MCT (max 5 min after TO power setting)
Climb to the 1500 ft AGL at Flap up man. speed
And then???

Distance to clear 1500 ft (B737)

3rd segment:
Accel 150kts 220 kts
0.23m/s 8 NM

4th segment:
1.2% 1500ft @ 220kts
70 ft/NM 7 NM

2nd segment:
2.4% 1000ft @ 150kts
150 ft/NM 7 NM
1st segment:
>0%
140 150 kts

0'30"

3'00"

2'30"

2'00"

Obstacle Clearance
Only obstacles within a certain lateral distance of the flight
path are taken into account in performance calculations
For each runway, Obstacle Cone is constructed for Straight
Ahead or Turning Engine Out Procedures (EOP)
Wind is not considered therefore correct tracking is important
There is not a large margin for error for a jet airplane

Obstacle Clearance Flight Path

3000 ft

width =
0.125 x D

300 ft

21600 ft

3000 ft

300 ft

3000 ft

Obstacle Clearance Flight Path

Obstacle Clearance
Bank Angle has a large effect on the climb performance
and therefore Obstacle Clearance
GRADIENT

2.4%
0.6%
1.8%

15

30
BANK ANGLE

Optimisation - Improved climb

Depending on the design of the aircraft and on the flap setting, the
maximum climb angle speed is usually 15 to 30 kts higher than 1.13
VSR
However, the selection of a V2 higher than the minimum will increase
TOD
The V2/VS optimisation is called Improved Climb Method
This method consists thus in increasing the climd limited TOW at the
expense of the field limited TOW. It is only applicable if runway length
permits
In order to obtain consistent field length, V1 and VR have to increase if
V2 increases: if the runway allows an increase of V2, thus an increase
in TOD, it will also allow an increase of the ASD, thus also of V1

Optimisation - Improved climb

Drag
Drag Curve
Given TOW
TO Flaps
Gear UP

Depending on Flap Setting,

the Max Angle Speed is
typically 1.13 VS + 15 to 30 Kts
Vs

1.13Vs

1.28Vs

EAS

Optimisation - Improved climb

In order to achieve the higher V2, the VR speed must be

increased
The V1 speed must also be increased to ensure that there is
sufficient runway to accelerate, lose and engine and be able
to continue the takeoff at higher weight
As V1 is higher, the VMBE speed must be checked for brake
energy limits as this may become limiting

Reduced Thrust Takeoff

When the actual TOW is below the maximum allowable
TOW for the actual OAT, it is desirable to reduce the
engine thrust
This thrust reduction is a function of the difference
between actual and maximum TOW
JAA requires that the reduced thrust may not be less than
75% of the full takeoff thrust. Specific figures may apply
for different airplanes/engines

Reduced Thrust Takeoff

Assumed temperature

MAX
TOW
Allowed
TOW

Flat rated
thrust

If the actual TOW is less

than the maximum weight
for the actual temperature,
we can determine an assumed
temperature, at which the
actual weight would be equal
to the maximum allowed TOW

EGT
limited
thrust

Act
TOW

OAT

Assumed
temperature

Temp

Having determined this

assumed temperature, we
can compute the take-off
thrust for that temperature

Reduced Thrust Takeoff

Limitations
Since thrust may not be reduced below 75% of the full
thrust, a max assumed temp can be determined
The assumed temperature may not be less than the OAT
No reduced thrust on standing water, and on contaminated
or slippery runways
No reduced thrust with antiskid inop or PMC OFF
No reduced thrust for windshear, low visibility takeoff

Reduced Thrust Takeoff

Its safe

OAT = 30C
weight is MTOW
V1

Margin at V1
OAT = 10C
ASS. TEMP = 30C
weight is MTOW

V1

RTO execution operational margin

Landing and Go-Around

Landing Distance
Approach Climb
Landing Climb
Procedure Design Missed Approach Gradient

Landing Distance
JAR 25 defines the landing distance as the horizontal distance
required to bring the airplane to a standstill from a point 50 ft above
the Runway Threshold.
They are determined for Standard Temperatures as a function of:
Weight
Altitude
Wind (50% Headwind and 150% Tailwind)
Configuration (Flaps, Manual/Auto-Speedbrakes, Brakes)
They are determined from a Height of 50 ft at VREF on a Dry (or
Wet), Smooth Runway using Max Brakes, full Antiskid and
Speedbrakes but No Reversers

Landing Distance

Boeing describes the braking technique as Aggressive. The

Brakes are fully depressed at touchdown
Runway Slope is NOT accounted for
Non standard temperatures are NOT accounted for
Approach speed Additives are NOT accounted for
These are considered to be covered by the extra margins used to
define certified landing distances

Landing Distance

V = 1.23 VS1G
Landing Distance 60% Runway Length
50 ft
Actual Landing Distance

Dry Factor = 1.67

Required Landing Distance

Wet Landing Distance = 1.15 x Required Landing Distance

Wet Factor
= 1.15

Approach Climb

What is Approach
Climb ?
2.1%

Approach Climb
Aircrafts are certified to conduct a missed approach and
satisfy a Gradient of 2.1% - GROSS
The configuration is:
One Engine Inoperative
Gear Up
Go Around Flaps (15 on 737)
G/A Thrust
Speed must be 1.4 VSR
(Strictly speaking, the Flap Setting must be an intermediate flap setting
corresponding to normal procedures whose stalling speed is not more
than 110% of the final flap stalling speed)

Landing Climb

What is Landing
Climb ?

3.2%

Landing Climb
Aircrafts are certified to conduct a missed approach and
satisfy a Gradient of 3.2% - GROSS
The configuration is:
All Engines Operating
Gear Down
Landing Flaps
(30
or 40 on 737)
G/A Thrust
The speed must be 1.13 VSR and VMCL
It is also a requirement that full G/A thrust must be available
within 8 seconds of the thrust levers forward from idle

JAA Low Visibility Climb

An Aircraft must be certified to conduct a missed approach
and satisfy a Gradient of 2.5% - GROSS or the published
Missed Approach Gradient
The configuration is:
One Engine Inoperative
Gear Up
Go Around Flap (15 on a 737)
G/A Thrust
This is only applicable if Low Visibility Procedures will be
conducted with a DH of below 200 Ft or No DH

Max Landing Weight

The maximum landing weight for dispatch is the least of the:

Field Limited Landing Weight

Approach Climb Limited Landing Weight
Landing Climb Limited Landing Weight
JAA LVP G/A Climb Gradient Limited Landing Weight
Structural Limited Landing Weight

Procedure Missed Approach Gradient

3.9% GROSS

MAP

+ 0.6%
+ 0.8%
98 Ft
2.5% NET

Procedure Missed Approach Gradient

Some specific procedures require a Net gradient of more than 2.5%.
This will be indicated on the Chart

Procedure Missed Approach Gradient

A conflict exists between JAR 25 and ICAO
JAR 25 requires a Approach Climb Gradient of 2.1% Gross
and a Landing Climb gradient of 3.2% Gross
ICAO requires a missed approach procedure gradient of at
least 2.5% Net which may require at least 3.9% Gross
And Tailwind has not been accounted for

Procedure Missed Approach Gradient

but what if you lose one on the go-around from a
normal approach ?...

The case of an engine failure during Go-Around is not

considered as this is deemed a remote possibility!!!

Landing Performance Data

Which is the more restrictive?
D
Fn
Both Engines

5x
Thrust
Available on
1 Engine
75%

EAS

With Twins, the Approach Climb will be the most limiting

Procedure Missed Approach Gradient

Remember the Go-Around procedure is designed for 1
engine inop
With all engines operating, this should not be a problem
With 1 engine inop, generally this should not be a problem
If the Go Around procedure is very different to EOP
procedure, then it may be prudent to use this procedure
Some airfields may specify this if terrain clearance is
critical

Factors affecting landing distance (Typical)

THE END