Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Technology
Technology
Chun
Claisse
Naik
Ganjian
Editors
an informa business
Sustainable Construction
Materials and Technologies
Editors
Yoon-moon Chun
Research Associate, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization,
University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Peter Claisse
Professor of Construction Materials, Faculty of Engineering and Computing,
Coventry University, Coventry, UK
Tarun R. Naik
Research Professor and Academic Program Director, UWM Center for
By-Products Utilization, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, USA
Eshmaiel Ganjian
Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Computing,
Coventry University, Coventry, UK
Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bath Press Ltd (A CPI-group company), Bath
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be
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the information contained herein.
Published by:
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Table of contents
XI
Preface
Contributions of the concrete industry toward sustainable development
K. Sakai
11
19
Closed Cycle Construction A process for the separation and reuse of the total C&D waste stream
E. Mulder, L. Feenstra & T.P.R. de Jong
27
35
Engineering properties of oil palm shell (ops) hybrid concrete for lightweight precast floor slab
C.H. Ng, Z. Ideris, S.P. Narayanan, M.A. Mannan & V.J. Kurian
41
45
53
59
63
69
77
85
91
101
107
115
121
Achieving sustainable construction through use of fly ash in concrete An Indian experience
M. Mokal
131
Eco-pad in-situ mixed concrete pavement with a 93100% total recycled content
B.W. Ramme, T. Jansen, A. Tawil & D.B. Anderson
137
Properties of shotcrete with highly functional fly ash used as dust-reducing agent
K. Sasaki, M. Ishii, Y. Butou & K. Yuno
147
155
165
Potential uses for coal combustion by-products for sustainable construction materials
T.F. Vandivort & P.F. Ziemkiewicz
171
183
189
203
209
Investigation into the use of cement stabilised gypsum waste as a backfill material
W. Rahman, G. Ghataora & D.N. Chapman
215
223
231
237
Establishing optimum mixture proportions for concrete durability using recyclable by-products
D.M. Vruno
243
255
265
Chemical and physical characterization of coarse bauxite residue (red sand) for concrete making
M.G. Davoodi, H. Nikraz & E. Jamieson
271
279
Use of Magnesium Oxide-cement binders for the production of blocks with lightweight aggregates
N. Vlasopoulos & C.R. Cheeseman
287
VI
Leaching behavior and environmental impact of concrete manufactured with biomass ashes
G. Fava, M.L. Ruello & D. Sani
295
The application of paper sludge ash to extremely stiff consistency concrete product
H. Fujiwara, M. Maruoka, K. Koibuchi & K. Fujita
303
313
Effect of spent catalyst, obtained from the catalytic cracking of petroleum, on the
compressive strength of concrete
K.O. Ampadu, K. Torri & J.J. Vordoagu
Sulfate resistance of mortars with and without silica fume and natural pozzolan
F. Canpolat, M.A. Yurdusev, S. Targan & K. Yilmaz
319
325
Strength of mortar and concrete using fine powder of molten slag made from municipal
waste as a cementitious material
K. Fukuzawa, D. Kwak, O. Abe, H. Ojima & H. Yoshida
333
339
353
Advanced calcareous ceramics via novel green processing and supercritical carbonation
E. Farahi, P. Purnell & N.R. Short
359
367
Investigations on the efficiency of Enhanced Porosity Concrete in Containing vehicular oil spills
B.V. Bhayani, T.M. Holsen & N. Neithalath
375
381
389
397
411
Sustainable, green solutions for concrete pavement rehabilitation. A feasibility (pilot) study
J.N. Karadelis, K. Koutselas, A. Khan, Z. Jiebin, K. Moscicka & A. Plachta
417
Effect of loading level, cooling regime, polypropylene fibers, and coating type on the
behavior of high strength concrete columns in fire
H.I. El Sayad, M.M. Abdel-Razek & H.S. Haddad
427
437
447
457
VII
461
471
479
487
493
503
509
An analysis of environmental and fiscal impacts of recycling during Kern Center construction
M.U. Christiansen
515
521
527
541
549
563
575
589
Opportunities for wealth generation through small scale sustainable building materials production
S.N. Mclean, A. Williams & D.R. Moore
593
Electrokinetic treatment for freezing and thawing damage mitigation within limestone
H.E. Cardenas, P. Paturi & P. Dubasi
603
Carbonation and hydration of mortars with calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate binders
O. Cizer, K. Van Balen, D. Van Gemert & J. Elsen
611
623
VIII
631
645
657
Mixture proportioning and strength prediction technique for soil mortar made using
soil generated at construction sites
T. Yoshida & Y. Kitamoto
Utilization of olive oil liquid waste as an additive to roadway construction
O.A. Abaza
Investigation into the use of cement stabilised sand and silty sand in
road pavement construction in Bangladesh
W. Rahman, R. Freer-Hewish & G. Ghataora
665
675
685
697
705
717
725
731
741
745
753
763
769
Comparison between mechanical properties of SCC containing Rice-Husk Ash and normal concrete
779
785
789
Author index
801
IX
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Preface
The construction materials industry is a major user of the worlds resources. While enormous progress has been
made towards sustainability, the scope and opportunities for further improvements are significant. This conference
was held at Coventry University, Coventry, U.K., from June 11th 13th, 2007, to highlight case studies and
research that show new and innovative ways of achieving sustainability of construction materials and technologies.
In 2006, papers were invited on all the different materials that are used in construction including cementitious materials (fly ash, wood ash, slag, silica fume, natural pozzolans, and other similar materials), aggregates,
concrete, timber, masonry, metals, plastics, glass, bitumen, lime, and gypsum. Papers on paints, adhesives,
preservatives, and preservation processes were also invited.
Over 190 papers from 45 countries were accepted for publication, following review. The papers covered a
wide range of topics including sustainable alternatives for aggregates and cementitious materials in concrete;
making concrete sustainable; the economics and environmental impact of sustainable materials; sustainable use
of gypsum, lime, soil, natural fibers, wood, and other organic materials; and sustainable construction methods
and technologies. The accepted papers are published in three volumes: Main, Special Sessions, and
Supplementary. Wherever possible, papers were grouped by their subject matter for the convenience of readers.
Conference organizers would like to thank Committee members and others who worked hard to prepare
and distribute call for papers and program, to review manuscripts, and to publish proceedings. We greatly appreciate the cooperation of the authors in considering and incorporating review comments for revision of their
manuscripts.
It is our sincere hope that the proceedings will be useful to civil engineers, architects, construction managers,
researchers, and all other professions related to the construction industry, for achieving sustainable development.
We are considering holding the next conference in 2010 at a venue yet to be decided.
Yoon-moon Chun
Peter Claisse
Tarun R. Naik
Eshmaiel Ganjian
Editors, International Conference on
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies
XI
Sponsors
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Sustainable development has become more and more important in the 21st century. The human
race is steadily transitioning its socioeconomic system in an effort to solve its resource, energy and environmental problems. The concrete industry is certainly no exception. This paper discusses the latest trends in environmental aspects of concrete and related environmental technologies, as well as presents the JSCE
Recommendation of Environmental Performance Verification for Concrete Structures (Draft). It also proposes
a method for the assessment of environmental benefits of constructing concrete structures as a means for the
concrete industry to contribute toward sustainable development.
INTRODUCTION
Only a mere 200 some years had passed since the end
of the Industrial Revolution. The human race found
itself faced with two extremely serious problems:
resource/energy depletion and global warming. These
problems arose as a result of the human races enjoyment of convenient and comfortable lifestyles.
A sense of crisis arising from these circumstances
has led to various movements over the past several
decades. The first warning came in the form of a report
to the Club of Rome entitled Limits of Growth
[Meadows D.H., Meadows D.I., Randers & Behren III
1971] Despite its devastating content, the report was not
taken very seriously at the time of its publication. The
Declaration of the Human Environment was adopted
at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held
in Stockholm in 1972, presenting the following principle concerning the environment-related rights and
responsibilities of the human race:
Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality
and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a
quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and
he bears solemn responsibility to protect and improve
the environment for present and future generations.
In other words, the Declaration of the Human
Environment was the first clear statement of the
human races responsibility to protect and improve the
environment, in addition to its fundamental right, and
the Declaration greatly influenced subsequent international trends in environmental conservation. As the
implementing agency of this Declaration, the UN
2.1
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF
CONCRETE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
TECHNOLOGIES
Aggregate
Figure 1.
Charge
Steel ball inlet
Recycled
aggregate
discharge
Drum
4000mm
Figure 2.
method.
External
diameter:
1500mm
Partition
Plate
Passing
hole
for recycled concrete using low-quality recycled aggregate L. This type of concrete includes backfilling,
filling and leveling concrete, and the use of Type B
blended cement and admixture is required as a measure against alkali-silica reactivity.
Production of recycled aggregate usually involves
greater energy use compared with that of virgin aggregate, thus leading to greater environmental impacts.
While finding ways to deal with these environmental
impacts as an external cost is a major issue, it would be
ideal to absorb this cost in the entire production/use
system of recycled aggregate. As shown in Figure 5,
Kuroda et al. [2004] established an on-site concrete
resource recycling system from this standpoint, and
proved that CO2 emissions from the system were lower
than those in which it was used as a conventional base
course material. This was achieved by reducing the
amount of transported material and the use of fine
powder as a substitute solidification material for
ground improvement. Yanagibashi [2004] studied CO2
emissions in the cases of use of recycled aggregate for
base course material made of concrete masses, use of
recycled coarse aggregate for concrete and recycled
sand for base course and backfill materials, and use of
Table 1.
Items
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
P1
Deleterious substances
Usual
case
Limits
(mass %)
1,010
P2
19,183
P3
P4
3,580
1,042
B
C
D
E
F
Total
2.0
Closed-loop 2,530
concrete
system
0.5
0.1
0.5
17,852
5,000
2,349
0.5
0.1
3.0
recycled coarse aggregate for concrete and the remaining amount for cement clinker. The paper concluded
that the use of recycled aggregate was an environmentally friendly method that could contribute to the preservation of natural aggregate since CO2 emissions were
nearly identical.
Iron and steel slag is also used as aggregate. In
2005, 25,747,000 tons of blast-furnace slag and
14,897,000 tons of steelmaking (converter and electricfurnace) slag were generated in Japan [Nippon Slag
Association 2005]. Of these, blast-furnace slag was
primarily used as aggregate for concrete, and its
amount was 3,158,000 tons.
While fly ash has been used as a substitute admixture for cement, the idea of using this as fine aggregate has emerged in recent years [Shikoku Chapter of
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 2003]. Considering
the worldwide increase in fly ash production expected
in the future, it is desirable to design a mix that integrates substitutes for cement and fine aggregate.
In recent years, melting treatment of waste and
sewage sludge has become common in Japan due to
pressures on waste disposal site and problems related
to dioxin and heavy metals. Molten slag is generated
as a residue after melting treatment. In 2004, 144
waste and 18 sewage sludge melting treatment facilities were in operation throughout Japan, producing
480,000 and 44,000 tons of molten slag, respectively.
Waste molten slag production is estimated to reach as
high as 2.7 million tons in the future. Melting treatment
was also commenced in 2005 for 600,000 tons of
Cement
Cement is the most important basic material for infrastructure development. There are two aspects of
Table 3.
Items
3
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
10000
(million t)
Scenario A1
Scenario A2
Scenario B1
Scenario B2
8000
6000
12,000
Cement production
Wastes utilization
(kg/t-cement)
450
400
10,000
350
300
8,000
4000
250
6,000
2000
4,000
2,000
200
150
100
90
05
20
35
50
65
80
50
95
0
Figure 6.
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
1.2
1
each country/region. Based on the mean value 0.87(kgCO2/kg-Cement) of these, CO2 emissions from cement
production totaling 4 billion tons is estimated to be
approximately 3.5 billion tons, which is 2.7 times as
high as Japans current total CO2 emissions (approx.
1.3 billion tons). Also, based on the lowest CO2 emission unit of Japan (0.73), the worlds CO2 emissions are
expected to reach approximately 2.9 billion tons 30
years from now. This means that the worlds cementoriginated CO2 emissions can be reduced by approximately 8% through the use of Japans cement production
technology.
Nearly 30 million tons of waste and byproducts are
currently used as raw materials and fuels for cement
production in Japan. Such raw materials include blastfurnace slag, fly ash and sewage sludge, and fuels
include waste tires and plastic. Figure 8 illustrates the
changes in cement production and use of waste and
byproducts in Japan. It can be seen that the use of waste
and byproducts is steadily increasing while cement production is decreasing. The cement industry is setting a
target value of 400 kg/t-cement for 2010. Figure 9
shows an international comparison of energy consumption per ton of cement clinker, in which Japan displays
incomparably high energy efficiency. It can be seen
from this that Japan has exceptional cement production
technology. This means that CO2 emissions associated
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Africa
Middle East
E. Europe
S. and L. America
India
Former USSR
Rep. of Korea
China
SE. Asia
W. Europe
Australia & NZ
USA
Canada
0
Japan
Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries 2.2%
Building 3.8%
180
160
140
Other
12.1%
Public Works
11.7%
120
100
Cement
70.2%
80
60
Africa
Figure 11.
Middle East
E. Europe
S. and L. America
India
Former USSR
SE. Asia
Rep. of Korea
China
W. Europe
Australia & NZ
USA
Canada
20
Japan
40
Oceania
11
Former
USSR
65
Europe
270
America
215
Asia
1,060
Other 1.8%
Africa
75
Concrete 12.7%
Year 2002
Road
14.7%
Cement
67.3%
Oceania
13
Europe
290
Figure 10.
Asia
1,317
America
259
Africa
99
Year 2020
2.3
Former
USSR
154
(million tons)
Admixtures
Figure 12. Estimated world admixture minerals production.
JSCE RECOMMENDATION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE
VERIFICATION FOR CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
Roadway
Underpass
Roadway
7500
Underpass
5300
(mm)
176000
Figure 13.
Construction
12.02
Construction
1107.43
Construction
1107.43
Transport
296.18
Materials
manufacture
3459.02
Materials
manufacture
1.83
Materials
manufacture
7.83
Transport
3.66
(a) CO2 Emission
Figure 15.
Transport
1.06
(b) SOx Emission
CO2, SOx and NOx emissions due to materials manufacture, transport and construction (unit: t).
7200
Table 4.
Items
Impact due to
construction (kg)
Years until
counterbalance
CO2
NOx
SOx
Oil
4862629
23503
3660
745898
1434.3
8.5
0.8
556.7
9.3
7.6
12.2
3.7
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Service
35
40
45
CONCLUDING REMARKS
For the concrete industry to contribute to the sustainable development of mankind, it is necessary to promote technical development for further reduction of
environmental impacts. To promote this, it will be
necessary to introduce environmental design systems
based on environmental performance, develop environmental performance evaluation tools and construct
systems for their actual application.
Since environmental consideration could lead to an
increase in cost and the reduction of environmental
impacts was not a design requirement, environmental
impacts have been thought of as negative externality.
The comprehensive evaluation bidding system is currently attracting attention in Japan as a system for
enabling internalization of negative externality. The
bidding system enable absorption of the cost increases
resulting from environmental consideration. It is desirable to actively use this system in the future.
Since the industrial revolution, the system of human
society has been formed with a focus on the economy.
In other words, the cost of things is the most important factor in mass production and mass consumption,
and environmental, cultural and social aspects have
been controlled by the viewpoints of economic aspects.
Fortunately, however, the human race has finally begun
to realize that policies that put the economy ahead of
all else may even jeopardize their survival. In the
future, the human race must balance these economic,
environmental, cultural and social aspects. One major
problem is the regional economic disparity that currently exists in the world. It is necessary to eliminate
this regional economic disparity by taking the above
aspects into account. But if this cannot be done successfully, a new negative externality may emerge in the
world. One of the keys is the CDM established by the
Kyoto Protocol. An enormous amount of concrete will
be consumed throughout the world in the future as an
50
daily SOx and NOx emissions was 9 and 1 kg, respectively. The relationship between the impact generated
by the construction of the underpass and the reduction of impact by improvements in traffic can be studied for individual emission substances. Table 4 shows
the calculated result of years until the counterbalance
of construction impact and traffic impact reduction.
However, since nonmetals, iron and wood was also
used as resource consumption for the construction of
the underpass, integration by the method of LIME
[Itsubo & Inaba 2005] was conducted to evaluate these
comprehensively. Figure 16 shows the environmentalbenefit evaluation by the construction of underpass.
The integrated impact on the vertical axis represents
the integrated index calculated by considering weight
to the respective impacts of greenhouse gases, acidification substances, air contaminants and resource consumption. This result shows that the environmental
impacts generated at the time of construction of the
underpass will be offset by the reduction of environmental impacts of automobile traffic in approximately
9 years. In general, the time it takes until such an offset
becomes shorter and the significance of the construction of an underpass becomes higher when the traffic
volume is larger and the degree of congestion is higher.
While this paper discussed an evaluation method for
environmental benefits by construction of a concrete
structure as an example, the construction of structures
has many aspects, such as economic benefits and
social benefits as a lifeline. It will eventually become
REFERENCES
Brown, L.R. 2001. Eco-economy. Earth Policy Institute
Development Bank of Japan 2002. Urban renewal and
resource recycling: For the creation of a resource recycling society, Research Report No.28.
Humphreys, K. & Mahasenan, M. 2002. Toward a sustainable cement industry, Climatic change sub-study 8,
World Business Council for Sustainable Development.
ISO 15686-6 2004. Buildings and constructed assets
Service life planning Part 6: Procedures for considering
environmental impact.
ISO/DIS21930 2006. Environmental Declarations of Building
Products.
Itsubo, T. & Inaba, A. (Editors) 2005. Life-Cycle environmental assessment method. Japan Environmental Management
Association for Industry.
Jahren, P. 2003. What are the options? The CO2 case.
STF22A03610 Report, SINTEF.
Japan Coal Energy Center 2006. Annual Report 2005/06.
http://www.jcoal.or.jp/news_en/news_en.html#061005-1
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 1996. Recommendation on
execution of concrete using blast furnace slag. Concrete
Library 86 (in Japanese).
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 1999. Recommendation on
execution of concrete using fly ash (draft). Concrete
Library 94 (in Japanese).
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 2006. Recommendation of
environmental performance verification for concrete
structures (draft). JSCE Guidelines for Concrete No.7.
Japan Standards Association (JIS A 5021) 2005. Recycled
aggregate for concrete-class H (in Japanese).
Japanese Standards Association (JIS A 5031) 2006. Meltsolidified slag aggregate for concrete derived from
municipal solid waste and sewage sludge (in Japanese).
Kuroda, Y., Hashida, H., Nachi, Y., Yamazaki, N., & Miyachi, Y.
2004. A closed-loop concrete system on a construction
10
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper reports on six site trials of sustainable concrete mixtures. The first three were concrete barriers for landfill, the fourth was a trench fill and the fifth and six were roads and car parks. The methods
and mixtures evolved from moderately conventional designs containing ashes and slags and some cement which
were blended at the plant to a super-sulphated pre-blended powder containing waste plasterboard and no cement.
The strengths were not as high as a typical structural concrete but were fully adequate for each application. The
paper concludes that while the technical viability of each mix was demonstrated, problems with insurance,
capital funding, and environmental regulators have prevented their wider application.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
To illustrate how a wide and evolving range of sustainable concrete mixtures have performed well
under site conditions.
To investigate the design and exploitation of the
site trials.
To discuss how trials of this type may be optimised
for their primary purpose which is to persuade
industrial enterprises to exploit the results of the
underlying research.
To demonstrate a wide range of applications for
concrete with relatively low strength.
TRIALS 13
Introduction
11
2.4
Mixture designs
2.6
Tarpaulin supported on
timbers (buried in trench
at edges)
Waste depth
1.1m
30 degrees
Figure1.
12
Table 1.
Table 2.
kg/m3
% By mass
450
895
1085
210
18.5
36.8
44.7
1575
490
325
200
65.9
20.5
13.6
0
715
1105
340
240
220
29.8
46
14.2
10
180
20
1515
645
295
7.6
0.9
64.2
27.3
1175
720
100
165
210
165
49.6
30.4
4.2
7
8.8
1175
720
110
25
185
120
240
50.3
30.8
4.7
1.1
7.9
5.2
Cell 1 top
Cell 1 base
Cell 2 top
Cell 2 base
Cell 3 top
Cell 3 base
7 days
strength
(MPa)
28 days
strength
(MPa)
Intrinsic permeability
to water @
28 days (m/s)
Intrinsic permeability
to leachate @
28 days (m/s)
Thro pH
water#
Through pH
leachate#
5
11
1.1
4.4
0.9
2.8
4.5
13
1.7
6.9
1.3
6
1.5 108
No flow
4.5 109
2.3 109
1.2 108
1.2 108
4.0 108
2 1012
5 109
4.5 109
7.5 109
6.2 109
10
11.8
10.1
12.2
8.5
13
8.5
12.3
9.9
12.1
7.6
Ca cell 2
1300
1100
Initial observations
900
Cl ppm
2.7
Cell 3 needed to be refilled after 12 months. The reason for this was inadequate compaction of the clay
layer leading to an increased permeability. The effective indicated permeability was calculated and found
to correspond to nearly the same permeability as a
Bentonite Enhanced Sand liner and indicates satisfactory performance even when very poor construction
practice was evident but it did affect the modelling
considerably. The permeability calculated from these
site observations was therefore used for the clay layer.
700
500
300
100
-100
Time years
Figure 2.
2.8
3.1
Cl ppm
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
Time years
Figure 3.
K cell 2
Cl ppm
2500
TRIAL 4
Introduction
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
Time years
Figure 4.
3.2
Observations
14
Table 3.
Mix Code
Water
Recycled Agg.
W/B
Slump
PG15/BPD5/BOS80 (RA-RCC)
400
100
1900
0.25
4.2
4.3
4.1
Testing
TRIAL 6
Introduction
Testing
TRIAL 5
Introduction
5.2
15
Table 4.
Insitue tests
Mix Code
28
Density
kg/m3
RCC (Lab.)
RCC (Site-Truck 1)
RCC (Site-Truck 2)
RCC (Site-Truck 3)
Core (Location 1)
Core (Location 2)
0.96
0.70
0.68
0.99
2.02
1.20
1.29
1.42
10.80
5.47
4.70
7.10
2390
2350
2232
2293
Soil %
Binder %
Moisture
content %
5.4
90
Density
kg/m3
Soft
Soft
8.7
10.11
13.41
15.43
2257
2226
Test results
50
14
100
13
6
6.1
DISCUSSION
Strengths
28
14
6.2
16
Table 6.
Compressive strength of stabilised sub-grade together with in-situ density and moisture.
Laboratory tests
Insitue tests
28
Moisture %
Dry Density
kg/m3
Moisture %
Dry Density
kg/m3
0.08
0.94
0.78
0.96
0.21
1.43
1.11
1.15
0.13
5.98
5.80
5.10
13.40
13.90
8.02
7.90
1835.1
2030.15
2033.06
2027.55
8.90
8.90
1755
1793
Table 7.
Insitue tests
Mix Code
28
Moisture %
Density
kg/m3
5.10
3.20
2.95
12.80
6.64
6.20
30.55
19.90
22.40
13
8.55
7.76
2540
2487
2492
Table 8.
14
28
90
Density
kg/m3
10.75
8.64
30.1
26.1
46.41
38.98
2381
2011
Summary of strengths.
Trial
Pour
Cementitious component
Strength
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Cell 1 top
Cell 2 top
Cell 3 top
Cell 1 base
Cell 2 base
Cell 3 base
Trench fill
Sub-base
Base course
4.5
1.7
1.3
13
6.9
6
1.8
10.8
30.55
17
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
Insurance problems
Lack of capital investment
Environmental concerns which may or may not
have any scientific basis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the considerable support provided to enable us to carry out the work reported in this
paper. Supporting organisations have included
ENTRUST, MIRO, Lafarge PLC, Huntsman Tioxide,
WRAP, EPSRC and NERC and our major partners have
been Imperial College and Birmingham University.
18
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Sustainability is important to the well-being of our planet, continued growth of a society, and
human development. Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. However, the
production of portland cement, an essential constituent of concrete, leads to the release of significant amount
of CO2, a greenhouse gas (GHG); production of one ton of portland cement produces about one ton of CO2 and
other GHGs. The environmental issues associated with GHGs, in addition to natural resources issues, will play
a leading role in the sustainable development of the cement and concrete industry during this century. For example, as the supply of good-quality limestone to produce cement decreases it will become more difficult to produce adequate amounts of portland cement for construction. There is a possibility that once there is no more
limestone, say in a geographical region, and thus no portland cement, all of the employment associated with the
concrete industry as well as new construction projects will be terminated. Due to limited natural resources, concern over GHGs, or, both, there are regions in the world where cement production is being curtailed, or, at least,
cannot be increased to keep up with the population increase. Therefore, it is necessary to look for sustainable
solutions for future concrete construction. A sustainable concrete structure is constructed in order to ensure that
the total environmental impact during its life cycle, including its use, will be minimal. Sustainable concrete should
have a very low inherent energy requirement, be produced with little waste, be made from some of the most plentiful resources on earth, produce durable structures, have a very high thermal mass, and be made with recycled
materials. Sustainable constructions have a small impact on the environment. They use green materials, which
have low energy costs, high durability, low maintenance requirements, and contain a large proportion of
recycled or recyclable materials. Green materials also use less energy and resources, and can lead to highperformance cements and concrete. Concrete must keep evolving to satisfy the increasing demands of all of
its users. Designing for sustainability means accounting for the short-term and long-term environmental
consequences in the design.
INTRODUCTION
19
Table 1.
Limestone
Crusher
Aggregates
Grinder
Raw meal
Country
Percent CO2
U.S.A.
E.U.
Russia
Japan
China
India
25
20
17
8
15
10
Kiln
Clinker
Additives
Grinder
Cement
Concrete
operators, and testing technicians, as well as professional engineers, architects, surveyors, and inspectors,
the concrete industry must continue to evolve with
the changing needs and expectations of the world.
2
WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY?
CONCRETE
20
minimize the maintenance needs of the concrete construction, and limit the amount of non-renewable special repair materials that need to be used in the
maintenance of the concrete [Coppola et al. 2004].
Concrete producers are creating sustainable solutions for many market sectors including agriculture and
construction. In agriculture, integrated waste management solutions have been developed that convert
manure into biogas, nutrient rich fertilizer, and reusable
water. In construction, industrial, commercial, and
institutional buildings are being constructed so that they
are more energy efficient, have better air quality, and
necessitate less maintenance [McDonough et al. 1992].
U.S. foundries generate over 7 million tons (8 million tons) of by-products. Wisconsin alone produces
nearly 1.1 million tons (1.25 million tons) of foundry
by-products, including foundry sand and slag. Most
of these by-products are landfilled. Landfilling is not
a desirable option because it not only causes a huge
financial burden to foundries, but also liability for
future environmental costs, and restrictions associated with landfilling. One of the innovative solutions
appears to be high-volume uses of foundry by-products
in concrete and other construction materials [Naik &
Kraus 1999].
In addition, in 1996 the USA produced 136 million
tons of construction and demolition (C & D) debris,
about 1.5 kg per person per day. About 25 to 40% of
landfill space is C & D debris [McKay 2004]. If this
trend continues, the cost of landfilling will continuously increase, as will the potential health and environmental risks of landfill materials. Furthermore,
the cost of landfilling is escalating due to shrinking
landfill space and stricter environmental regulations.
Such C & D debris (e. g., concrete as well as gypsum
wallboards from C & D debris) can be recycles to
make new concrete [UWM-CBU 2007].
A study was reported in 1999 whose aim was to evaluate the environmental impact of controlled low-strength
materials (CLSM) incorporating cement and industrial by-products such as coal fly ash and used foundry
sand [Naik and Kraus 1999]. The results demonstrated
that excavatable flowable slurry incorporating fly ash
and foundry sand as a replacement for up to 85% of
fly ash could be produced. In general, inclusion of
both clean and used foundry sand caused a reduction
in the concentration of certain contaminants. The use
of foundry sand in flowable CLSM slurry, therefore,
provided a favorable environmental performance.
PORTLAND CEMENT
21
While the embodied energy linked to concrete production is low, pozzolanic materials (PM), especially
coal fly ash, have been used by the concrete industry
for over 70 years. Their use can contribute to a further
reduction of concretes embodied energy. When used
wisely and judiciously, PM can improve the longterm properties of concrete. Fly ash can, and does,
regularly replace portland cement in concrete [Malhotra
2004, Naik et al. 2003, Mehta 2002].
One process that is even more environmentally
friendly and productive is the use of blended cements.
Blended cements have been used for many decades.
Blended cements and are made when various amounts
of clinker are blended and/or interground with one or
more additives including fly ash, natural pozzolans,
slag, silica fume, and other PM. Blended cements
allow for a reduction in the energy used and also
reduce GHG emissions [Malhotra 2004, Mehta 2002].
Most innovative concrete mixtures make use of
PMs to partially replace cement. The advantages of
blended cements include increased production capacity, reduced GHG emissions, reduced fuel consumption in the final cement production, and recycling of
PMs [Worrell 2004, Cement Association of Canada
2004].
The manufacture of portland cement is the third
most energy intensive process, after aluminum and
steel. In fact, for each ton of portland cement, about
six million BTU of energy is needed [Naik & Kraus
1999].
22
Fly ash availability in the USA in 2005 was estimated at 120 million tons by the American Coal Ash
Association [ACAA 2006]; by 2010 it is estimated to
be 160 million tons. Portland cement availability in
2002 was estimated at 80 million tons; by 2010 it is
estimated to be 100 million tons. The fly ash disposal
challenge and the limited availability of portland
cement have the same solution: replace large amounts
of portland cement with fly ash to create durable and
sustainable concrete.
6
23
mortar and primitive concrete for several millenniums in Egypt, Italy, Mexico, and India. The use of byproducts such as rice-husk ash, wood ash, silica fume
and other pozzolanic materials, in addition to coal fly
ash, can help to reduce the need for portland cement
in addition to creating more durable concrete and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions [Malhotra 2004,
Mehta 2002, ACI 2004]. This will also contribute to
the improvement of air quality, reduction of solid
wastes, and sustainability of the cement and concrete
industry [Mehta 2002].
In summary, for sustainability of the cement and
concrete industries: use less portland cement; use less
water; use application-specific high-quality, durable
aggregates; and, use organic chemical admixtures.
Fundamental laws of nature state that we cannot
create or destroy matter; we can only affect how it is
organized, transformed, and used. To manage natural
resources, humanity must obey the rules of nature:
use only what you need and never use a resource
faster than nature can replenish it.
Resources are extracted from the earth by 20%
more than the earth produces. Therefore, what is consumed in 12 months will take 14.4 months to be
replenished. The use of sustainable development procedures will reduce that rate [Time Magazine 2002].
The issue is not environment vs. development or
ecology vs. economy; the two can be (and must be)
integrated [Ricoh Company 2004].
CONCLUSIONS
WASTE MATERIALS
24
REFERENCES
ACAA 2006. American Coal Ash Association CCPs Survey.
http://www.acaa-usa.org/PDF/2005_CCP_Production_
and_Use_Figures_Released_by_ACAA.pdf (2006).
ACI Board Advisory Committee on Sustainable Development
2004. White Paper.
Bourg, J. 2004. Water Conservation. http://www.
wbdg.org/design/resource.php?cn0&cx0&rp50
(2004).
Cement Association of Canada 2004. Concrete Thinking for a
Sustainable Future. http://www.cement.ca/cement.
nsf/e/6ABDCDE126A87A6C85256D2E005CC53B?
OpenDocument (November 15, 2005).
Coppola, L., Cerulli, T., & Salvioni, D. 2004. Sustainable
Development and Durability of Self-Compacting
Concretes. Eighth CANMET/ACI International
Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural
Pozzolans in Concrete, Las Vegas, NV: 2950.
http://www.cbu.uwm.edu (June 30, 2004).
Malhotra, V.M. 2004. Role of Supplementary Cementing
Materials and Superplasticizers in Reducing Greenhouse
Gas Emissions. Proc., ICFRC International Conference
on Fiber Composites, High-Performance Concrete, and
Smart Materials, Chennai, India: 489499.
McDonough, W.P. 1992. The Hannover Principles: Design
for Sustainability. EXPO 2000, The Worlds Fair,
Hannover, Germany.
McKay, D.T. 2004. Sustainability in the Corps of
Engineers. a paper presented at the Technical Session
25
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
T.P.R. de Jong
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: In The Netherlands, construction and demolition (C&D) waste is already to a large extent being
reused. Especially the stony fraction is crushed and reused as a road base material. In order to increase the percentage of reuse of the total C&D waste flow to even higher levels, a new concept has been developed. In this
concept, called Closed Cycle Construction, the processed materials are being reused on a higher quality level
and the quantity of waste that has to be disposed of is minimised. For concrete and masonry, the new concept
implies that the material cycle will be completely closed, and the original constituents (clay bricks, gravel, sand,
cement stone) are recovered in thermal processes. The mixed C&D waste streams are separated and decontaminated. For this purpose several dry separation techniques are being developed. The quality of the stony fraction
is improved so much, that this fraction can be reused as an aggregate in concrete. The new concept has several
benefits from a sustainability point of view, namely less energy consumption, less carbon dioxide emission, less
waste production and less land use (for excavation and disposal sites). One of the most remarkable benefits of
the new concept is that the thermal process steps are fuelled with the combustible fraction of the C&D waste
itself. Economically the new process is more or less comparable with the current way of processing C&D waste.
On the basis of the positive results of a feasibility study, currently a pilot and demonstration project is being carried out. The aim is to optimise the different process steps of the Closed Cycle Construction process on a laboratory scale, and then to verify them on a large scale. The results of the project are promising, so far.
27
Figure 1.
THERMAL TREATMENT OF
CONCRETE RUBBLE
28
Coarse
aggregates
Concrete rubble
Vibrating
screen
Rotary kiln
Air
separator
Jaw crusher
Fine
aggregates
Heater
Magnet
Cement stone
Reinforcement
steel
Figure 2.
same quality as primary gravel and sand. The performance of the recovered aggregate however has to
be verified experimentally (Mulder et al. 2002).
The dehydrated cement stone fraction can be used
as a substitute for part of the Portland cement clinker in
the cement production process. The cement stone can
be directly fed to the Portland cement mill, or even
added after the mill. This saves a lot of energy and raw
materials.
THERMAL TREATMENT OF
MASONRY DEBRIS
29
Figure 5.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Demolition of masonry.
30
Figure 6.
be reused in concrete and a decontaminated combustible fraction that can be used as a fuel in the thermal processes, described before. The challenge in this
respect is to find the right combination of a cheap bulk
separation technique (as a rough pre-concentration)
and one or more automated sorting techniques for the
further clean-up of the pre-concentrated fractions. This
approach already proved successful in the processing
of recycle glass and metallic scrap. An example is
worked out in figure 6. In this example the dry density
separator produces as heavies an aggregate of 98%
purity and combustible lights of 80% purity. Assuming
a typical concentration factor of 10 for a single stage
industrial automatic sorting step, the final aggregate
quality will be of 99.8% purity and the lights will have
98% purity. Light materials that are unsuitable for
combustion in conventional processes, such as PVC,
can be concentrated in a separate waste stream.
4.1
Figure 7. Principle of colour sorting (Scan & Sort) 1 conveyor, 2 metal sensor, 3 colour camera, 4 lighting,
5 blow bar, 6 main stream, 7 reject.
31
Bitumen
0.55
Hue
Glass
Metal
0.50
0.45
Gypsum
0.40
Metal
0.35
Organics
Stone/tile
0.30
Plastic
0.25
Stone
0.20
Tile
0.15
Organics
0.10
Wood
0.05
0.00
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
Zeff
Figure 8.
for which the fluidised bed is unsuitable. Both separators would also work well together, the jig treating the
material up to 30 mm, the fluidised bed the 30 mm
oversize. Prior removal of lights and fines with air
sifting is recommended.
Ballistic separators and air tables require prior
classification into rather narrow particle size fractions.
A high screening efficiency is of paramount importance. For damp feed appropriate screening technology
must be applied. Air tables show additional displacement of tile and glass fragments in the lights. Ballistic
separation is very suitable as high volume preconcentration wherever narrow classification can be
done and there is sufficient head-room available.
4.2
32
Table 1.
Weight [g]
Wt% [g/g]
Wood
Stone
Glass
Gypsum
Metal
Plastic
Textile
Paper/cardboard
Rest 20 mm
Total
9837
8109
590
264
569
929
230
66
271
20863
47.2
38.9
2.8
1.3
2.7
4.5
1.1
0.3
1.3
100.0
Table 2.
Fraction
Product [%]
Reject [%]
Wood
Stone
Glass
Gypsum
Metal
Plastic
Textile
Paper/cardboard
Rest 20 mm
42.7
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.1
1.6
0.7
0.3
0.9
4.4
38.4
2.8
1.3
2.6
2.8
0.4
0.1
0.4
Total
46.8
53.2
33
REFERENCES
Dijk, K. van 2002. Closing the clay brick cycle (thesis),
ISBN 90-90 17911-9, AVDS b.v., Noordwijk, the
Netherlands.
Jong, T.P.R. de & Fabrizi, L. 2004. Dry separation of mixed
construction and demolition waste, Recycling
International, December 2004: 2427.
Jong, T.P.R. de, Fabrizi, L. &. Kuilman, W. 2005. Dry density
separation of mixed construction and demolition waste,
presentation for the 2005 Sortierkolloquium, TU Berlin.
Larbi, J.A., Heijnen, W.M.M., Brouwer, J.P. & Mulder, E.
2000. Preliminary laboratory investigation of thermally
34
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Certain durability aspects of sustainable mortars manufactured by the addition of Glass
Reinforced Plastic (GRP) industrial waste have been investigated. Mechanical and porosimetric characterization, water absorption and shrinkage measurements were carried out on cement mortars manufactured by
replacing 0%10%15%20% of the aggregate volume with GRP waste. An increase in porosity (25%) and,
consequently, a decrease in mechanical strength (up to 40% depending on the addition rate), as well as higher
deformability, were detected on the mortars manufactured by GRP waste addition. Moreover, unexpectedly,
capillary water absorption and drying shrinkage of GRP mortars resulted in significantly lower values (70% and
50%, respectively) than those of the reference mortar manufactured without GRP addition. This decrease could
involve enhanced durability, even if only in a supporting role.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
35
Table 1.
Oxide
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
CaO
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
L.O.I.
29.67
3.74
1.80
0.09
59.25
1.15
3.25
0.79
0.26
11.62
2.3
Tests
Figure 1.
3
3.1
RESULTS
Mechanical characterization
Specimens
36
10
GRP
Porosity
Mean radius
Specific
surface
(%)
(%)
( )
(m2/g)
0
10
15
20
16
21
19
20
629
250
314
250
3.8
7.9
9.9
9.5
4
0% GRP
10% GRP
15%GRP
20%GRP
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (days)
120
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
0% GRP
10% GRP
15% GRP
20% GRP
10
5
5
10
15
20
25
(MPa)
100
1000
Pore radius ()
10000
100000
0% GRP
35
10% GRP
25
20% GRP
20
3.3
15
10
0
0
0.5
1.5
Strain (%)
2.5
5
3
20
Figure 5. Porosimetric tests carried out on mortars manufactured with sand partially replaced by GRP at dosages of
0, 10, 20, 40% (by volume), respectively.
45
15% GRP
40
30
30
60
10
Time (days)
40
80
0
0
0%
10%GRP
15%GRP
20%GRP
100
3.4
The results of water absorption test were again confirmed and better highlighted during the capillary
water absorption test. The relative capillary absorption coefficient (CArel), defined as the ratio between
37
1000
2
2
0% GRP
10% GRP
15% GRP
20% GRP
0
0.01
0.1
10
100
900
800
700
600
500
400
0%GRP
10% GRP
15%GRP
20% GRP
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
Time (s
1000
600
1/2
800
1000
Time (hours)
0.6
GRP
(%)
CA
(mg/cm2 s1/2)
CArel
ICrel
0
10
15
20
3.87
1.20
1.41
1.20
0.31
0.36
0.31
0.43
0.50
0.42
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0% GRP
10% GRP
15% GRP
20% GRP
0.1
0
0
10
15
Time (days)
20
25
30
38
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Ambrosie, J. & Pera, J. 2003. Durability of glass-fibre
cement composites comparison between normal
Portland and Calcium Sulfoaluminate cements, Oral presentation at Sixth CANMET/ACI International Conference,
Thessaloniki, Greece, 17 June 2003.
39
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: An experimental study on the engineering properties of OPS hybrid concrete for precast floor
slab was conducted. Conventional crushed stone as partial replacement of OPS was employed. Three conditions
of curing to simulate the laboratory curing condition, practical curing condition, and without curing are applied.
The slump, demoulded density, compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus
of elasticity were determined. OPS concrete with 30% crushed stone as coarse aggregate fulfilled the minimum
strength requirement for lifting/transportation and at service. Since the air dry density of this concrete is
2000 kg/m3, it can be accepted as lightweight concrete. Hence, OPS hybrid concrete with crushed stones can be
used to manufacture lightweight precast floor slab. The results of this ongoing research on the potential use of
OPS concrete for lightweight precast floor slabs are reported.
INTRODUCTION
Materials
Mix proportion
Test methods
41
Table 1.
Fine aggregate
No
Property of aggregates
Unit
OPS
Granite
River sand
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Maximum size
Specific gravity (SSD)
Water absorption capacity (24 hrs)
Moisture content as received
Los Angeles abrasion value
Bulk density, compacted
Fineness modulus
Aggregate impact value, AIV
Aggregate crushing value, ACV
mm
%
%
%
kg/m3
%
%
12.50
1.34
21.30
11.68
2.90
646
6.30
6.60
7.12
19.00
2.63
2.04
0.78
11.85
1481
6.94
12.60
15.95
1.18
2.43
3.89
0.69
1.33
Table 2.
Table 3. Cube strength for OPS hybrid concrete at different ages and curing conditions.
Curing symbol
Mould
Water
Room
1
2
3
C-1
C-2
C-3
1
1
1
27
6
21
27
No
3 days
7 days
28 days
1
2
3
C-1
C-2
C-3
29.50
29.50
28.05
35.97
35.97
32.20
38.53
37.45
34.76
Curing symbol
3 days
7 days
28 days
1
2
3
C-1
C-2
C-3
15.70
15.70
14.45
20.60
20.60
18.25
21.57
21.17
19.35
3
3.1
17.30
17.30
17.30
Compressive strength
42
Table 5. Flexural strength for OPS hybrid concrete at different ages and curing conditions.
Curing symbol
3 days
7 days
28 days
No
Curing symbol
3 days
7 days
28 days
1
2
3
C-1
C-2
C-3
3.17
3.17
3.08
4.28
4.28
4.17
5.79
5.08
4.52
1
2
3
C-1
C-2
C-3
2.84
2.84
2.75
3.11
3.11
3.08
3.50
3.34
3.19
3.5
The 28-day compressive strength of cubes and
cylinders were higher under C-1 curing condition compared to C-2 and C-3. These results are similar to that
reported by Mannan & Ganapathy (2002).
The 28-day cube compressive strength is approximately 6269% higher that of the OPS concrete produced (Mannan & Ganapathy 2001) due to the addition
of 30% crushed granite as partial replacement.
It is also observed that the 28-day cylinder compressive strength of OPS hybrid concrete is approximately 56% of its cube compressive strength.
Modulus of elasticity
3.3
Flexural strength
The flexural strength of OPS hybrid concrete at different ages and curing regimes is shown (Table 5).
The 28-day flexural strength of OPS hybrid concrete
is approximately 13% to 15% of its compressive
strength. This is higher compared to flexural strength
of OPS concrete reported by Mannan & Ganapathy
(2002) because 30% of OPS have been replaced by
crushed granite. The relation between the flexural and
compressive strength for NWC depends on the type
and properties of coarse aggregate used (Neville 2005).
The flexural strength of NWC ranges between
11% and 23% of the compressive strength.
3.4
4 CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions drawn from this investigation are
summarised below:
1. The 28-day compressive strength of OPS hybrid
concrete ranges between 34.76 and 38.53 N/mm2.
The cylinder compressive strength is about 56% of
the cube compressive strength.
2. The 28-day flexural strength of OPS hybrid concrete is between 4.52 and 5.79 N/mm2 averaging
14% of its compressive strength.
3. The 28-day splitting tensile strength for OPS
hybrid concrete is between 3.19 and 3.50 N/mm2.
It is approximately 9% of its 28-day compressive
strength.
4. The 28-day modulus of elasticity of OPS hybrid
concrete is in the range of 2.032.19 104 N/mm2.
5. Generally, the OPS hybrid concrete obtains better
engineering properties than that of OPS concrete
under the C-1 curing, which is an ideal curing
condition.
6. OPS hybrid concrete fulfils the minimum
strength requirement of precast slabs at the time of
The splitting tensile strength at different ages and curing conditions is shown (Table 6). The strength of
OPS hybrid concrete under C-1 curing condition is
higher than that under C-2 and C-3 curing condition.
Similar to flexural strength, the splitting tensile strength
is dependant on the curing condition. Also, OPS hybrid
concrete exhibits higher splitting tensile strength than
that of OPS concrete.
The 28-day splitting tensile strength of OPS hybrid
concrete under C-1 and C-2 curing is approximately
9% of its compressive strength. In general, the tensile
strength of NWC ranges from 7% to 11% of its compressive strength, with an average of 10% (Hassoun &
Al-Manaseer 2005).
43
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported through research grant LPIPM:
CREAM/UPP04-02-10-04-11 from the Construction
Industry Development Board of Malaysia.
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 318, 2005. Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete, ACI 318-05, Farmington Hills, M.I.,
p. 443.
ASTM, C 29M-97, Standard test method for bulk density,
(unit weight), and voids in aggregate, Annual Book of
ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C 94, Standard specification for ready-mixed concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C 78-02, Standard test method for flexural strength
of concrete (Using simple beam with third-point loading), Annual book of ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C127-04, Standard test method for density, relative
density (specific gravity), and absorption of coarse
aggregate, Annual book of ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C131-03, Standard test method for resistance to
degradation of small-size coarse aggregate by abrasion
and impact in the Los Angeles machine, Annual book of
ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C 143, Standard test method for slump of hydrauliccement, Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C469-02, Standard test method for static modulus of
elasticity and Poissons ratio of concrete in compression,
Annual book of ASTM Standards.
ASTM, C 496, Standard test method for splitting tensile
strength of cylindrical concrete specimens, Annual book
of ASTM Standards.
Basri, H.B., Mannan, M.A., & Zain, M.F.M. 1999. Concrete
using waste oil palm shells as aggregate, Cement and
Concrete Research 29 (4): 619622
BS 812. Part 110. Method for determination of aggregate
crushing value (ACV). London: British Standards
Institution.
BS 812. Part 112. Method for determination of aggregate
impact value (AIV). London: British Standards Institution.
BS 1881. Part 102. Method for determination of slump.
London: British Standard Institution.
BS 1881. Part 110. Method for making test cylinders from
fresh concrete. London: British Standard Institution.
BS 1881. Part 116. Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes. London: British Standard
Institution.
44
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Paulo Helene
Full Professor. Universidade de So Paulo. Escola Politcnica. Av. Prof. Almeida Prado, Brazil. President of the
Brazilian Concrete Institute IBRACON
ABSTRACT: In this paper an analysis was conducted on the influence of use of 20%, 50% and 100% contents of two types of fine recycled aggregates (from demolish concrete and from old masonry) on the following
properties of concrete: water absorption by immersion, pore volume, carbonation and resistivity. This analysis
was not restricted to compare mixtures from a table of results. All the analysis was based on concrete family
behavior. The Mix Design Nomograms (MDN) was made for concrete families: one as reference and six others
with different recycled contents to replace the natural fine aggregate. The MDN obtained for the properties
studied permitted compare class 20 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa concretes. The results obtained indicate that the
carbonation depth reached a minimum and the resistivity reached a maximum when 50% contents of fine recycled masonry aggregates were used. However, this tendency was not repeated for pore volume and water
absorption. Thus, it should conclude that the durability like a carbonation and resistivity are physical-chemical
phenomena that, in this case, were inversely related to water absorption and volume of pores.
INTRODUCTION
2 PURPOSE
This work aims to analyze the influence of two types
of fine aggregates, one from recycled concrete, and
the other from recycled masonry on four (4) properties of concrete: water absorption, pore volume, carbonation and resistivity. These properties has directly
influence in the durability of a concrete.
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
To conduct this work, seven concrete families were prepared, three with fine recycled masonry aggregates,
three with fine recycled concrete aggregates and a reference concrete with natural quartz river sand.
45
Reference
FRCA* 2080
FRCA 5050
FRCA 1000
FRMA** 2080
FRMA 5050
FRMA 1000
3.2
The proportions of the aggregates used in the preparation of the seven families are indicated in Table 1.
3.1
Materials
3.3
Properties measured
The following properties were measured: compressive strength by ASTM C39; water absorption and
total pore volume by ASTM C642; accelerated carbonation by RILEM CPC-18 method, and resistivity
by ASTM G57. In addition, the cement content, water
content, W/C ratio by mass, entrapped air, slump test
and fresh concrete density were measured.
4
DATA RESULTS
46
Table 2.
Concrete Aggregate
families replacement 1.3
1: 1.24: 0.0: 1.76: 0.40
1: 0.99: 0.25: 1.76: 0.46
1: 0.62: 0.62: 1.76: 0,44
1: 0.0: 1.24: 1.76: 0,47
1: 0.99: 0.25: 1.76: 0,39
1: 0.62: 0.62: 1.76: 0,45
1: 0.0: 1.24: 1.76: 0.50
FRMA
1.6
1.3
1.4,5 1.6
48.5
56.1
46.3
46.6
49.0
49.5
42.8
41.9
36.7
33.8
30.2
38.2
40.0
36.6
fc (MPa)
(%)
60.0
40.0
25.0
Compressive Strength
50.0
20.0
15.0
30.0
Cement Content
3
C (kg/m )
600
500
10.0
20.0
400
300
Cement Content
3
C (kg/m )
(w/c)
0.40
200
0.60
600
0.80
5
6
7
3
4
FRCA
FRMA
300
m (kg/kg)
(w/c)
0.40
200
3
0.60
0.80
m (kg/kg)
Figure 2. Water absorption and total volume pore for concrete family FRCA 100%0%.
Table 3. Water cement ratio from MDN for desired compressive strength.
Natural
400
Concrete
families:
compressive
strength at 28d:
500
5.0
Figure 1.
FRCA.
26.5
27.5
26.96
23.3
26.6
29.4
27.0
Water absorption
Total volume pores
20
50
100
20
50
100
1.4,5
Natural
FRCA
fc at 28d MPa
W/C ratio
Aggregate
replacement
0%
20%
50%
100%
20%
50%
100%
0.91
0.80
0.92
0.87
0.86
0.95
1.03
0.68
0.66
0.69
0.68
0.65
0.73
0.76
0.52
0.57
0.52
0.54
0.50
0.57
0.56
47
8.0
6.0
Carbonation Depth
The water absorption, as well as the total pore volume, increases with the amount of natural aggregates
replaced by recycled aggregates. This behavior was
expected, since the absorption of the fine recycled
aggregates, FRCA and FRMA, was 6 to 10 times
higher than the natural aggregates.
The carbonation depth, for the same compressive
strength, reached an optimal value when 50% of the
Resistivity
DISCUSSION
10
4.0
2.0
(kg/kg)
Cement Content
3
C (kg/m )
500
400
300
200
3
4
5
6
7
0.40
0.60
7
6
0.80
Cement Content
3
600
(w/c)
C (kg/m )
600
(w/c)
500
400
200
3
4
5
(kg/kg)
Reference Family
- 4.604 (28 days)
300
0.40
0.60
0.80
m (kg/kg)
11
9
7
5
0
20
50
11
100
Legend
20 MPa
20
50
100
30 MPa
40 MPa
Figure 5. Evolution of water absorption with the amount of natural aggregate being replaced by FRCA and FRMA to
achieve 20 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa at 28 days.
48
30,0
30,0
24,0
18,0
24,0
18,0
12,0
12,0
0
20
50
100
20
50
100
(%)
Figure 6. Evolution of total pore volume and carbonation depth as a function of replacement of natural aggregate by FRCA
and FRMA to achieve 20 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa at 28 days.
12
Carbonation Depth (mm)
12
0
0
20
50
0
0
100
Legend
20
50
100
30 MPa
20 MPa
40 MPa
Figure 7. Evolution of carbonation depth as a function of replacement of natural aggregate by FRCA and FRMA to achieve
20 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa at 28 days.
30
Resistivity (K .cm)
Resistivity (K .cm)
30
24
18
12
6
24
18
12
6
20
50
100
Legend
20 MPa
20
50
100
30 MPa
40 MPa
Figure 8. Evolution of resistivity with the amount of natural aggregate was being replaced by FRCA and FRMA to achieve
20 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa at 28 days.
49
Table 4.
Concrete
families:
Compressive
strength
at 28d:
Natural
FRCA
FRMA
Table 5.
Resistivity (k.cm)
Aggregate
replacement
20 MPa
30 MPa
40 MPa
20 MPa
30 MPa
40 MPa
20 MPa
30 MPa
40 MPa
0%
20%
50%
100%
20%
50%
100%
179
239
216
266
220
191
217
291
325
330
366
329
300
332
397
404
445
461
434
407
455
9.6
6.0
6.5
6.7
6.4
5.8
9.0
6.0
4.6
4.6
4.9
4.3
4.0
5.8
3.5
3.6
3.3
3.6
2.8
2.7
3.5
13.3
14.2
11.7
7.2
19.3
30.6
26.6
17.0
15.0
10.7
7.4
18.3
26.8
23.9
20.4
15.8
9.8
7.5
17.3
23.3
21.3
Concrete
families:
Compressive
strength at 28d:
Natural
FRCA
FRMA
Aggregate
replacement
20 MPa
30 MPa
40 MPa
20 MPa
30 MPa
40 MPa
0%
20%
50%
100%
20%
50%
100%
7.3
7.3
9.7
11.4
7.5
8.0
8.2
6.6
7.2
9.0
10.7
6.9
7.6
8.9
6.1
7.1
8.5
10.1
6.5
7.3
9.4
16.0
15.8
20.2
22.9
15.9
16.7
19.0
14.6
15.7
19.0
21.7
15.1
16.2
18.6
13.6
15.6
18.1
20.9
14.4
15.8
18.3
CONCLUSIONS
By applying the very clear concepts proposed for experimental concrete mix design by Helene & Monteiro
(1993) to the properties studied in this work, it was possible to observe and compare the behavior of concrete
families and not only between isolated mixtures.
Under the conditions of this research it is possible
to conclude that:
Concrete made with recycled aggregates (20%;
50% and 100% replacement) from old masonry or
from old concrete can have the same fresh workability and can achieve the same 28-day compressive
strength as concrete made with natural aggregates in
the range from 20 MPa to 40 MPa.
The carbonation depth always decreased when the
replacement was 20% or 50%. For FRMA concrete
50
REFERENCES
ASTM C 270. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry In:. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 2003
ASTM C 39. Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens In:. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards. 2003.
ASTM C 642. Standard Test Method for Density.
Absorption. and Voids in Hardened Concrete In:.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 2003.
51
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental investigation on the feasibility of full or partial replacement of fine natural aggregate (FNA) with fine recycled concrete aggregate (FRA) in concrete production. The
studied variables were the FRA substitution ratio, the water-cement ratio, and the effect of presence of materials finer than 0.075 mm in FRA. Workability, compressive and splitting tensile strength were measured. The
experimental results indicate that the replacement of FNA with FRA is feasible. Only marginal effects were
noticed on workability and splitting tensile strengths with substitution of up to 45%, which even led to an
increase in the compressive strength. It can be concluded from the results that the watercement ratio is a key
factor that affects the workability and the strength of concrete made with FRA. Also, the results show that the
presence of up to 10% of materials finer than 0.075 mm in FRA does not affect workability or strength characteristics in the case of partial replacement of fine aggregate.
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
FRA were obtained by crushing concrete parts resulting from demolition of an old concrete building built
in 1970. The concrete was crushed in a large crushing
plant used to obtain coarse and fine aggregates from
crushing natural stones. Considerable efforts were
made to keep the obtained fine recycled aggregates
without dirty. The grading curve of the FRA lay in
grading zone 2 according to BS: 8821992.
The fine natural aggregates used in this investigation
were a common type of natural sand in Libya, which
always has a grading curve in zone 3. The main characteristics of the FNA and FRA are presented in Table 1.
2.2
Mixture proportions
53
1:1.75:3.3 for all mixes. These proportions are recommended by the municipal regulations in Libya to
obtain a structural concrete for normal residential and
public buildings. The methodology of absolute volume was used to find the concrete composition for
each batch. Ordinary Portland cement was used for all
the mixtures; and crushed coarse limestone aggregates, having a surface specific gravity of 2600 kg/m3,
water absorption of 2.5%, and maximum size of
15 mm, were used.
Mixtures used in this investigation can be divided
into three groups. The fist group was prepared to
investigate the feasibility of replacing FNA with
FRA. Six concrete mixtures with various substitution
ratios (0.0%, 15%, 30%, 45%, 60%, 100%) were cast
and tested. The water-cement ratio (W/C) was fixed
at 0.6. In the second group, four mixtures were used
to study the effect of the water-cement ratio (0.55,
Table 1.
Properties
FNA
FRA
2640
1640
4.1
1.5
2330
1520
12.5
5
Table 2.
Mixtures compositions (for 1 m3) and test results of specimens cast for studying FRA substitution.
Specimens
F0R
F15R
F30R
F45R
F60R
F100R
% FRA Replacement
Cement (Kg)
FNA (Kg)
FRA (Kg)
Coarse aggregate (Kg)
Water (Kg)
Slump (mm)
Compressive strength MPa
Indirect tensile strength MPa
0
351.53
615.18
0.0
1160.1
210.92
85
40
3.4
15
349.9
520.48
91.85
1154.7
209.94
70
40.6
3.3
30
348.3
426.67
182.86
1149.4
209.28
65
42
3.2
45
346.7
333.7
273.03
1144.1
208.2
50
41.7
3.2
60
345.51
241.86
362.79
1140.8
207.36
35
41
3.1
100
340.96
0.0
596.68
1125.1
204.58
25
40.1
3
Table 3.
Mixtures compositions (for 1 m3) and test results of the specimens cast for studying water-cement ratio.
Specimens
FW1
FW2
FW3
FW4
Water-cement ratio
Cement (Kg)
FNA (Kg)
FRA (Kg)
Coarse aggregate (Kg)
Water (Kg)
Slump (mm)
Compressive strength MPa
Splitting tensile strength MPa
0.55
353.06
340
278.1
1165.43
194.24
20
43
3.5
0.6
346.7
333.7
273.03
1144.11
208.2
50
41
3.2
0.65
340.78
328
268.37
1124.6
221.5
70
36
3.0
0.7
335.4
322.82
264.13
1106.8
234.8
95
28
2.75
54
Table 4. Mixtures compositions (for 1 m3) and test results of specimens cast for studying the effect of materials finer than
0.075 mm.
Specimens
F0F
F10F
F20F
F30F
% Fine materials
Cement (Kg)
FNA (Kg)
FRA (Kg)
Materials finer than 0.075 mm
Coarse aggregate (Kg)
Water (Kg)
Slump (mm)
Compressive strength MPa
Splitting tensile strength MPa
0.0
340.78
328
268.37
0.0
1124.6
221.5
55
41
3.2
10
340.78
328
241.5
26.8
1124.6
221.5
50
42.5
3.35
20
340.78
328
214.7
53.67
1124.6
221.5
35
39
3
30
340.78
328
187.86
80.52
1124.6
221.5
15
37
2.85
After demolding at an age of one day, the specimens were cured at 20oC and 100% relative humidity.
All tests were carried out based on BS:18811993.
90
85
80
70
65
70
Concrete mixing
60
Slump mm
2.3
45
50
35
40
25
30
20
10
0
0%
15%
30%
45%
60% 100%
Substitution
3
3.1
TEST RESULTS
Figure 1.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
0%
15%
30%
45%
60%
100%
Substitution
Figure 2. Effect of FRA substitution ratio on the compressive strength.
with 30% FRA, which led to a 5% increase. The splitting tensile strength decreased slightly as the substitution ratio of FNA with FRA was increased. However,
no distinct trend is visible.
55
3.2
Water-cement ratio
3.3
3.2
2.75
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
water-cement ratio
Figure 5. Effect of water-cement ratio on the splitting tensile strength.
95
42.5
43
75
compressive strength
Slump mm
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3.5
3.5
50
20
42
41
40
39
41
39
38
37
36
35
37
34
0.7
0.65
0.6
Water-cement ratio
0%
0.55
Figure 6.
strength.
10%
20%
microfines content
30%
Compressive strength
3.4
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
3.2
3.1
3
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
0.55
0.6
0.65
0%
0.7
10%
20%
30%
Microfines content
Water-cement ratio
Figure 4.
strength.
3.3
56
60
55
50
50
slump mm
40
35
30
20
15
10
0
0.00%
Figure 8.
10%
20%
Microfines content
30%
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This experimental work was supported by the
University of Al-Jabel Al-Gharby in Libya. Thanks to
Mohammed Mosa, Hatem Jalal and Mohammad
Balgho, who carried out a part of this work in their
graduation project under the supervision of the author.
REFERENCES
British standards, BS: 8821999. Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete.
British standards, BS:18811993. Testing concrete.
Evangelista, L. & de Brito, J. 2004. Criteria for the use of
fine recycled concrete aggregates in concrete production.
Inter. Conf., The use of recycled materials in building and
structures, Barcelona, SPAIN., Nov. 2004.
Katz, A., 2003. Properties of concrete made with recycled
aggregate from partially hydrated old concrete., Cement
and Concrete Research 33: 703711.
Mansur, A., Masaud, A., Adulsalam, A., & Almssai, N.,
2004. Using crushing plants` by-products in concrete
production. Building materials and structural engineering; Proc. 2nd Natio. Conf., Alkhoms, Libya. Nov., 2004.
Roose, F., & Massivbau, L., 1999. Verification of the dimensioning values for concrete with recycled aggregates .
Technische universital munchen. 1999.
Solayman, M., 2005. Classification of recycled sands and
their applications as fine aggregates for concrete and
bituminous mixtures . Phd. Thesis,University of Kassel,
Germany, 2005.
Wainwright, P., Tevorrow, A., Yu, Y., & Wang, Y., 1993.
Modifying the performance of concrete made with
coarse and fine recycled aggregates . Demolition and
reuse of concrete and masonry., 3rd Inter. RILEM Symp.,
Odense, Oct. 1993.
CONCLUSIONS
57
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This work was aimed at evaluating both mechanical and rheological behaviour of cementitious joint
mortars prepared with three different kinds of recycled aggregate: one is made of concrete scraps obtained as
rejected material from precast concrete production, one is based on recycled bricks and the last one is a miscellany
of rubble from a demolition waste recycling plant. The experimental results showed that mechanical strength of the
mortars prepared by substituting the natural sand with each one of these recycled aggregates is significantly lower
than the reference. Nevertheless, the bond strength at the interface between mortar and brick was higher for mortars
prepared with recycled aggregates and, in particular, when the fine aggregate demolition waste recycling was used.
INTRODUCTION
100
% Passing the sieve
In Italy, every year more than 20 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste are produced. They are
mainly constituted of debris coming from demolished
structures made of masonry or reinforced concrete. At
present, only 10% of this material is recycled and the
remainder is disposed of in landfills for inert materials
if it is not unlawfully disposed of by other means.
This work is aimed at evaluating the possibility of
reusing waste from building demolition as aggregate
for joint mortars. The annual production of joint mortar can be estimated as approximately 1 million cubic
meters; therefore the total amount of material potentially recyclable could be significant.
A previous study [Sani et al. 2005] carried out on
leaching behaviour of cementitious mixtures prepared with recycled aggregates coming from the
same source showed that the environmental impact of
these mortars can be sustainable.
In order to evaluate the quality of joint mortars
made of recycled aggregate, both mechanical behaviour of cementitious mortars and rheological behaviour of cementitious pastes were evaluated. The mortars
were prepared with three different kinds of recycled
aggregate.
Finally, the interaction between the mortar and
brick, in terms of bond strength developed at the
interface mortar-brick, was studied.
80
60
REF
REC
CON
BRI
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
10
As aggregate, three different kinds of recycled aggregate were alternatively used: the first, indicated below as
CON, is made of concrete scraps obtained as rejected
material from precast concrete production (5055 MPa
strength class); the second, BRI, is obtained by crushing red bricks (with a compressive strength of 11 MPa)
and the last, REC, is miscellaneous rubble from a
demolition waste recycling plant. Its mean composition
is 70% concrete, 27% masonry and 3% bitumen. As a
reference material, a natural sand, REF, was used. The
particle size and physical properties of these aggregate
fractions are reported in Fig. 1 and Table 1 respectively.
3 MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
MATERIALS
3.1
Mortars
59
REF
REC
2.59
2.42
3.1
10
7.8
8
0.145
0.793
BRI
2.18
17.3
20
0.474
Table 3.
CON
Mixture
Water/Cement
2.38
Water
Cement
Natural sand
(150 m)
Recycled rubble
(150 m)
Recycled brick
(150 m)
Recycled concrete
(150 m)
10.4
10
0.483
Table 2.
Mixture
Water/Cement
Water
Cement
Natural sand
Recycled rubble
Recycled brick
Recycled concrete
MREF
MREC
MBRI
0.82
1.22
0.78
280
450
1350
370
450
1350
550
450
1350
350
450
1350
CEM CEM
REC
BRI
CEM
CON
0.62
0.82
1.22
0.78
280
450
135
370
450
550
450
350
450
108
270
135
Mixture
Flexural
Strength
(MPa) after:
Compressive
Strength
(MPa) after:
4
the water content of each mortar was set to achieve
the same consistency of 110 5 mm, evaluated
according to EN 1015-3. Obviously, the higher the
water absorption of the aggregate fractions (see Table
1), the higher the water amount necessary to reach the
target consistency (see Table 2).
3.2
CEM
REF
MCON
0.62
1 day
7 days
28 days
1 day
7 days
28 days
MREF
MREC
MBRI
MCON
2.8
5.7
6.6
5.0
21.5
27.8
1.6
4.4
5.0
4.0
13.4
17.2
1.6
3.8
4.7
3.0
12.3
16.4
1.9
5.4
6.9
2.2
15.0
21.1
MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF MORTARS
Pastes
RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF PASTES
60
Table 5.
Mixture
Yield stress (Pa)
Plastic viscosity
(Pa s)
Thixotropy
(Pa/s)
CEM
REF
CEM
REC
CEM
BRI
CEM
CON
49.4
0.67
6.3
0.07
3.9
0.04
7.6
0.08
182
855
955
522
Figure 2.
(1)
61
Table 6.
Mortar type
Bond strength
(MPa)
MREF
MREC
MBRI
MCON
0.39
1.14
0.52
0.98
REFERENCES
CEN 1996. prEN 1052-3. Methods of test for masonry; Part 3:
Determination of initial shear strength, Draft for public
comment.
Corinaldesi, V. & Moriconi, G. 2006. Mechanical behaviour
of a masonry assemblage manufactured with recycledaggregate mortars, submitted to be published in Cement
and Concrete Research.
Groot, C. & Larbi, J. 1999. The influence of water flow (reversal) on bond strength development in young masonry,
Heron 44(2): 6377.
Moriconi, G., Corinaldesi, V. & Antonucci, R. 2003.
Environmentally-friendly mortars: a way to improve
bond between mortar and brick, Materials & Structures,
36(264): 702708.
Saak, A.W., Jennings, H.M. & Shah, S.P. 2001. The influence of Wall Slip on Yield Stress and Viscoelastic
Measurements of Cement Paste, Cement and Concrete
Research 31: 205212.
Sani, D., Moriconi, G., Fava, G. & Corinaldesi, V. 2005.
Leaching and mechanical behaviour of concrete manufactured with recycled aggregates, Waste Management
25(2): 177182.
CONCLUSIONS
The experimental results show that mortars containing recycled aggregates developed a lower mechanical strength with respect to the reference cementitious
mortar, particularly when the fraction based on recycled bricks was used.
Nevertheless, the bond strength at the interface
between the mortar and the brick is higher for mortars
62
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This study used recycled aggregate concrete for floor slabs, which are plane members with a
large surface area subject to drying, and added a drying shrinkage reducing agent to mitigate drying shrinkage.
The relationship between use of this agent and the influence of drying shrinkage on cracking was investigated.
The result found that, when a drying shrinkage reducing agent was added to recycled aggregate concrete-based
floor slabs, not only were drying shrinkage cracks lessened but also post-yield strength against bending
increased to give satisfactory bending properties. This suggests that recycled aggregate concrete could be used
for members of reinforced concrete structures.
Table 1.
INTRODUCTION
Weight(kg/m3)
Mixing of concrete.
W/C
(%)
Fine
Water Cement aggregate
Coarse
aggregate
58.0
183
316
814
(normal)
867
(recycled)
FR 54.0
FR A-FR
191
354
713
808
(recycled) (recycled)
Series
R
R A-R
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS
Specimen
63
main ones. To review the bonding force between recycled aggregate concrete and reinforcements, a lap
splice of 20 db (200 mm) in lapped length was used for
three bottom reinforcements and the remaining two
were made through bar arrangement. With the coverage thickness of 30 mm both for top and bottom surfaces, concrete was flat-cast from the top. To identify
the drying shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete,
100 100 400 mm specimens for length changes
used in the JIS-A-1129 method of testing for changes
in concrete length were prepared together with the
floor slabs for measuring the rate of drying shrinkage.
Specimens
Series/
the rate of
substitution
(%)
Type
Drying
Age of
shrinkage
flexural
reducing
experiment agent
1) SR
2) A-SR
3) SRK
4) A-SRK
R series/
recycled coarse
aggregate 100
recycled sand 0
SR
5 weeks
SRK
1 year
5) SFR
6) A-SFR
7) SFRK
8) A-SFRK
FR series/
SFR
recycled coarse
aggregate 100
SFRK
recycled sand 100
5 weeks
1 year
non addition
addition
non addition
addition
non addition
addition
non addition
addition
2100
2000
50
180
60
600
480
5-D10@120
600
60
50
180
110 35
dimensions in mm
35
300
Figure 1.
500
500
500
64
300
5.2
5.1
-500
60
B (N/mm2)
40
0
500
800
1000
1500
Floor slab
: SRK
: A-SRK
: SFRK
: A-SFRK
2000
1 year
20
5 weeks
:R
: A-R
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
44 48 52 54
age (week)
0
0
Figure 2.
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
age (week)
Figure 4.
E(104 N/mm2)
2
1 year
5 weeks
Figure 3.
: R Measured value
: R FC Standard formula
: A-R Measured value
: A-R FC Standard formula
D
E
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
age (week)
b) A-SFRK (Addition)
Figure 5.
65
A
B
C
0.25
0.20
D
E
F
Test results.
G
H
I
Member
yield
0.15
0.10
Maximum
load
B
Py
Specimens (N/mm2) (kN)
y
Pmax
(mm) (kN)
max failure
(mm) mode
1) SR
2) A-SR
3) SRK
4) A-SRK
5) SFR
6) A-SFR
7) SFRK
8) A-SFRK
3.89
3.61
4.25
4.02
4.03
2.88
5.28
3.85
40.02
40.00
38.67
40.11
40.00
38.04
40.11
24.08
0.05
8
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
age (week)
A
B
C
30
25
20
D
E
F
G
H
I
5
0
0.40
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
age (week)
6
6.1
0.30
78.8
97.4
89.6
95.4
79.6
74.0*
89.4
90.1
SFR type
(5 weeks)
t = 200 N/mm2
F
F
F
F
F
FS
F
FS
SFRK type
(1 year)
Restriction Value
0.25 mm
0.20
0.10
BENDING PROPERTIES
57.0
66.9
59.7
64.9
52.5
59.8
59.2
59.4
B: compressive strength.
F: flexural failure FS: bond splitting failure after yield.
* A-SFR: load of sprit failure 69.9(kN), 20.00(mm).
15
10
Wmax (mm)
35
27.5
35.2
32.8
40.3
30.3
33.6
34.8
38.3
A-SFRK
SFRK
A-SFR
SFR
Table 3.
0.30
:SRK
:SR
P (kN)
90
72
54
36
18
0
Figure 8.
Load-deflection curve
10
20
30
(mm)
40
50
66
126
108
SRK type
: SRK
:A-SRK
SFRK type
: SFRK
: A-SFRK
P (kN)
90
72
54
36
18
0
Figure 9.
10
20
30
(nm)
40
As mentioned above, when a drying shrinkage reducing agent was added to recycled aggregate concretebased floor slabs, not only were drying shrinkage
cracks lessened but also satisfactory strength against
bending was obtained. This suggests that the availability of a drying shrinkage reducing agent and recycled
aggregate concrete could be used for members of reinforced concrete structures. Future studies are needed
to review how bar arrangement-dependent restrictions
by reinforcements affect the floor slabs rate of drying
shrinkage as well as drying shrinkage cracks.
50
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
the Tokyo Disposal Association for Construction
Waste and F Company of admixture manufacturer.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
67
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This work aimed at evaluating the influence of the use of recycled concrete aggregates on the
mechanical performance of precast concrete. Recycled concrete was obtained as scraps of the precasting
process itself and characterized by physical properties quite close to those of ordinary aggregates, due to the
high strength class of the original concrete, which was in the range 5055 MPa. Several substitution percentages
were tried, between 5% and 30% by weight of the total amount of aggregate used for preparing concrete, in
order to establish the maximum replacement percentage that could allow the same concrete strength class to be
maintained. For this purpose, several concrete mixtures were prepared using rejected concretes coming from
different precasting plants. Concrete performance was evaluated after 1, 7 and 28 days of wet curing, in terms
of compressive strength. The results obtained showed that the quality of the old concrete influences the maximum substitution percentage that can be tolerated. When the original strength class is 55 MPa, the substitution
can be carried out at a percentage of up to 30%. In addition, the drying shrinkage of two concrete mixtures
prepared with 70% of one of these recycled concrete fractions was monitored for 100 days of curing at a relative humidity of 65% and a temperature of 15C. The results obtained were encouraging, particularly when a
shrinkage-reducing admixture was added to the concrete mixture in addition to a water-reducing admixture.
INTRODUCTION
At present, it is widely accepted that economic development must be sustainable, as far as minimisation of
environmental impacts and safe-guarding of nonrenewable resources is concerned. In particular, the
opportunity of re-using solid waste materials as a
replacement for those extracted from quarries in building construction is becoming more and more widespread [Bassan & Galimberti 1995, Bassan 1996,
Corinaldesi & Moriconi 2002a, Corinaldesi et al. 2001,
Moriconi et al. 2003]. This approach is consistent with
the concept of solid waste, accepted in the European
Community as well as in the individual member Countries, as a new resource that can be recycled in the production process and not simply disposed of in landfills.
The main objective of the research program is to
demonstrate that scraps coming from the manufacture
of precast, reinforced concrete (R/C) or prestressed
concrete (P/C) elements, can be re-used as RAs to
partially replace natural aggregates from quarries in
the production of concrete for manufacturing new
reinforced concrete elements with unchanged mechanical performance.
The goal would be remarkable from an environmental point of view, implying concrete life-cycle
69
is sufficient to achieve a standard grain size distribution, regardless of the original grain size distribution,
even when this is almost monomodal with a relatively
high maximum grain size, as shown in Figure 2.
Moreover, the crushing step appears necessary to
achieve a grain size distribution consistent with optimal
aggregate grading when crushed recycled-concrete fractions are combined with ordinary aggregate fractions.
Finally, the RA shape obtained after crushing was
optimal for use in concrete manufacturing, according
to Italian European Standards UNI EN 933-3 and
UNI EN 933-4.
2.2
2.3
Plant
A
B
C
1
1
1
D
E
F
2
3
4
G
H
5
5
Structural
element
Strength class
(MPa)
P/C Beam
R/C Column
Extruded P/C
Hollow-core Slab
(1)
(2)
P/C Hollow-core
Slab
R/C Column
P/C Hollow-core
Slab
P/C Beam
55
50
55
Fraction
n.a. (3)
n.a. (3)
n.a. (3)
50
55
55
2.4
(1)
(2)
70
100
A
A CRUSHED
B
B CRUSHED
C
C CRUSHED
D
D CRUSHED
F
F CRUSHED
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Figure 1. Grain size distribution of recycled-concrete fractions A, B, C, D and F before (filled symbols) and after (empty
symbols) crushing.
100
E
E CRUSHED
G
G CRUSHED
H
H CRUSHED
I
I CRUSHED
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Figure 2. Grain size distribution of recycled-concrete fractions E, G, H and I before (filled symbols) and after (empty
symbols) crushing.
The results are reported in Figures 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Except the B fraction, with lower strength class
and higher water absorption, the replacement of natural crushed aggregate with recycled concrete did not
cause significant changes in the 1-day, 7-day and
28-day compressive strengths, independently of the
RA origin and replacement percentage.
Water
absorption (%)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
8.34
9.21
7.70
5.56
7.26
7.63
7.86
8.34
9.97
2.31
2.16
2.25
2.34
2.24
2.22
2.18
2.21
2.07
(*)
2.5
71
Table 3.
Mixture
W/C
Water
Cement
Superpl.
Admix.
Natural
sand
(05 mm)
Ref
B-5%
B-10%
B-30%
D-5%
D-10%
E-5%
E-10%
F-5%
F-10%
H-5%
H-10%
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
535
Natural fine
crushed
fraction
(210 mm)
Natural coarse
crushed
fraction
(525 mm)
Recycled-concrete
crushed
fraction
(012 mm)
535
89
178
89
178
89
178
89
178
89
178
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
715
82 (type B)
165 (type B)
490 (type B)
88 (type D)
177 (type D)
85 (type E)
170 (type E)
85 (type F)
170 (type F)
83 (type H)
165 (type H)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ref
Figure 3.
B-5% B-10% B-30% D-5% D-10% E-5% E-10% F-5% F-10% H-5% H-10%
72
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ref
Figure 4.
B-5% B-10% B-30% D-5% D-10% E-5% E-10% F-5% F-10% H-5% H-10%
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ref
Figure 5.
B-5% B-10% B-30% D-5% D-10% E-5% E-10% F-5% F-10% H-5% H-10%
In both concretes, the aggregate fractions were previously water soaked. This operation is particularly
important for the recycled concrete aggregate, which
had a water absorption of 8.34%, as shown in Table 2.
73
Table 4.
Mixtures
H-70%
H-70% SRA
Water/Cement
0.45
0.45
Water
Cement
Natural sand (05 mm)
Recycled concrete (012 mm)
Superplasticizing admixture
Superplasticizer with SRA
165
365
550
1195
3
165
365
545
1190
100
H-70%
50
H-70%+SRA
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0
20
40
60
80
100
CONCLUSIONS
Preliminary results obtained on mechanical performance of concrete made by replacing crushed natural aggregate with recycled concrete, discarded by
prefabrication plants and re-used on the spot, confirm
that making RA concrete for structural use is feasible
and cheap. This practice could provide an adequate
solution to environmental issues, such as increasingly
limited availability of material from quarries and
landfill space. Furthermore, this approach would
make concrete a more sustainable material by lowering its environmental impact.
74
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writers acknowledge the grant of the ministry of
University and Research of Italy (MIUR), as well as
the contribution of the Association of Cement
Producers (AITEC) and of the Precasting Companies
Precompressi Centro-Nord, Generale Prefabbricati
and RDB.
REFERENCES
Bassan, M. & Galimberti, V., 1995. Recycling of concrete:
foreseeable development possibilities in Italy, Proc. R95,
World Congress on Integrated Resources Management,
Geneva, February 13.
Bassan, M., 1996. Recycling of concrete: reality, goal,
prospective (in italian), Proc. 15 ATE Congress on
Demolition techniques and reuse of building waste,
Milano, May 28.
Carrescia, P.G., Fava, G. & Sani, D., 2004. Regulation aspects
and a dynamic leaching test for non-ferrous slag recycling
in concrete manufacturing, Proc. VII AIMAT Congress,
Ancona, Italy, Paper 46.
Corinaldesi, V. & Moriconi, G. 2002a. Rubble Processing to
Manufacture Structural Recycled-Aggregate Concrete, In
Wang Pei-ming (ed.), Proc. 5th International Symposium
on Cement and Concrete, Shanghai, China, 2002. Tongji
University Press, Shanghai, China, Volume 2: 796802.
Corinaldesi, V., Tittarelli, F., Coppola, L. & Moriconi, G.
2001. Feasibility and Performance of Recycled-Aggregate
Concrete Containing Fly Ash for Sustainable Building
Development, In V.M. Malhotra (ed.), Sustainable
Development of Cement and Concrete; Proc. Three-Day
75
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The potential for using construction and demolition waste (C&DW) derived aggregate in the
manufacture of concrete paving blocks is being investigated at the University of Liverpool. Market research
indicated that economic benefits might be achieved by using recycled demolition aggregates in precast concrete
paving products. The mechanical properties, i.e., compressive and tensile splitting strength, of paving blocks
made with recycled demolition aggregates were also investigated. Levels of aggregate replacement were determined that produced blocks with similar mechanical properties to those of blocks made using only natural
aggregates, without requiring an increase in the cement content.
INTRODUCTION
/tonne
6 mm limestone (20% of total aggregate)
Medium grading sand (80% of total
aggregate)
Total cost of importing quarried aggregates
8.00 to 10.00
6.00
6.40 to 6.80
Concrete paving blocks were selected for investigation for the following reasons:
77
3
3.1
AVAILABLE OF C&DW-DERIVED
AGGREGATE
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
78
45
Compressive strength (MPa)
3.2
50
Table 2.
40
35
30
25
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Free W/C
Figure 4. Compressive strength (7-day) vs water-cement
ratio, using vibration compaction from above.
Coarse aggregate
Concrete
Masonry
Limestone
Concrete
Masonry
2.44
2.25
2.42
2.69
2.38
2.26
2.41
1.5
1.82
13.56
2.01
13.42
2.67
0.65
2.27
7.24
2.11
8.83
79
4.1
After successfully replicating the industrial blockmaking procedure in the laboratory, the replacement
of quarried limestone with concrete-derived C&DW
aggregates was studied. The mix proportions of the
control mix using only natural aggregates was converted to a volumetric ratio and natural aggregate was
replaced by an equal volume of C&DW-derived aggregate. This volumetric replacement approach allows for
the different density of recycled aggregates and
enables production of blocks of the same physical size
from different mixes (see Table 3 & 4). Each series of
mixes commenced with an initial cement content of
230 kg/m3. This was incrementally raised to 380 kg/m3
to yield specimens with a range of cement contents but
the same replacement aggregate ratio.
It was thought that the fine aggregate, i.e., 4 mm-todust, would have the most detrimental effect on compressive strength [Soutsos et al. 2004]. Studies were
planned using a replacement of either coarse or fine
aggregate alone, to quantify the relative effects of each.
Concrete paving blocks use a high ratio of 4:1
fine/coarse aggregate in order to achieve a high-quality surface finish. It was found that a reduction in the
water-cement (W/C) ratio was required to obtain a
comparable compressive strength for a block using
concrete-derived aggregate (see Fig. 7). A reduction
Table 3. Mix proportions (kg/m3) for concrete paving blocks Replacement of coarse natural aggregate with masonryderived coarse aggregate.
Coarse aggregate (6 mm)
Fine aggregate
(4 mm-to-dust)
Masonry
Sand
80
80
80
160
160
160
240
240
240
319
319
319
1521
1521
1521
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
1520
Mix Type
Cement
Limestone
230
305
380
230
305
380
230
305
380
230
305
380
230
305
380
380
380
380
285
285
285
190
190
190
95
95
95
80
Masonry
Free W/C
0.39
0.36
0.33
0.48
0.40
0.39
0.47
0.39
0.36
0.42
0.35
0.33
0.39
0.33
0.32
Table 4. Mix proportions used for concrete paving blocks Replacement of fine fraction of aggregates with concretederived aggregates.
Coarse aggregate (6 mm)
Fine aggregate
(4 mm-to-dust)
Sand
Mix Type
Cement
Limestone
230
305
380
230
280
330
380
230
280
330
380
230
280
330
380
230
280
330
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
Concrete
1521
1521
1521
1140
1140
1140
1140
760
760
760
760
380
380
380
380
80
Concrete
Free W/C
351
351
351
351
701
701
701
701
1052
1052
1052
1052
1402
1402
1402
1402
0.39
0.36
0.33
0.38
0.35
0.33
0.31
0.41
0.37
0.35
0.33
0.39
0.36
0.34
0.33
0.42
0.38
0.36
0.34
5.0
75
Control
4.5
Tensile splitting strength (MPa)
70
25%-C
65
50%-C
60
55
50
45
40
75%-C
35
100%-C
Control
4.0
25%-C
3.5
50%-C
75%-C
3.0
100%-C
2.5
2.0
30
25
1.5
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
Free W/C
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
Free W/C
Figure 7. Effect of W/C on 7-day strength of blocks using different replacement levels (%) of concrete-derived fine
aggregate.
81
80
5.0
28 days
75
28 days
4.5
Tensile splitting strength (MPa)
70
65
60
55
7 days
50
45
40
4.0
3.5
3.0
7 days
2.5
35
2.0
30
25
1.5
0
20
40
60
80
Replacement ratio (%)
100
20
40
60
80
Replacement ratio (%)
100
Figure 8. Effect of replacement level (%) on strength of blocks using concrete-derived fine aggregate.
(All mixes contained 380 kg/m3 of cement. The free water had to be increased with increasing replacement levels to maintain
the same workability).
5.0
80
75
65
Control
Tensile splitting strength (MPa)
4.5
Control
70
25%-M
60
55
50%-M
50
75%-M
45
40
35
100%-M
4.0
50%-M
3.5
3.0
2.5
75%-M
2.0
30
100%-M
25
0.20
25%-M
1.5
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.20
Free W/C
(a) Compressive strength
0.30
0.40
0.50
Free W/C
(b) Tensile splitting strength
Figure 9. Effect of water cement ratio on 7-day strength of blocks using different replacement levels (%) of masonryderived coarse aggregate.
82
80
5.0
75
28 days
70
65
4.5
28 days
60
55
49MPa
50
45
40
35
7 days
4.0
3.5
3.0
7 days
2.5
2.0
30
25
1.5
0
20
40
60
80
Replacement ratio (%)
100
20
40
60
80
Replacement ratio (%)
100
Figure 10. Effect of replacement level (%) on strength of blocks using masonry-derived coarse aggregate.
(All mixes contained 380 kg/m3 of cement. The free water had to be increased with increasing replacement levels to maintain
the same workability).
4.2
5 CONCLUSIONS
With the introduction of the Aggregate Levy Tax, economic benefits might be achieved from using recycled
demolition aggregates in the manufacture of precast
concrete paving blocks. Concrete paving blocks, with a
replacement of up to 60% of coarse natural aggregates
83
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Veolia Environmental
Trust and the Flintshire Community Trust Ltd. (AD
Waste Ltd.) for funding this project. The authors are
also grateful to the following industrial collaborators
for their assistance: Clean Merseyside Centre,
Mashalls Ltd., Forticrete Ltd., Liverpool City Council,
Liverpool Housing Action Trust, RMC Readymix
Ltd., W.F. Doyle & Co. Ltd. and DSM Demolition Ltd.
REFERENCES
Symonds. 1999. Construction and Demolition Waste
Management practices and their economic impacts.
Report to DG XI. European Commission.
EIONET. Construction and demolition waste. http://waste.
eionet.eu.int/waste/4 European Environment Agency
(28/08/05).
Communities and local government. Construction and
demolition waste survey: England and Wales 1999/2000
Summary. http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?
id1143366 (15/07/05).
84
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Utilization of used tires or other vulcanized rubber waste is an important ecological problem for
all countries. Rubber waste has long-term decay in natural conditions due to high durability for lot of climate or
soil exposure and biological attacks. Used tires or other vulcanized rubber waste in most countries are burned
up, but this has negative effect on environment. The aim of investigation was to study the possibilities to use
granulated rubber waste as elastic additive for Portland-cement concrete.
Used tires or other vulcanized rubber waste were crumbed into different sizes fractions 0/0.5 mm, 0/1 mm
and 0/3 mm. The rubber additive was used as fine aggregate replacement in concrete mixtures by 3.2 per cent
of aggregates mass. Previous results indicate that using elastic additives from rubber waste increase freezing
and thawing resistance of concrete. This additive works as damping agent reducing the stresses inside the concrete. The influence of different fractions granulated tires rubber waste on the properties of fresh and hardened
concrete was tested in this investigation. The effect of this additive on technological properties, air content in
fresh concrete, density, compressive strength, porosity, abrasive resistance and deformation properties of concrete was investigated.
The experimental results indicate the reduction of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete
for all fractions of rubber waste. Rubber waste has no influence on capillary porosity of hardened concrete but
increases air content and closed porosity of concrete and has positive effect on freezing and thawing resistance
of concrete.
The results of investigation showed that crumbed rubber waste additive could be used for modification of
Portland-cement concrete properties and utilization of used tires or other vulcanised rubber waste.
to increase their resistance to the freezing and thawing and deicing salts [Skripkiu nas et al. 1997b, Ziogas
et al 1996]. The most effective way of the increase of
resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing and deicing salts is the air entraining [Powers 1945, Sheikin
et al. 1979, Sheikin & Dobshic 1989b].
Concrete resistance of freezing and thawing may
be increased using light porous aggregates. Such
aggregates increase the amount of air entraining; create the so-called reserve pores, and damper the
stresses that occur in concrete. Easily deformed
aggregates in concrete increase the relaxation of tensions stresses occurring in concrete during the freezing and thawing processes. Those inner stresses along
with outer loads enhance the formation of microcracks in concrete. Therefore concrete containing
with elastic additives in aggregates is highly resistant
to freezing and thawing [Skripkiu nas et al 2001c,
Savas et al. 1996].
In this investigation the influence of fineness of
rubber waste particles on mechanical properties,
INTRODUCTION
85
porosity parameters and freezing and thawing resistance of concrete were tested.
2
MATERIALS
Portland cement CEM I 42.5R was used for investigation. Water content for normal consistency cement
slurry 24.5 per cent, specific area of cement particles
371 m2/kg. For fine aggregate was used sand fraction
(fr.) 0/4 mm with bulk density 1560 kg/m3. In the investigation, part of sand was replaced by the rubber waste
from used tires (3.2 per cent from aggregate by mass).
For coarse aggregate was used crushed granite fr.
2/8 mm and 11/16 mm with bulk density 1480 kg/m3
and 1510 kg/m3 respectively. Coarse aggregate content
in all concrete mixtures was the same. Plasticizing
admixture based on policarboxile polymers was used
with density of solution 1040 kg/m3. In all mixtures
content of plasticizing admixture was the same 0.6
per cent from cement content.
Mechanically crushed rubber waste from used tires
was used. Rubber waste was classificated to fractions
0/0.5; 0/1 and 0/3. The technological equipment for
used tires rubber waste processing is installed in JSC
Metaloidas Siauliai, Lithuania. The density of
crushed rubber waste particles is 1020 kg/m3.
3
4
4.1
Characteristics of mixtures
It was determined that rubber waste affects the properties of concrete mixture. In concrete mixtures containing rubber waste less value of density is obtained,
however air content is higher in this concrete. The
decrease of density of concrete mixture due to rubber
waste applied may be explained by higher total air
content in concrete mixtures. Lower density of concrete mixture is obtained due to less density of rubber
waste particles compared with sand particles density.
It was determined that the slump of mixtures with
fine rubber waste particles (fr. 0/0.5 and fr. 0/1) was
decreased by 22.5 cm from the point of view of mixtures without rubber waste; while the slump of the
mixture with coarse rubber waste (fr. 0/3) was 1 cm
higher compared to the mixture without rubber additives (Fig. 2). Using fine rubber waste particles (fr.
0/0.5 and fr. 0/1), the decrease of the slump in concrete mixtures may be explained by more complicated surface texture and large specific surface of
rubber waste particles than that of the control mixture
with fine sand aggregates (0/4 fr.). Rubber particles of
more complicated texture and large specific surface
adsorb larger amount of water than round particles of
TEST METHODS
RESULTS
Rubber
waste
fraction
Rubber
waste, kg
Cement,
kg
Crushed
granite 2/8
fraction, kg
Crushed
granite 11/16
faction, kg
Sand
0/4 fraction,
kg
Superplastycizer, %
Water, l
0/0.5
0/1
0/3
22.8
22.8
22.8
451
451
451
451
380
380
380
380
569
569
569
569
821
821
821
881
0,6
0,6
0,6
0,6
158
158
158
158
86
2500
2490
Density, kg/m3
4.2
2476
2480
2470
2470
2460
2450
2436
2440
2430
2420
2410
2400
-
0/0.5
0/1
Fraction of rubber waste
0/3
26
25
25.5
24.5
90
23
22.5
Slump, cm
24
22
22
21
20
0/0.5
0/1
0/3
72.6
70
70.0
64.0
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80.0
80
0/0.5
0/1
Fraction of rubber waste
0/3
2.8
2.6
0.25
0.20
Air entrainment, %
2.5
2
1,5
1.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
0/0.5
0/1
0/3
0.22
0.21
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.21
0/0.5
0/1
Fraction of rubber waste
0/3
87
2.50
0.59
0.60
0.56
0.59
2.12
0.56
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0/0.5
0/1
Fraction of rubber waste
2.50
2.24
1.46
2.24
1.46
0/0.5
0/1
0/3
12.00
Open porosity, %
10.00
9.67
9.38
0.50
0/0.5
0/1
0/3
0.50
0.85
1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
1.50
1.75
1.50
0.00
0/3
9.13
8.15
(1)
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0/0.5
0/1
Fraction of rubber waste
0/3
4.3
2.26
2.00
0.50
Closed porosity, %
0.70
88
REFERENCES
C. G. Papakonstantinou, M. J. Tobolski. 2006. Use of waste
tire steel beads in Portland cement concrete. Cement and
Concrete Research, N. 9, V. 36, pp. 16861691.
.
leinotaite.-Budriene. . 2002. Possibility
I. Silvestravic iute, L. S
to use scrap tires as an alternative fuel in cement industry.
Environmental research, engineering and management.,
No. 3(21), pp. 3848. (in Lithuanian)
V. Kers evic ius. 2002. Rubber waste raw materials for
building: technical and economical aspects of utilization.
Environmental research, engineering and management,
N. 3(21), pp. 7277. (in Lithuanian)
Kers evicius V., Skripkiu nas G. 1997b. Durability problems
of concrete pavements. Building and architecture.
Materials of conference. Kaunas, Technologija,
pp. 217222. (in Lithuanian)
Ziogas V., Stuopys A., Navickas A. 1996. Research on freezing thawing durability of the vibration pressed fine concrete. Building and architecture. Materials of conference.
Kaunas, Technologija, pp. 238242. (in Lithuanian)
T.C. Powers. 1945. A working hypothesis for the further studies of frost resistance of concrete. ACI Materials Journal.
V. 16, N.4, pp. 245272.
Sheikin A. E., Schekovskyj J. V., Bruser M. I. 1979.
Properties and composition cement based concrete.
Moscow: Stroiizdat, 344 c. (in Russian)
Sheikin A. E., Dobshic L. M. 1989b. Resistance to frost of
cement based concrete.- Leningrad: Stroiizdat, 128c. (in
Russian)
Kers evicius V., Skripkiu nas G. 2001c. Utilization of rubber
waste in Portland cement concrete. Environmental
research, engineering and management. Nr. 4(18),
pp. 4045. (in Lithuanian)
Savas, B. Z., Ahmad, S., and Ferdoff, D. 1996. Freeze-thaw
durability of concrete with ground waste tire rubber.
Transportation Research Record. N. 1547, pp. 8088
EN 12350-2:1999 standard. 1999. Testing fresh concrete.
Part 2: Slump test.
EN 12350-6:1999 standard. 1999b. Testing fresh concrete.
Part 6: Density.
EN 12390-2:2000 standard. 2000c. Testing hardened concrete. Part:2: Making and curing specimens for strength
tests.
CONCLUSIONS
89
EN 12390-7:2000 standard. 2000d. Testing hardened concrete. Part 7: Density of hardened concrete.
EN 12390-3:2001 standard. 2001e. Testing hardened concrete. Part 3: Compressive strength of test specimens.
LST L 1428.15:2006 standard. 2006f. Concrete. Test methods. Determinations of wear resistance.
90
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This lecture describes the research on concrete based on waste sand obtained from hydrograding of all-in-aggregate in the Central Pomerania in Poland. Concrete was modified by replacing from 0 to 25%
of cement for the silica fume and adding from 0 to 2% of steel fibres. The received results of the research on the
fresh concrete mixtures and properties of hardened composite are presented on charts. The author noted a considerable improvement in compression strength and watertightness of the examined concrete mixes.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.
Waste sand.
91
Table 1.
Ordinal
number
Name of deposit
0.0 mm
0.5 mm
0.5 mm
2.0 mm
2.0 mm
32.0 mm
Hummel fineness
modulus
Specific surface
[m2/kg]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Brzezno
Jawory
Kalisz Pom.
Klepino
Piekary
Pniewo
Sianow
Siemianowice
Swiecianowo
Swidwinek
Welnianka
Wegorzewo
JastrowieI
Mielenko
Parsecko
Sepolno
Boboliczki
Chlebowo
Cieszeniewo
Golce
JastrowieII
Karsno
Kuznica Czarn.
Ledyczek
Mielecin
Nowogardek
Oskowo
Polanow
Babino
Ratajki
Rzesznikowo
Siecino
Spore
Siemirowice
Stary Chwalim
Walkowice
Warblewo
Zelkowo
84.6
25.9
59.1
55.1
58.5
89.5
39.8
67.7
22.8
95.5
85.6
49.5
49.8
58.3
52.4
24.3
33.2
46.2
34.1
43.1
24.1
17.0
47.9
34.8
41.4
39.8
27.1
23.8
47.5
12.6
26.0
45.3
55.5
23.5
29.2
16.1
19.6
20.0
14.1
46.9
39.8
31.6
37.5
10.1
54.2
29.5
38.5
4.5
12.7
46.2
49.0
40.9
46.6
65.9
55.6
39.6
54.8
53.7
56.2
76.5
40.8
53.5
45.8
50.6
58.6
57.9
46.6
71.8
63.7
39.0
38.8
64.8
55.1
70.4
54.0
70.5
1.3
6.6
10.0
13.3
4.0
0.4
6.0
2.8
2.3
0.0
1.8
4.3
1.2
0.8
1.0
8.9
11.2
14.2
11.1
3.3
19.6
6.5
11.3
11.7
12.8
9.6
14.3
18.4
5.9
15.5
10.2
15.7
5.3
11.7
15.7
13.5
26.4
9.6
54.4
79.1
74.8
81.3
69.1
49.2
79.8
64.4
70.6
28.5
49.0
74.9
71.7
67.9
69.6
92.4
88.1
80.2
86.0
76.0
98.6
84.5
82.5
85.8
83.7
81.8
98.1
77.5
104.4
91.6
82.1
72.6
93.7
92.1
99.0
104.2
94.9
10.295
6.423
8.022
32.094
8.096
11.652
6.437
8.600
7.044
20.551
12.412
7.221
6.975
7.684
7.561
4.656
5.565
7.755
5.860
6.718
4.653
4.376
6.658
6.290
6.650
6.187
4.826
6.170
3.752
5.109
7.492
7.410
4.578
5.123
4.533
4.308
4.621
92
Table 2.
Feature
Symbol
Size
nl
nz
1631 kg/m3
1805 kg/m3
3.279
UK
UH
UA
66.4
2.206
jl
jz
P
38%
32%
3.39%
2 RESEARCH PROGRAMME
Figure 4.
93
Figure 6.
Figure 5.
points.
Table 3.
in code values
Number of Number of
experiment realization x1
x2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9,10,11
2
5
10
9
1
8
3
4
7,6,11
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.682
1.682
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.682
1.682
0.000
SF
[%]
Vf
[%]
5.0
5.0
20.0
20.0
0.0
25.0
12.5
12.5
12.5
0.4
1.6
0.4
1.6
1.0
1.0
0.0
2.0
1.0
94
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
tightness.
95
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
96
Figure 14.
(4)
Watertightness of fine aggregate concrete composites
which were not subjected to any preload is shown in
Figure 17. Watertightness of concrete without any
additions expressed with the use of parameter equals
230 1012 m/s. Modifying the concrete mix solely
with steel fibre reinforcement allowed to achieve
watertightness of 103 1012 m/s. Modifying the concrete mix solely with silica fume allowed to achieve
39 1012 m/s. It is visible in Figure 17 that the addition of reinforcement worsens the tightness attained
with silica fume when its quantity exceeds 10%. With
the increase of the amount of silica fume the tightness
of the fine aggregate concrete composite grows, especially in concrete mixes of a high content of reinforcement. With the addition of more than 15% of
silica fume all concrete mixtures are characterized by
considerable tightness, which stabilizes at a level of
2523 1012 m/s.
(3)
Watertightness of fine aggregate concrete composites
subjected to the cycles of pre-load no. 2 is shown in
Figure 16. Watertightness increases mainly with regard
to the increasing addition of Vf. The addition of SF
influences the improvement of watertightness of the
described composites but its significance is very limited in this case. The non-modified concrete mix has
kv 3985 1012 m/s, and the concrete mix with maximum addition of SF and Vf was characterized by
97
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
The presented research on discussed types of concretes let the author state that:
1. The addition of both silica fume and steel fibre
improves ultimate compressive strength.
2. Steel fibre improves flexural strength of the
examined concretes and it decreases deflection
and linear strain.
3. Despite 120 days of curing silica fume does not
improve flexural strength and it does not decrease
strain under axial load.
4. The relatively high watertightness of the described
composites after the cycle of loads is achieved due
to the addition of steel fibres.
5. Subjecting samples to the cycles of preload has an
extended influence on their later watertightness.
6. Watertightness of not loaded fine aggregate concrete composites depends greatly on the addition
of SF.
7. Watertightness examined on samples not preloaded does not allow for any assessing of watertightness of preloaded ones.
8. The addition of steel fibres allows to sustain a relatively high watertightness in fine aggregate concrete composites subjected to preload.
9. It is possible to obtain composites, on the basis of
waste sand, which are characterized by very high
chosen features.
REFERENCES
Bayramov, F. et al. 2004. Optimalisation of steel fibre reinforced concretes by means of statistical response surface
method, Cement & Concrete Composites, 26/2004:
665675.
Borovikov, I.P. & Borovikov, V.P. 1998. STATISTICA: Data
Preparation and Analysis. Filini, Moscow.
98
Srodkowego,
Materialy Budowlane 9/80.
Maciek, L. & Dondelewski, H. 1981. Konsekwencje zastosowania betonu drobnokruszywowego w niektorych
konstrukcjach prefabrykowanych, Prace Instytutu
Budownictwa Ladowego, WSInz w Koszalinie 1981.
Marcinkowski, S. & Dondelewski, H. 1980. Badania
sprezystosci, skurczu i . pelzania betonow drobnokruszywowych, Archiwum Inz ynierii Ladowej Tom XXVI Z.
4/1980.
Marcinkowski, S. & Dondelewski, H. 1984. Betony
piaskowe z kruszyw Pomorza Srodkowego, Materialy
Budowlane 02/84.
Maidl, B. R. 1995. Steel fiber reinforced concrete, Ernst &
Sohn, Berlin, Germany.
Mann, H.B. 1950. Analysis and design of experiments,
Dover Publications, New York, NY, USA.
Nawy, E.G. 1996. Fundamentals of high strength high performance concrete. Longman, Harlow, Essex, England.
Neville, A.M. 1995. Properties of Concrete. Longman,
Harlow, Essex, England.
Schenck, H. 1979. Theories of engineering experimentation,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, DC,
USA.
Toutanji, H. & Bayasi, Z. 1998. Effects of manufacturing
techniques on the flexural behaviour of steel fiberreinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Research,
28/98: 115118.
99
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D.W. Fowler
International Center for Aggregates Research, The University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA
ABSTRACT: Aggregates are the most widely used building material. Nearly all roadways and a large percentage of other buildings and infrastructure utilize aggregates, the primary component in bases, Portland cement
concrete, and asphalt concrete. In the U.S., nearly 3 billion tons of aggregates are produced each year. An increasingly larger percentage of aggregates are obtained by crushing; supplies of natural sands and gravels are becoming increasingly difficult to obtain due to environmental limitations and depletion of resources. Manufactured
aggregates include relatively high percentages of microfines, i.e., aggregates smaller than 75-m that traditionally have been viewed as a waste material. Specifications generally limit the amount of microfines in most aggregate applications. Considerable research has been conducted with the objective of demonstrating that higher
amounts of microfines can be used to produce quality building materials. This presentation will focus on applications to Portland cement concrete. Results of research will be presented showing how aggregates with high
microfine contents can be optimized for use in concrete; the results of strength and durability properties of high
fines concrete will be compared to traditional concretes made with natural sands.
INTRODUCTION
101
Flow (%)
120
160
140
MFA
100
Natural
80
60
40
20
0
500
400
300
200
100
0
0%
10
20
Microfines Content (%)
40
45
500
400
300
200
100
0
TR-5%
TR-10%
TR-15%
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
TR-20%
Microfines
Natural
Sand
LS-15%
GR-15%
Microfines
600
TR-0%
TR-15%
30
600
HARDENED CONCRETE
LS-1
LS-2a
LS-2b
LS-2c
GT
QZ
DI
DO
BA
SS
Fine Aggregate
102
0,030
0,025
Shirnkage (%)
4
3
2
0,020
0,015
0,010
0,005
0,000
0
Natural LS-1 LS-2a LS-2b LS-2c GT QZ
Sand
Fine Aggregate
DI
DO
BA
0%
SS
3000
Fine aggregate
Limestone 1
Limestone 2
Limestone 2
Limestone 2
Granite
Quartzite
Diabase
Dolomite
Basalt
Sandstone
14.3
4.5
13.3
7.4
13.3
13.5
15.8
16.7
14.3
10.3
TR-15%
GR-15%
1000
500
7,5
15,0
20,0
0%
1500
Microfines
2000
0,0
10
8
2500
20%
Figure 7. 28-day drying shrinkage of concrete with different amounts of microfines W/C 0.41.
Table 1.
5%
10%
15%
Microfines amount (%)
LS-15%
0
TR
GR
LS
IN
AZ
Coarse and fine aggregate (plus No. 200)
Figure 6. 28-day flexural strength of concrete with different types of microfines W/C 0.41.
MICROFINES CHARACTERIZATION
103
160
700
140
Flow (%)
120
100
80
60
40
600
0
0
10
TR
500
LS
400
300
0,54
20
GR
0,56
0,58
0,6
0,62
0,64
Where:
Ww weight of water
Wmf weight of microfines or powder
SGmf specific gravity of microfines or powder
Three types of microfines: traprock (TR), granite
(GR) and limestone (LS) were characterized with this
test. Figure 10 shows the relation between the amounts
of superplasticizer required to reach a 120-mm slump
in a set of concrete mixtures made with these three
microfines and the packing degree of microfines.
from these results it was concluded that this test
might be a good indicator of the microfines suitability for concrete.
5 GRADING OPTIMIZATION
Research has shown that aggregate grading plays a key
role on the performance of Portland cement concrete,
104
50
25
45
Workability factor
percentage retained
30
20
15
10
5
IV
III
40
II
35
I
30
V
25
20
100
MF
N200
N50
N100
N30
N8
N16
N4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1 1/2
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Coarseness factor
Sieve Size
Figure 11.
90
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,2
[d/D]^0.45
(3)
Where:
Q Plus 3/8-in. sieve particles
I Minus 3/8 in. and plus N8 sieve particles
Figure 12 presents the coarseness chart which is
divided into five zones. The diagonal bar, which separates zone V from the others, also separates rocky
mixtures from sandy mixes. Mixtures in zone I are
prone to segregation. Mixtures in zone IV have too
much fine aggregate and are likely to crack, yield low
strength, and segregate during vibration. Zone II is
the desirable zone. Zone III is an extension of zone II
for maximum size of aggregate of 0.5 in. or less.
Although a uniform blend should have material
retained in every sieve, Shilstone [2002] points out
that the amount retained in a single sieve is not as
important as the amounts retained in two adjacent
sieves. Accordingly, sieves are grouped in clusters of
two: 2 in. and 1-1/2 in., 1 in. and 34 in., N4 and N8,
N16 and N30, and N50 and N100.
Excess material in one sieve in a cluster can compensate for a deficiency on the other sieve of the cluster.
Deficiencies in two adjacent sieves in different clusters
can be acceptable, as long as there is a peak at the other
sieve of the cluster. It is in the N4-N8 cluster where the
effect of shape and texture is more significant.
All minus N200 sieve materials are classified as
paste. The combination of paste and fine aggregate
105
percentage retained
30
25
20
15
10
5
MF
N200
N50
N100
N30
N8
N16
N4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1 1/2
Sieve Size
Workability factor
50
45
IV
40
III
II-c
35
II-b
II-a
I
30
CONCLUSIONS
From the results of these projects the following conclusions can be made.
Good quality concrete in terms of strength and
durability can be made from manufactured fine
aggregate with high microfines content.
Characterization tests to assess microfines suitability for concrete are required since some microfines
might be harmful for concrete.
More research is required to establish the suitability of the methylene blue and the water demand tests
to characterize microfines for use in concrete.
Proper grading and water reducing admixtures can
be used to control the tendency of sand with high
microfines to increase the water demand.
V
25
REFERENCES
20
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Coarseness factor
106
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Disposal of reservoir sludge has become a major problem in most of principal reservoirs in
Taiwan. For the purposes of economy and ecology, we attempt to study the feasibility of using reservoir sludge as
a substitute for a portion of fine aggregates in cement mortars. Through a cationic-exchange reaction with cationic
surfactants, reservoir sludge in Taiwan mainly composed of smectite clay is first organo-modified. As a partial
replacement of fine aggregates, the percentage of organo-modified reservoir sludge (OMRS) added in cement
mortars ranges from 1% to 100%. The compressive strengths and permeability ratios of cement mortars with
various percentages of OMRS particles were measured and then compared to those of plain cement mortars.
Experimental results indicate that it is possible to replace up to 30% by weight of fine aggregates by OMRS particles in cement mortars for normal practice. Furthermore, excellent waterproof of cement mortars is achieved
when the percentage of OMRS particles is within the range of 550%. Meanwhile, the microstructure of cement
mortars is characterized by using SEM, EDS and MIP to evaluate the effects of OMRS particles on the improvements of mechanical properties of cement mortars.
INSTRUCTIONS
107
The effects of OMRS particles on the compressive strengths of cement mortars are evaluated by
Table 1. Mix proportions of cement mortars with OMRS
particles.
Dosage of
OMRS(%)
W/C
OMRS
(kg/m3)
0
1
5
10
20
30
40
50
80
100
0.485
0
0.49
14
0.50
69
0.53
138
0.57
275
0.62
413
0.70
550
0.80
688
1.25 1100
1.64 1375
Sand
(kg/m3)
Cement
(kg/m3)
Water
(kg/m3)
1375
1361
1306
1237
1100
962
825
687
275
0
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
240
245
250
265
285
310
350
400
625
820
108
3.1
Compressive strength
95
-0.3
90
-0.6
85
-0.9
100
Weight (%)
Weight of RS
Weight of OMRS
Derivative weight of RS
Derivative weight of OMRS
80
-1.2
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Temperature (C)
109
Permeability
ratio
3-day
7-day
28-day
0
1
5
10
20
30
40
50
80
100
1
0.72
0.17
0.09
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.64
1.27
31.7
33.4
30.2
21.4
18.2
14.1
9.2
6.5
2.3
1.1
42.4
42.1
39.6
29.1
26.9
19.7
13.0
11.5
3.6
1.5
44.7
43.8
42.3
37.6
35.4
30.2
22.5
15.0
4.7
2.2
50
(0%,W/C=0.485)
(1%,W/C=0.49)
(5%,W/C=0.50)
40
(10%,W/C=0.53)
(20%,W/C=0.57)
(30%,W/C=0.62)
30
(40%,W/C=0.70)
20
(50%,W/C=0.80)
10
(80%,W/C=1.25)
(100%,W/C=1.64)
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Age (days)
Figure 2. Compressive strengths of cement mortars containing various dosages of OMRS particles at different curing
ages of 3, 7 and 28 days.
particles could be up to 95% of their 28-day compressive strengths. Meanwhile, the 28-day compressive
strengths of cement mortars with 1% and 5% OMRS
particles are close to those of plain cement mortars. In
addition, the 7-day compressive strengths of cement
mortars with 10%, 20% and 30% OMRS particles are
around 72% of their 28-day compressive strengths.
As compared to plain cement mortars, the 28-day
compressive strengths of cement mortars with 10%,
20% and 30% OMRS particles drop within the range
of 16%32%. The decreasing 28-day strengths of
cement mortars with OMRS particles result from the
increasing water-cement ratios to attain a constant
flow table spread value of 100% when the percentage
of OMRS particles is increased. Besides, the hydration
of cement mortars is apparently retarded due to the hindrance of hydrophobic OMRS particles to water diffusion when the percentage of OMRS particles is more
than 10%.
Similar results can be found in group II including
the cement mortars with 40% or 50% OMRS particles. In group II, the 28-day compressive strengths of
cement mortars are more than 15 MPa but less than
25 MPa, and the 7-day compressive strengths of cement
mortars only reach 66% of their 28-day compressive strengths. Again, the higher water-cement ratios
required for the cement mortars with 40% and 50%
OMRS particles to have a flow table spread value of
100% result in a significant decrease of 28-day compressive strengths.
A dramatic reduction of compressive strengths
occurs for the cement mortars with a percentage of
80% or 100% OMRS particles, denoted as group III.
Because of the excessively high water-cement ratios
required to keep the consistency of cement mortar
slurry with an extra amount of hydrophobic OMRS
particles, the development of compressive strengths
for the cement mortars becomes much slower even
after 7 days curing. As expected, the 28-day compressive strengths of cement mortars with 80% and 100%
OMRS particles are tremendously reduced and could
be less than 10 MPa.
Experimental results of groups I suggest that OMRS
particles can be used in normal-strength cement mortars. If the percentage of replacement for fine aggregates is less than 30%, the 28-day compressive
strengths of cement mortars drop at a maximum of
30% but are still higher than 25 MPa which satisfies
the design requirement of normal-strength cement
mortars. Meanwhile, experimental results of group II
indicate that the 28-day compressive strengths of
cement mortars are within a range of 1525 MPa
when the percentage of replacement for fine aggregates varies from 30% to 50%. Thus, the cement mortars in group II can be used as intermediate-strength
cement mortars in minor structural facilities and
components. In group III, the 28-day compressive
110
0.4
0%,W/C=0.485
10%,W/C=0.53
50%,W/C=0.80
100%,W/C=1.64
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
Permeability ratio
Microstructural characterization
111
Element
Weight (%)
Atomic(%)
Element
Weight (%)
Atomic(%)
Mg
Al
Si
K
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Ni
Cu
Total
0
2.72
13.40
2.78
77.80
0.47
0
2.84
0
0
100
0
3.81
18.00
2.68
73.23
0.37
0
1.92
0
0
100
Mg
Al
Si
K
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Ni
Cu
Total
1.67
11.83
30.58
5.69
38.68
1.09
0
9.77
0
0
100
2.35
15.05
37.39
5.00
33.15
0.78
0
6.01
0
0
100
Weight (%)
Atomic(%)
Mg
Al
Si
K
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Ni
Cu
Total
0
5.37
22.09
5.16
60.81
0.66
0
5.91
0
0
100
0
7.23
28.55
4.79
55.08
0.50
0
3.84
0
0
100
Weight (%)
Atomic(%)
Mg
Al
Si
K
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Ni
Cu
Total
0
9.27
26.75
4.65
49.52
0.98
0
8.57
0
0
100
0
12.16
33.69
4.21
43.70
0.73
0
5.43
0
0
100
Figure 4. EDS scattered molecules of Si and Ca pointmapping images of a plain cement mortar.
112
Figure 5. EDS scattered molecules of Si and Ca pointmapping images of cement mortar containing 50% OMRS
particles.
CONCLUSIONS
The feasibility of using reservoir sludge for replacement of fine aggregates in cement mortars is studied
here. Since smectite clays are the primary compounds
of reservoir sludge in Taiwan, reservoir sludge are first
organo-modified before they are mixed with water.
Thermogravimetric analyses indicate that hydrophilic
reservoir sludge become hydrophobic through a
113
REFERENCES
Bhatty, J.I. & Reid, K.J. 1989. Moderate strength concrete from
lightweight sludge ash aggregates. Cement and Concrete
Composites 11(3): 179187.
Kuo, W.Y., Huang, J.S. & Lin, G.H. 2006. Effects of organomodified montmorillonite on strength and permeability
of cement mortars. Cement and Concrete Research 36:
886895.
Kuo, W.Y., Huang, J.S. & Tan, T.E. 2007. Organo modified
reservoir sludge as fine aggregate in cement mortars.
Construction and building materials 21: 609615.
Monzo, J., Paya, J., Borrachero, M.V. & Corcoles, A. 1996.
Use of sewage sludge ash (SSA) cement admixtures in
mortars. Cement and Concrete Research 26: 13891398.
Monzo, J., Paya, J., Borrachero, M.V. & Mora, E.P. 1999.
Mechanical behavior of mortars containing sewage sludge
ash (SSA) and portland cement with different tricalcium
aluminate content. Cement and Concrete Research 29:
8794.
Pandey, S.P. & Sharma, R.L. 2000. The influence of mineral
additives on the strength and porosity of OPC mortar.
Cement and Concrete Research 30: 1923.
114
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The concept of fly ash-saturation is put forward based on the index of maximum compressive
strength and optimum strength factor of unit fly ash in mortar and concrete system, respectively. Experiments
are also carried out to investigate the effect of water to binder ratio (w/b) and type of fly ash on fly ash-saturation
under full hydration condition in mortar system. The results indicate that the value of fly ash-saturation in mortar
is influenced by w/b and type of fly ash. In investigated area, fly ash-saturation in mortar and concrete ranges from
20% to 30% of total binder by weight. The fly ash-saturation for optimum compressive strength of mortar/concrete
differs from one based on optimum unit strength factor of fly ash.
INTRODUCTION
115
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
2.1
Raw materials
sand to binder (cement and fly ash) is 2.5 for all mortar samples. The flowability for all mortar samples
ranges from 135 mm to 150 mm measured by flow
table test according to ASTM C230-90.
Concrete sample is made by stainless steel mold
with 100 mm 100 mm 100 mm. Mix proportion
of raw materials in concrete mixture is: 500 kg/m3
binder; 610 kg/m3 sand; 1230 kg/m3 coarse aggregate;
140 kg/m3 water; The slump for all concrete samples
ranges from 10 mm to 30 mm. Water-reducer is added
to improve workability of mortar and concrete sample.
In order to let cement and fly ash fully hydrate
within a limited age, the following procedure of curing treatment for mortar sample was chosen: sample
was demolded at 1 day after casting and cured in
water with a temperature of 22C for four days and
then cured in water with a temperature of 60C for
two days. For Concrete sample, two curing conditions
are used. One is standard curing condition (20 2C,
RH
95%) for 90d. The other is heat water with a
temperature of 60C curing condition for 12 h after
demolded at 1d and then standard curing until 90d
age. Due to the consideration of side effects of excess
high temperature on microstructure and properties of
sample, heat water with a temperature of only 60C is
chosen as a rapid curing condition. The details for
curing treatment can be referred documents [LONG
Guangcheng et al 2005].
3
3.1
2.2
SiO2
Al2O3
Cement
FAI
FAII & UFA
24.3
52.7
51.2
4.8
31.8
29.5
3.8
5.7
6.1
Table 2.
UFA
FAI
FAII
55.3 4.2
3.7 1.2
3.1 3.0
2.2
0.2
0.7
Residue
passing
45 m
sieve/%
WaterIgnition
content/ loss/
%
%
Blaine
Specific
Density/ area/
g.cm3 m2.kg1
2.6
4.0
8.0
0.47
0.20
0.17
2.53
2.30
2.16
5.0
3.5
6.0
700
500
310
116
50
compressive strength/MPa
10
60
amount of FAI
30%
12
70
40%
20%
60
50%
50
10%
40
0%
Control sample
30
40
8
0
0.28
10
20
30
40
50
60
replacement of cement by FAI / % by mass
0.36
0.40
0.44
0.32
3.6
20%
10%
30%
3.0
2.4
40%
1.8
50%
1.2
10
20
30
40
50
60
0.27
0.30
0.33
0.36
0.39
0.42
0.45
Figure 2.
117
55
UFA
50
45
40
35
FAII
30
25
10
20
30
40
50
UFA
The physical and chemical effect of fly ash on properties of cement-based materials depends on characteristics of hydration environment and properties of
fly ash. As to a defined hydration environment, the
physical and chemical effect of fly ash is determined
by type of fly ash. Figure 3 gives the experimental
result of effect of fly ash type on fly ash-saturation in
mortar with a w/b of 0.3.
Figure 3 shows that type of fly ash greatly influenced
compressive strength of mortar. And the optimum content of fly ash for maximum compressive strength of
mortar differs from each other with respect to type of
fly ash. Moreover, the most noteworthy is that the
strength of mortar with UFA is considerable large and
the one of mortar with FAII is much less compared with
mortar with FAI. UFA is derived from FAII by grinding
treatment. This indicates that mechanical grinding treatment to fly ash can remarkably improve strength contribution of fly ash on cement-based materials system.
This may result from the improvement of size distribution and chemical reaction of UFA particles by mechanical treatment. Therefore UFA show good physical
filling effect and chemical reaction role in sample compared with FAII.
The result shown in Figure 3b indicates that the variation of unit strength factor of fly ash with replacement
of cement by fly ash is similar to each other for three
types of fly ash. Furthermore, the fly ash-saturation is
the same for three types of fly ash and it is about 20%.
Compared with FAI or UFA, the unit strength-factor of
FAII is much less. The less chemical activity and larger
particles diameter of FAII is responsible for this result.
FAI
60
3.3
65
FAI
FAII
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
Content of fly ash / by mass%
50
3.4
118
95
which depends on w/b of concrete or mortar, characteristics of hydration system, fly ash type and aggregates type etc. Moreover, there are many kinds of fly
ash including various physical properties such as
fineness and chemical properties. Therefore, this
issue can not be solved clearly by a simple paper with
limited space. From present study, following conclusions can be obtained.
90
85
1) There exists a fly ash-saturation range for maximum strength of mortar and concrete or maximum
strength-factor of unit fly ash in cement-based
materials under fully hydration condition. The
proposition of fly ash-saturation is reasonable and
valid.
2) Parameter of water to binder ratio and type of fly
ash can greatly influence fly ash-saturation in
cementitious materials. In this investigated area, fly
ash-saturation ranges from 20% to 30% replacement of cement by fly ash for mortar or concrete
system.
3) Fly ash-saturation for maximum compressive
strength of cementitious materials differs from
that for maximum strength-factor of unit fly ash.
4) Mechanical grinding treatment to fly ash can
remarkably improve its strength contribution on
cement-based materials.
80
75
0
10
20
30
40
50
2.5
concrete, w/b=0.28, UFA
12h heat water curing,90 days
2.0
1.5
1.0
0
10
20
30
40
REFERENCES
50
CONCLUSIONS
As mentioned above, fly ash-saturation in cementitious materials system is a very complicated issue,
119
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper reports on the use of Ultra-Fine Fly Ash (UFFA) used as up to 50% partial replacement for cement in concrete. UFFA is a new generation fine coal fly ash, which is double-classified to obtain
the finer particles from the classified bulk. The influence of UFFA on fresh properties (flow, setting time and
air content), porosity of mid to high strength, medium workability concrete mixes (designed for equal 28-day
strength) are reported and compared with concrete mixes made with OPC, Micro-Silica (MS) and seven BS
3892 Part 1 fly ashes (PFA).
The study shows that UFFA has significantly higher pozzolanicity than all UK fly ashes tested and significantly reduces the water demand and air content of concrete. The compressive strength results indicate that a
partial replacement of OPC with UFFA can not only reduce the total binder content required to obtain target
strength at specific ages irrespective of curing, but also increases the efficiency of the combination binder by
up to 50% at later ages.
The porosity of concrete made with UFFA all showed improvement compared to equal strength concrete
made with OPC and UK PFA, irrespective of curing. A high strength of 130 N/mm2 was attained at 28 days for
a blend of UFFA/MS/OPC concrete with a combination of selected aggregates sizes proportions.
INTRODUCTION
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Materials
Concrete mixes
121
Table 1.
Chemical composition
Oxides
OPC*
UFFA 1
20.7
5.7
2.3
64.8
1.1
0.19
0.6
3.21
0.58
0.92
53.4
32.3
4.09
5.05
1.29
.05
0.08
0.32
0.10
1.97
0.23
53
25.1
10.2
3.8
2
0.2
0.1
0.9
0.27
1.2
4.9
54.3
23.1
9.2
4.1
2
0.2
0.1
1.4
0.27
1
5.8
55.6
25
10.4
1.9
1.6
0.4
0.2
1.1
0.53
1.1
2.5
48.6
24.6
13
2.8
1.7
0.4
0.1
1.3
0.47
1.1
6.1
51.2
26.1
7.8
6.4
1.9
0.4
0.1
1.4
0.47
1.6
3.3
50.6
92
26.1
1
9.4
1
3.7
0.3
2.2
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.8
1.3
0.3
0.63
0.83
1.2
4.7
55.1
25.1
10.7
1.6
1.5
0.4
0.1
1.2
0.47
1
3.1
MS*
GGBS*
35.84
13
0.55
39.53
8.28
0.35
0.5
0.1
0.68
Properties of aggregates
Sieve analisis
Coarse aggregates
% Passing
Sand
Passing %
4.75
2.36
1.18
600
300
150
75
FM
Specific Gravity
W. Abs. (%)
98
86
76
62
20
6
0
2.51
2.62
0.59
10 mm
20 mm
Passing %
Passing %
37.5
20
14
10
5
2.36
100
100
100
95
7
0.65
100
98
57
12
5
2.63
1.12
2.5
Curing conditions
2.3
2.63
0.58
2.4
2.7
122
UFFA
3 m
Figure 1.
2.8
Curing environments.
Environment
Conditions
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
Water, 23C
3 days of water, 23C; thereafter air, 23C 55% RH
Air, 23C, 55% RH
3 days of water, 38C; thereafter air, 38C 95% RH
24 hours of air, 5C, 95% RH; thereafter air, 23C, 55% RH
The porosity of all the mixes was determined using vacuum saturation apparatus [RILEM Recommendations
1984].
2.9
Table 4 shows the particle size distribution for the various materials analysed. From this table, it is clear that
UFFA has higher specific surface area than the UK. BS
3892 Part 1 PFA and GGBS which was in the range of
340 to 715 m2/kg and 1,448 m2/kg respectively, but SM
had the highest surface area. UFFA had a fineness of
0% with a mean particle size of 2.32 m and 90% of
123
3.2
Water demand
Cementitious
material
Sp. surface
area m2/Kg
Carbon
content (%)
Fineness
45(m) (%)
D[v,0.1]
D[v,0.5]
D[v,0.9]
Span
UFFA
PFA1
PFA2
PFA3
PFA4
PFA5
PFA6
PFA7
MS*
GGBS*
2,893
715
359
509
681
448
499
340
4,952
1,448
0.23
3.1
4.9
5.8
2.5
6.1
3.3
4.7
0
6.5
11.1
10.1
6.3
14.3
9.3
14.2
0
0.5
0.4
1.5
3.37
2.14
1.58
2.43
2.24
3.65
0.25
0.9
2.32
8.47
15.82
12.18
9.2
14.97
12.79
15.28
1.03
6.64
5.28
36.81
46.33
44.56
36.5
52.1
42.91
52.19
22.27
19.52
2.1
4.17
2.72
3.48
3.8
3.32
3.18
23.05
21.36
2.8
* for comparison.
16
Sp. S. Area
3000
Fineness
14
12
2500
10
2000
8
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
15
Mean Particle Size (ADM)
(a)
20
25
3500
m2/kg
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
Figure 2.
4
Carbon content %
(b)
124
3500
120
UFFA
BS 3892: Part 1. Fly Ash
GGBS
110
MS
100
UK PFA Water
demand zone
90
80
70
0
20
40
60
80
100
10%
50%
30%
70%
100
35%
95%
95
95
90
90
Water Demand %
Water Demand %
100
85
80
85
80
75
75
70
70
65
65
0
1000
2000
Figure 4.
Workability
Figure 3.
3.3
3000
4000
Carbon content %
m2/kg
(b)
The effect of specific surface area and carbon content of fly ash water.
125
Mixes
Grade/Type
R2
Std Error
Flow
% Air
Content
2.96
1.95
1.59
1.22
0.71
1.4
2.03
0.48
0.393
0.383
0.38
0.336
0.395
0.392
0.964
0.983
0.987
0.982
0.977
0.963
0.94
0.069
0.048
0.042
0.049
0.055
0.07
0.088
429
488
527
603
653
578
490
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
0.8
1.7
1.5
3.34
0.72
0.65
0.29
0.42
1.25
0.465
0.276
0.275
0.274
0.294
0.418
0.966
0.937
0.943
0.966
0.986
0.954
0.068
0.091
0.087
0.067
0.043
0.078
463
629
633
745
668
589
4.6
2.8
2.4
2
2.5
2.3
Grade 40 N/mm2
OPC
UFFA-05
UFFA-10
UPPA-30
UFFA-50
BS 3892 Part 1 PFA-30
MS-10
Grade 80 N/mm2
OPC
UFFA-05
UFFA-10
UFFA-30
BS 3892 Part 1 PFA-30
MS-10
OPC40
UFFA 40/30
UFFA 40/50
BS 3892 Part 1. PFA 1 40/30
MS10
1.5
0.5
0
2
7
Torque (Nm)
Figure 5.
126
10
11
12
low and high strength, high strength concrete attaining higher air content than the low strength. This is
due to the different superplasticizers used for low and
high strength concrete. Complast 111 superplasticizer
was applied at 0.2% by weight of the cementitious
material for high strength concrete. This superplasticizer aided the workability of concrete but also
800
700
600
Grade 40 N/mm2
Grade 80 N/mm2
500
20
40
UFFA % content
(a)
60
5
4
Grade 40 N/mm2
Grade 80 N/mm2
3
2
1
0
0
20
40
UFFA % content
(b)
3.4
Pozzolanicity
400
0
Porosity
The typical factored porosity with respect to 28 days water cured OPC.
Porosity of Concrete (%)
Curing Environment
28 days
Mix
UK Fly ash
Upper bound
OPC
UFFA05
UFFA10
UK Fly ash
UFFA30
Lower bound
UFFA50
UK BS 3892 Part 1 PFA 1 30
UK BS 3892 Part 1 PFA 2 30
MS05
MS10
6 months
E1
E2
E3
E1
E2
E3
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.62
0.59
0.79
0.89
0.90
0.87
1.09
1.07
0.97
0.75
0.70
0.81
0.91
0.95
0.90
1.27
1.16
1.07
0.86
0.76
0.88
0.96
1.01
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.75
0.57
0.48
0.65
0.73
0.81
0.74
1.00
0.85
0.81
0.72
0.64
0.75
0.81
0.88
0.82
1.09
0.94
0.87
0.74
0.71
0.84
0.94
0.93
0.88
E1: Water curing; E2: 3 days Water curing then Air curing and E3: Air curing.
127
Table 4 shows the improvement of concrete porosity due to the application of this cementation material.
UFFA concrete improved the permeation of the overall concrete compared to the control. This improvement was indicated by the further reduction in porosity
200
180
160
Pozzolanic Index %
140
120
100
80
OPC
Log. (SPFA)
60
Log. (UK BS3892 Part 1:
PFAs)
40
0
100
200
300
400
Age (days)
Figure 7.
Table 7.
Aggregates
MIX CODE
OPC
UFFA
MS
Cement
Save
w/b
20 mm
15 mm
10 mm 5 mm Sand
28
OPC
UFFA/MS 1*
UFFA/MS 2*
UFFA/MS 3*
522
368
368
368
79
79
79
79
79
79
153
153
153
120
100
100
100
0.23
0.19
0.19
0.19
770
770
0
0
0
0
770
1110
340
340
340
0
84.6
97
98.4
102.5
95.1
111.3
116.6
129.5
128
0
0
0
156
778
702
702
546
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I dedicate this paper to the late Dr Ewan A. Byars, for
his helpful comments during the investigation. A vote
of thanks goes to my parents, Sheffield University
department of Civil and Structural Engineering and
Kenya government for their moral support and sponsorships.
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution. BS 12 [1996].
British Standards Institution. BS 3892, Part 1 [1997].
British Standards Institution. BS 1881, Part 5 [1970].
British Standards Institution. BS EN 196-2 [1995].
British Standards Institution. BS EN 196-3 [1995].
Bouzouba,N., Zhang, M.H., Bilodeau, A. and Malhotra, V. M.
1998. Laboratory-produced high-volume fly ash blended
cements: physical properties and compressive strength of
mortars. Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 28,
Issue 11, Pages 15551569.
Bouzouba, N. Zhang, M. H. and Malhotra, V. M. 1998.
Laboratory-produced high-volume fly ash blended
cements: compressive strength and resistance to the
chloride-ion penetration of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research, Volume 28, Issue 7, Pages 10371046.
Domone, P. L. and Soutsos, M. N. 1995. Properties of highstrength concrete mixes containing PFA and GGBS,
Magazine of Cement Research, Volume 47, No 173.
Goltermann, P., Johansen, V. and Palbol, L. 1997. Parking of
aggregates: an alternative tool to determine the optimum
aggregate mix, ACI Journal, Volume 94, Issue 5, Pages
435443.
Khurana, S., Banerjee, R. and Gaitonde, U. 2002. Energy
balance and cogeneration for a cement plant. Applied
Thermal Engineering, Volume 22, Issue 5, Pages
485494.
McCarthy, M. J. and Dhir, R. K. 1999. Towards maximising
the use of fly ash as a binder. Fuel, Volume 78, Issue 2,
Pages 121132.
Tsartsari, A. 2002. Super-classified pfa and microsilica
blend, Civil and Structural Engineering, Dissertation.
Turanli, L., Uzal, B. and Bektas, F. 2005. Effect of large
amounts of natural pozzolan addition on properties of
blended cements. Cement and Concrete Research,
Volume 35, Issue 6, June 2005, Pages 1106111.
129
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Manufacturing of normal portland cement, a major ingredient in concrete industry contributes
significantly to the CO2 emissions. The paper mentions briefly the efforts on part of Hindustan Construction
Company Ltd, the leading Indian construction company; to advocate and maximize the use of fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. The paper includes case study on use of High Volume Fly Ash
Concrete incorporating 55% fly ash at Bandra Worli Sea Link Project in Mumbai and Self Compacting
Concrete incorporating 45% fly ash at Rajasthan Atomic Power Project near Kota.
Of the many technical benefits, the most significant benefit of use of fly ash in concrete is enhancement of
durability of concrete, due to almost nil permeability, which in turn increases the service life of the concrete.
The other technical benefits associated with use of fly ash in concrete are contribution to increase in workability, reduction in heat of hydration and better sulphate/chloride resistance. The utilization of fly ash also reduces
the consumption of cement in concrete thereby reducing its production to that amount.
Fly Ash concrete is a classic example for attaining sustainability in concrete construction alongwith the benefits
of increasing the durability and service life of the structure.
INTRODUCTION
131
2.1
Project description
Materials
Conventional
concrete
Fly ash
concrete
396
0
396
180
220 (55%)
400
178
0.45
905
835
5.5
135
0.34
1000
930
10
2.3.3 Aggregate
Crushed basalt rock with a maximum size of 20 mm
was used as coarse aggregate. Fine aggregate consisted of crushed sand manufactured from basalt rock
and natural sand from River Ambika. The individual
aggregates were blended to get the desired combined
grading.
2.3.4 Chemical admixture
Sulfonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde based highrange water-reducing Admixture confirming to ASTM
C494-99 Type G was used.
2.4
Mixture proportions
Field application
132
7 days
14 days
28 days
56 days
91 days
Age of concrete
Conv. Mix
Durability Properties
Water Permeability
60
@ 28 D
Water Permeability
32
@ 91 D
RCPT @ 28 D
5500
coulombs
RCPT @ 91 D
3000
coulombs
RCPT of cores
@ 365 D
FAC Mix
Conventional
concrete
Fly ash
concrete
10.2
18.5
20.3
36.5
47.2
63.9
64.8
69.9
42.5
0
2000
coulombs
972
coulombs
423
coulombs
Conclusion
133
3.
3.1
Project description
Reinforced concrete works in raft, isolated footings, concrete blocks, equipment foundations, slab,
beams, walls, hatches, hatch covers, pre-cast plank
and trenches with M25 grade of concrete
Prestressed concrete work in inner and outer containment wall and dome with M45 grade of concrete
Heavy concrete work in calandria vault with integral carbon steel liner, fuelling machine service
area, heavy concrete blocks and heavy grout
Miscellaneous works.
Mix with
0% Fly
Ash
Cement
320
(OPC 43 Gr)
Fly Ash (Kota)
0
W/Cm
0.5
Superplasticiser
5.2
Slump (mm)
120
Compressive strength (MPa)
7 days
31.77
28 days
43.91
56 days
44.57
91 days
180 days
Permeability (mm)
33
RCPT @ 28 days
RCPT @ 91 days
Mix with
25% Fly
Ash
Mix with
40% Fly
Ash
260
204
80
0.47
4.0
120
136 (40%)
0.45
4.0
120
26.29
41.12
43.10
22
19.7
37.8
48.6
53.5
66.2
13
1958
855
Interpretation of results
It was observed that the strength of 40% fly ash mixture increased from 37.8 MPa at 28 days to 48.6 MPa
at 56 days. The rate of increase in strength for 40% fly
ash mixture was quite appreciable with compressive
strength values as high as 53.5 MPa at 91 days and
66.2 MPa at 180 days. The mixture with 0% fly ash
had no appreciable increase in strength from 28 to 56
days. The permeability of mixture with 40% fly ash
was 13 mm against 33 mm for mixture with 0% fly
ash at 28 days. Progressive reduction in the RCPT
value of 40% fly ash mixture was observed. Both the
findings indicate that the fly ash concrete was more
durable than the concrete without any fly ash.
3.6
Conclusion
134
4.1
4.2
Material
Table 4. Mixture proportioning of Self Compacting concrete (RAPP).
Ingredients (kg/m3)
Mixture proportions
Cement
Fly Ash
Total Water
W/cm
20 mm
10 mm
Natural Sand
Crushed Sand
Superplasticiser
Retarder
VMA
Compressive strength (MPa)
3 days
7 days
28 days
56 days
250
200
180
0.4
250
374
426
562
3.8
0.45
0.45
11.5
19.5
35
41.5
Conclusion
135
REFERENCES
GENERAL REMARKS
The above case studies prove the utility of fly ash for
different types of concrete applications. If the same
concrete had been done with only OPC, amount of
cement consumption would have been much higher.
For the above applications HCC has reduced cement
consumption by 7500 MT. Using fly ash in concrete
not only improves the durability of the structure in a
cost effective manner but also helps in conserving the
natural resources and reduces the green house gases.
136
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D.B. Anderson
Midwest Engineering Services Inc., Waukesha, WI, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper presents research performed to identify mixture proportions and develop an in-situ
mixed concrete for a 1.416 hectare [3.5 acre] storage pad for bottom ash and synthetic gypsum produced at We
Energies Pleasant Prairie Power Plant, which is located in Kenosha County, Wisconsin. Ingredients of the concrete
produced consisted of recycled concrete coarse aggregate, bottom ash fine aggregate, Class C fly ash and either
portland cement or slag cement yielding a 93% or 100% recycled content, respectively. Compressive strengths
attained 21 MPa [3,100 psi] for the portland cement/Class C fly ash blend at an age of 1 year and 1214 MPa
[1,7002,000 psi] for the Slag cement/Class C fly ash blend.
INTRODUCTION
137
Figure 1.
1.2
Relevant publications
LABORATORY TESTING
138
Evaluation of the proposed in-situ mixed roller compacted recycled concrete mixture was performed based
on coarse and fine aggregate consisting of 38 mm
[112 in] top size recycled concrete from Payne and
Dolan in Racine, Wisconsin and bottom ash from We
Energies Pleasant Prairie Power Plant (P4). The
blended cementitous material consisted of 50% portland cement from LaFarge and 50% Class C fly ash
from We Energies P4.
Based on the grainsize analysis of the proposed
recycled aggregate, the coarse aggregate is described
as a poorly to well-graded crushed concrete with about
4867% gravel, 3145% sand, and 2.66.6% silt/clay
sized particles. The initial sample of recycled concrete
was somewhat more open graded with limited fines
compared to the more densely graded samples supplied during the second phase of the laboratory and
field test. This was also evident in the aggregate
blends, Moisture Density, and Moisture Strength test
results. The fine aggregate is described as a bottom
ash with about 46% gravel, 7785% sand, and
1317% silt/clay sized particles. Results of the unit
weight tests on the coarse and fine aggregate indicated loose unit weights of 1584 to 1682 kg/m3 [99 to
105 pcf] and 1041 kg/m3 [65 pcf], respectively. Grain
size analysis test results are shown on Table 1 and
Figure 2.
Results of the coarse/fine aggregate blends 50/50,
60/40, 70/30, and 80/20 generally indicate a poorly
graded aggregate with about 3554% gravel, 4157%
sand, and 58% silt/clay blends producing the higher
densities. Based on the blended aggregate test results
the 60/40 sized particles. The compacted unit weights
of the blends ranged from 1646.9 to 1747.8 kg/m3
recycled concrete/bottom ash blend was selected for
Recycled concrete
Sample no.
BA1
BA2
RC1
RC2
RC3 (field)
Grainsize analysis,
mm [in/ sieve #]
38.1 [112]
25.4 [1]
19.05 [34]
12.7 [12]
9.5 [3/8]
4.76 [#4]
2.0 [#10]
0.84 [#20]
0.42 [#40]
0.147 [#100]
0.074 [#200]
100
99.0
98.1
95.6
92.3
83.5
67.0
26.7
12.6
100
98.5
96.7
94.0
91.2
83.8
70.1
36.1
16.7
100
95.7
85.0
65.2
54.6
33.5
20.3
12.1
7.5
3.5
2.6
100
93.4
75.5
66.1
48.4
37.1
27.9
20.6
9.4
6.6
100
94.2
79.1
69.4
51.8
35.8
24.2
17.1
8.7
6.6
139
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
Chemical and physical data available on the cementitious materials used on this project are shown on Table
3. The Class C fly ash was supplied from We Energies
Pleasant Prairie Power Plant which is also the site of
the eco-pad construction project. The slag cement and
portland cement were both provided by Lafarge NA.
The cementitious materials were preblended at
Lafarges terminal located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
The 1646.9 to 1747.8 kg/m3 [102.8 to 109.1 pcf]
with the 60/40 and 70/30 blends produced the higher
120
Distributions
100
BA1
BA2
RC1
RC2
RC3
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
Sample No. (mm)
40
50
Figure 2. Grainsize distribution for bottom ash and recycled concrete (x-axis: GrainSize (mm); y-axis: % Finer).
Table 2.
Sample no.
grainsize analysis,
mm [in/sieve #]
38.1 [112]
25.4 [1]
19.05 [34]
12.7 [12]
9.5 [3/8]
4.76 [#4]
2.0 [#10]
0.84 [#20]
0.42 [#40]
0.147 [#100]
0.074 [#200]
USCS
Unit Weight
(Loose), kg/m3 [pcf]
Unit Weight
(Compacted), kg/m3 [pcf]
BA1
RC1
50/50
60/40
70/30
80/20
100
99.0
98.1
95.6
92.3
83.5
67.0
26.7
12.6
SM
1041.3
[65]
100
95.7
85.0
65.2
54.6
33.5
20.3
12.1
7.5
3.5
2.6
GW
1586
[99]
100
97.6
92.5
82.1
76.4
64.6
56.3
47.8
37.3
15.1
7.6
SP-SM
100
97.4
91.0
78.7
72.0
58.3
49.1
40.7
31.3
12.8
6.6
SP-SM
100
97.0
89.5
75.3
67.7
52.1
41.9
33.5
25.4
10.5
5.6
GP-GM
100
96.6
88.0
72.0
63.3
45.9
74.7
26.4
19.4
8.1
4.6
GP
1646.9
[102.8]
1744.6
[108.9]
1747.8
[109.1]
1733.4
[108.2]
Compacted unit weight is based on modified proctor method (ASTM D1557) at moisture content of 15%.
Loose unit weight is based on as received moisture content.
Aggregate blends are based on initial bottom ash and recycled concrete samples submitted.
140
Table 3.
Chemical data
Slag cement
Portland cement
40.35
18.94
5.18
64.47
21.65
3.81
1.93
0.45
1.78
1.25
35.68
10.00
0.58
46.26
38.62
11.2
2.41
0.35
0.42
20.7
4.8
2.7
28.2
65.4
2.5
2.4
1.61
1.3
Physical data
Fineness, amount retained
on #325 sieve%
Specific gravity
Table 4.
13.6
2.52
0.53
1.0
5.3
2.95
3.15
Summary of density/strength tests of 60/40 RC/BA aggregate blend with varying cement contents.
Moisture-density relationship
Moisture-strength relationship
Mixture ID
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum dry
density, kg/m3 [pcf]
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum
strength, MPa [psi]
15.5
16.5
14.5
1762.2 [110.0]
1762.2 [110.0]
1778.2 [111.0]
16.6
16.6
14.2
11 [1640]
12.5 [1820]
12.6 [1825]
Table 5.
Sample no.
grainsize, mm
[in/sieve #]
BA2
RC2
50/50
60/40
70/30
38.1 [112]
25.4 [1]
19.05 [34]
12.7 [12]
9.5 [3/8]
4.76 [#4]
2.0 [#10]
0.84 [#20]
0.42 [#40]
0.147 [#100]
0.074 [#200]
USCS
100
98.5
96.7
94.0
91.2
83.8
70.1
36.1
16.7
SM
100
94.2
79.1
69.4
51.8
35.8
24.2
17.1
8.7
6.6
6P-6M
Unit Weight
(Loose), kg/m3
[pcf]
1041.3
[65]
1682.1
[105]
100
96.7
87.0
81.4
71.2
64.2
55.9
45.4
22.8
11.7
SPSM
100
96.0
84.7
78.3
66.6
58.7
50.3
40.4
20.1
10.6
SPSM
100
95.4
82.4
75.3
62.1
53.3
44.7
35.5
17.4
9.6
SPSM
141
Table 6.
Summary of the moisture density and moisture/strength tests with varying aggregate blends.
Moisture-density relationship
Moisture-strength relationship
Mixture Id
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum dry
density, kg/m3 [pcf]
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum
strength, MPa [psi]
13.5
12.5
10.5
1770 [110.5]
1842 [115.0]
1922 [120.0]
12.6
12.4
11.2
10 [1460]
13 [1880]
13.2 [1920]
produce a higher density. Higher density also generally produces higher strengths.
Subsequently, it was elected to construct the field
test pavement with a 127 mm [5 in] and 76 mm [3 in]
thick recycled concrete/bottom ash aggregate blend and
a 15% blended cementitious content. Construction of
the pavement would consist of placing 76 mm [3 in] of
bottom ash and 127 mm [5 in] of recycled concrete
prior to pre blending. This ratio by volume was
expected to be similar to the 70/30 ratio by weight
performed in the preliminary lab testing phase and
also reflected the practical level of precision in construction.
5
delay period from mixing of the cementitious material to compaction. Compaction of the in-situ mixture
was specified at 95 percent of the maximum dry density as determined by the modified Proctor method.
Climate conditions during the in-situ mixing were
challenging during construction. Due to a regional
cement shortage, construction was delayed into late
October and early November when temperatures were
cold in Wisconsin. This was complicated by a rainy
period that made obtaining optimum moisture content
for compaction a challenge at the beginning of the
project. A bottle neck in construction operation was
the rate at which the cementitious material could be
blended at the terminal and delivered to the project.
An operating issue at the cement terminal also threatened to delay the project because cement could not be
unloaded. However, ground granulated slag cement
was available at the terminal and substituted for portland cement, thus adding another interesting dimension to this project.
5.1
142
FIELD TESTING
subsequently air dried for 7 days, capped with a gypsum capping compound and compressive strengths
were determined in accordance with ASTM C39.
7 RESULTS OF FIELD TESTING
Evaluation of the in-situ recycled concrete mixture constructed in the eco-pad pavement was based on the
127 mm [5 in] recycled concrete to a 76 mm [3 in] bottom ash aggregate blend and 15% blended cementitious
(50% portland cement/50% Class C fly ash) material or
15% blended (50% slag cement/50% Class C flyash)
material.
Results of the grainsize analysis of the individual
bottom ash and recycled concrete samples used onsite indicated gradations similar to the results
obtained in the laboratory testing phase. Results of
the field blended aggregate samples also are similar
to those obtained in the laboratory test phase. Results
of the grainsize analysis of the lab and field aggregate
blends are summarized in Table 7.
Results of the moisture density relationship testing
indicated a higher maximum dry density at about the
same optimum moisture content as in the preliminary
laboratory mix proportioning phase. This is likely due
to a well-graded sample resulting in a more densely
compacted mixture. The higher result in the compressive strength may also be due to the higher density
characteristics and lower optimum moisture contents.
Subsequently, two (2) additional samples of the previously sampled and combined field blended aggregate
were mixed in the lab, one (1) with 15% PC/FA and
the other with 15% SC/FA cementitious blend to further assess the moisture-density and moisturestrength relationships. Results of the tests on the
PC/FA blend showed similar results to those of the
PC/FA blend of the first aggregate field blend mixture.
Results of the SC/FA cementitious blend also provided
results that were similar to those of the first aggregate
field blend mixture. Results of the SC/FA cementitious
blend resulted with similar moisture density relationships but with lower strengths, 11 MPa [1600 psi] vs.
15.3 and 18.6 MPa [2225 and 2700 psi]. This is likely
due to the fact that the slag cement contained less CaO
and also generally develops its strength at a slower rate
than portland cement. The second phase of the field
testing included performing field moisture and density
testing during the placement and compaction phase of
the construction. In summary, the field blended aggregate had moisture contents initially of 14 to 19 percent,
which was 0 to 5 percent above their recommended
mixing range of 9 to 13.
However, during the mixing process the moisture
contents were generally found to range from 10 to 16
percent based on the in-place field density testing.
The field density testing also indicated an in-place
143
Table 7.
70/30 blend
Field blend
Aggregate
blend RC/BA
Sample 1
60/40-1
Sample 2
60/40-2
Sample 1
70/30-1
Sample 2
70/30-2
Sample 1
Field 1
Sample 2
Field 2
Grainsize analysis,
mm [in/sieve#]
38.1 [112]
25.4 [1]
19.05 [34]
12.7 [12]
9.5 [3/8]
4.76 [#4]
2.0 [#10]
0.84 [#20]
0.42 [#40]
0.147 [#100]
0.074 [#200]
100
97.4
91.0
78.7
72.0
58.3
49.1
40.7
31.3
12.8
6.6
100
97
89.5
75.3
67.7
52.1
41.9
33.5
25.4
10.5
5.6
100
96
84.7
78.3
66.6
58.7
50.3
40.4
20.1
10.6
100
95.4
82.4
75.3
62.1
53.3
44.7
35.5
17.4
9.6
100
95.1
84.2
77.6
63.6
51.8
40.7
30.4
14.2
9.7
100
95.1
84.0
79.1
65.0
53.0
39.1
26.8
13.0
8.9
Table 8.
Moisture-strength relationship
Mixture ID
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum dry
density, kg/m3 [pcf]
Optimum
moisture %
Maximum
strength, MPa [psi]
10.5
10.0
11.0
1986.5 [124.0]
1986.5 [124.0]
1954.4 [122.0]
10.3
10.6
10.3
19 [2700]
15 [2225]
13 [1920]
Table 9.
Sample no.
FS-1
FS-2
FS-3
Sample date
Continuous blend
Field molded samples
Moisture content, %
Dry Density, kg/m3
[pcf]
Compaction, %
Compressive strength,
MPa [psi]
7 day (air)
7 day (oven)
28 day (air)
56 day (air)
180 day (air)
365 day (air)
365 day (corrected)*
Field core samples
365-day (air)
11-04-04
PC/FA
11-05-04
SC/FA
11-08-04
SC/FA
13.6
1941.61956
[121.2122.1]
99100
14.9
1919.21948
[119.8121.6]
9698
13.1
1933.61954.4
[120.7122]
9798
11.1 [1620]
1.3 [185]
1.0 [145]
16.8 [2440]
17.4 [2525]
22.6 [3280]
29.9 [4325]
27.1 [3930]
1.3 [195]
1.8 [265]
6.8 [985]
18.4 [2675]
16.8 [2435]
1.2 [175]
1.7 [240]
6.2 [900]
6.9 [2455]
15.4 [2235]
21.7 [3150]
13.6 [1970]
12.0 [1735]
Note: The molded field samples have a height to diameter ratio of 1.15:1 compared to the length to diameter ratio of 2:1 for
the field core samples. The 1.15 H/D samples therefore result in a somewhat higher strength than would be achieved with the
2 H/D core samples. A correction factor of 0.91 was therefore applied to obtain a corrected strength value on the molded 365
day sample for comparison purposes.
144
27.1 MPa [3930 psi] and 16.1 MPa [2334 psi], respectively. The test results for the field molded and cored
samples are summarized in Table 9.
35
Strength (MPa)
30
25
FS-1
20
FS-2
15
FS-3
CONCLUSIONS
10
5
0
0
Figure 3.
100
200
Time (days)
300
400
REFERENCES
Ramme, B. W., and Tharaniyil, M. P. 2004. Coal Combustion
Products Utilization Handbook. Second Edition, We
Energies.
Ramme, B. W., Wen, H., Sohns, L., Naik, T. R., and
Kraus, R. N. 2004. Utilization of Self Cementing Class C
Fly Ash in Full-Depth Reclaimed Asphalt Concrete
Pavements. Eighth CANMET/ACI International
Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural
Pozzolans in Concrete, Las Vegas, May 2329, 2004.
Anderson, D. B. 2006. Report of High Recycled Content InSitu Mixed Concrete Proposed ECO-PAD Pavement.
Midwest Engineering Services Inc. Project No. 7-45151-1,
May 15, 2006.
Malhotra, V. M., and Mehta, P. K. 2002. High-Performance,
High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete, Supplementary
Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development Inc.,
Ottawa, Canada, 2002.
145
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
K. Yuno
Yonden Business Co., Inc., Japan
ABSTRACT: Shikoku Electric Power Co., Inc., has developed the technology to manufacture a brand name
FINASH about 10 years ago, by sorting and classifying coal ash generated in coal fired power plants.
FINASH is highly functional fly ash which is produced by removing irregular coarse particles, a key factor
causing variation in quality of coal ash, with sophisticated classification technique and extracting good quality
spherical fine particles. It is now utilized as concrete admixture for civil engineering structures and buildings.
The concrete with highly functional fly ash has some advantages of enhancing long-term strength development
and improving durability and workability. Thus, it has been used in many construction works executed by
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and West Nippon Expressway Company Limited (the old Japan
Highway Public Corp) and so on. In this paper, properties (workability, strength development and durability) of
concrete with highly functional fly ash used as dust-reducing agent are described.
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF HFA
147
Table 1.
Characteristic of HFA.
Chemical property
Physical property
Classification
Wet
percentage
(%)
Loss on
ignition
(%)
Density
(g/cm3)
Specific
surface
(cm2/g)
Flow value
ratio*
(%)
SiO2
(%)
28-days
91-days
HFA
JIS A 6201 (Class I)
57.0
45
0.09
1.0
1.5
3.0
2.40
1.95
5570
5000
112
105
91
90
103
100
Table 2.
Mixture
no.
Water cement
ratio (%)
Sand percentage
(%)
1
2
61.7
56.4
60.0
Water
Cement
HFA
Fine
aggregate
coarse
aggregate
Set accelerating
agent
222
203
360
360
100
1031
953
708
726
21.6
21.6
Note: Max. size of coarse aggregate: 15 mm. Slump: 120 10 mm. Accelerator: 6% by mass of cement.
Table 3.
Materials used.
Materials
Specification
Portland cement
HFA
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Accelerator
148
3.2
The results of the model tunnel spray tests are presented in Figure 13.
3.2.1
25
21. 9
(100)
Amount of dust
Rebound rate
20
15
1000
800
600
400
200
0
10.4
(47)
118 0
(100 )
747
(63)
No. 1
Plain
10
5
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
No. 2
HFA
Figure 1.
nel tests.
30
Initial compressive strength (MPa)
25
Age: 24 hours
Age: 3 hours
20
17.5
(137)
15
12.8
(100)
10
5
0
3.4
(162)
2.1
(100)
No. 1
Plain
No. 2
HFA
Figure 2.
149
effects as well as decrease of water content, and eventually contributes to the improvement of strength
development.
4
The model tunnel spray test results reveal that the use
of HFA as an admixture of shotcrete made it possible
to decrease the amount of dust and the rebound rate,
and consequently to improve the strength development
of shotcrete. Thus, the particular shotcrete is applied
to actual road tunnel works in order to identify and
verify the dust reducing effect, the strength development property and durability.
4.1
with which conventional dust-reducing agent equivalent to 0.1% mass of portland cement is added. The
mixture No. 3 contains 100 kg/m3 HFA in place of fine
aggregate. The mixture No. 3 makes it possible to
increase viscosity of concrete properly and to decrease
the water content by 9 kg/m3 compared with the standard mixture.
4.1.2 Spray tests
The spray tests are performed using the on-site spray
gun and equipment on the above three types of mixture. Review is made on workability by the measurement of the amount of dust and rebound weight
during spraying, and also on the strength development property and the durability.
Prior to the spray tests, the necessary concrete is
made at the on-site concrete plant and the fresh properties of slump and air content are measured. Then the
concrete is transported to the working place in the
underground by agitator truck.
The spray tests are conducted with an integral pistonpump-system spray gun (Max. discharge: 20 m3/h) by
spraying 2 m3 concrete on the arch and side-wall parts
of the half section of the tunnel at the speed of
approximately 12 m3/h. The amount of dust released
while spraying is measured at six points located 5, 10,
60
Compressive strength (MPa)
Age: 91 days
Age: 28 days
Age: 7 days
Table 5.
50
40
33.6
(100)
30
28.0
(100)
20
10
Materials
Specification
34.7
(124)
Portland Cement
HFA
22.4
(110)
20.4
(100)
Fine aggregate
0
No. 1
Plain
Coarse aggregate
No. 2
HFA
Conventional dust
reducing agent
Accelerator
Figure 3.
Table 4.
Materials used.
46.0
(137)
Mixture
no.
Water
cement
ratio (%)
Sand
percentage
(%)
1
2
3
61.4
61.4
58.9
60.3
Water
Cement
HFA
Fine
aggregate
221
221
212
360
360
360
100
1038
1038
943
Coarse
aggregate
Conventional
dust reducing
agent
Set
accelerating
agent
707
707
718
0.36
25.2
25.2
25.2
Note: Max. size of coarse aggregate: 15 mm. Slump: 80 20 mm. Accelerator: 7% by mass of cement.
150
Rebound rate
25
22.0 (100)
250
18.5
200
10.6
199
(100)
150
100
151
(76)
50
0
No. 1
plain
20
(84)
15
(48)
105
(53)
5
0
No. 3
HFA
No. 2
conventional
dust reducing
agent
10
300
20
Age: 24 hours
Initial compressive
strength (MPa)
4.2
15
Age: 3 hours
10
5
0
No. 1
plain
13.7
7.1
6.9
(100)
(97)
(193)
0.7
1.2
2.0
(100)
(171)
(286)
No. 2
conventional
dust reducing
agent
No. 3
HFA
151
Age: 28 days
800
Age 7 days
Shrinkage strain (m/m)
Age: 91 days
50
38.2
40
29.6
(100)
22.3
(100)
30
20
16.8
(100)
10
0
No. 1
Figure 6.
33.1
(148)
20.6
(92)
19.4
(115)
15.7
(93)
500
400
300
200
0
0
HFA
20
40
60
80
100
Age (Day)
Figure 8.
25
No. 1 Plain
No. 2 Convevtional dust reducing agent
No. 3 HFA
20
600
100
No. 3
No.2
conventional
dust reducing
agent
plain
(129)
22.1
(75)
No. 1 Plain
No. 2 Conventional dust reducing agent
No. 3 HFA
700
15
10
5
0
28
56
Age (Day)
Figure 7.
CONCLUSIONS
152
REFERENCES
A Concrete Admixture FINASH. 1994. Civil Engineering
Material Technology Technical Review & Verification
Report, Japan :Civil Engineering Research Center.
153
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Fly ash has been used for many years in a wide range of applications because it is able to offer
many technical advantages such as enhanced durability and performance. For example it is able to improve the
sulfate resistance, reduce chloride diffusion, prevent alkali silica reaction, and reduce heat generation, etc in
cementitious applications.
These benefits have been researched by many people with published papers totalling many thousands. However,
it is only in recent years it is increasingly recognised that using fly ash also results in significant environmental
and sustainability benefits, simply by replacing virgin aggregates, acting as a cementitious binder reducing
overall greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing durability, extending a structures work life, etc. While considering these technical and environmental benefits, it is of a surprise that still a considerable proportion of fly ash
produced is landfilled every year.
This paper will take an overview of the use of coal fired power station ash. It will review the wide range of
applications for fly ash, looking at more recent developments in research, standards, specifications, ash processing, etc and the new ideas that have emerged for possible applications. The paper will consider the sustainability and environmental benefits of greater utilisation of the material. Also, those applications where little
progress seems to being made will be considered and reasons examined.
1.
155
Figure 1.
RESEARCH
156
Soil stabilisation
The stabilisation of soils using lime has been practiced for some years in road construction. Using the
existing soil as a suitable sub grade rather than use
vast quantities of imported aggregates has gained
favour in recent years as a method of reducing environmental impacts. The process has made many sites
accessible and been successfully used.
One issue which has plagued this technique has
been the risk of sulfate heave [Britpave 2006]. The
lime being added to bind the clays, instead of reacting
pozzolanically with the clay, reacts with sulfates present in the clay to form ettringite which expands and
disrupts the road surface. As this can occur some
weeks or months after the road is constructed, this can
prove to be a very expensive problem.
To measure the sulfate content of clays and predict
whether such a reaction may occur has been difficult
and many contractors have opted for a proven remediation approach. It was found that GGBS [Higgins
et al. 1998], when added in with the lime, is able to
prevent sulfate heave occurring.
Little work has been carried out in the UK to assess
whether fly ash/PFA is able to achieve the same
affect, though fly ash has been shown in the USA to
work successfully [Dermatas 2001]. Some preliminary UK work suggests that fly ash can prevent sulfate heave and a larger research project has been
commissioned to investigate this further.
2.4
157
EN450 imposes a series of quality control requirements on the ash, such as fineness, chemical properties, etc but this material would normally be controlled
by a process of selection and rejection based on the
various control parameters. As a result Category N fly
ash is generally sourced straight from the power station silos without any processing. This could be considered as zero environmental impact at the factory
gate from production and even possibly a negative
impact if the energy associated with conditioning the
ash for disposal is taken into account.
3.1.2 EN450:2005 Category S fly ash
Category S, which we shall call special fly ash, is
again dry ash from the station. In the majority of
cases this is processed to remove the coarser ash particles within the material. Typically this is done with
air swept classifiers and the process reduces the water
demand and increases the strength of the resulting
concrete by removing the misshapen and generally
coarser fraction. This requires energy, typically
9.75 kW/h per tonne of Category S fly ash, which
equates to 4.2 kg of CO2 per tonne of product.
However, in relation to the improvements in reactivity
and water demand of the resulting concretes, classification is a positive environmental benefit.
3.2
Figure 3.
158
2000b] and therefore can include fly ash as a constituent of the cement or HRB.
It contains the criteria for gradings and design purposes for CBGMs.
3.2.2
SUSTAINABILITY
159
Figure 4.
Ash processing
Enhancing durability
Using fly ash in many applications has both environmental and technical advantages. For example using
30% fly ash as a replacement for Portland cement will
reduce the risk of Alkali Silica Reaction [BRE 2004],
improve the resistance to chloride attack of reinforcing,
improve the sulfate resistance of the concrete [BRE
2005], reduce the permeability, etc. These benefits
have been well documented over the years and are
reflected in the British Standard for specifying concrete, BS8500 Parts 1 [BSI 2002a] and 2 [BSI 2002b].
As most concrete mixes are designed for 28 days
strength using standard curing, in practice at later ages
many fly ash concretes achieve far higher strength and
lower permeabilities insitu than would be expected
from the equivalent Portland cement concrete, as shown
in Figure 5.
In practical terms fly ash concrete can be far more
durable than implied by the 28 days strength, thus
extending the life of the structure. By making structures last longer the environmental impact of building
a construction is diluted. Many structures are now
designed with 100 years life in mind, in which fly ash
can play a major part in achieving this longevity.
However, it is hard to find structures that have been
required to or have lasted 100 years in practice.
160
Figure 5.
Environmental benefits
The environmental benefits of using fly ash are relatively straightforward. Invariably fly ash is substituted
for either virgin aggregate or Portland cement in all
applications. However, there are often additional benefits associated with its technical performance.
4.3.1 Aggregate
Fly ash is used as an aggregate in the following applications [UKQAA 2006b]:
Fill material for embankments, raising levels, etc.
Grouting for filling of caverns, mines, stabilising poor ground, etc.
Concrete used as a filler aggregate when aggregate particle size distribution lacks fine material
or a concrete has low cement content.
Figure 6.
As filler can be used in a wide variety of applications to bulk out products, e.g. rubber, paint, etc.
Typically to produce 1 tonne of aggregate at the factory gate equates to 21 kg of CO2. Transport [Parrott
1999] will be excluded from all these figures simply
because it is very variable. Sometimes a quarry will
be farther from a site than a power station and
vice-versa.
The Concrete Industry Alliance [Parrott 1999] concluded that transporting the raw materials from the
161
particle density than Portland cement, a direct replacement mass for mass in not possible. Normally an
increase in total cementitious material is needed of about
10%, depending on whether Category N or S ash is used,
the strength required and the overall concrete gradation.
Table 1 shows the relative environmental benefits
of using fly ash in concrete for a 40 MPa at 28 days
concrete. It should be noted that while Category S fly
ash is normally processed, the additional environmental burden is offset by the improved reactivity in the
concrete mix. Higher proportions of ash, because of
the need to compensate for the strength at 28 days,
require greater total cementitious contents, offsetting
the benefits.
As the pozzolanic reaction is rather a slow reaction
at normal curing temperatures, specifying later ages
for achieving a given strength does give further environmental benefits. Table 2 shows the results for a
40 MPa at 56 days concrete, with the additional benefits. For mixes with lower required strengths or other
specific criteria higher benefits per m3 of concrete
may be possible.
As some 400,000 tonnes of fly ash are used in concrete production p.a. as an addition in 4,200,000 m3
of concrete, this would suggest an overall reduction in
CO2 emissions of at least 250,000 tonnes p.a. is due
to the use of fly ash.
Our second consideration is the use of fly ash in
cement manufacture. The cement industry is under a
great deal of pressure to reduce CO2 emissions as
Portland cement, by the nature of its chemistry
requires the calcining of calcium carbonate. Adding
fly ash to cement as a kiln feed material, as a Minor
Additional Constituent (MAC) or in the production of
blended fly ash cement, reduces the overall environmental impact. Clearly using ash as a MAC or in
blended cement has the greatest benefit as it is replacing Portland cement clinker.
The use of fly ash as a MAC will have the greatest
environmental benefit as it is a direct weight for weight
replacement for the Portland cement. This equates
to 40 kg/tonne reduction of CO2. As some
11,300,000 tonnes of cement are sold annually, this
could amount to 450,000 tonnes of CO2. For blended
cements, similar calculations would apply as given in
Table 1. However, it is not publicly known as to what
proportion of fly ash is used for MAC/blended cement
and what is used in kiln feed, so it is difficult to estimate the overall reduction in impacts.
From the above it is clear that significant reductions in emissions are already being gained by the use
of fly ash in concrete and in cement.
4.4
4.5
Firstly let us consider the use of fly ash as a mixer addition to concrete. Fly ash is pozzolanic and of lower
162
Table 1.
Environmental impact
Normal replacement level
Overall reduction in
CO2 emissions per m3
of concrete produced.
Percentage reduction in
comparison with
CEM I only concrete.
Table 2.
CEM
I only
EN450 Cat
N fly ash
EN450 Cat
S fly ash
0%
N/A
0%
20%
27%
22%
EN450 Cat
N fly ash
EN450 Cat
S fly ash
29%
Environmental impact
CEM I only
Cat N
0%
N/A
0%
26%
29%
The future
CONCLUSIONS
Fly ash/PFA has a wide range of applications. In
cementitious uses it is able to enhance the durability
significantly and for other applications it can replace
virgin aggregates, usually as a filler aggregate.
These uses reduce the CO2 footprint significantly,
especially when used as both a cementitious material
and filler, such as in grouting. It is estimated that this
currently equates to over 600,000 tonnes per annum.
This paper can only provide a short overview of fly
ash from coal fired power stations, however as a
163
Cat S
29%
Cat N
Cat S
32%
material it is able to enhance the durability of a product, reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions, has a
long history of use and is readily available.
There are not many secondary or by-product materials that have such credentials.
REFERENCES
Britpave 2006. Stabilisation of sulfate bearing soils,
Britpave, Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park,
Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey, GU17
9AB, ISBN 0-9548485-6-X, 2005
BRE 2003. The design of structural concrete to resist the
thaumasite for of attack, Report 73 year confirmation
report, DTI Partners In Innovation project no cc1879,
September 2003. BRE, Watford, UK.
BRE 2004. Alkali silica reaction in concrete, BRE Digest
330, BRE, Watford, UK.
BRE 2005. Concrete in aggressive ground, BRE Special
Digest 1, 3rd edition, BRE, Watford, UK.
Britpave 2005. The immediate trafficking of cement bound
materials, Britpave, Camberley, Surrey, UK, ISBN 0
9548485-4-3.
BSI 2000a. BS EN197-1, 2000, Cement Part 1:
Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for
common cements, BSI, London, ISBN 0 580 36456 9.
BSI 2000b. DD ENV 13282, 2000, Hydraulic road binders.
Composition, specifications and conformity criteria,
BSI, London.
BSI 2002a. BS EN 8500-1, 2002, Concrete Complementary
British standard to BS EN260-1, Part 1: Method of
164
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In order to investigate a cracking behaviour of concrete containing fly ash due to drying shrinkage, the restrained shrinkage cracking test of concrete specimens of ordinary Portland cement concrete and 20%
fly ash concrete were performed. And drying shrinkage, creep, crack occurrence time, crack width and other
characteristics were measured. Cracking tendency (crack occurrence time and crack width etc.) of fly ash concrete was almost the same as or a little superior to ordinary Portland cement concrete.
INTRODUCTION
TEST OUTLINE
2.1
Concrete mixture
The specimens shown in Fig.1 were made on accordance with standard[JIS A 1151 2002, Suzuki, K. et al.
1993]. The restrained steel ratio is 7.9%. Dry shrinkage
and creep specimens (length:500 mm, width: 100 mm,
thickness:100 mm) were made too. Two specimens
were made according to concrete mixture. All specimens were stored in a controlled environment of
202C and 605% relative humidity throughout the
duration of the test. All strains of specimen (Drying
shrinkage, creep, restrained steel) and crack width were
measured by a contacting strain gauge (C.S.G) with
precision of 1/1000 mm. 300 mm C.S.G was used to
measure the strain of restrained steel and concrete, and
100 mm C.S.G was used to measure the crack width.
Specimen
W/C (%)
F/(CF) (%)
s/a (%)
FA
Slump (mm)
Air (%)
F0
F2-I
F2-O
55
69
55
0
20
20
45.5
44.9
42.4
184
184
184
335
268
335
0
67
84
778
758
684
975
975
975
17.0
20.0
19.0
5.5
5.4
4.3
165
50 30 100 30 50
C.S.G
200
Shrinkage strain(10-4)
Restrained steel
100
Concrete
200
10.0
8.0
6.0
2.0
0.0
Figure 1.
F0
F2-I
F2-O
4.0
50
100
150
250
300
350
400
Days
Shape of specimen.
Figure 2.
Youngs
modulus (kMPa)
Days
F0
F2-I
F2-O
F0
F2-I
F2-O
7
14
28
91
25
31
35
37
20
25
29
31
27
31
40
42
27
27
26
25
23
24
24
23
28
27
28
27
Table 2.
200
1.6
1.2
0.8
F0
F2-I
F2-O
0.4
0.0
40
80
Table 3.
3
3.1
Figure 3.
Split strength(MPa).
Days
F0
F2-I
F2-O
7
14
21
28
2.2
2.2
2.7
2.6
1.6
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.1
2.4
2.7
3.2
300mm
Specific creep.
Crack
F0
No.1
F0
No.2
F2-I
No.1
F2-I
No.2
F2-O
No.1
F2-O
No.2
Figure 4.
Crack condition.
shown in Figure 2, 3. The value of the drying shrinkage has decreased a little at the age of about 200250
days by the bad condition of curing room. The strain
of drying shrinkage of F2-O and F2-I containing fly
ash was smaller than the value of ordinary Portland
cement concrete specimen F0, and the values of F2-I
and F2-O were almost same. It is thought that shrinkage strain of fly ash concrete specimen is smaller than
ordinary Portland cement concrete specimen because
of pozzolan effect by fly ash. In case of the specific
creep strain, in inverse proportion to compressive
strength (youngs modulus) of concrete, the specific
creep strain of F2-O was the smallest, and the values
of F2-I was the biggest.
166
1
F0(No.1)
Reatraint ratio
Shrinkage strain(10-4)
4
3
2
Crack occurring
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
-1
0.8
10
15
20
11
25
13
15
17
19
Day
Day
Figure 6.
Restrained ratio.
5
Shrinkage strain(10-4)
F2-O(No.1)
4
Table 3.
No.1
Crack occurring
2
1
0
-1
10
15
20
25
Day
No.2
Specimen
Day
rs/ft
Day
rs/ft
F0
F2-I
F2-O
15
19
17
0.47
0.62
0.56
17
17
19
0.57
0.56
0.56
Shrinkagestrain(10-4)
4
Free shrinkage strain
Concrete strain
Restraint steel strain
F2-I(No.1)
sh
Crack occurring
0
0
10
15
20
25
-1
Day
Figure 5.
3.3
(1)
(2)
(3)
167
Crack width(mm)
Restrained concrete
stress(MPa)
0.6
2
1.6
Step by step
1.2
F0(No.1)
0.8
F0(No.2)
0.4
0
5
10
15
0.4
0.2
0.1
0
20
200 250
Day
(a) F0
(a) F0 specimen
0.6
1.6
0.5
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
10
15
50
100
150
0.1
20
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0.6
2
Crack width(mm)
Restrained concrete
stress(MPa)
450
Day
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
0
10
Day
15
20
F2-O(No.1)
F2-O(No.2)
0.2
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Day
(a) F2-O specimen
(a) F2-O
Figure 8.
400
F2-I(No.1)
F2-I(No.2)
0.2
(a) F2-I
Figure 7.
350
0.3
Day
300
0.4
F0(No.1)
F0(No.2)
0.3
Day
Crack width(mm)
Restrained concrete
stress(MPa)
0.5
CONCLUSIONS
168
Suzuki, K. et al. [1993], Test method for cracking of concrete due to drying shrinkage, proceeding of the fifth
international RILEM symposium, pp. 6370, 1993
Kanda, T. [2005], Condition of crack occurrence, CONCRETE
JOURNAL, Volume 43, No. 5, pp. 6066, Japan, 2005
Neville, A.M. [1970], Creep of concrete, plain reinforced
and prestressed, North-Holland, 1970
AIJ [2006], Recommendations for practice of crack control
in reinforced concrete buildings(design and construction), Architectural Institute of Japan, 2006
169
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: More than 123 million tons of solid by-products are produced by coal-burning electric utilities
each year in the United States [ACAA 2005]. In particular, the annual production of flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) by-products continues to increase. As landfill space becomes more limited and expensive, there is incentive to find productive and sustainable uses for coal combustion by-products (CCBs). However, by-products utilization technology is not likely to be adopted by the construction industry unless it is more cost-effective than
land filling and the resulting construction has sufficient thawing. Therefore, it is extremely important that the
electric-utility industry provide guidance to CCB research and development programs. Likewise, government
agencies and private-sector organizations that may be able to utilize these materials should also provide input.
A U.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory-funded program, the Combustion
Byproducts Recycling Consortium (CBRC), serves as an effective vehicle for acquiring and maintaining guidance
from these diverse organizations so that the proper balance in research and development is achieved. The mission
of the CBRC is to promote and support the commercially viable and environmentally sound recycling of CCBs for
productive uses, through scientific research, development, and field testing. Since its inception in 1998, the CBRC
has funded 52 CCB research projects nationwide with a total value exceeding $10 million. Projects have ranged
from using CCBs in mine void filling, surface mine reclamation, soil remediation, road base materials and aggregates to marine structures, lagoon liners, transmission poles, and building products. This paper focuses specifically
on the projects related to using CCBs for construction materials including wall panels, siding, bricks, masonry
units, countertops, and wall and floor tiles. Project results and findings are presented.
INTRODUCTION
171
Fly ash
FGD material
3
3.1
Since the 1950s, coal fly ash has become more commonly and successfully used as a primary building constituent in building materials [Ward 2003] such as
cement mixtures for the production of concrete [Butalia
& Bargaheiser 2004]; [Creamer 2003]; Jones et al.
[2005]; McCarthy et al. [2005], not only in the United
States but in other countries as well including Japan
Ohnaka et al. [2005], South Africa [Kruger & Krueger
2005], Israel Nisnevich et al. [2005], the Netherlands
[Saraber & van den Berg 2005], and Spain Leiva et al.
[2005] Spanish research has focused on the ability of fly
ash to improve the mechanical strength of concrete as
well as its fire resistance Leiva et al. [2005]. In South
Africa, fly ash is used as a filler in polymers and cement
mixtures [Kruger & Krueger 2005]. In Japan, fly ash
has been used primarily in cement mixtures. However,
Japanese cement production has been decreasing and
research is now focused on using fly ash as a substitute
for soil and sand for civil engineering applications
Ohnaka et al. [2005].
In the past, adding some strongly alkaline coal combustion byproducts (CCBs) to conventional concrete
blends resulted in alkali-silicate reactions (ASR) that
degraded the mixture. New blends have been developed that control ASR and allow for new markets for
using CCBs in concrete applications [Colaizzi 2003].
Researchers have found that when fly ash is used as
filler, the strength of the composite material increases
making fly ash composite materials viable for concrete
aggregates [White 2001].
Researchers have studied both Class C and Class F
fly ash in cement mixtures. Studies have been performed on Class C fly ash to replace cement in ranges
from 070% by weight. The mixtures have been tested
for water-, air-, and chloride-permeabilities, and for
compressive strength. The highest resistance to air-,
water-, and chloride-permeability occurred with 55%,
35%, and 1855% fly ash mixture, respectively Naik et
al. [1996]. Other researchers blended a mixture containing Class C fly ash. The resultant cement was evaluated
in accordance with ASTM C1157. The result indicated
the cement-fly ash blend to have equal or more strength
than standard cement [Wu & Naik 2003].
Researchers have evaluated how well concrete pavements made with large amounts of Class C and Class F
fly ash have performed over the long-term. Three mixtures with up to 70% Class C and three mixtures with
up to 67% Class F fly ash were evaluated. Results
showed Class F contributed greater pozzolanic
strength than did Class C fly ash Naik et al. [2003a, b].
Researchers in the Netherlands have also found Class F
fly ash to be a good pozzolanic material in concrete
production [Fraaij & Copuroglu 2005]. Researchers
172
Masonry units/bricks/tiles
When fly ash is used as a filler, the strength of the composite material increases. This makes fly ash composite materials viable for masonry units and bricks
[White 2001]. FGD has been used to produce aggregates that meet ASTM standards and were used to produce concrete masonry blocks Wu et al. [2003]. Class
F fly ash has been used in brick production and has
shown that bricks containing the fly ash were comparable to standard building bricks Chou et al. [2003]. Fly
ash has also been added to lime and phosphogypsum to
form hollow blocks for walls in construction applications. These hollow blocks are lightweight and have
good thermal insulation. Fly ash-containing blocks
serve as a viable alternative to concrete or clay blocks
for use in building construction [Kumar 2003]; Hughs
et al. [1995].
One problem to overcome in manufacturing bricks
using fly ash is the ability of the fly ash brick to resist
freeze/thaw damage. Even though it is possible to produce fly ash bricks with high compressive strength,
the resultant brick can be brittle and more susceptible
to freeze/thaw damage. Researchers have discovered
that by using an air-entrainment chemical in a similar
manner to that used in air-entrained concrete, that a fly
ash brick can be manufactured to sustain the 50-cycle
freeze/thaw ASTM Standard Liu et al. [2005].
A variety of masonry unit/brick products have been
produced. For instance, FlashBricks are manufactured
bricks using fly ash. These bricks are approximately
28% lighter than their clay brick counterparts which
translate to lower transportation costs. Compressive
and tensile strengths were 24% and 3 times that of standard clay bricks, respectively. FlashBrick is a similar
red color to that of clay bricks, but has a rougher texture which may account for the 44% higher bond
strength with mortar [Kayali 2005b].
Fly-ash-based tiles were made and found to be
superior to commercial patio and wall tiles and comparable to commercial floor tiles. The resultant red
color can be glazed with different textures and colors.
Tiles with more than 60% Class F fly ash have withstood freeze/thaw tests. Production of these tiles can
be achieved with available commercial equipment
and processing methods Bhattacharja et al. [2001b].
4
4.1
THE PROJECTS
Development of structural materials from
sulfate-rich FGD scrubber sludge
Illinois
University,
4.1.1 Background
Currently, the United States produces approximately
19 million tons of FGD scrubber sludge annually
[ACAA 2005]. Most is landfilled near the power
plants that produce it. In response to the 1990 Clean
Air Act amendments, even more wet scrubber sludge
is expected to be produced each year. Less than 4% of
the wet scrubber sludge produced is used nationally
each year [ACAA 2005]. Therefore, finding alternative uses for this material is necessary.
If FGD scrubber sludge is used to manufacture
structural materials, it is necessary to know how
pressure, temperature, and other factors impact the
173
4.1.3
Objectives
Figure 1.
sludge.
174
Figure 3.
175
Objectives
4.3.4 Results
Researchers began with a mixture of 3 parts fly ash
(Class C or F), 1 part water, and a small amount of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). They mixed for five minutes and poured the mixture into a mould cylinder
chamber with MTS machine pressure applied for 20
minutes to reach 20 MPa. The mould was removed
and baked for several hours, cooled, and the sample
removed from the mould.
Pressure, temperature, heating time, and hydroxide
ratio proved to be the primary factors affecting the
splitting tensile strength of the fly ash masonry units.
Researchers effectively employed NaOH as an effective activator of Class C fly ash resulting in a
very high tensile strength of the masonry units. In
fact, the strength increases with NaOH and heating
Figure 5.
176
4.4
4.4.3 Objectives
Assess the technical, economic, and environmental
suitability of fly ash for commercial production of
fired bricks
Conduct a public outreach campaign to promote
the use of similar fly ash from other adequate
sources by brick producers
4.4.4 Results
To prepare for the commercial-scale production test
runs, precursor tests were conducted at the Illinois
State Geological Survey (ISGS) bench-scale facility
and more than 80 commercial-size test bricks of various formulations were made. In addition to the paving
bricks containing fly ash at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% of
volume balanced with clay and shale material,
researchers at the ISGS also made three-hole building
bricks containing fly ash up to 60% of volume (about
56% of weight).
Researchers fired a set of these mold-pressed
green bricks using the ISGS kiln. (See Figure 6.)
They also fired another set of these mold-pressed
green bricks at the brick plant as part of a commercial
firing. Both firings produced high-quality, attractive,
strong paving and building bricks. (See Figure 7.)
The brick plant conducted two commercial-scale
production test runs of paving bricks (2,000 bricks
per run including extrusion and firing; see Figure 8).
Run I produced paving bricks with a raw material formulation containing fly ash at 20% of volume (about
14% of weight) balanced with shale material at 80%
of volume. Run II was composed of a mix of fly ash
at 20% of volume, shale at 60% of volume, and clay
at 20% of volume. These runs produced high-quality
paving bricks with a yield of 75 and 100% for Runs I
and II, respectively.
The engineering properties of these bricks either
met or exceeded ASTM standards for commercial
application. For example, their compressive strength
Figure 6.
177
Figure 7.
4.5.1 Background
The utility industries (electric, telephone, cable, and
municipalities) use wooden poles for installing cables,
lights, and transmission lines. It is estimated that more
than a million poles are used in the Midwestern region
annually. These poles range in height from 1540 feet.
Although wooden poles are relatively lightweight and
easy to work with, as a naturally occurring material, the
engineering characteristics vary widely. Wood also
absorbs moisture which can decrease its engineering
properties and cause decay in time. In general, as moisture content increases, wood strength decreases. To
alleviate wood decay problems, poles are chemically
treated at a cost of approximately $35 per pole every 5
years. These chemical treatments are an environmental
concern as they interact with soil and water in and
around the poles and upon disposal.
Researchers at Southern Illinois University are
working on designing utility poles made of coal combustion by-products (CCBs). Each pole would use
about 400 to 600 pounds of CCBs. The CCBs are
mixed into a grout that is combined with different
types of polymers which are used as a binding agent.
Glass or other material fiber is added to improve flexural strength
4.5.2 Significance
Timbering can cause landslides and compromise air
and water quality. Utility poles made from CCBs benefit the environment and industries that generate
CCBs. In addition to saving trees and disposing or
recycling problematic industrial waste, CCB-based
utility poles have several advantages over wooden
poles:
They are fireproof and termite proof.
They do not have to be treated with creosote for
weatherproofing which can cause water pollution
from rainwater runoff.
They are cheaper to install than wooden poles.
They are not as easily damaged by animals and
humans.
If the Midwest region were to replace the 250,000
wooden poles it uses in one year with CCB-fabricated
poles, it would save that many trees and utilize from
87,500 to 100,000 tons of CCBs [Chugh 2000].
178
4.5.3 Objectives
Characterize component materials (CCBs, resin,
fiberglass, polymers).
Evaluate CCB particle size and effect of loading
level on engineering properties of composite
material.
Fabricate CCB pole and characterize engineering
properties (compression, tension, and shear)
Perform mechanical analysis.
Design and analyze a composite pole design following ANSI specifications.
Identify and develop suitable failure criteria for
CCB pole material.
Use finite element method to analyze and evaluate
stress and deformation of the pole under expected
loading conditions.
Test and demonstrate the performance of the CCB
material composite poles in both laboratory and
field environments.
4.5.4 Results
Researchers used two types of CCBs, Class F and FBC,
for the study. The ashes were mixed with polyurethane.
In general, CCBs with finer ash particles provide higher
compressive strength and elastic modulus as compared
to samples composed of coarser ash particles. Grout
mixes containing 6065% fly ash yielded uniaxial compressive strengths ranging from 743 to 2,265 psi, with
elastic modulus of 15,613 to 74,102 psi.
CCB chemical composition also played an important role in grout development. In general, variations
in silica and calcium oxide content affect how CCBs
bond with different polymers. This variation in chemical composition of CCBs creates different physical
properties of the composites. The chemical composition of the fly ash also determines how much polymer
must be added to the grout.
Researchers developed 81 mixes of polymers and
grouts. The ultimate goal was to identify the mix with
the highest compressive and elastic modulus strength,
highest percentage of CCBs, cheapest polymer, and
good post failure behavior. Two 10-foot poles were
installed in 2004 at the Illinois Coal Development
Park to study weathering. Two years later, the poles
look brand new showing no sign of UV degradation.
The results of this study indicate commercial production of CCB-based poles is feasible from both
technical and environmental standpoints and should
be pursued. CCB-based composite poles meet or
exceed ANSI standards. The preferred design is cylindrical with glass fiber-reinforced thin outer-shell
without any inner core material. (See Figure 9.) Fly
ash as a filler in polymer has a positive effect on outer
shell material strength and stiffness. Raw fly ash
material should not exceed 15%. However, if the fly
ash is graded, the content can be increased to 30%.
The final product is comparable or superior to its
wooden counterpart. Researchers estimate the payback period for investment to industrial partners to
produce fly ash composite poles to be approximately
4 years [Chugh & Jinrong 2006].
4.6
179
NEW PROJECTS
Project description
The goal of this project is to determine long term durability and possible economic benefits of using 100%
180
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
AeRock LLC & Energy and Environmental Research Center.
2001. Fiber Fly Ash Based Wall Panel Development. Final
Report for the Combustion Byproducts Recycling
Consortium. 7 p.
American Coal Ash Association (ACAA) 2005. 2005 Coal
Combustion Product (CCP) Production and Use Survey.
American Coal Ash Association, Aurora, CO. 3 p.
Bhattacharja, Sankar. 2001a. Manufacturing of Rapid-Setting
Cement Using FGD Sludge. Proceedings of the 14th
International American Coal Ash Association Symposium
on Management and Use of Coal Combustion Products
181
182
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
X. Gong
Harbin Honglin Supervision Co. Ltd. of Civil Engineering, Harbin, P. R. China
ABSTRACT: Properties of Calcium enriched fly ash (CEFA) and its utilization is introduced in this paper.
CEFA is combustion residue in electric power plants burning bituminous coal. The calcium is enriched intentionally by means of grinding limestone and coal powder together. CEFA is formed in the turbofurnace of the
vertical cyclone boilers at the temperature of 1450C to 1600C. CEFA is characterized by higher calcium oxide
and free lime, lower ferric oxide, lower water requirement, and higher reactivity. Self-setting and self-hardening
are the specific performance because of existence of lime, calcium silicates and calcium aluminates in it. In
concrete mixture, the volume of fly ash can be as high as 20% to 70% of the binder. Concrete develops a satisfactory compressive strength when cement is partially replaced.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to introduce manufacturing, chemical composition, physical properties,
mineralogical composition of CEFA and its utilization
in concrete.
The fly ash that was used in this research is from
Acheng Power Plant. There are 5 vertical cyclone boilers that are fueled with the same bituminous coal powder blended with ground limestone. The average
percentage of the fuel powder retained on 45 m sieve
is 37.7%. Both cyclone dust collectors and electrostatic
dust collectors are used in this electric power plant.
Chemical composition of the fly ashes from the electrostatic dust collectors is shown in table 1, so as that
of common high calcium fly ashes.
The typical characteristic of CEFA is high calcium
content, a large part of which is from limestone in the
fuel powder. The average CaO content is from 23.3 to
27.5, which is much higher than that of the so called
high calcium fly ash. The free lime content is comparatively higher than that of high calcium fly ash. 107
measurements of Free CaO were carried out. The result
is shown in Figure1.
The problem concerning the fluctuated free CaO
remains unsolvable. Small range fluctuation does not
influence the performance of fly ash. The CEFA, of
183
Table 1.
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
f-CaO
MgO
SO3
Loss
Calcium Enriched
Fly Ash
High Calcium
Fly Ash
43.3
66.40
41.60
46.20
14.80
21.60
17.30
23.30
2.50
5.27
9.50
13.80
23.30
27.5
11.30
17.70
4.40
12.50
1.90
10.00
0.40
1.46
1.25
2.05
0.80
1.38
1.25
4.00
1.45
4.60
0.60
2.90
Percentage (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 1.
4-6
8-10
6-8
Free CaO (%)
>10
Figure 2.
Table 2.
Index
Numeric value
710 860
2330 2480
310 390
87 89
97 101
29.5 34
184
Figure 3.
Because of the different production conditions, the mineral composition of CEFA should be different from that
of common fly ashes. The X ray diffraction analysis
results are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3(a) is the XRD
diagram of CEFA from cyclone dust collectors and
Figure 3(b) is that from electrostatic dust collectors.
185
Table 3.
Cement
CEFA
Replacement
rate (%)
405.0
364.5
324.0
283.5
243.0
0
40.5
81.0
121.5
162.0
0
10
20
30
40
W/C
3d
7d
28d
56d
90d
0.56
0.54
0.51
0.48
0.45
18.6
17.1
14.6
13.7
10.4
23.5
20.3
20.4
22.4
21.6
28.9
31.6
33.8
35.9
34.8
35.4
38.0
44.5
46.8
46.8
37.8
42.6
49.5
50.4
49.5
50
40
30
Control
CEFA 10%
CEFA 20%
CEFA 30%
CEFA 40%
20
10
3 7
28
56
Age (days)
90
CONCLUSIONS
186
REFERENCES
Cengiz, D.A., Alaettin, K. & Umur, K.S. 2004. Strength and
shrinkage properties of mortar containing a nonstandard
high-calcium fly ash. Cement and Concrete Research 34:
99102.
Feng, N.Q. & Shi, Y.X. 1998. Influence of mineral superfine
powders on the fluidity and strength of cement paste.
Journal of ShongDong Building Materials College 12(3):
103109.
Neville, A.M. 2000. Properties of Concrete, the fourth edition. Pearson Education Limited.
187
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Lead-acid batteries are the largest worldwide use of lead. Conventional recycling (95% in UK)
produces harmful by-products. Recent environmental legislation has led to increased costs, due to the energy
required, and the requirement to dispose of the waste products. A new innovative process in which the waste sulphuric acid (H2SO4) from the batteries is neutralised with the aid of either calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) or calcium carbonate (CaCO3) will produce gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), a valuable product in plasterboard and cement
production. The suitability of the gypsum produced depends greatly on the purity, crystal shape, crystal size and
moisture content. Experimental work was undertaken to investigate the structural and morphological characteristics of the gypsum produced with respect to changes in the reaction conditions. This allowed the production
of a scientific rationale and model for the production of high quality gypsum which was validated in a pilot
plant. The analytical techniques used to characterise the gypsum were X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy,
scanning electron microscopy, particle size analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide lead production in 2005 was over 712 million tonnes. The largest worldwide use of lead for the
past five years at 71% is in lead-acid batteries
[ILZSG 2006]. The recycling of lead-acid batteries is
a remarkable success story driven by the intrinsic
value of the lead within the batteries. Recycling rates
of greater than 90% have been achieved in the UK
[Thornton et al. 2001].
1.1
Lead-acid batteries are mainly used to provide starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) power for conventional motor vehicles. Other uses include emergency
uninterruptible power sources for computers, hospitals and industry, through to the power supply for
electric wheelchairs, golf buggies and milk floats.
As can be seen in figure 1, a typical SLI lead-acid
battery is made of a heavy-duty plastic case (usually
polypropylene) containing lead alloy pasted grids.
The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony (0.755%) with minor additions of copper,
arsenic, tin and selenium. These elements are added
to give the desired properties such as grain refinement, fluidity and hardness of the grids to suit the job
required. Such properties might be resistance to
fatigue due to the chemical reactions or the vibration
produced by a car engine. The holes in the grids are
filled with a paste, which is mainly lead oxide.
Figure 1. Cross-section showing the components of a typical SLI lead-acid battery [Exide Technologies 2004].
189
The properties of lead make it ideal for use in batteries because it has good electrical conductivity and
is resistant to corrosion. Lead is actually a very reactive metal, but it is this reactivity itself, which makes
it resistant to corrosion. In sulphuric acid, lead metal
reacts to form a protective layer of lead sulphate
(PbSO4), which is tightly adherent and itself insoluble
in sulphuric acid. Thus the lead underneath the lead
sulphate layer is protected from any further attack.
Recycling of lead-acid batteries requires the batteries to be broken up using a battery-breaking machine.
The battery-breaking machine either removes only
the acid, or it separates the batteries into their components (i.e. the pastes, grids, separators and broken cases
are collected in different hoppers and the acid is drained
off). The breaking method used depends on the furnace used e.g. an Isasmelt furnace requires complete
separation of the components whereas a shaft furnace
smelts the batteries whole after the acid has been
removed.
The polypropylene cases can be cleaned and
reprocessed to make recycled plastic to be used for
example in new battery case production. Other polymeric components present (PVC, ebonite, terylene,
fibreglass) are either landfilled or used as a reductant
in the smelting process. The drained acid is neutralised and disposed of, some examples of which are
listed below:
As can be seen in figure 2, the secondary lead industry produces acidic sludge from the neutralised waste
acid, sodium sulphate if the pastes are desulphurised,
leachable toxic slags and vast amounts of exhaust
gases containing SO2 and metal fume. Due to recent
environmental legislation, costs have increased substantially due to: (i) the necessity to dispose of the
190
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
191
1.3
Gypsum
192
Gypsum uses
Other
3%
Plasterboard
32%
Cement
29%
Plasters
36%
Figure 4. European gypsum use in 2000 [Lafarge Platerboard 2000].
193
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. (a) gypsum slurry is applied to the bottom sheet
of paper and then the top sheet of paper is applied (b).
Paper
Aerated gypsum core
Paper
Bond at Gypsum/Paper interface
Figure 6.
Plasterboard structure.
only bond which prevents the paper from being separated in the drier. It is for this reason that stringent
specifications exist on impurities which are known to
disrupt this bond, the principal of these being chloride
and soluble cations such as sodium and magnesium.
A simplified cross-sectional diagram of a sheet of
plasterboard is shown in figure 6. Typically plasterboard is 12.5 mm thick and weighs 8.5 kg/m2.
During the drying process, the starch blended into
the slurry dissolves, forms a gel by absorbing approximately thirty-fold of its weight in water, and migrates
to the paper interface, where the water evaporates. In
194
Poor
Optimum
195
45
60 80
Figure 8. The angle of repose for natural (45) and synthetic gypsum (6080) for a warehouse filled from an overhead conveyor belt and supported by a wall on either side.
Figure 9.
95% pure because the presence of any dihydrate gypsum or anhydrite will lead to a poor mechanical bond
as these crystals will not grow into the paper fibres.
The presence of dihydrate in -hemihydrate is a particular problem due to the fact that -hemihydrate will
naturally re-hydrate back to dihydrate absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. Therefore all -hemihydrate
has a limited shelf life, which is a maximum of
6 months if stored under optimum dry conditions.
X-ray Diffraction (XRD) is a technique used to determine which phases of gypsum are present in a gypsum
sample (although XRD cannot distinguish between
and hemihydrate [Hand 1997]). The plasterboard
industry requires a minimum purity of 95% CaSO4.
2H2O in its secondary gypsum. Thermogravimetric
(TG) data can also be used to determine the phases
present by recording the mass lost upon heating of a
sample which corresponds to the calcinations of the
water of crystallisation (although TG analysis cannot
distinguish between and hemihydrate or anhydrite
I, II and III).
An alternative industrial use for Cleanlead gypsum
would be in the cement industry, which adds between
3% and 8% gypsum as an additive to cement when the
cement clinker is being ground. Gypsum is added to
cement to control the setting time for the cement.
Tricalcuim aluminate, one of the 4 main components
of cement, reacts rapidly with water causing the
cement to flash set within minutes. Gypsum controls
the setting time of cement by hydrating with tricalcium
aluminate to form an alumino-sulphate mineral (called
ettringite) coating on the surface of the tricalcium aluminate preventing further hydration [Bye 1983].
The gypsum is added to the grinding mills as the
dihydrate form with anything up to 70% anhydrite so
as to alter the setting times of the cement due to the solubilities of the various gypsum phases depending on
the manufacturers requirements. For example, anhydrite II is less soluble than dihydrate. It is important
that there is no hemihydrate present in the cement, otherwise the hemihydrate could hydrate to dihydrate and
harden on hydration of the cement causing false set.
Gypsum also has other effects in cement production such as it acts as a grinding aid in the ball mill
[Bye 1983]. It also has an effect on the expansion of
the cement and can stop cement shrinking on setting.
Conversely it can cause negative effects such as excessive expansion and therefore cracking upon setting.
Cement has stringent limits on the presence of alkalis such as sodium and potassium due to the alkali silica reaction in concretes containing certain reactive
silica aggregates, which leads to cracking of the concrete. Other impurities of concern are the chloride
content which can attack and rust the steel in reinforced concrete leading to cracking. Therefore all gypsum samples must contain minimal levels of sodium,
potassium and chloride.
196
Other uses include the use of gypsum as a floorscreed. In the majority of modern construction, floorscreeds are manufactured from a concrete product.
Standard concrete floorscreeds are not self-levelling
and thus need to be carefully applied and skillfully levelled out. A newer approach is to use gypsum, which is
self-levelling. This means that the need for expensive
finishing work is no longer required and the products
rapid strength means that workers are able to walk on
it more quickly relative to concrete (48 hours for gypsum compared with weeks for concrete) and are thus
able to carry on with their work. The gypsum binder is
mixed with sand, other aggregates and water, then
applied to the floor and encouraged to fill the entire
room. The gypsum used is either anhydrite-II or
-hemihydrate. Anhydrite-II can be delivered as a
ready-mixed slurry as it is workable for 5 hours. The
setting time and strength of the floor can be adjusted
by changes to the formulation and is done at the
request of the customer by the producer of the anhydrite binder. -hemihydrate is mixed in the same manner as anhydrite-II (i.e. with sand, aggregates and
water) though the user carries out the mixing on-site
as the setting time is approximately 30 minutes.
It is unlikely that Cleanlead gypsum could be used as
a floor screed as anhydrite II cannot be manufactured
directly from the Cleanlead process. There is a patented
process which is used to calcine DSG to anhydrite II in
a continuous flash process. It is anticipated that small
proportions of the feedstock into this Rocal process
could be synthetic gypsum other than DSG.
The least economically viable use of the Cleanlead
gypsum would be in agriculture as a soil conditioner.
Gypsum is an excellent soil re-conditioner for many
reasons. It is a good source of calcium and sulphur,
which are the seventh and ninth most important of the
16 essential nutrients for plants [North Pacific AG
Products 2004]. Gypsum slowly dissolves in the
moisture present in soils, which allows plants roots to
absorb calcium ions and sulphate ions. As well as
being an essential nutrient, calcium helps plant roots
in the uptake of other minerals. Other advantages of
gypsum as a soil re-conditioner are its ability to
reclaim high sodium soils. Soils containing an excess
of Na ions lose structure and pack tightly so that it
is difficult for water and air to reach the roots. When
gypsum is applied, calcium ions replace the sodium
ions in the soil and the sodium is washed away as
sodium sulphate.
Gypsum is pH neutral and thus has little affect on
soil pH. It can be used to reduce the pH of alkaline
soils, which contain bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL
Initial experiments
197
Acid
Reactor
3
Hydrocyclone
Figure 10.
Pilot plant
Finally, three Cleanlead gypsums were produced separately in a large pilot plant from three different waste
battery acid streams using commercial quality limestone. These experiments were carried out after over
150 different gypsum samples had been prepared in
the previous experiments and subsequently analysed.
The pilot plant consisted of a 300 dm3 reactor with
a heating element and a high speed agitator designed
to exert high shear forces on the reactants. Sulphuric
acid and limestone slurry (500 g/dm3) were pumped
continuously into the reactor and the gypsum pulp
with a reactor retention time of 2 hours was pumped
out periodically. The collected gypsum pulp was
passed through a hydrocyclone system twice with the
first stage underflow collected as product and the second stage underflow collected and returned to the
RESULTS
198
250
GC16 dried 70C
GC26 dried 70C
GC45 dried 70C
DH
200
150
100
DH HH
50
DH
HH
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2-theta (degrees)
Figure 11. XRD spectra of three different gypsum samples all dried at 70C. The top sample contains only dihydrate (DH), the
middle sample contains mainly DH with some hemihydrate (HH) and the bottom sample contains mainly HH with some DH.
Figure 12. The left hand picture shows the poor quality acicular crystals which resulted in poor bulk handling properties and
a high moisture content compared with a gypsum sample produced on the final pilot plant in the right hand picture.
199
Figure 13. Above (left), a gypsum crystal from a sample containing only dihydrate and right, a gypsum crystal from a sample containing hemihydrate and dihydrate.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
CONCLUSIONS
200
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to say a special thank you to
Dr. Heven Abdul-Jabbar at Coventry University. Also
many thanks to the researchers at Lafarge Plasterboard
UK, Tecnicas Reunidas Madrid (Spain), Instytut
Metali Niezelaznych Gliwice (Poland) as well as all
other Cleanlead project partners who contributed to
the success of this project.
REFERENCES
ALBRECHT, S.E., SCM Chemicals (USA). Synthetic
Gypsum from TiO2 Manufacture. Unknown conference,
no date.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE, 1995. BS EN1961:1995 Methods of Testing Cement Part 1: Determination of strength.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE, 1995. BS EN1963:1995 Methods of Testing Cement Part 3: Determination
of setting time and soundness.
BYE, G.C., 1983, Portland Cement.
CORDIS, 2004. CORDIS Projects Search [online].
Available from: http://ica.cordis.lu/search/index.cfm?
fuseactionproj.simpledocument&PJ_RCN5074944
&CFID204565&CFTOKEN33794752 [Accessed
21st June 2004].
EPRI (USA) ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
1994. The Gypsum Industry and Flue Gas Desulfurization
(FGD) Gypsum Utilization: A Utility Guide.
EUROPA, 1989. The Construction Products Directive
(Council Directive 89/106/CE) [online]. Available from:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/construction/internal/cpd/cpd.htm [Accessed 22nd June 2004].
EXIDE TECHNOLOGIES, 2004 [online]. Available from:
http://www.exide.com [Accessed 10th January 2004].
HAND, R.J., 1997. Calcium sulphate hydrates: a review.
British Ceramic Transactions. 96(3), 116120.
201
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Rosemary Greaves
Department of Chemistry, Imperial College of London
ABSTRACT: Disposing of waste is an environmental issue. Using waste will help reduce land filling. The
successful research and development of a new building material, or component using waste as raw material, is
a very complex and multidisciplinary task having technical, environmental, financial, marketing, legal and
social aspects.
In this paper it has been tried to find a low compressive strength mix with using only waste material include:
Red Gypsum, Plaster board Gypsum, Basic Oxygen Slag, and Cement By Pass Dust. The amount of compressive strength and the flow of mixes had measured. The effect of water amount on compressive strength of some
mixes has also measured.
INTRODUCTION
Firstly, the chemical and some of physical characteristics of waste materials were examined.
Secondly, the materials were mixed in binary and
ternary combinations and the compressive strength
was tested and optimised.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Source of gypsum
203
Source of slag
2.4
Grinding is one of the parameters that can affect material characteristics. The grinding process reduced both
the particle size and the crystalline phase of the materials, thus improving binder reactivity. Vibratory
grinding for 4 hours provided the most success for
mechano-chemical activation among all grinding
methods used. [Shah, Wang, 2001].
Ground granulated blast furnace slag has successfully been used with Portland cement to produce high
performance cement blends that are more economical
and environmentally friendly. The use and effectiveness
of CKD as an activator for slag depends upon its physical and chemical characteristics, most importantly, the
alkali and free lime content, and the amount of carbonates and sulfates. The effectiveness of the alkali activation of slag will depend on the alkalinity provided by
the CKD. It is expected that the high free lime content
of the CKD will improve the hydration process by
accelerating hydration and forming more crystalline
products of hydration. Sulfate ions provided either by
alkali salts or anhydrite will expedite the hydration
process and accelerate the pozzolanic reaction through
the formation of ettringite. [Konsta et al., 2003]
Compressive strength of different kinds of CKD
and Slag blends increased with curing time, indicating slag activation by the CKD and the formation,
precipitation, and accumulation of products of hydration. [Konsta et al., 2003]
Composite cement pastes of fluorgypsum, blastfurnace slag and metakaolin developed and maintained strength even under water, showing improved
properties over commercial gypsum. (Fraire-Luna,
et al., 2006)
Adding gypsum to slag reduced the setting time of
alkali-activated slag paste (AASP), increased the
compressive strength and decreased the drying
shrinkage. [Chang et al., 2005]
Investigated by Mum et al in 2006 shows by promoting hydration of GBFS by adding activator, a
small quantity of commercial slacked lime, anhydrous
gypsum, and limestone powder were applied as activators and filler, sharply increases early compressive
strength than that without activator added. Also, it is
confirmed that blast furnace slag cement of approximately the same early strength with Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) is feasible to be manufactured.
Compressive strength increased with curing time
according to Figure 1.
3
3.1
204
Table 1.
Sample
SSD
RG
PG
BPD
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
SO3
Total
11.45
0.37
2.32
27.32
3.65
9.32
37.44
0.03
0.01
1.26
0.28
93.45
12.71
0.39
1.72
21.26
2.66
6.18
35.89
0.00
0.02
1.62
0.31
89.85
2.43
0.03
0.81
0.36
0.00
0.40
37.30
0.03
0.24
0.02
53.07
94.69
6.92
0.15
2.73
0.80
0.01
0.77
36.79
1.22
15.04
0.06
8.25
94.22
BOS
Figure 1. Comparison of compressive strength with added
activators (I),without activator (A) and with OPC (C), [Mun
et al., 2006].
BPD
BOS
Source of BPD
Typical analytical chemical composition of two different CKD samples from Rugby Cement and Castle
Cement Barrington are given in Table 1. The BPD
source was the same in step 1 and 2 reported here but
the materials were taken at different times so they
may have slightly different chemical and physical
characteristics.
BPD
Figure 2.
3.3
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
RG
Source of BOS
The Basic Oxygen Slag that has been used in this project is from Tarmac UK (from Corus Scuntrorpe plant).
4
PG
fresh samples were covered with plastic sheets to prevent evaporation. After 24 hr or 48 hr, the samples
were removed from the moulds and cured in water.
The compressive strength were tested at 3, 28, and
28 days accordance with standard. Each compressive
strength value of each mix was the average of two
samples.
Flow of mixes was measured by flow table.
5.1
SAMPLE PREPARATION
205
Table 2.
Materials
BOS%
BPD%
RG%
3 days
7 days
28 days
Flow mm
85
85
80
76
76
72
72
68
68
65
64
60
10
5
10
5
19
10
18
15
17
10
20
20
5
10
10
19
5
18
10
17
15
25
16
20
0.35
0.28
0.45
0.41
0.20
0.45
0.48
0.20
0.32
0.40
0.26
0.40
0.41
0.40
0.57
0.83
0.37
0.9
0.87
0.44
0.9
0.92
0.9
0.65
2.50
2.70
3
3.1
1.61
2.3
1.73
2.4
1.9
2.53
3
2.46
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
155
144
86
134
No Flow
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
7
5
7
Table 3.
Materials
BOS%
BPD%
PG%
3 days
7 days
28 days
Flow mm
85
85
80
76
76
72
72
68
68
65
64
60
10
5
10
19
5
18
10
17
15
10
20
20
5
10
10
5
19
10
18
15
17
25
16
20
0.25
0.45
0.48
0.31
0.45
0.45
0.20
0.30
0.20
0.34
0.24
0.35
0.67
0.57
0.87
0.53
1.53
0.87
0.56
0.87
0.44
0.97
0.95
0.75
3.1
2.85
1.75
2.8
4.5
3.3
3.2
3
2.9
2.43
3.2
2.52
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
High Flow
134
High Flow
High Flow
155
150
86
144
110
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
7
5
7
206
CONCLUSIONS
Flow decreases by increasing the amount of RG
or PG.
The compressive strength increases by time. It
means the 28 days old samples have higher compressive strength than 7 and 3 days old samples.
Since the chemical and physical characteristics of
BPD is different in any batches it is recommended
to uses BPD in mixes as less as possible to have
better conclusion on mixes.
BPD can do as a good activator and help mixes to
get more compressive strength in 3, 7, and 28 days.
In both mixes graphs show, the mixes could get
higher compressive strength after 7 days could get
higher compressive strength after 28 days.
It would be possible to use wastes for low construction products.
REFERENCES
Claisse P., Ganjian E., Gypsum Waste Reduction, MiniWaste Faraday Research Proposal, 2005.
Chang Jiang Jhy, Weichung Yeih, Chi Che Hung, Effects of
gypsum and phosphoric acid on the properties of sodium
silicate-based alkali-activated slag pastes, Cement &
Concrete Composites , 2005, 27 8591
Fraire-Luna P.E., J.I. Escalante-Garcia, A. Gorokhovsky,
Composite systems fluorgypsumblastfurnance slag
metakaolin, strength and microstructures, Cement and
Concrete Research, 2006, 36 10481055.
Ghataora Gurmel S, Richard J. Freer-Hewish, James
Jessic, The Utilisation of Recycled Aggregates Generated From Highway Arisings And Steel Slag Fines,
Summery Project Report, The University Of Birmingham,
2004.
Konsta Maria S. -Gdoutos, 1, Surendra P. Shah, Hydration
and properties of novel blended cements based on cement
kiln dust and blast furnace slag, Cement and Concrete
Research, 2003, 33, 12691276.
Kumar Sunil, A perspective study on fly ash-lime-gypsum
bricks and hollow blocks for low cost housing development, Construction and Building Materials 2002, 16,
519525.
Miller Gerald A., Shahriar Azad, Influence of Soil type on
Stabilization with cement kiln dust, Construction
Building Materials, 2000, 14, 8997.
Mozt, J. Geiseler, Products of steel slags an opportunity to
save natural resources, Waste Management, 2001, 21,
285293.
Mun K.J., S.Y. So, Y.S. Soh, The effect of slaked lime, anhydrous gypsum and limestone powder on properties of
blast furnace slag cement mortar and concrete,
Construction and Building Materials, 2006.
207
208
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the potential benefits of utilising combination blends of plasterboard waste
gypsum and pozzolanic materials in developing novel cementations pastes with lower environmental impact in
comparison with conventional Portland cement. Ternary blend systems based on waste plasterboard from construction demolishing sites (PG), basic oxygen slag from steel factories (BOS) and cement kiln dust (CKD)/by
past dust (BPD) from cement industries were investigated. PG, up to 30%, BOS and CKD, up to 90% were
incorporated as total binder replacements for preparation of various combinations of binary and ternary blended
systems to achieve the highest compressive strength. A water-binder ratio of 0.3 was used for the main group of
paste mixes. Cube compressive strength was determined at the age of 3, 7 and 28 days. Based on the obtained
results, the effect of PG and CKD on activation of slag with respect to compressive strength was investigated.
It was found that the relation between slag content and compressive strength is sensitive to the amount and
chemical composition of PG and CKD/BPD used in ternary system. In ternary system of PG-BPD-BOS, incorporation of 10% PG together with 36% BPD resulted in the highest compressive strength while in CKD-PG-BOS
system; the highest compressive strength is achieved using 20% CKD and 16% PG. A road foundation site trial
was successfully conducted in summer 2006 using this developed binder for road base in a car park area at
Lowdham Grange prison, Mansfield construction site.
INTRODUCTION
non-inert wastes in July 2005. The majority of plasterboard gypsum waste used to be traditionally landfilled and co-disposed of with other wastes. [WRAP
2005]. Detailed statistics on waste plasterboard arisings are currently scarce, but it is estimated that some
300,000 tonnes of waste plasterboard are generated
each year from new construction activity (largely as
offcuts). The amount of plasterboard waste arising
from demolition projects is more difficult to quantify,
but maybe in the range 500,000 tonnes to more than
1 million tonne per annual in the UK [WRAP 2006].
This investigation is aimed at developing novel-low
environmental impact cementitious binder utilising
blends of plasterboard gypsum waste and a range of
pozzolanic industrial waste materials such as basic
oxygen slag, cement kiln dust and cement by pass
dust. The above materials were used in binary and ternary systems with the aim of exploiting the potential
synergy between these materials to form a cementitious matrix. A site trial was also conducted using
selected proportions of blended materials to make a
roller compacted concrete as a sub-base for a car park.
209
Table 1.
Oxides
PG
(%)
BOS
(%)
BPD
(%)
CKD
(%)
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
SO3
LOI
2.43
0.03
0.81
0.36
0.00
0.40
37.30
0.03
0.24
0.02
53.07
4.09
11.43
0.39
1.60
28.24
4.35
8.27
41.29
0.02
0.02
1.48
0.44
1.12
12.86
0.12
3.50
2.12
0.02
2.46
58.28
0.29
1.71
0.06
6.75
10.23
9.89
0.14
3.72
1.24
0.02
0.94
40.42
0.43
6.36
0.08
5.59
30.99
Table 2.
Mix code
PG
(%)
BPD
(%)
BOS
(%)
L/S
Flow
(%)
BPD10/BOS90
BPD20/BOS80
BPD40/BOS60
BPD60/BOS40
BPD90/BOS10
PG5/BPD38/BOS57
PG10/BPD36/BOS54
PG15/BPD34/BOS51
PG20/BPD32/BOS48
PG30/BPD28/BOS42
5
10
15
20
30
10
20
40
60
90
38
36
34
32
28
90
80
60
40
10
57
54
51
48
42
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
87
33.5
38.5
16.8
12.8
128.8
125.6
103
101.7
47.6
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Materials
Mix proportions
Mix code
PG
(%)
CKD
(%)
BOS
(%)
L/S
Flow
(%)
PG10/BOS90
PG20/BOS80
PG40/BOS60
PG60/BOS40
CKD60/PG 8/BOS32
CKD40/PG12/BOS48
CKD20/PG16/BOS64
CKD10/PG18/BOS72
10
20
40
60
8
12
16
18
60
40
20
10
90
80
60
40
32
48
64
72
0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
172
150
136
110
161
120
92
76
Paste specimens 50 mm cubes were cast for the determination of compressive strength. All the specimens
were cast and fully compacted in three layers using a
vibrating table. After casting, the samples were covered
by polyethylene sheets for 24 hour. The samples were
demolded the following day and then kept at 20 1C
and 98 1% RH prior to testing at 3, 7 and 28 days.
3
Compressive strength development of binary and ternary mixtures containing PG, BPD and BOS are
shown in Figures 1 and 2. The strength development
of paste mixes using a range of BPD and BOS showed
that in the binary system the mix containing 40% of
by pass dust and 60% of slag has the highest strength
at 7 days, although it can be seen in Figure 1 that the
210
9.00
9.00
PG5/BPD38/BOS57
8.00
Strength (MPa)
Strength (MPa)
PG20/BPD32/BOS48
6.00
PG20/BOS80
7.00
PG15/BPD34/BOS51
7.00
PG10/BOS90
8.00
PG10/BPD36/BOS54
PG30/BPD28/BOS42
5.00
4.00
PG40/BOS60
6.00
PG60/BOS40
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
3.00
1.00
2.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
14
21
28
Age (Days)
0
14
21
28
Age (Days)
12.00
10.00
CKD20/PG16/BOS64
Strength (MPa)
BPD20/BOS80
8.00
Strength (MPa)
CKD40/PG12/BOS48
BPD10/BOS90
9.00
BPD40/BOS60
BPD60/BOS40
7.00
BPD90/BOS10
6.00
5.00
10.00
CKD10/PG18/BOS72
8.00
6.00
4.00
4.00
2.00
3.00
0.00
0
2.00
14
Age (Days)
21
28
1.00
0.00
0
14
21
28
Age (Days)
211
than BPD in the ternary systems. This might be attributed to amount of alkalis released from these two
sources of waste alkali materials.
With respect to the effect of gypsum on compressive strength, as stated by Matschei et al. [2005] the
early compressive strength of supersulphated cements
was enhanced by sulphate activation of the slag in
comparison with slag mixes without any addition of
calcium sulphate. This phenomenon can be observed
in results obtained from PG, BPD and BOS mixtures
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
4
SITE TRIAL
Mix code
Blended
novel
binder
Water
Recycled
Agg.
W/B
Slump
mm
RA-RCC
400
1900
0.3
Figure 6.
100
212
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ACI 2005. ACI 229R, 99, Controlled low strength materials,
American concrete Institute, Reapproved.
Matschei, T., Bellmann, F., Stark, J., 2005. Hydration behaviour of sulphate-activated slag, Advances in Cement
Reserch, 4 (17) 167178.
Neville, A.M., 2000. Properties of Concrete, Fourth and
final Edition, Prentice Hall Publication, England.
Ottemann, J., 1951. Die Bedeutung der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration fuer die hydeaulische Erhaertung
von BRAUNKOHLENASCHEN UND Gipppchlackenzement. Silikattechnik, 5 (2) 143149.
WRAP 2005. The Waste & Resources Action Programme,
Plasterboard recycling programme, www.wrap.org.uk.
WRAP 2006. The Waste & Resources Action Programme,
Review of Plasterboard Material Flows and Barriers to
Greater Use of Recycled Plasterboard, Technical report,
AEA Technology Plc, Jan.
213
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Conventional backfill for utility trenches comprises of granular crashed rock (type I subbase),
which is made of high quality materials. The increasing cut of this material and need to reduce gypsum waste
led to the investigation which was aimed at principally exploring the use of gypsum (both red gypsum and waste
plaster-board for utility trench backfill. Backfills developed were to be cementitious and self levelling. Unconfined
compressive strength (UCS), indirect tensile strength (ITS) and flowability test of different materials mixed
with gypsum were conducted in the laboratory. UCS of ordinary Portland cement and red gypsum at a ratio of
1 and 5 was more than 2 MPa (28-day), which is the specified strength for cementitious backfill materials. To
increase the flowability of the mix, a strength accelerator sodium Meta silicate (Na2SiO3, 5H2O) was added with
more water in the mix, 1.5% Na2SiO3, 5H2O proved to be adequate for obtaining an acceptable flowable backfill. Quarry fines in cement-gypsum mix also showed encouraging results. Cement, red gypsum and quarry
fines mixed at a ratio of 1, 4 and 15 also complied with the Specifications. The same mix with plaster-board gypsum in place of red gypsum and with slightly higher cement (1.3:4:15) also complied with the Specifications.
The above materials could be ideal replacements of granular backfill materials.
INTRODUCTION
2 MPa for Types 3 and 4 roads. The maximum permitted strength for all mixes is 10 MPa. Care should be
taken not to exceed the maximum values for two reasons, firstly above 10 MPa it starts to behave more
like structural concrete and may crack and produce
reflective cracking on the road surface, secondly
re-excavation would be difficult [Department of
Transport, 1991]. The roads are classified according
to their traffic volume. Type 1 roads carry 10 to 30 million standard axles (msa), Type 2 roads carry 2.5 to
10 msa, Type 3 roads carry 0.5 to 2.5 msa and Type 4
roads carry up to 0.5 msa [Department of Transport
1991]. According to British Cement Association [1991],
the minimum specified strength is 2 MPa at 28 days.
Appendix 9 of HAUC Specifications [Department
of Transport, 1991] permits the use of alternative
reinstatement materials (ARMs). It states that ARMs
may offer significant environmental or practical advantages and/or cost benefits, compared to conventional
materials which may include reduced usage of virgin
materials by including a range of factors such as recycled and secondary materials, self levelling, to avoid
or reduce the need for compaction and may be placed
in fewer lifts. Sourse of the research on the use of secondary materials that require no compaction has been
reported by Ghataora and Alobaidi [2000], Ghataora
et al. [2006a] and Alobaidi and Ghataora [2006b].
215
2.2
Cement
The process of manufacturing of cement consist essentially of grinding the raw materials, (such as calcareous
materials like, limestone or chalk, alumina and silica
found as clay or shale, Marl, a mixture of calcareous
and argillaceous materials) mixing them intimately in
certain proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at
a temperature of about 1550C The clinker formed is
cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum added (23% wt.) and the resulting product
is called ordinary Portland cement [Neville 1995].
Portland cement used in this study complied with specification and was supplied by Lafarge.
Gypsum wastes
2.3
Steel slag is a byproduct produced during the conversion of iron ore or scrap iron to steel. The mineralogical composition of steel slag changes with its chemical
composition. Olivine, merwinite, 3CaOSiO2 (C3S),
2CaOSiO2 (C2S), 4CaOAl2O3-Fe2O3-SiO2 (C4AF),
2CaOFe2O3-SiO2 (C2F), CaO-FeO-MnO-MgO in
solid solution (RO phase) and free CaO are common
mineral in steel slag [Shih, Wu and Chiang, 2004].
Particle size distribution of the fines is shown in
Figure 1.
2.4
Quarry fines
Limestone fines composed of 5 mm to silt sized fraction resulting form excavation of limestone [Quarry
Product Association 2003]. It was supplied by Tarmac.
Particle size distribution of the fines is shown in
Figure 1.
MIX DESIGN
216
% passing
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.1
0.01
10
Particle size, mm
Figure 1.
UCS (M
(MPa)
Pa)
0.3
RG:SS = 1:1
RG:SS = 1:1.5
RG:SS = 1:2
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
7-day
14-day
28-day
4.1
217
1.4
1.2
UCS (MPa)
1
HL:RG:SS=1:8:12
0.8
HL:RG:SS=1:6:9
0.6
HL:RG:SS=1:4:6
0.4
QL:RG:SS=1:8:12
0.2
QL:RG=1:5
0
0
50
100
150
200
218
5.5
5
1-day
1-day ITS
4.5
7-day
4
7-day ITS
14-day
UCS (MPa)
3.5
28-day
3
90-day
200-day
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
OPC:RG=1:5,
W/S=0.3
Figure 4.
OPC:RG=1:5, 3%
Na2SiO3, 5H2O,
W/S=0.3
OPC:RG=1:5,
4.5%Na2SiO3,
5H2O, W/S=0.3
OPC:RG:SS=1:4:6,
3%Na2SiO3,
5H2O, W/S=0.3
OPC:RG=1:5,
1.5%Na2SiO3,
5H2O, W/S=0.3
OPC:RG=1:5,
1.5%Na2SiO3,
5H2O, W/S = 0.45
2.5
0.3:4:15
2
UCS(MPa)
0.7:4:15
1:4:15
1.5
1.3:4:15
1.7:4:15
2:4:15
0.5
0
12
Figure 5.
55
Curing time
82
UCS of the mixes with different proportion of cement, red gypsum and quarry fines.
219
1.8
OPC:RG:QF = 1.3:4:15,
cured in room
temperature and humidity
1.6
UCS (MPa)
1.4
OPC:RG:QF =1.3:4:15,
cured at 20 degree and
90% humidity
1.2
1
OPC:RG:QF = 1:4:15,
cured in room temp and
humidity
0.8
0.6
OPC:RG:QF = 1:4:15,
cured at 20 degree and
90% humidity
0.4
0.2
0
1
13
19
25
2.5
OPC:RG:SS = 1:4:5
UCS (MPa)
2
OPC:PG (without
paper):QF = 1:4:15
1.5
OPC:PG(with
paper):QF = 1:4:15
1
OPC:PG(without
paper):QF = 1.3:4:15
0.5
OPC:RG:QF =
1.3:4:15
0
1
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
Figure 7.
UCS results of the mixes with red gypsum and plasterboard gypsum.
The strength in this case was lower than the mix with
red gypsum probably due to the smaller particle size
of plaster-board gypsum increases the cement demand
in the mix. Slightly higher cement (OPC:PG:QF
1.3:4:15) in the mix made it acceptable as a backfill
material (Figure 7). However, the acceptability of the
mixes can not be ensured unless the products are
durable and can sustain adverse weathering in the
field condition.
4.1.2 Durability of the potential mixes
Two types of durability test were considered in this
investigation: soaked UCS and freeze and thaw resistance. Soaked durability test was performed according
to BS 1924 [British Standard, 2002] and as described
in section 4 above. Four mixes were investigated.
220
Soaked durability
3.5
3
UCS (MPa)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
OPC:RG:QF =
1.3:4:15
Figure 8.
OPC:RG:QF =
1:4:15
OPC:RG=1:5,
1.5%NaMSiO3
OPC:RG=1:5,
3%NaMSiO3
3.5
Red gypsum
sample 1
Expansion (mm)
3
2.5
Red gypsum
sample 2
2
Plasterboard
sample 1
1.5
Plasterboard
sample 2
1
0.5
0
0
Figure 9.
10
20
30
Number of cycles
40
50
60
Freeze and thaw results of cement, gypsum and quarry fines mixes.
CONCLUSION
221
REFERENCES
Alobaidi, I. M. and Ghataora G. S. [2006b]. Performance of
Trial Trenches in Roads. Ash Tech 2006. 1517 May.
Birmingham. UK.
British Standard (2002). Stabilised Materials for Civil
Engineering Purposes, Part 2: Methods of Tests for
Cement-Stabilised and Lime-Stabilised Materials. BS
1924-2:1990. BSI. London.
British Standard [1998]. Concrete Admixture, Part 2:
Specificaton for Air-entraining Admixtures. BS 50752:1982. BSI. London.
Department of Transport [1991]. Specification for the
Reinstatement of Openings in Highways, Highway
222
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
P. Helene
Escola Politcnica da Universidade de So Paulo, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The trend in concrete technology is to include admixtures and natural or artificial additions in
the mixture proportions of concrete materials. These materials generate changes in the original base mixture
and they have a strong influence on concrete. The challenge to concrete technologists is to select the best combination among different admixtures and additions which are being promoted to be used in concretes with special performance. A research program has been carried out to develop high performance concretes in Mendoza,
Argentine, with local materials, as well as to obtain a better method of mixture proportions to attain strengths
in compliance with national codes. The use of silica fume and a milled residue of a local industry in the mixture
proportioning of concretes is evaluated. This paper emphasizes the need to evaluate industry residues by performance tests. The results show different performance in fresh state as well as in durability tests.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Review of proportioning methods and codes
Research significancy
223
2.1
Fundamentals
Materials used
Table 1.
Item
Standard
Specific area, m2/kg
Bulk density
Specific gravity, kg/m3
SiO2, %
Fe2O3, %
Al2O3, %
CaO, %
MgO, %
Na2O, %
K2O, %
SO3, %
Pozzolanic coefficient
Lost of ignition, %
Portland-pozzolan
cement
Silica fume
IRAM 50000-50001
310
2.9
CAN/CSAA 23.5-M86
19000
2.2
450500
96.5
2.0
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.4
2.0
8.0
3.5
28.4
4.90
4.23
54.6
1.04
0.48
0.59
3.5
0.68
1.53
224
Milled local
industry residue
None
100
59.5
0.74
21.4
4.97
1.37
2.55
40
None
6.9
3
3.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Experimental mixtures
All materials were stored in the laboratory environment at 20C and 50% relative humidity. Then, they
were mixed in a pan type paddle mixer under the
same laboratory condition.
Table 2.
Laboratory tests
1:m cement:
agregates
Type of Portland-pozzolan
mixture cement
Addition
Fine
Coarse
aggregate aggregate W/Cm
kg/m3
mm
kg/m3
1:3
1:3
1:3
1:4
1:4
1:4
1:5
1:5
1:5
R
S
H
R
S
H
R
S
H
1.24
1.24
1.24
1.80
1.80
1.80
2.36
2.36
2.36
547
545
544
437
432
430
367
358
357
50
70
80
50
70
90
50
80
90
2371
2377
2370
2369
2359
2350
2385
2336
2330
1
0.925
0.925
1
0.925
0.925
1
0.925
0.925
0
0.075
0.075
0
0.075
0.075
0
0.075
0.075
225
1.76
1.76
1.76
2.20
2.20
2.20
2.64
2.64
2.64
0.34
0.36
0.36
0.42
0.46
0.46
0.50
0.52
0.52
Table 3.
The results of hardened concrete properties are presented in Table 3. The value of compressive strength
represents the average strength of three, 100 200 mm
cylinders.
The mixture proportions nomogram in Figure 1
shows the results of compressive strength at 28 days
for the different mixtures studied, taking into account
the inclusion of the industrial milled residue as an
addition.
The regression analysis for compressive strength
confirms Abramss Law for each family of concretes
[Maldonado & Helene 2002].
Figure 2 shows the increase of compressive
strength with time for the studied mixes. Figure 2 also
60
1:m
28 days 91 days 180 days
cement : Type of
aggregates mixture Mixture MPa
MPa
MPa
1:3
1:3
1:3
1:4
1:4
1:4
1:5
1:5
1:5
R
S
H
R
S
H
R
S
H
M3
M5
M9
M1
M4
M7
M2
M6
M8
41.3
52.9
38.5
35.7
45.9
28.5
29.4
40.5
23.7
45.0
54.6
42.0
41.5
47.2
39.0
31.4
41.0
32.5
49.9
58.4
48.5
47.6
49.5
47.3
33.8
41.8
37.5
fc [MPa]
40
Compressive strength
50
30
Content of cementitious materials
600
550
500
450
400
350
0.5
0.6 W/Cm
Cm [kg/m3]
slump 70 + / - 20 mm
5
m [kg/kg]
Figure 1.
226
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
M3(R)
M1(R)
M2(R)
M5(S)
M4(S)
M6(S)
M9(H)
M7(H)
M8(H)
Mixtures
28 days
180 days
Increment of mass
[g/cm2]
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
200
400
600
Time [vs]
M1(R)
M2(R)
M3(R)
Increment of mass
[g/cm2]
Figure 2.
91 days
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
200
400
600
Time [vs]
M6(S)
M5(S)
M4(S)
227
Increment of mass
[g/cm2]
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
200
400
600
Time [s]
M7(H)
M8(H)
M9(H)
Type of
mixture
1:3
1:3
1:3
1:4
1:4
1:4
1:5
1:5
1:5
R
S
H
R
S
H
R
S
H
6 hr
24 hr
Mixture
g/m2.s0.5
g/m2.s0.5
M3
M5
M9
M1
M4
M7
M2
M6
M8
5.29
3.54
5.29
5.68
4.37
4.58
7.14
5.04
7.46
3.94
2.64
4.74
4.32
3.86
3.57
5.27
4.50
5.44
Type of
mixture
1:3
1:3
1:3
1:4
1:4
1:4
1:5
1:5
1:5
R
S
H
R
S
H
R
S
H
Absorption
Porosity
Mixture
M3
M5
M9
M1
M4
M7
M2
M6
M8
7.9
8.7
8.3
6.5
8.6
8.2
7.2
7.9
7.7
12.7
13.8
13.4
10.4
13.9
13.2
11.6
12.7
13.2
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Abrams, D.A. 1918. Design of Concrete Mixtures. Bulletin
Lewis Institute, Structural Materials Research Laboratory.
1: 120. Chicago, USA: Portland Cement Association.
ACI 234.R. 2000. Guide for the use of silica fume in concrete. ACI Committee 234. Farmington Hills, MI, USA:
American Concrete Institute.
228
IRAM 50001. 2000. Cement. Cements with special properties: 14. Argentine Standard (in Spanish).
Kantro, D.L. 1980. Influence of water reducing admixture
on properties of cement paste a miniature test. Cement,
Concrete and Aggregates. 2 (2): 95108.
Levy, S.M. & Helene, P. 2004. Durability of recycled aggregates concrete: a safe way to sustainable development,
Cement and Concrete Research 34: 19751980.
Lyse, I. 1932. Tests on consistency and strength of concrete
having constant water content. Proceedings American
Society for Testing and Materials. 32 (2): 629636.
Maldonado, N.G. & Helene, P. 2002. HSC designed by three
mixture proportioning methods: how much different are
they? In V.M. Malhotra (ed.), High-performance concrete. Performance and quality of concrete structures;
Proc. of the third intern. conf., Recife, PE, Brazil, 2002.
Publication SP-207: 311326. Farmington Hills, MI,
USA: American Concrete Institute.
Maldonado, N.G. & Helene, P. 2005. Hay diferencias entre
mtodos de dosificar hormigones de alta performance para
evaluar durabilidad? In A. A. Di Maio (ed.), Structural
concrete and time; Proc. of the fib symp., La Plata,
Argentina, 2830 sept., 2005. Publication 1: 163170.
AAHES-LEMIT-AATH.
229
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: One of the reasons for the use of waste materials is the decreasing amount of suitable nonrenewable raw materials for the production of building materials in some areas. This paper describes the issue
of the utilization of industrial waste materials, namely waste foundry sand and blast furnace slag as fillers for
epoxy resin-based repair materials for concrete structures. These repair materials are intended to be used for
reinforced concrete structures. The most important contribution of using these materials is from the point of
view of the environment. Waste materials save natural sources, which could be spared for more appropriate use.
Also the use of waste materials reduces demands on the environment.
INTRODUCTION
231
2
2.1
WORK SEQUENCE
232
Control test
Parameter
Required value
Required value
Compressive
strength
Bending strength
Cohesion with base
(without adhesive
bridge)
25 N/mm2
50 N/mm2
5.5 N/mm2
average
1.7 N/mm2
individually
1.5 N/mm2
0.5 0/00
1 crack of width
to 0.1 mm
T 100
14 10 6
25 N/mm2
50 N/mm2
5.5 N/mm2
average
1.1 N/mm2
individually
0.8 N/mm2
1 crack of
width to 0.1 mm
30 GPa
Shrinkage
Crack
inclination
Frost resistance
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
Statistical module
of elasticity
233
Table 2.
off test.
Content
Mixture [%]
Filler content
and type [%]
Tear off
[N/mm2] place
130-m
10-m
11-m
12-m
16-m
17-m
18-m
85.7 s. sand
80.0 f. sand
77.5 f. sand
75.0 f. sand
72.5 slag
70.0 slag
67.5 slag
4.23
3.17
4.27
3.13
3.77
3.53
3.13
14.3
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
mixture
Adhesion
11-m
130-m
0.00
in concrete
Figure 2.
0.05
0.10
0.15
absorption [%]
0.20
Mix
Content
ER [%]
Content and
filler type
[%]
130-m
10-m
11-m
12-m
16-m
17-m
18-m
14.3
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
85.7 s. sand
80.0 f. sand
77.5 f. sand
75.0 f. sand
72.5 slag
70.0 slag
67.5 slag
Table 4.
Bending
strength
[N/mm2]
Compressive
strength
[N/mm2]
33.00
13.65
17.55
18.75
39.30
39.60
40.50
59.70
28.95
33.13
34.30
69.68
72.34
75.93
130-m
14.3
11-m
22.5
16-m
27.5
Content and
filler type
[%]
85.7 siliceous
sand
77.5 foundry
sand
72.5 slag
Before
test
After
test
59.70
57.38
33.13
29.88
69.68
69.13
Mixture
Content
ER [%]
Content and
filler type [%]
Water
absorption [%]
130-m
11-m
16-m
14.3
22.5
27.5
0.20
0.20
0.01
mixtures containing blast furnace slag. Mixtures containing siliceous sand ISG A1 and foundry sand have
values 20x higher. It is caused by open pores and cavities, which occur on the surface of tested samples
and are caused by the imperfect coating of material
grains of filling by epoxy resin on the surface of the
sample in contact with the mould.
When the absorption test is performed, water gets
into pores and cavities, therefore these mixtures show
some percentage increase in water content. Mixtures
made from blast furnace slag do not show open pores
and cavities.
4.4
Mix
Content
ER [%]
Frost resistant mortars are tested by the alternate freezing and defrosting of water saturated test samples.
Mix
Content
ER [%]
130-m
14.3
11-m
22.5
16-m
27.5
Content and
filler type
[%]
85.7 siliceous
sand
77.5 foundry
sand
72.5 slag
Before
test
After
test
33.00
31.50
17.55
15.25
39.30
39.30
234
16-m
mixture
mixture
16-m
11-m
130-m
11-m
130-m
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Figures 3. Image showing influence of filler type on bending strength before frost resistance test.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figures 6. Image showing influence of filler type on compressive strength after frost resistance test.
mixture
16-m
Mix
Content
ER [%]
Content and
filler type [%]
Module of
elasticity in
bend [GPa]
130-m
11-m
16-m
14.3
22.5
27.5
4.861
2.948
2.857
11-m
130-m
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
bending strengt after exam [N/mm2]
45
16-m
mixture
Figures 4. Image showing influence of filler type on bending strength after frost resistance test.
mixture
16-m
11-m
130-m
0.00
11-m
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
130-m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figures 5. Image showing influence of filler type on compressive strength before frost resistance test.
235
Adhesion
[N/mm2]
Tear off
place
130-m
4.23
in
concrete
11-m
16-m
3.27
3.77
Colour
Cracks
peeling
gray with
none
shine
black shine
gray-greenish
shine
Mix
130-m 4.06
11-m
3.23
16-m
3.74
in concrete
Colour change
Cracks
peeling
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
236
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a laboratory investigation of the development of an optimal high-performance
concrete (HPC) mixture for Tennessee cast-in-place concrete bridge decks. Four modified concrete mixtures were
developed by reducing the cementitious content of Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) Class D mix
and using a denser graded aggregate combination, while keeping the water-cementitious material ratio constant. Fly
ash, slag, and silica fume were used as cementitous replacement materials to evaluate and develop the optimal HPC
mix. Various parameters relevant to bridge deck performance were evaluated, including compressive strength, drying shrinkage, freeze-thaw durability, and chloride ion permeability. All four modified mixes exhibited higher compressive strength, lower drying shrinkage, and lower chloride ion permeability than the Class D control mix. Based
on performance and potential economic savings, two of the modified mixes that contained fly ash and slag as
cement replacements can be recommended as potential replacements for TDOT Class D concrete.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials
Type I Portland cement, Class C fly ash, groundgranulated blast-furnace slag, and silica fume were
237
Natural
sand
Materials
(kg /m3)
Class D
FA
FASF
SSF
25.4
19.0
9.5
0.49
0.35
0.62
2.79
2.84
2.60
Cement
Slag
Silica fume
Fly ash
Limestone, #57
Limestone, #7
Sand
Water
w/cm
368
1157
682
147
0.40
223
74
703
511
748
119
0.40
223
15
59
702
511
748
119
0.40
193
104
709
515
755
119
0.40
178
104
15
707
514
753
119
0.40
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Class D mix
0.08
0.15
0.30
0.60
1.18
2.36
4.75
9.50
12.50
19.00
Modified Mixes
25.00
Limestone #57
% Retained
Nominal size
(mm)
Absorption
(%)
SSD specific
gravity
Table 2.
Figure 1.
mixes.
2.3
Test procedures
238
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
60.0
Compressive strength
Compressive
Strength (Mpa)
3.1
48.3
50.0
52.6
55.2
52.8
40.9
Where nc and n0 are the fundamental transverse frequencies after c and 0 cycles of freezing and thawing,
respectively.
The durability factors (DFs) for the mixes are
shown in Figure 3. As shown in the figure, some of
the mixes had lower values of DFs but these values
are about 80 percent and thus were still high enough
to classify these mixes as clearly acceptable
[Goodspeed et al. 199; Zia et al. 1991].
3.2
3.3
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Figure 2.
Durability Factor
100
Class D
FA
FASF
Mix ID
SSF
86
87
95
87
95
80
60
40
20
0
Class D
FA
FASF
SSF
Mix ID
Figure 3.
Drying shrinkage
239
Drying Shrinkage
(Microstrain)
FA
FSF
SSF
Class D
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
Time (days)
3000
FA
2500
FASF
2000
1500
SSF
1000
Class D
500
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Time (Hours)
Figure 5.
3.4
may have been prescribed to ensure adequate workability, finishibility, strength, and durability. However, with
the advent of many chemical admixtures and cementitious replacement materials, the current prescriptive
method of a minimum cementitious content and a maximum w/cm ratio may no longer be the most effective
approach for addressing the durability performance of
concrete. For example, the chloride ion permeability for
standard Class D bridge deck concrete was found to be
2800 Coulombs, which is about three to six times
higher than that of the four modified mixes. Therefore,
replacing Class D concrete mix by one of the four modified mixes would not only achieve economical savings
but would also improve the major performance properties of the bridge decks in the state of Tennessee.
Based on the previous discussion, all four modified mixes had comparable strength, drying shrinkage,
freeze-thaw durability, and chloride ion penetration;
however, the mixes with fly ash and slag (mixes FA
and S) would be the most cost-effective mixes based on
material cost only (Class D: $40/m3, FA: $34/m3, S:
$36/m3, FASF $39/m3 and SSF: $40/m3), and could,
therefore, be a potential replacement for TDOT Class
D concrete.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions can be made:
REFERENCES
Beacham, M 1999. HPC bridge decks in Nebraska. Concrete
International 21(2): 6668.
Cabrera, J.G., Woolley, G.R., & Hassan, K.E. 1997. The use of
fly ash to improve the chloride resistance of cement mortars. Waste Materials in Construction: Putting Theory into
Practice: 387400.
240
241
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Recyclable by-products have been used as cementitious material for the past four decades in
our area. Originally, the use of lignite fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement was a result of finding a use for a waste product. The turn of the century has coincided with the emergence of a new philosophy
with regard to the use of cementitious materials. This philosophy, based on the purposeful reuse of waste stream
materials, embraces incorporating various combinations of cement, granulated slag, fly ash, and micro silica in
the production of concrete. In light of environmental controls on the production of cement, shortages of suitable
source materials, and an ever-growing worldwide demand for concrete, Minnesota Concrete Council (MCC)
believes this new approach is here to stay. The intent of this study is to understand the effect each of these
cementitious materials has on concrete durability. The Establishing Optimum Mixture Proportions for Concrete
Durability has been a result of understanding the enhancements provided by the use of recyclable by-products.
INTRODUCTION
243
Table 1.
Field data
Station
Air content, %
Slump, cm
7 day avg
28 day avg
15 year avg
872 35
900 15
926 30
*2 62
2.2
5.5
5.6
5.5
2.54
3.81
3.18
5.08
15%
15%
0%
15%
27.1
23.3
27.5
26.9
31.4
27.7
31.7
31.7
52.5
49.0
47.4
41.7
of Fargo, North Dakota. The concrete containing lignite fly ash as a 15% replacement attained higher
strengths and greater resistance to deicer migration.
Station
872 35 (top of
pavement)
872 35 (middle of
pavement)
872 35 (bottom of
pavement)
900 15 (top)
900 15 (middle)
900 15 (bottom)
926 30 (top)
926 30 (middle)
926 30 (bottom)
2 62 (top)
2 62 (middle)
2 62 (bottom)
Fly ash
replacement
Water soluble
chloride-ion
content, % by
weight of cement
15%
0.134
15%
0.090
15%
0.076
15%
15%
15%
0%
0%
0%
15%
15%
15%
0.119
0.040
0.078
0.145
0.040
0.078
0.210
0.099
0.089
GLOBAL WARMING
The principal causes of deterioration of concrete structures in our area are the corrosion of reinforcing steel,
exposure to cycles of freezing and thawing, alkali silica reaction and sulfate attack. In each of these four
cases of concrete deterioration, water is implicated in
the mechanisms of expansion and cracking. Also, water
is the primary vehicle for the diffusion of aggressive
ions into the interior of the concrete. Once the water
tightness of concrete is lost, the interior of concrete can
become saturated. Consequently, water and ions which
play an active role in the process of deterioration can
now be transported readily into the interior. If the
244
STUDY STRATEGY
Research has shown that increasing the cement content of a mix increases the potential for both drying and
thermal shrinkage of hardened concrete, leaving the
concrete susceptible to equal or greater water ingress.
Contrary to conventional thinking, cement content of
a mix does not control its durability. Durability depends
largely on the properties of the hydrated cement paste
and therefore, the cement content of the paste itself is
relevant. Keeping the paste content as low as possible
and the aggregate content as high as possible was the
strategy chosen to reduce both the drying and thermal
shrinkage as well as related cracking, while optimizing durability.
5.1
Gary Brenno
EVALUATION PARAMETERS
6.1
Study controls
245
Batch no.
1. PC
100
2. 30S
70
3. 30FA
70
4. 30S, 1MS
69
5. 30FA, 1MS
69
6. 30S, 3MS
67
7. 30FA, 3MS
67
8. PC
100
9. 30CA
70
10. 30CA, 1MS
69
11. 30CA, 3MS
67
12. 20S, 20FA
60
13. 20S, 20CA
60
14. 1MS, 20S, 20FA
59
15. 1MS, 20S, 20CA 59
16. 3MS, 20S, 20FA
57
17. 3MS, 20S, 20CA 57
18. *1MS, 30CA
69
19. **30CA
70
% micro
silica
%
slag
%
fly ash
0
0
0
1
1
3
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
1
3
3
1
0
0
30
0
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
30 (F)
0
30 (F)
0
30(F)
0
30(C)
30(C)
30(C)
20(F)
20(C)
20(F)
20(C)
20(F)
20(C)
30(C)
30(C)
RESULTS
Plastic properties
Plastic properties.
Batch no.
Test results
1-PC
2-30S
3-30FA
4-30S, 1MS
5-30FA, 1MS
6-30S, 3MS
7-30FA, 3MS
8-PC
Slump (cm)
Air content (%)
Unit wt (Kg/m3)
Initial set (hr:min)
12.7
6.2
2,351
3:33
16.5
5.0
2,358
4:30
19.1
6.1
2,351
4:45
17.8
6.0
2,340
4:50
17.8
7.2
2,337
4:47
12.7
5.4
2,355
4:50
15.2
7.2
2,345
5:15
17.8
6.4
2,338
4:00
Table 5.
Plastic properties.
Batch no.
Test results
9-30CA
10-30CA, 1MS
11-30CA, 3MS
12-20S, 20FA
13-20S, 20CA
Slump (cm)
Air content (%)
Unit wt (Kg/m3)
Initial set (hr:min)
16.5
5.0
2,359
4:20
16.5
6.2
2,351
4:30
12.7
5.0
2,363
4:40
19.1
6.5
2,338
4:37
17.8
5.1
2,355
4:05
17.8
5.4
2,358
4:41
246
Table 6.
7.2
Time of set
Plastic properties.
Batch no.
Test results
18-1MS, 30CA*
19-30CA**
Slump (cm)
Air content (%)
Unit wt (Kg/m3)
Initial set (hr:min)
12.7
6.0
2,345
4:10
17.8
6.2
2,351
4:45
12.7
7.1
2,340
4:14
11.4
5.0
2,359
5:01
20.3
5.5
2,351
4:49
6:00
Time,
hours:mins
4:48
3:36
2:24
Initial Set
1:12
0:00
Initial Set
3:33
4:30
4:45
4:50
4:47
4:50
5:15
4:00
Mix Design
Figure 1.
Time of set.
Time, hours:mins
6:00
4:48
3:36
Initial Set
2:24
1:12
0:00
Initial Set
10
11
12
13
14
15
Mix Design
Figure 2.
16
17
18
19
4:20 4:30 4:40 4:37 4:05 4:41 4:10 4:45 4:14 5:01 4:49
Time of set.
247
cement replacement had the lowest one-day compressive strength. The inverse is true at 28 days with the
control mixes having the lowest compressive strengths.
The mixes with the highest cement replacement had
the highest 28-day compressive strength.
tions that had the quickest initial set times were the
controls that were 100% Portland cement. Generally,
the higher percentages of Portland cement replacement resulted in the longest setting times.
7.3
Compressive strength
7.4
70
Compressive Strength (MPa)
63
56
49
42
35
28
21
14
7
0
1 Day
26.7
17.2
15.4
17.8
16.6
18.2
15.9
22.1
2 Days
33.2
25.8
22.4
26.9
26.1
26.5
22.1
31.1
7 Days
45.4
41.2
39.4
38.9
41.1
41.4
35.9
43.0
28 Days
53.9
52.8
49.9
47.6
48.3
62.3
55.0
49.8
Mix Design
Average compressive strength (psi).
70
63
56
49
42
35
28
21
14
7
0
Figure 3.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1 Day
17.0
17.2
13.8
17
14.8
17.2
17
15.8
14.5
14.5
6.1
2 Days
24.0
26.2
28.7
26.8
27.5
26.2
29.0
24.6
23.4
24.1
17.5
7 Days
40.8
42.0
45.0
43.6
45.7
44.0
48.5
42.7
42.8
40.7
30.9
28 Days
53.6
53.8
55.8
60.9
61.4
61.5
63.1
60.2
63.9
54.4
42.4
Mix Design
Figure 4.
248
Table 7.
Drying shrinkage
Scaling resistance
RCP testing.
RCP results coulombs
Batch no.
% cement
% micro silica
% slag
% fly ash
1. PC
2. 30S
3. 30FA
4. 30S, 1MS
5. 30FA, 1MS
6. 30S, 3MS
7. 30FA, 3MS
8. PC
9. 30CA
10. 30CA, 1MS
11. 30CA, 3MS
12. 20S, 20FA
13. 20S, 20CA
14. 1MS, 20S, 20FA
15. 1MS, 20S, 20CA
16. 3MS, 20S, 20FA
17. 3MS, 20S, 20CA
18. *1MS, 30CA
19. **30CA
100
70
70
69
69
67
67
100
70
69
67
60
60
59
59
57
57
69
70
0
0
0
1
1
3
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
1
3
3
1
0
0
30
0
30
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
30 (F)
0
30 (F)
0
30 (F)
0
30 (C)
30 (C)
30 (C)
20 (F)
20 (C)
20 (F)
20 (C)
20 (F)
20 (C)
30 (C)
30 (C)
249
56 days
6 months
1869
2519
1952
1034
986
707
1046
717
732
1433
2624
1281
1066
366
606
269
620
305
1427
590
955
876
386
347
292
445
263
313
538
893
7 Days
Lime
Water
4 Day
1 Week
2 Weeks
3 Weeks
4 Weeks
8 Weeks
16 Weeks
28 Weeks
44 Weeks
28 Weeks
44 Weeks
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.07
Age, weeks (cure + air-dry)
1
Figure 5.
-0.01
7 Days
Lime
Water
4 Day
1 Week
2 Weeks
3 Weeks
4 Weeks
8 Weeks
16 Weeks
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.07
Figure 6.
250
10
7 Days
Lime
Water
4 Day
1 Week
2 Weeks
3 Weeks
4 Weeks
8 Weeks
16 Weeks
28 Weeks
44 Weeks
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.07
Age, weeks (cure + air-dry)
11
Figure 7.
12
13
14
15
0.02
0
7 Days
Lime
Water
4 Day
1 Week
2 Weeks
3 Weeks
4 Weeks
8 Weeks
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
Age, weeks (cure + air-dry)
16
Figure 8.
17
251
18
19
16 Weeks
28 Weeks
44 Weeks
Table 8.
7-days lime
water
4-days
7-days
14-days
21-days
28-days
2-months
4-months
6-months
9-months
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0.001
0.009
0.008
0.007
0.008
0.007
0.010
0.014
0.007
0.012
0.006
0.001
0.008
0.005
0.015
0.010
0.010
0.003
0.002
0.010
0.015
0.014
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.009
0.002
0.023
0.019
0.028
0.018
0.026
0.023
0.020
0.016
0.022
0.023
0.025
0.015
0.026
0.025
0.024
0.018
0.008
0.015
0.006
0.028
0.031
0.035
0.028
0.037
0.034
0.023
0.025
0.034
0.033
0.037
0.022
0.035
0.036
0.034
0.025
0.016
0.028
0.019
0.035
0.038
0.039
0.034
0.040
0.039
0.028
0.033
0.040
0.038
0.044
0.026
0.039
0.040
0.039
0.033
0.024
0.038
0.028
0.041
0.045
0.044
0.042
0.044
0.041
0.034
0.038
0.044
0.043
0.052
0.029
0.041
0.043
0.042
0.037
0.026
0.039
0.030
0.045
0.047
0.046
0.048
0.047
0.045
0.035
0.040
0.048
0.046
0.057
0.040
0.048
0.053
0.050
0.045
0.033
0.047
0.041
0.050
0.052
0.050
0.052
0.051
0.049
0.043
0.047
0.051
0.049
0.067
0.049
0.052
0.059
0.056
0.048
0.039
0.050
0.051
0.061
0.062
0.060
0.059
0.061
0.060
0.047
0.051
0.060
0.057
0.075
0.050
0.053
0.068
0.057
0.048
0.040
0.050
0.053
0.061
0.062
0.061
0.061
0.062
0.061
0.047
0.052
0.062
0.059
0.077
0.060
0.057
0.064
0.063
0.053
0.045
0.055
0.066
0.065
0.065
0.066
0.065
0.050
0.056
0.050
0.056
0.064
0.063
0.089
Table 9.
Scaling results.
Batch no.
Identification
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
PC
30S
30FA
30S, 1MS
30FA, 1MS
30S, 3MS
30FA, 3MS
PC
30CA
30CA, 3MS
20S, 20FA
20S, 20CA
1MS, 20S, 20FA
1MS, 20S, 20CA
3MS, 20S, 20FA
3MS, 20S, 20CA
1MS, 30CA
30CA
2
2
3
2
3
1
2
3
2
2
2
3
0
0
2
2
3
3
No scaling.
Very light scaling (.32 cm depth maximum, no
coarse aggregate visible).
Slight to moderate scaling.
Moderate scaling (some coarse aggregate visible).
Moderate to severe scaling.
Severe scaling (coarse aggregate visible).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ACI 1991, Guide to Durable Concrete/ACI Committee
201 ACI Materials Journal October 1991, Vol. 88,
No. 5
252
253
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper describes chloride migration coefficient and hydration heat generation properties of
concrete composed of various types of cement and mineral admixture with the water-cementitious materials ratio
ranging from 0.30 to 0.40. Slag cement and low heat cement were effective in reducing the hydration heat compared
with normal portland cement but the low heat cement had negative influence on the chloride migration property. As
for the mineral admixtures, fly ash was effective in reducing the hydration heat, and both silica fume and meta kaolin
were able to increase the compressive strength and reduce the chloride migration coefficient significantly. The
experimental results showed that the concrete composed of three kinds of binder (normal portland cement 20%
fly ash 10% silica fume) led to the reduction of the maximum temperature from 37 43C to 33 35C and the
chloride migration coefficient from 9.1 11.7 1012m2/s to 2.0 3.8 1012m2/s as compared with the plain
concrete (W/Cm 0.30 0.40).
INTRODUCTION
The chloride ions penetrate and/or diffuse into concrete matrix under salt laden environment. The ingress
of chloride ions into concrete induces corrosion of
reinforcing bar and the corrosion causes the premature
deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. The
transport property of aggressive substances is determined by the tightness of concrete formed by mix condition, material, and construction. Durable structure is
made from dense concrete by increasing the resistance
against chloride invasion and restricting harmful
cracks through material and constructional measures
[Boulfiza et al. 2003].
Figure 1 demonstrates the methods of enhancing
durability against chloride attack in reinforced concrete structures [Yoo et al. 2003]. The methods can be
classified in two categories. The first is the restriction
method against chloride invasion and the second is the
protection method of reinforcing bar against corrosion.
Many regulations suggest the guideline of mix condition (water-cement ratio or unit cement content) and
the minimum compressive strength for the concrete
exposed to chloride attack environments [ACI 318
1995, KCSS 2003]. This method can be classified as
the restriction method against chloride invasion by
enhancing the density of concrete. In addition, the use
of some pozzolans has a positive influence on the durability by decreasing the permeability of concrete as
Cl -
Sacrificial anode
Non-steel material reinforcing
255
Table 1.
Experiment plan.
Cement
Mineral admixture
Mark Kind
Replacement
ratio (%)
Composition Measurement
FA
SF
MK
FA
SF
MK
Fly ash
Silica fume
Meta kaolin
Fly ash
Silica fume
Meta kaolin
0, 10, 20
0, 5, 10
0, 5, 10
10, 20
5, 10
5, 10
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.3
0.35
0.40
0.30
0.35
0.40
II**
III***
NPC
LHC
SLC*
NPC
LHC
SLC
NPC
FA SF
FA MK
SF MK
Fresh concrete
Slump or flow
Air contents
Hydration heat
Hardened concrete
Compressive strength
Chloride migration
coefficient
* SLC: Ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement (45% replaced with slag powder).
** LHC is replaced with FA, SF only, SLC of 0.40 W/Cm is replaced with FA, SF5% only.
*** FA10 represents the kinds of mineral admixture and the replacement ratio.
Table 2.
Cement
Mark
Type
Specific
gravity
NPC
LHC
SLC
3.15
2.95
3.03
Blaine
(cm2/g)
Ignition
loss (%)
Initial
Final
3 days
7 days
28 days
3384
3510
3890
1.15
0.70
0.81
280
280
345
360
360
585
21.9
15.1
17.8
29.7
21.6
28.3
38.1
44.1
48.8
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Experimental plan
Target slump flow of the concrete mixed with watercementitious materials ratio (W/Cm) of 0.30 and 0.35
was 500 50 mm, and target slump of the concrete
mixed with W/Cm of 0.40 was 180 25 mm. Target air
content of all mixtures was maintained as 4.5 1.5%.
2.2
Materials
256
Table 3.
Mineral admixture
Mark
Kind
Specific
gravity
FA
SF
MK
Fly ash
Silica fume
Meta kaolin
2.27
2.24
2.55
Blaine
(cm2/g)
Ignition
loss (%)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
3157
228,000
11,000
3.57
0.27
2.10
56.4
91.2
52.0
23.7
1.3
40.0
9.0
0.8
3.0
2.5
0.7
1.2
1.3
0.3
0.5
1.1
2.1
* Test was performed at an accredited testing center and the blaine of MK is an average value.
Table 4.
100
FA
Ratio (%)
80
SF
MK
Material
Kind
60
Sand
Gravel
40
Superplasticizer
Washed sand
Crushed stone
(25 mm)
Poly carboxylic
acid
Specific
gravity
Fineness
modulus
2.60
2.63
2.60
6.96
1.20 0.02
20
0
SiO2 Al2O3
Figure 2.
2.3
Measurements
Figure 3. Simplified test for measuring hydration temperature with insulated box and data logger.
2.3.2
257
100mm
(1)
50mm
Rubber sleeve
Potential
0.3N NaOH
DC 30V
3
3.1
Specimen
10% NaCl
solution
Plastic
support
TEST RESULTS
Effects of types of cement (Series I)
45
Environment
NPC
LHC
SLC
Temperature (C)
40
35
30
25
20
15
20
40
60
80
Figure 6.
258
60
NPC
LHC
100
SLC
80
60
40
3days
7days
28days
20
0
40
NPC
LHC
SLC
7days
28days
30
20
10
0
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.30 0.35 0.40
W/C
W/C
Figure 8.
cement.
50
259
50
LHC
SLC
W/Cm 0.30
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.40
30
20
Mix condition
Figure 10.
Mix condition
MK10
Mix condition
90
80
MK5
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
MK10
MK5
FA20
Plain
FA10
SF10
10
SF5
NPC
40
NPC
LHC
W/Cm 0.30
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.40
SLC
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Mix condition
Figure 11.
Mix condition
MK10
MK5
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
MK10
MK5
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
Mix condition
Compressive strength for different types of cement and mineral admixture (28 days).
Target slump flow and air content of fresh concrete, the test items were the same as series I.
3.2.1 Hydration heat
Figure 10 shows the maximum temperature of the
concrete replaced with mineral admixtures.
The maximum temperature decreased when W/Cm
decreased and replacement ratio of mineral admixture
increased.
By replacing 20% of cement content with fly ash,
the maximum temperature decreased 10% compared
with plain mixture without mineral admixtures.
It is clear that the maximum temperature was influenced by mix conditions such as W/Cm, type of
cement, kind of mineral admixture and their replacement ratio.
3.2.2 Compressive strength
Figure 11 demonstrates the compressive strength of
concrete replaced with mineral admixtures.
260
40
35
NPC
SLC
LHC
W/Cm 0.30
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.40
30
25
20
15
10
5
Mix condition
Figure 12.
Mix condition
MK10
MK5
SF10
SF5
FA10
Plain
SF10
SF5
FA20
Mix condition
Chloride migration coefficient for different types of cement and mineral admixture (28 days).
FA20
FA10
Plain
MK10
MK5
SF10
SF5
FA20
FA10
Plain
261
50
45
W/Cm 0.40
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.30
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
FA10 FA10
FA10 FA10 FA20
SF5 SF10
FA20 FA20
FA20 SF5
MK5 MK10 SF5
SF5 SF10
SF10 MK5
SF10
MK10 MK5
MK10 MK5
MK10
Mix condition
Figure 13.
46
100
W/Cm 0.30
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.40
90
Compressive strength (MPa)
40
37
34
y = 0.0448x + 21.926
2
R = 0.8509
31
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
250
350
Unit cement contents (kg)
450
SF10 MK5
SF10 MK10
SF5 MK5
SF5 MK10
FA20 MK5
FA20 SF10
FA20 SF5
FA20 MK10
150
FA10 MK10
25
FA10 MK5
FA10 SF5
0
28
FA10 SF10
43
Mix condition
3.4
262
40
W/Cm 0.30
W/Cm 0.35
W/Cm 0.40
9
6
SF10 MK5
SF10 MK10
SF5 MK5
SF5 MK10
FA20 MK10
FA20 MK5
FA20 SF5
FA20 SF10
FA10 MK5
FA10 MK10
FA10 SF5
3
0
NPC
LHC
SLC
35
Migration coefficient 1012(m2/s)
12
FA10 SF10
15
30
25
DLHC=-0.0373fc+4.6679
20
DNPC=-0.0373fc+4.6679
c
15
10
5
0
DSLC=-0.0373fc+4.6679
20
Mix condition
40
60
80
100
CONCLUSIONS
4. The maximum temperature of the concrete composed three kinds of binder was related with the unit
cement content excluding the mineral admixture.
5. The concrete composed of three kinds of binder
(NPC 20% of fly ash 10% of silica fume)
shows the reduction of the maximum temperature
from 37 43C to 33 35C and the chloride
migration coefficient from 9.1 11.7 1012 m2/s
to 2.0 3.8 1012 m2/s as compared with the
plain concrete (W/Cm 0.30 0.40).
6. The chloride migration coefficient and the compressive strength have a negative relationship, and
the tendency was different for each type of
cement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper was funded by
Center for Concrete Corea (05-CCT-D11), supported
by Korea Institute of Construction and Transportation
Technology Evaluation and Planning (KICTTEP)
under Ministry of Construction and Transportation
(MOCT).
REFERENCES
ACI 318 1995. Requirements for structural concrete and
commentary (Part 3 Construction requirements, durability requirements), American Concrete Institute:
3537.
ACI 201 1997. Guide to durable concrete: 611.
Boulfiza, M., Sakai, K., Banthia, N., & Yoshida, H. 2003.
Prediction of chloride ions ingress in uncracked and
263
264
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with possibilities of partial supplying of primary components in original prescription of wood-cement boards by secondary raw materials. That will achieve a decrease in production loads,
modification of building board characteristics and, last but not least, a decrease in ecological damage.
Unfortunately, not every fast renewable or secondary raw material could be used as filler in cement bonded
building materials. Alternate aggregates must not noticeably affect adversely interaction with cement or any
other used component at hydration. One of the potential alternatives is hemp.
INTRODUCTION
265
Figure 2.
50
Tailings [%]
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 1.
we have only three possibilities to improve board characteristics. We can either modify bonding components,
filler or both of them. In this paper there are described
some problems with partial supplying of primary components in original prescription of wood-cement
boards by fast renewable material hemp (as a filler).
2
2.1
HEMP
Hemp introduction
Figure 3.
0,63
1
2
Sieve opening [mm]
266
Parameter
Unit
Mix water
requirements,
CSN EN 1008
CHSK Cr
Sulphates
SO2
4
Humic
substances
mg/l
mg/l
Max. 2000
897
75
2640
159
mg/l
9.93
50.5
Reducing
sugars
mg/l
Qualitative
setting,
brigthly
yellow
Max. 100
50
50
Table 2.
Leach
Wood
Hemp
Tested parameters.
Final strength
Figure 4.
Bulk density
[kg/m3]
Roh
[N/mm2]
Rtl
[N/mm2]
2050
2030
2070
8.0
7.8
7.9
43.0
42.5
43.2
The experiment itself was executed using a comparative method. We tested and compared the initial
and final setting times and final strengths of spot samples. We compared three standard samples 40 40
160 mm from each test mixture. Each mixture was
SN EN 196-1: Methods
made according to standard (C
of testing cement Part 1: Determination of strength),
with different mixing water (leaches). Results are
written in table No. 3.
Figure 5.
4
(which is cement in this case) is very important. The
hemp may not impact hydration of cement components which secure compactness of this composite.
There is no unified method to prescribe hemp usability as a filler to cement bonded boards. There was created our own method in this purpose.
Leach was made from wood particles and then
from hemp for experiments. For comparison there
was used common water from water-supply system.
To obtain the leach we left to infuse wood or hemp
particles in water in ratio 1:10 weight parts. The
leaches had been left in laboratory environment for
24 hours. Then we removed from the leach any solids
by filtration through the filter paper. So we got net
leaches from both, wood and hemp particles.
4.1
Composition
267
Figure 6.
Composition by volume.
Figure 8.
Parameter
Figure 7.
Bulk
density
[kg/m3]
Tensile
strength
[N/mm2]
Modulus
of elasticity
[N/mm2]
Production of particleboards.
Hemp based
cement bonded
particleboards
Average
values of
CETRIS
particleboards
CSN EN 634-2
1,285
1,350
min. 1,000
11.9
11.5
min. 9
7,330
6,800
min. 4,500
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 9.
changes.
268
REFERENCES
Khestl, F. Bydovsky, J. 2006. Possibilities in modification
of cement bonded particleboards. 2nd Fib congress.
Napoli. ISBN 978-88-89972-06-9.
Bare, R. A. 1988. Kompozitn materily (Composite materials). SNTL, Praha.
Zhijian Li. Xungai Wang. Lijing Wang. 2005. Properties of
hemp fibre reinforced concrete composites. www. sciencedirect.com.
269
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Evan Jamieson
Alcoa World Alumina Australia, Technology Delivery Group, Kwinana, WA, Australia
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the works carried out in laboratory to investigate the possibility of using
coarse bauxite residue (red sand >100 m) and its derivatives as a fine aggregate in concrete mixture designs.
Alcoa World Alumina (Alcoa) has three refineries in Western Australia producing approximately 20,000 tonnes of
mud and a similar level of red sand each day. Much research has been undertaken to establish a sustainable use for
this residue. The main purpose of this research was to establish a scientific solution for the utilization of red sand
and its derivatives as a replacement of natural fine aggregate (yellow sand) in concrete mixtures. The comparative
analysis between normal mix proportions and the mix proportions utilizing red sand was achieved. For this project, the coarse bauxite residue obtained in the Bayer process was neutralized (carbonated) and washed to a
by-product standard. Further processing was conducted using a magnetic separator to form different fractions such
as High Iron Red Sand and High Silica Red Sand. Physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of these materials have been tested and compared with that of natural sand. Several mixtures of concrete were then designed in
order to verify their effects on strength and other properties. From the results obtained, it can be deduced that this
material can be used in a wide range of concrete applications in Civil Engineering and Construction.
INTRODUCTION
271
Middle
fraction
Washed and
Carbonated Red Sand
High Silica
red sand
Materials
Red Mud
Washed and
carbonated RS
2.1
METHODOLOGY
Red Mud
Natural Sand
Chemical
composition
SiO2 (%)
Fe2O3 (%)
Al2O3 (%)
TiO2 (%)
CaO (%)
Na2O (%)
40.7
30.8
19.5
3.0
4.4
3
1944
1145
1126
14
28
16
87.7
4.27
3.51
0.23
0.03
0.01
39.9
35.7
13.4
1.82
0.12
0.11
41.6
39.9
10.91
1.54
0.22
0.18
All fine aggregates used in this study were prepared in such ways that were at saturated surface dry
(SSD) condition.
The typical elemental composition of the red mud,
washed and carbonated red sand, high silica-rich red
sand and middle fraction which has been used in this
research plus iron-rich red sand which can possibly be
processed and used in the steel industry is provided in
Table 1.
2.1.2. Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate used in this research was crushed
granite with nominal size of 20 mm.
2.1.3 Cement
A normal portland cement (PC) conforming to relevant Australian standard was used to manufacture
concrete mixtures.
272
Table 2.
Mix
no
W/C
Agg./C
ratio
Water
PC
Fine
aggregate
Coarse
aggregate
Slump
(mm)
0.35
0.35
0.35
2.69
2.35
2.35
205
225
225
586
643
643
425
393
408
1149
1119
1104
135
160
105
4
5
Natural sand
High silica red sand
Washed and carbonated
red sand
HSRS 1:1 WCRS
Red Mud (fine)
2.35
2.35
401
378
1111
1134
130
60
HSRS 1:1 RM
643
385
1127
70
WCRS 1:1 RM
643
393
1119
No Slump
8
9
HSRS 0.9:0.1 RM
WCRS 0.9:0.1 RM
225
225+
(264)**
225+
(463)**
225+
(289)**
225
225
643
643
0.35
0.35
(0.76)*
0.35
(1.07)*
0.35
(0.80)*
0.35
0.35
643
643
393
408
1119
1104
70
30
1
2
3
2.35
2.35
2.35
2.35
Table 3.
Physical and chemical characteristics of fine aggregate [ * Sri Wahyuni et al. 2006].
Property
Natural sand
Red mud
Method
Specific Gravity *
Fineness Modulus *
Water Absorption (%)
Surface Area (m2/gr)
Chloride, Cl (mg/kg)
Sulphate as SO3 (mg/kg)
Sugar presence
2.64
2.47
0.242
0.66
80
<100
Absent
3.057
20.44
230
24,000
Absent
2.81
1.99
2.048
5.38
<50
<100
Absent
2.60
0.305
0.98
80
<100
Absent
AS1141.5
AS1141.5
BET
AS1012.20
AS1012.20
AS1141,Sec35
2.2
Method
Some physical and chemical properties of fine aggregates used in this research are summarized in Table 3.
The similarity of natural sand properties with high
silica red sand are noteworthy. Due to higher percent
of fines in HSRS its water absorption and surface
area are greater than natural sand.
The sieve analysis results (AS1141.11-1996) of
washed and carbonated and high silica red sand are
plotted in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively.
It can be observed from the results that both the
washed and carbonated and high silica red sand are reasonably well graded and meet the grading requirement
273
100
80
WCRS
60
Upper Limit
(AS2758.1)
Lower Limit
(AS2758.1)
40
20
0
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
Percentage
Remaining (%)
100
80
HSRS
60
Upper Limit
(AS2758.1)
Lower Limit
(AS2758.1)
40
20
0
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
3.3
274
Compressive Strength
(Mpa)
HSRS
UPRS
HSRS:UPRS
RM
RM:HSRS
RM:UPRS
RM0.1 : 0.9HSRS
RM0.1 : 0.9UPRS
70
60
Target
Strength
fc28 = 50 MPa
50
40
30
20
10
0 3
14
28
56
90
Day
Compressive strength test results.
Tensile strength
Figure 4.
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Control Mix HSRS
UPRS
Concrete Type
Figure 5.
275
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.7
6
18
22
26
30
HSRS
1400
WCRS
1100
HSRS :
WCRS
RM0.1 :
0.9HSRS
RM0.1 :
0.9WCRS
800
500
200
100
Day
Figure 6.
Control Mix
1700
10
20
30
Day
40
50
60
FlexuralStrength (MPa)
Control
Mix
HSRS
WCRS
Concrete Type
Figure 7.
Drying shrinkage
276
AV PV (%)
16
12
8
4
0
Control
Mix
HSRS
WCRS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Concrete Type
Figure 9.
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
Neville, A.M. & Brooks, J.J. 1993. Concrete technology,
Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers Pte Ltd.
Concrete Institute of Australia 2001, Performance Criteria
for Concrete in Marine Environments, Concrete Institute
of Australia.
Jamieson, E. & Cooling, D. & Fu, J. 2005. High volume
resources from bauxite residue, 7th International Alumina
Quality Workshop, Perth WA, pp. 210213.
Jamieson, E. & Jones, A. & Cooling, D. & Stockton, N.
2006, Magnetic separation of red sand to produce value,
Minerals Engineering, 19(15):16031605.
Knight, J.C. & Wagh, A.S. & Reid, WA 1986, The mechanical properties of ceramics from bauxite waste, Journal of
Materials Science, 21(6):21792184.
Maslehuddin, M. & Sharif, AM. & Shameem, M. &
Ibrahim, M. & Barry, M.S. 2003, Comparison of properties
of steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate concretes,
Construction and Building Materials, 17( 2):105112.
Piga, L. & Pochetti, F. & Stoppa, L. 1995, Application of
thermal analysis techniques to a sample of Red Mud a
by-product of the Bayer process for magnetic separation, Thermochimica Acta, 254: 337345.
Shehata, I. & Varzavand, S. & ElSawy, A. & Fahmy, M. May
1996, The use of solid waste material as fine aggregate
substitutes in cementitious concrete composites, in
Semisequicentennial Transportation, Iowa State
University, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Sri Wahyuni A. & Nikraz, H. & Jamieson, E. & Cooling, D.
June 2006, Sustainable use of residual bauxite tailings sand
(red sand) in concrete, Green Processing Conference, The
Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Newcastle,
Australia.
Vsvolod M. & Haroldo A. P. & Omar F. & Vaamonde, A.V.
2003, Environment-friendly method of high alkaline bauxites Red Mud and Ferrous Slag utilization as an example
of green chemistry, Green Chemistry, 5(3): 357360.
Yunping X. & Yue L. & Zhaohui X. & Lee, J.S. 2004,
Utilization of solid wastes (waste glass and rubber particles)
as aggregates in concrete, International Workshop on
Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology,
Iowa State University, Beijing.
277
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Perlite is a volcanic rock that contains relatively high amounts of SiO2 and Al2O3. Due to its
proper chemical composition and glassy structure, it can be used as a pozzolanic addition in blended cements.
In this study, ground perlite was used as a cement replacement material in blended cements. Several mortar
mixes were prepared to investigate the performance of those cements. The results showed that perlite incorporation caused early age strength losses when compared to the control mortars containing only portland cement;
however, the difference between them decreased in time due to the pozzolanic reactions. The strengths of the
blended cements were still within the limits of the EN standards. Moreover, it was observed that use of ground
perlite increased the durability of portland cement mixes.
INTRODUCTION
material which can be used very efficiently in constructions as light-weight aggregate, insulation material, etc. The bulk density of expanded perlite is
generally 60120 kg/m3.
There are very large perlite reserves in the world
(around 6700 million tons) and approximately two
thirds of those are in Turkey (TSPO 2001). Due to its
proper chemical composition (relatively high
amounts of SiO2 and Al2O3) and glassy structure, perlite can be used as a pozzolanic addition in blended
cements (Erdem et al. 2007). The grindability of perlite was also found suitable for cement production
(Erdem et al. 2007). However, despite the large perlite
reserves in the world and the potential benefits of the
pozzolans discussed above, studies on this subject are
very limited. Therefore, this study aims to extent our
knowledge on the use of perlites in blended cement.
For this purpose, two natural perlites from different
locations of Turkey were, first, ground and then
mixed with Portland cement in different amounts. The
investigated properties include water requirement,
setting time, soundness, compressive strength, rapid
chloride permeability and sulphate resistance.
2
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
279
Two different perlites were brought to the laboratory from two cities of Turkey, which are Izmir and
Erzincan. The chemical compositions of Izmir perlite
(IP) and Erzincan perlite (EP) are given in Table 1.
Both of the perlites were ground in the laboratory by
a grinding mill until reaching Blaine finenesses of
320 5 and 370 5 m2/kg. A summary of the particle size distribution of the perlites are given in Table 2.
Then, each perlite was mixed with PC to obtain
blended cements so that the perlite amount is 5, 20 or
30% of the cement. The cements produced in this study
and their compositions are summarized in Table 3.
(The cements with 5% perlite were used only for sulphate resistance and rapid chloride permeability tests.)
Table 1.
Oxides (%)
PC
IP
EP
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
K2O
Na2O
63.58
21.00
4.98
3.57
1.86
0.74
0.14
0.51
76.57
9.99
0.96
0.03
5.58
0.00
0.60
75.30
9.35
1.36
0.05
4.82
0.00
Table 2.
Perlite
93 m
59 m
30 m
15 m
5 m
IP-320
EP-320
IP-370
EP-370
13.9
12.4
9.8
5.8
30.1
28.7
23.9
16.1
52.0
51.2
46.1
36.8
68.5
68.1
63.9
56.3
87.9
87.0
86.0
82.7
Perlite
type
Perlite
fineness
(m2/kg)
Perlite
amount
(%)
PC
fineness
(m2/kg)
PC
IP-370-5%
EP-370-5%
IP-320-20%
EP-320-20%
IP-320-30%
EP-320-30%
IP-370-20%
EP-370-20%
IP-370-30%
EP-370-30%
IP
EP
IP
EP
IP
EP
IP
EP
IP
EP
370
370
320
320
320
320
370
370
370
370
0
5
5
20
20
30
30
20
20
30
30
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
280
3
3.1
compounds in the cement, namely free lime, magnesia, and calcium sulphate may cause such expansions,
and therefore the cement should be tested for its volume stability, e.i. soundness. The results for the autoclave tests for determining the soundness are shown
in Table 4.
All of the blended cements showed lower expansion
values than PC except the paste containing EP-32020% cement type, which was equal to PC. Moreover,
the expansions decreased as the perlite amount in the
pastes increased when the cements having the same
perlite type and fineness are compared. The results
also showed that the expansions were lower for the
pastes prepared with IP than for those containing EP.
Therefore, the lowest expansions were observed for
the cements containing 30% IP, that is, IP-320-30%
and IP-370-30%.
Finally as seen from Table 4, fineness of the perlite
present in the paste did not change the results
significantly.
3.3
Setting time
Soundness
PC
IP-320-20%
EP-320-20%
IP-320-30%
EP-320-30%
IP-370-20%
EP-370-20%
IP-370-30%
EP-370-30%
w/c
Autoclave
expansion
(%)
Initial
Final
0.234
0.242
0.243
0.242
0.247
0.240
0.244
0.245
0.250
0.07
0.05
0.07
0.02
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.05
124
139
148
174
175
142
146
153
150
168
190
190
209
216
177
195
179
195
3.4
Compressive strength
281
Table 5.
Cement label
w/c
2 days
3 days
7 days
28 days
56 days
91 days
PC
IP-320-20%
EP-320-20%
IP-320-30%
EP-320-30%
IP-370-20%
EP-370-20%
IP-370-30%
EP-370-30%
0.48
0.50
0.50
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
22.5
17.5
17.9
13.7
12.6
17.9
19.4
15.7
14.2
24.4
21.7
21.8
16.6
17.5
21.8
21.2
17.1
17.9
35.5
26.1
26.6
27.6
27.0
29.3
28.3
27.7
27.2
49.6
41.8
38.1
34.7
35.3
42.7
40.4
39.8
37.6
51.5
47.2
47.6
40.1
42.4
48.4
49.2
44.2
42.8
53.6
50.2
50.4
42.6
45.3
52.0
51.7
47.4
46.6
Table 6.
PC
IP-370-5%
IP-370-20%
IP-370-30%
EP-370-5%
EP-370-20%
EP-370-30%
28 days
3 months
6 months
9937
8254
6284
5937
8671
6493
6311
7384
6633
3293
1642
6508
2881
1724
6450
5098
1382
864
5297
1392
936
282
0,12
6 months
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
65
62
22
15
61
21
15
35
38
78
85
39
79
85
IP-370-5%
0,06
IP-370-30%
0,04
IP-370-20%
0,02
0,02
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
0,08
0,00
0,12
PC
0,10
Expansion (%)
PC
IP-370-5%
IP-370-20%
IP-370-30%
EP-370-5%
EP-370-20%
EP-370-30%
28 days
Expansion (%)
PC
0,10
0,08
EP-370-5%
0,06
EP-370-30%
0,04
EP-370-20%
0,02
0,00
0,02
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
283
In the previous sections, the effects of perlite on several properties of the blended cements were discussed.
However, it is essential that these cements satisfy the
requirements given in standard specifications. For this
purpose, the cements produced in this study were
tested to check their conformity with the three most
widely used cement specifications given in ASTM and
EN standards (ASTM 2002c, d, EN 2000). The
cements investigated can be classified as type IP
(portland-pozzolan) according to ASTM C 595,
type GU (General Use) according to ASTM C 1157,
and CEM II/A-P 32.5 R or CEM II/B-P 32.5 R
according to EN 197-1.
The standard specifications ASTM C 595 and C
1157 limit the initial setting time to minimum 45 min
and final setting time to maximum 420 min. On the
other hand, EN 197-1 specifies a limit only for the
initial setting time. It is 75 min for the cements like
those produced in this study. As seen from Table 4, all
cement types satisfied these requirements.
The standard specifications ASTM C595 and C1157
allow an autoclave expansion value of maximum
0.80%. Table 4 shows that the results for the blended
cements were below this limit. The soundness is tested
by Le Chatelier apparatus according to the EN specifications. The Le Chatelier test was not performed in
this study because the autoclave test results were found
satisfactory.
ASTM C595 states that compressive strengths of
type IP cements at 3, 7 and 28 days must be minimum
13, 20 and 25 MPa, respectively. As seen from Table 5,
the strength requirements stated in ASTM C595 were
satisfied by all of the blended cements. According to
ASTM C1157, the strengths of type GU (General Use)
cement must be between 10 and 20 MPa at 3 days, and
between 17 and 30 MPa at 7 days. The strength values
of the blended cements were even higher than the
upper limits stated in the standard.
According to EN 197-1, the strengths of CEM II/
A-P 32.5R and CEM II/B-P 32.5R must be minimum
10 MPa at 7 days and between 32.5 and 52.5 MPa at 28
days. In this study, the tests for the determination of
compressive strength were performed according to
ASTM C109. The test methods given in ASTM and
EN standards (ASTM C109 and EN 196-1, respectively) are not exactly the same; however, it can be
stated that the blended cements also conform to EN
197-1 since w/c of the mortars were the same with or
similar to what is required in EN 197-1 (i.e. 0.5).
The standard specification ASTM C1157 does not
suggest any value for the sulphate resistance of type
GU cements. However, in ASTM C595, there is an
optional requirement for sulphate resistance of the
type IP cements, and according to this requirement,
the expansion at 180 days (or 26 weeks) must be less
than 0.10%. As seen from Figures 1 and 2, all of the
cements satisfied this statement.
4
CONCLUSIONS
284
REFERENCES
ASTM 2002a. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume
04.01: Cement; Lime; Gypsum. PA, USA: American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
ASTM 2002b. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume
04.02: Concrete and Aggregates. PA, USA: American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Erdem, T.K., Meral, ., Tokyay M. & Erdogan, T.Y. 2007.
Use of perlite as a pozzolanic addition in producing
blended cements. Cement and Concrete Composites
29:1321.
Houssam, A.T. 1999. Properties of polypropylene fiber reinforced silica fume expansive-cement concrete.
Construction and Building Materials 13:171177.
Mehta, P.K. 1983. Mechanism of sulfate attack on portland
cement concrete another look. Cement and Concrete
Research 13:401406.
Mindess, S., Young, J.F. & Darwin, D. 2003. Concrete, 2nd
ed., NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mohr, P., Hansen, W., Jensen, E. & Pane, I. 2000. Transport
properties of concrete pavements with excellent longterm in-service performance. Cement and Concrete
Research 30:19031910.
Poon, C.S., Azhar, S., Anson, M. & Yuk-Lung W. 2001.
Comparison of the strength and durability performance
of normal- and high-strength pozzolanic concretes at elevated temperatures. Cement and Concrete Research
31:1291-1300.
TSPO 2001. Eight five years development program on use of
industrial materials such as pumice, perlite, vermiculite
phosphogypsum and expanding clays. Turkish State
Planning Organization (TSPO) Ankara, [in Turkish].
285
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Magnesium oxide (MgO)-cement (PC) systems are claimed to provide a sustainable alternative
to PC, as MgO is produced by low-temperature (750oC) calcination of naturally occurring minerals such as
magnesite (MgCO3) or brucite (Mg(OH)2) precipitated from seawater and brines. In porous or semi porous
materials such as blocks and pavers, magnesium oxide forms carbonates thus reabsorbing the carbon dioxide
produced during calcining. This study has assessed the effect of reactive MgO and MgO-PC binders on the
physical and mechanical properties of blocks made with lightweight aggregates. The blocks have been cured
under either 98% relative humidity or wet-dry cycling to assess the effect of curing conditions on binder carbonation. MgO has been found to hydrate extensively to form Mg(OH)2, which was partially carbonated to
hydromagnesite (4MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.4H2O). After 90 days curing, MgO samples achieved similar compressive
strengths to those prepared using PC.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete blocks are widely used throughout the construction industry due to their ease of use, durability,
thermal properties, sound insulation properties and
economy. However, the cement fraction accounts for
over 90% of the embodied energy in standard concrete. The manufacture of portland cement (PC) is an
energy intensive process, responsible for up to 10%
of anthropogenic CO2 emissions worldwide [Pearce
1997] and there is a need for innovative, cost effective
and sustainable alternatives.
MgO cements have recently received significant
publicity [Pearce 1997, 2002]. These are blends of a
normal hydraulic cement, such as PC, and reactive
magnesium oxide, which sometimes also include a pozzolan such as fly ash. The MgO hydration has a particularly bad reputation amongst cement scientists as
it is believed to give rise to unsoundness in PC due to
the associated increase in volume [Hewlett 1998].
However, MgO will only cause cracking when its
hydration occurs much later than the main hydration
reactions, with its hydration rate depending strongly
on the calcination temperature [Maryska & Blaha
1997]. Reactive MgO is produced by low-temperature
processing of naturally occurring minerals such as
magnesite (MgCO3, 750C) [Glasson 1963, Blha
1995, Birchal et al. 2001] and Mg(OH)2 (450C)
[Shand 2006], or precipitated magnesium hydroxide
(450C) utilising seawater or natural brines as the
2.
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials
287
Table 2.
Weight (%)
80%
LWA aggregates
Binder
Code
04 mm
%
48 mm
%
PC
%
MgO
%
% of dry
solids
A
B
C
D
E
F
100
100
100
80
60
40
0
0
0
20
40
60
100
50
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
100
100
100
28.7
28.7
28.7
25.8
25.8
25.8
PAN
0.15<x<0.3
0.3<x<0.6
0.6<x<1.18
1.18<x<2.36
2.36<x<4.72
4.76<x<9.52
x> 9.52
0%
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
Mn2O3
P2O5
SO3
Loss on ignition
Total
Surface area (m2/g)
MgO
(%)
Cement
(%)
1.16
0.16
0.24
1.44
92.02
0.35
0.01
0.10
0.02
0.00
0.00
1.52
97.02
75.17
23.60
4.24
2.40
61.57
2.59
0.27
0.88
0.32
0.06
0.32
1.37
1.57
99.19
1.50
The samples were prepared by adding a predetermined amount (315 g) of the mixture to a cylindrical mould (150 mm length/50 mm diameter) followed by compaction to 100 mm length/50 mm
diameter. After compaction the samples were carefully
demoulded and stored (25C) in two different curing
conditions; i) 98% RH (relative humidity) and ii) wetdry cycling. During wet-dry cycling, samples were
stored for 24hr in 98%RH followed by 60hr in ambient
conditions (60% RH, 25C). Wet-dry cycling was used
to simulate the effect of outdoor sample exposure.
2.3
2.2
Total
water
60%
Figure 1.
Sample preparation
The samples prepared were cylinders of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm length. All batches were made at an
aggregate-binder ratio of 9:1. To compensate for the
Test methods
288
6.0
5.0
5.0
UCS (MPa)
UCS (MPa)
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
28 days (98%RH)
1.0
90 days (98%RH)
0.0
PC
0.5
3.1
2.0
28 days (wet-dry)
1.0
90 days (wet-dry)
MgO/PC ratio
MgO
PC
0.5
MgO/PC ratio
MgO
Unconfined compressive strength of MgO-PC-LWA samples with curing conditions and time.
6.0
5.0
UCS (MPa)
3.0
0.0
0
Figure 2.
4.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
20
40
60
% Coarse aggregates
28 days (98%RH)
90 days (98%RH)
28 days (wet/dry)
90 days (wet-dry)
289
XRD analysis
1200
M Q
B: Brucite (Mg(OH)2)
1000
Intensity (counts/sec)
SEM analysis
800
C: Calcite (CaCO3)
B Q
M M
B CM
PC (98% RH)
CBC
600
PC/MgO (98% RH)
400
200
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Angle (2 Theta)
Figure 4.
XRD spectra of MgO-PC-LWA (100% fine aggregates) samples cured for 28 days at 98%RH.
290
65
500
M
B: Brucite (Mg(OH)2)
Intensity (counts/sec)
400
M
NI
M
M
NI
300
90 day
200
100
28 day
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Angle (2 Theta)
Figure 5.
XRD spectra of MgO sample with 40% coarse aggregates cured at wet-dry conditions.
Figure 6. SEM micrograph of the external (left) and internal (right) part of sample E (40% coarse aggregates/MgO binder)
cured in wet-dry conditions for 28 days.
Figure 7. SEM micrograph of the external (left) and internal (right) part of sample E (40% coarse aggregates/MgO binder)
cured in wet-dry conditions for 90 days.
291
Figure 8. SEM micrograph of the external (left) and internal (right) part of sample B (40% coarse aggregates/MgO-PC
binder) cured in wet-dry conditions for 90 days.
0.02
95
E (90d)
0.01
E (28d)
DTG (28d)
90
85
-0.01
DTG (90d)
80
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
-0.02
900
DTG-d(Weight)/d(Temp)
100
Temperature (C)
Figure 9.
TGA and DTG analysis of sample E (40% coarse aggregates/MgO) cured in wet-dry conditions up to 90 days.
Beruto et al. [2005] reported that in Ca(OH)2Mg(OH)2 putty-limes, Mg(OH)2 is present in an acicular form.
3.4
Thermogravimetric analysis
292
0.04
0.02
90
0
80
-0.02
-0.04
70
-0.06
60
0
Figure 10.
100
200
300
400
Temperature ( C)
600
-0.08
700
500
DTG-d(Weight)/d(Temp)
(Mg(OH)2-70d)
100
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Beruto, D.T., Barberis, F., & Botter, R. 2005. Calciumcarbonate binding mechanisms in the setting of calcium
and calcium-magnesium putty-limes, Journal of Cultural
Heritage 6: 253260.
Bhatti, A.S., Dollimore, D., & Dyer, A. 1984. Magnesia
from seawater: a review, Clay minerals 19: 865875.
Birchal, V.S., Rocha, S.D.F., Mansur, M.B., & Ciminelli,
V.S.T. 2001. A simplified Mechanistic Analysis of the
Hydration of Magnesia, Canadian Journal of Chemical
Engineering 79: 507511.
Blha, J. 1995. Kinetics of hydration of magnesium oxide in
aqueous suspensions: Part 1 Method of measurement and
evaluation of experimental data, Ceram-Silicaty 39:
4551.
Bocanegra-Bernal, M.H. 2002. Agglomeration of magnesia
powders precipitated from sea water and its effects on
uniaxial compaction, Materials Science and Engineering
A-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and
Processing 333: 176186.
Botha, A., & Strydom, C.A. 2001. Preparation of a magnesium hydroxy carbonate from magnesium hydroxide,
Hydrometallurgy ;62: 175183.
Botha, A., & Strydom, C.A. 2003. DTA and FT-IR analysis
of the rehydration of basic magnesium carbonate, Journal
of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 71: 987995.
Brew, D.R.M., & Glasser, F.P. 2005. Synthesis and characterisation of magnesium silicate hydrate gels, Cement
and Concrete Research 35: 8598.
Comite Euro-International du Beton (CEB) & Federation
Internationale de la Precontrainte (FIP) 1977. Lightweight
aggregate concrete, 1st ed.: 4950. Lancaster, UK: The
construction Press Ltd.
Davies, P.J., & Bubela, B. 1973. The transformation of
nesquehonite into hydromagnesite, Chemical Geology
12: 289300.
Dheilly, R.M., Sebaibi, Y., Tudo, J., & Queneudec, M. 1998.
Importance de la prsence de magnsie dans le stockage
de la chaux : carbonatation de loxyde et de lhydroxyde
de magnsium, Canadian Journal of Chemistry 76:
11881196.
Fernandez, L., Alonso, C., Hidalgo, A., & Andrade, C. 2005.
The role of magnesium during the hydration of C3S and
C-S-H formation-Scanning electron microscopy and
293
294
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The work described in this paper analyzes the leaching behaviour of a number of concrete specimens made with one type of cement (CEM-II/A-L 32.5 R) and natural aggregates with biomass ash as a supplementary material. The biomass ashes were obtained from a CHP (Combined Heat and Power) plants. The
main objective was to study the environmental impact with regard to the leaching potential of the concrete specimen. The biomass ash micro-structure was characterized through Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP).
Dynamic leaching tests were conducted using Italian standard procedure. The heavy metal release resulted in a
full conformity to the national legislative requirements. The total ions loss and leachability show a direct relationship with the specific surface area as it is measured by the meso- and micro-pores evaluation using MIP. The
total environmental load results were related to the unconfined compressive strength and to the loss on ignition
of the biomass employed. These data have been quantified through linear and multiplicative fitting parameters
derived from the release curves.
INTRODUCTION
to use of RES has risen significantly. In many industrialised regions of the European Union, RES is becoming one of the principal energy sources, mainly in the
heating district with the bio-wastes production.
Heating districts have grown significantly during
the 1990s. Consequently, today, the increasing use of
biomass, such as wood, municipal wastes, rotation
crops, agricultural residues, and other similar biomass generates a large amount of biomass ashes and
offer a very promising sector for development.
Moreover, the biomass utilisation is encouraged by
the EU Green Paper on Sustainable Energy [Green
Paper, 2006]. The importance to tackle the energy
mixture indicates:
1. all the advantages and drawbacks of different
sources of energy, such as indigenous renewable
energy sources from biomass and biofuels;
2. a detailed short-, medium-, and long-term plan to
stabilise and gradually reduce the EUs dependence
on imported oil. This would build on the existing
Biomass Action Plan2 [Comm. 2005] and the
Strategy for Biofuels3 [Comm. 2006].
These strategy requires to seriously consider the life
cycle assessment of bio-products at the end of its useful life (after the energy production process).
Traditionally cement manufacturing industries have
offered valid solutions to solve the problem of coal
295
fly ash by means of their use in structural concrete [Helmuth 1987, Collepardi 1991, Malhotra &
Ramezanianpour 1994, Malhotra 2001, Naik at al.
2003, Borsoi et al. 2006]. Currently, similar destination is envisioned for biomass ash. However, the practical feasibility needs to be carefully investigated
even if, national regulations, as well as EU directives,
allow the reuse of biomass ash in the building sector
through simplified procedures [D.Lgs. 1997].
Within this context, this study aims to contribute to
this important issue and reports on the leaching
behaviour and environmental impact of concretes manufactured with biomass ashes. Their mechanical behaviour has already been considered by Corinaldesi &
Moriconi [2004], Sani et al. [2003] and Fava & Monosi
[1999].
2
MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
sand 0/2
sand 3/6
gravel 7/15
gravel 15/30
Bulk specific
gravity
g/cm3
SSD
%
Fineness
modulus
2.65
2.72
2.74
2.73
0.7
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.86
3.35
6.60
7.80
sand
0/2
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
74
16.5
59
23.5
55.5
5
33.5
Fineness
%
26
83.5
41
76.5
45.5
95
66.5
0.628
0.135
0.294
0.135
0.464
0.212
2.405
2.044
2.554
2.460
2.227
2.468
2.565
LOI
%
6.2
2.9
17.9
9.8
17.0
8.6
11.8
% Cumulative
ASH
Passing
%
Bulk
density
g/cm3
mass (%)
90
Specific
surface
m2/g
80
70
sand
0/6
60
50
40
fine
gravel
30
20
coarse
gravel
10
0
0,01
0,1
10
Figure 1.
296
100
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
Table 3.
Sample
ASH 1
ASH 2
ASH 3
ASH 4
ASH 6
ASH 7
ASH 8
sand 0/2 mm
sand 0/6 mm
coarse 7/15 mm
coarse 15/30 mm
cement
ash
water
additive
w/c ()
w/(cash) ()
270
690
613
370
400
186
1
0,47
242
530
551
333
400
100
220
1,1
0,55
0,44
237
520
541
327
400
100
210
1,2
0,53
0,42
234
513
533
322
400
100
223
2,2
0,56
0,45
241
527
547
332
400
100
205
1,5
0,51
0,41
247
541
562
380
400
100
190
1,8
0,48
0,38
247
540
561
339
400
100
190
1,3
0,48
0,38
241
529
550
332
400
100
205
1,2
0,51
0,41
297
Table 4.
Sample
Bulk
density
g/cm3
Total
porosity
%
Micro- meso
pores
%
Micro- meso
pores/total pores
%
Macro
pores
%
Macropores/
total pores
%
Specific
surface
m2/g
B
ASH 1
ASH 2
ASH 3
ASH 4
ASH 6
ASH 7
ASH 8
2.335
2.238
2.046
2.098
2.469
2.396
2.314
2.127
12.4
7.6
15.9
18
9.6
5.3
10.3
17.5
7.9
6.5
13
8.4
6.5
2.6
5.9
12.8
63
85
82
47
49
68
58
73
4.5
1.1
2.9
9.6
3.1
2.7
4.4
4.7
37
15
18
53
51
32
42
27
5.4
4.5
10.0
5.0
3.0
4.5
2.8
8.4
B
ASH 1
ASH 2
ASH 3
ASH 4
ASH 6
ASH 7
ASH 8
ref. limit
Ba
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
Zn
0.087
0.082
0.049
0.285
0.272
0.079
0.034
0.143
1.0
0.008
0.007
0.005
0.006
0.008
0.026
0.011
0.008
0.05
0.042
0.008
0.009
0.013
0.019
0.037
0.015
0.011
0.05l
0.004
0.002
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.007
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.002
0.003
0.05
0.008
0.011
0.007
0.015
0.012
0.026
0.026
0.010
0.25
0.128
0.113
0.386
0.001
0.001
0.116
0.001
0.298
3.0
the investigation time. The leachates, alkaline throughout the testing period with pH values greater than 10,
indicate that the interstitial pore fluid in contact with
hydrated cementitious materials is buffered by the
presence of alkaline ions. So far as the local condition
of the leachant remain unchanged, the heavy metals
leaching remains very low, as found in previous
works [Sani et al. 2004, Carrescia et al. 2004, Naik
et al. 2001].
The behaviour of the concrete manufactured with
biomass ashes may be observed with the electrical
conductivity of the leachate, given in cumulated concentration (Figure 2) versus time. Graphs reproducing
the release curves are split in two parts: release with
electrical conductivity greater than the reference sample (B, without ash) and lower than the reference sample. Ashes 1, 2, and 8 (Figure 2b) show comparable
cumulative conductivity, while the remaining ashes
provided releases in some cases double than the reference specimen (Figure 2a). Because of their morphology such results were expected for ashes 1 and 2, but
not for ash 8. Similar considerations are feasible for
ashes 6 and 7, which were quite heterogeneous in shape
and composition.
Curve shapes point to a diffusion-like process as
the prevailing leaching mechanism, except for the
298
20
20
Cumulated alkali release [meq l-1]
ASH 7
ASH 3
15
10
ASH 4
ASH 6
Figure 2.
100
200
300
ASH 1
10
ASH 2
400
100
200
300
Time [h]
Time [h]
(a)
(b)
400
30
ASH 6
10
Cumulated fractional release [eq m-2]
ASH 8
ASH 3
ASH 6
25
ASH 7
ASH 8
ASH 4
20
B
15
ASH 1
10
5
ASH 2
9
ASH 7
8
ASH 4
7
ASH 3
6
5
ASH 1
4
B
ASH 8
2
1
ASH 2
Figure 3.
15
100
200
300
400
100
200
Time [h]
Time [h]
(a)
(b)
300
400
Total ions release per unit of particle mass (a) and per unit of specific surface area (b).
299
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
LOI [%]
20
15
10
REFERENCES
5
0
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
b - leaching parameter
Leachability parameters.
ASH
b
g/g h
R2 (1)
%
LOI
%
Unconfined
compressing
strength
MPa
B
ASH 1
ASH 2
ASH 3
ASH 4
ASH 6
ASH 7
ASH 8
0.39
0.30
0.44
2.87
2.23
1.61
1.06
0.97
0.67
0.70
0.79
0.55
0.59
0.60
0.60
0.70
99.96
99.96
99.93
99.85
99.74
99.70
99.74
99.96
4.0
6.2
2.9
17.9
9.8
17.0
8.6
11.8
41.2
40.0
40.2
21.0
23.7
29.2
31.8
33.9
CONCLUSION
A rational approach is necessary for relating the maximum permissible replacement of traditional materials
with construction-quality secondary materials in buildings, with the need to consider, besides the mechanical properties also the environmental requirements.
Ahn, Y., Kil, Dae-Sup, Yang, Jung Il, Chung, & Hun S. 1999.
Characteristics of Unburned Carbon Particles Recovered
from Fly Ash. In Proc. Thirteenth U.S. Korea Joint
Workshop on Energy and Environment. http://www.
netl.doe.gov/publications/index.html (July 24, 2006).
Antocicco, S. 2002. Manuale delle prove e sperimentazione
on-line, ISTEDIL (ed.) http://www.istedil.it/manualeprove.htm (July 24, 2006).
ASTM C1220:1992, Static Leaching of Monolithic Waste
Forms for Disposal of Radioactive Wastes, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, 04.02, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
ASTM C618-92a. 1994. Standard Specification for Fly Ash
and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan For Use as Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, 04.02, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
ASTM D4404-84. Standard Test Method for Determination
of Pore Volume and Pore Volume Distribution of Soil and
Rock by Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, 04.02, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
Berg, E.R., & Neal, J.A. 1998. Municipal Solid Waste
Bottom Ash as Portland Cement Concrete Ingredient, J.
Mat. in Civ. Engrg.,10(3): 168173
Borsoi, A., Collepardi, M., Collepardi, S., & Croce E.N.
2006. Cenere Volante Beneficiata a confronto con
cenere volante normale e fumo di silice. Enco Journal 33.
Carrescia, P.G., Fava, G., & Sani, D. 2004. Regulation
aspects and a dynamic leaching test for non-ferrous slag
recycling in concrete manufacturing, Proc. VII
Congresso Nazionale AIMAT. Ancona, Italy.
Collepardi, M. 1991. Scienza e Tecnologia del Calcestruzzo,
3rd ed., Hoepli, Milano.
Collepardi, M. 2003. Il Nuovo Calcestruzzo. 3rd ed.
Tintoretto, Villorba (TV).
300
301
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
K. Koibuchi
DC CO., LTD, Japan
K. Fujita
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,
Utsunomiya University, Japan
ABSTRACT: The main ingredients in paper sludge ash (PS ash), which is discharged by the paper industry,
are SiO2 and Al2O3. Therefore, the pozzolan reaction can be expected when it is added to concrete. However, its
water absorptivity is so high that the plasticity of the resulting concrete is reduced. In this paper, the applicability of PS ash to extremely stiff concrete is evaluated by adding PS ash to cement and fine aggregate up to
300 kg/m3. A compressive strength of up to two times that of the original concrete was obtained.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
The materials used are shown in Table 1 (coarse aggregate). In addition, the chemical ingredients of the PS
ash used in this study are shown in Table 2. The particle distribution of PS ash is shown in Fig. 1. In the PS
ash used for this study, about 60% of the ingredients
were silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). Therefore, PS
ash can be expected to undergo a pozzolan reaction
with calcium hydroxide due to hydration of cement. A
SEM photograph of PS ash is shown in Fig. 2. It is seen
from this photograph that the particles of PS ash do not
include spherical particles and have a rough shape.
2.3
Materials
Mixing proportions
303
Table 1.
Materials.
Materials
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
C
RS
G5
G6
Admixture
PS
Chemical admixture SP
Table 2.
Density
(g/cm3)
Water
absorption(%)
F.M.
Specific surface
area(cm2/g)
3.15
2.56
2.64
2.66
2.27
1.05
3.01
0.38
0.49
20.63
2.93
6.45
7.07
3,260
1,360
Chemical ingredients.
ig-loss SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3 CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
Ti2O
P2O5 MnO
TS
total
3.6
21.4
1.1
3.6
0.39
0.15
1.03
0.30
0.5
99.1
0.49
38.1
28.9
0.02
0.178
80
60
40
PS ash
Range of standard
grading for fine
aggregate (JSCE)
0.075
0.150
Figure 1.
0.300
0.600
1.200
Screen size(mm)
2.500
5.000
20
Percentage passing(%)
100
0
10.000
(PS/C) mixture by volume was at five levels of substitution, i.e., 0, 20, 40, 60 and 80% (Series 1). The percentage of PS ash in the fine aggregate (PS/S) mixture
by volume was at three levels of substitution, i.e., 10,
20 and 30% (Series 2). In the cement and fine aggregate substitution series (Series 3), the percentage of
PS ash in the cement (PS/C) mixture by volume was at
three levels, i.e., 30, 40, 50%. Also, the percentage of
PS ash in the fine aggregate (PS/S) mixture by volume
was at five levels, i.e., 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40%. In total,
15 types of mortar with different mixing proportions
were tested. In addition, the PS ash was treated as fine
aggregate when PS ash was substituted for fine aggregate. For these experiments, the flow value of the test
cement was specified within 130 20 mm and the air
content was within 2.0 1.0%.
2.4
Test items
Figure 2.
304
Table 3.
Vps/(Vps Vc)
Vps/Vfd
W/C (%)
Non Ps
Series I
C20
C40
C60
C80
20
40
60
80
Series II
S10
S20
S30
Series III
C30-S0
C30-S10
C30-S20
C30-S30
C30-S40
C40-S0
C40-S10
C40-S20
C40-S30
C40-S40
C50-S0
C50-S10
C50-S20
C50-S30
C50-S40
PS
30
1070
879
37.5
50
75
150
856
642
428
214
154
308
462
617
879
10
20
30
30
1070
77
154
231
792
704
616
30
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
43
749
231
309
385
462
540
308
385
462
540
617
385
462
540
617
694
879
792
704
616
528
879
792
704
616
528
879
792
704
616
528
40
50
321
642
535
1.2
1.0
0.8
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
SP
SP
20
40
60
Vps/(Vc+Vps)
80
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
100
10
20
30
40
Vps/Vfa
305
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 30%
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 40%
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 50 %
5.0
4.0
SP(%)
Compressive strength(N/mm2)
6.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
0
20
10
30
VPS/Vfa (%)
Vps/Vfa(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
Vps/(Vc+Vps) (%)
60
Compressive strength(N/mm2)
Compressive strength(N/mm2)
80
60
50
40
30
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 30%
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 40%
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 50%
20
10
0
c) Series 3
The relationship between compressive strength and %
of fine aggregate substitution is shown in Fig. 8.In addition, the relationship between compressive strength and
PS ash amount is shown in Fig. 9. It is seen from Fig. 9
that when the substitution amount of fine aggregate was
changed for the same cement amount, there was a peak
in compressive strength. For both peaks, the PS ash
amount was 462 kg/m3, and both showed a value that
was close to the compressive strength 61 N/mm2 for
mortar with no PS ash. It appears that strength
decreased because poor filling occurred, so workability
deteriorates slowly when the PS ash amount exceeds
20
30
40
50
b) Series 2
The relationship between compressive strength and %
of fine aggregate substitution is shown in Fig. 7. For
mortar with a substitution amount of 30%, it was confirmed that the compressive strength increased linearly
with the substitution amount of PS ash. One of the reasons is that the pozzolan reaction was caused by SiO2
and Al2O3, which are chief ingredients of PS ash and
calcium hydroxide, which is produced by hydration of
cement. Another reason is the fineness of the structure
due to the increase in the amount of pulverized material.
10
Vps/Vfa(%)
Compressive strength(N/mm )
60
50
40
30
20
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 30%
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 40%
Vps/(Vc+Vps)50%
10
0
200
300
400
500
600
700
Unit PS content(kg)
Figure 9. Relationship between unit PS content and compressive strength (Series 3).
306
Table 4.
Symbol
Vps/(Vps Vc)*1
(Vps/Vfa)*1
W/B(%)
W/C(%)
PS
C0-S0
C0-S10
C0-S20
C0-S30
C0-S40
C0-S50
0
10
20
30
40
50
41.9
35.3
30.4
26.8
23.9
21.6
46.9
169
360
0
68
136
204
272
340
783
741
659
576
494
412
C10-S0
C10-S10
C10-S20
C10-S30
C10-S40
C10-S50
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
43.1
36.1
31.1
27.3
24.3
21.9
52.2
169
324
26
94
162
230
298
366
783
741
659
576
494
412
C20-S0
C20-S10
C20-S20
C20-S30
C20-S40
C20-S50
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
44.7
37.3
31.9
27.9
24.8
22.4
58.7
169
288
52
120
188
256
324
392
783
741
659
576
494
412
C30-S0
C30-S10
C30-S20
C30-S30
C30-S40
C30-S50
30
0
10
20
30
40
50
46.1
38.2
32.6
28.5
25.2
22.7
67.1
169
252
78
146
214
282
350
418
783
741
659
576
494
412
C40-S0
C40-S10
C40-S20
C40-S30
C40-S40
C40-S50
40
0
10
20
30
40
50
42.7
35.8
30.9
27.1
24.2
21.8
78.2
169
216
104
172
240
308
376
444
783
741
659
576
494
412
C50-S0
C50-S10
C50-S20
C50-S30
C50-S40
C50-S50
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
39.8
33.8
29.3
25.9
23.2
21.1
93.9
169
180
130
198
266
334
402
470
783
741
659
576
494
412
1023
Materials
3.3
Mixing proportions
307
Table 5.
Air (%)
W(kg)
W/C(%)
s/a(%)
25
169
46.9
45
169
360
783
1023
Test items
Table 6.
Formability of concrete.
Vps/(Vc Vps) (%)
Vps/Vfa (%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
10
20
30
40
50
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
308
Table 7.
Symbol
Test results.
Unit cemento
Unit PSash
content (kg/m3) content (kg/m3)
C0-S0
C0-S10
C0-S20
C0-S30
C0-S40
C0-S50
360
C10-S0
C10-S10
C10-S20
C10-S30
C10-S40
C10-S50
324
C20-S0
C20-S10
C20-S20
C20-S30
C20-S40
C20-S50
288
C30-S0
C30-S10
C30-S20
C30-S30
C30-S40
C30-S50
252
C40-S0
C40-S10
C40-S20
C40-S30
C40-S40
C40-S50
216
C50-S0
C50-S10
C50-S20
C50-S30
C50-S40
C50-S50
180
Ce
Comperssive
strength
0.00
0.09
1.8517
2.5161
1.9833
0.8757
30.79
41.93
51.60
70.09
67.82
24.27
103.6
101.7
99.99
98.56
98.63
0.00
0.00
10.47
80.94
423.56
0.00
0.00
2.7271
1.6797
1.0329
28.40
40.29
51.34
53.88
60.07
96.1
88.6
80.43
79.91
122.8
99.9
99.87
100.04
23.13
12.50
61.13
585.92
0.19
0.01
2.2639
1.4646
29.60
39.13
53.17
58.47
96.5
86.0
86.1
75.25
100.0
100.0
99.92
98.94
4.16
5.23
6.71
59.73
0.03
0.29
0.0459
1.5924
25.35
33.11
24.28
52.71
4.20
7.68
21.9
0.04
1.61
1.7557
1.373
21.98
33.23
46.76
49.16
0.00
1.72
1.5059
18.09
33.78
24.44
SP (%)
Air (%)
Ci (%)
Cf(%)
0
68
136
204
272
340
0.7
0.8
1.1
3.5
4.0
5.0
1.92
2.00
1.14
2.87
3.74
14.86
100.0
94.6
84.79
79.46
80.64
72.04
103.2
125.2
99.99
99.83
99.94
83.67
26
94
162
230
298
366
0.6
1.0
1.5
3.5
5.0
2.32
2.10
1.73
3.24
1.84
100.0
100.0
79.82
79.3
79.81
52
120
188
256
324
366
0.7
1.0
3.0
5.0
1.66
0.94
1.62
0.30
78
146
214
282
350
392
0.8
1.2
4.0
5.0
104
172
240
308
350
418
1.0
1.4
4.0
5.0
130
198
266
334
402
470
2.0
3.0
5.0
1.18
2.23
1.45
5.26
2.20
1.70
1.34
3.60
91.7
84.9
81.74
77.5
100.0
100.0
99.58
96.1
91.4
86.3
84.27
100.0
98.8
99.96
3.90
2.75
1.70
E98
0.00
0.00
6.17
13.05
91.06
0.00
27.44
98.78
50
45-60
40
30-45
700
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 0
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 10
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 20
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 30
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 40
Vps/(Vc+Vps) 50
600
E98
500
400
15-30
58.47 53.17 39.13 26.60
0-15
300
200
Compressive
strength (N/mm2)
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
50
Vps/Vfa
Figure 11.
309
20
10
40
30
20
10
Vps/Vfa(%)
30
Vps/(Vc+Vps)(%)
60-75
Table 8.
Materials
Materials
Symbol
Kinds
Cement
Fine aggregate
C
RS
P
MS
RA
PS
PW
SP
Coarse aggregate
Admixture
Chemical admixture
4.
4.1
Table 9.
Mixture proportions.
No.
I
II
III
C
400
313
240
W
205
108
168
PS
259
237
0
PW
328
0
0
F.M.
3.15
2.56
1.69
2.64
2.46
2.27
2.35
3.01
44.76
0.18
4.02
20.63
12.8
2.93
3.43
3.61
7.07
1,360
1.05
MS
486
0
0
0
390
1374
Table 10.
Experimental outline
Materials
Water
absorption(%)
RS
Density
(g/cm3)
Mixing proportions
P
0
604
0
RA
570
422
514
Specific surface
area(cm2/g)
3,260
SP
4
5
0.96
Quality standard.
Test items
Quality standard
0.15 g/cm3
70%
3.0 N/mm2
Test items
310
Table 11.
4.5
Test result.
Test items
Quantity of water retention
(g/cm3)
Suction height (%)
Flexural strength
(N/mm2)
II
0.250
80.00
4.30
0.280
86.00
3.60
III
0.150
22.40
7.50
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
1) T. Urano etc, 2001, Basuc properties of cement-concrete
mixed with pulp-sludge ash, Yatsusiro, Kumamoto,
Japan: Japan cement association.
2) H. Fujiwara etc, 2001, Fundamental study for improving
properties of concrete containing a large quantity of
sewage sludge melting slag in aggregate, Utsunomiya,
Tochigi, Japan: Japan cement association.
311
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
A.A. Ramezanianpour
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Amir Kabir University, Tehran, Iran
N.B. Milestone
Dept. of Engineering Materials, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
ABSTRACT: The challenge for the civil engineering community in the near future will be to realize structures
in harmony with the concept of sustainable development, through the use of high performance materials of low
environmental impact that are produced at reasonable cost. Geopolymer materials could provide a route towards
this objective. The main benefit of geopolymer cement is their reduction in environmental impact as they use
lesser amounts of calcium-based raw materials, have lower manufacturing temperature and use lower amounts of
fuel, resulting in reduced carbon dioxide emissions for geopolymer cement manufacture by up to 80%90%, in
comparison with Portland cement. It is possible to use alkali-activated natural pozzolans to synthesize environmentally friendly and sound cementitious construction materials. This paper presents preliminary results of
geopolymer using an activated Iranian natural pozzolan, namely Taftan. The formation of gel phase and the factors affecting this have been investigated using leaching tests, ICP-AES, FTIR, XRD and mechanical tests.
INTRODUCTION
313
Table 1.
Material
LOI
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
TiO2
K2O
Na2O
Constituent,%
1.85
61.67
15.90
4.32
7.99
2.04
0.438
2.12
3.21
Taftan
counts
1000
500
Taftan
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2Tetha
Major Phase(s) %
Albite(09-0466)
NaAlSi3O8
Hornblende(45-1371)
Ca2(Fe.Mg)4Al(Si7Al)O22,(OH)2
Amorphouse
Figure 1.
Minor Phase(s) %
41
Biotite (42-1437)
K(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe)Si3O10(OH)2
Quartz (33-1161)-SiO2
Calcite(05-0586)-CaCo3
20
25
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Materials
chemical composition of Taftan pozzolan, as determined by X-ray Fluoresence (XRF), using a Philips
PW 1480 instrument, is listed in Table1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) recorded on a Philips PW1800 machine is
presented in Figure 1, showing its crystallinity and the
major and minor minerals it contains. It can be seen
that the loss on ignition of this pozzolan is low, and the
%K2O is lower than %Na2O, which should correlate
negatively with strength according to [Xu & Deventer
2000]. Taftan pozzolan contains a comparatively high
CaO content, which should affect the strength of the
geopolymer gel produced.
2.2
314
autoclave
40C
60C
50
Compressive
Strength(MPa)
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
5
Alkali hydroxide concentration(molar)
Table 2.
[Si] ppm
[Al] ppm
[Ca] ppm
KOH (molar)
29.75
147.99
274.40
235.20
not detectable
not detectable
68.22
69.36
28
98.25
14.98
51.43
2.5
5
7.5
10
315
Minor Phase(s)
Albite (09-0466)
NaAlSi3O8
Actinolite(45-1342)
(Ca,Na,K)2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2
Biotite (42-1437)
K(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe)Si3O10(OH)2
Chlorite (29-0701)
(Mg,Fe)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8
Raw
2.5M KOH
5.0M KOH
7.5M KOH
Figure 3.
FTIR results for leached Taftan pozzolan with different concentration of activator.
316
CONCLUSIONS
rendered throughout this experimental research programme, which was carried out at the concrete technology laboratory of P.W.U.T., and to I.P.P.I Tehran,
Iran for the PAS-FT-IR analysis.
REFERENCES
Lee, W.K.W. & Deventer, J.S.J. Van 2003. Use of infrared
spectroscopy to study geo-polymerisation of heterogeneous amorphous alumina silicates, Langmuir 19, 2003:
87268734.
Shi, Caijun 2001. An overview on the activation of reactivity
of natural pozzolan, 2001 NCR Canada.
Shi & Day 2001. Comparison of different methods for
enhancing reactivity of pozzolans, Cement and Concrete
Research, 2001, Vol.31, PP.813818.
Xu, Hua & Deventer, J. S. J. Van 2000. The geo-polymerisation
of alumino-silicate minerals, Int. J. Miner. Process. 59,
2000: 247266.
Xu, Hua & Deventer, J. S. J. Van 2003. The effect of alkali
metals on the formation of geo-polymeric gels forms
alkali-feldspars, Colloids and surfaces A: Physiochem.
Eng. Aspects 216, 2003: 2744.
317
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
K. Torri
Department of Civil Engineering, Kanazawa University, 20-40-20 Kodatsuno, Kanazawa, 9208667, Japan
J.J. Vordoagu
Department of Civil Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
ABSTRACT: This study looks at the possibility of using spent catalyst (SC) a by-product of the residual fluid
catalytic cracking unit of Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) in Ghana as a pozzolana in the production of concrete for
structural or aesthetic use and the optimum ratio of cement/SC, which produces acceptable strengths.
The SC currently poses environmental nuisance and health hazard due to its powdery nature and its possible
contamination to ground water since it contains heavy metals (Chromium and Zinc).
The use of the spent catalyst in structural concrete was investigated by designing concrete of design strength
40 N/mm2 and varying the proportions of cement, SC and hydrated Lime, making up the binder, whilst keeping
water to binder ratio and the proportions of coarse and fine aggregates constant. Compressive strength tests performed on test cubes of each mixture confirmed that SC can be used as a pozzolana in structural concrete as a
safe disposal method.
The future use of SC as a cement replacement in the concrete industry looks bright but more work has to be
done to determine the durability characteristics of concretes made with SC replacements.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Background
pozzolanic reaction of the SC is expected to immobilize the heavy metals in the spent catalyst by incorporating them into the interstices of the cement matrix and
hence provide an environmentally safe disposal
method.
Spent fluid catalytic cracking catalyst from petroleum refinery plays a pozzolanic role in portland
cement systems, (Paya, 2003). This study also aims at
providing cost effective construction means in the
concrete industry since the use of spent catalyst as a
pozzolanic material could reduce the cost of concrete
in construction projects.
The study also looks at the effect of the addition of
external source of Ca(OH)2 to the pozzolanic reaction
of the SC by adding hydrated lime to the mix as part
of the binder.
1.2
1.2.1
319
Percentage Passing(%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001
FINE
CLAY
Figure 1.1.
Table 1.1.
0.010
FINE
MEDIUM COARSE
0.100
1.000
Particle Size (mm)
FINE
MEDIUM COARSE
SILT
SAND
10.000
FINE
100.000
MEDIUM COARSE
GRAVEL
Oxides
Percentage
0.3000
0.2120
0.1500
0.0750
0.0672
0.0503
0.0388
0.0283
0.0203
0.0149
0.0105
0.0074
0.0053
0.0037
0.0015
100.00
99.88
98.68
58.28
54.07
40.52
16.80
6.64
1.56
1.56
1.56
1.56
1.22
0.54
0.20
Al2O3
SiO2
TiO2
NiO
Fe2O3
V2O5
Co2O3
CaO
Cr2O3
Eu2O3
SO3
K2O
Ga2O3
SrO
Gd2O3
ZnO
50.283%
45.259%
1.660%
0.885%
0.688%
0.610%
0.144%
0.133%
0.132%
0.076%
0.057%
0.053%
0.006%
0.006%
0.005%
0.004%
1.2.2 Grading
Grading analysis was performed on the spent catalyst
to ascertain its particle size distribution. The particle
size of the spent catalyst mainly lies within 20 m and
150 m.
The particle size distribution chart (Figure 1.1) and
Table 1.1 below shows that the spent catalyst basically falls within fine sand and silt range of soil classification.
1.3
320
Table 2.1.
Ingredients
CONTROL
SC 30
SC 30 L10
SC 30 L15
SC 30 L10
SC 30 L15
Cement (kg/m3)
Coarse Aggregate (kg/m3)
Fine Aggregate (kg/m3)
Spent Catalyst (kg/m3)
Lime (kg/m3)
Water (kg/m3)
Total
455.56
1154.30
535.10
0.00
0.00
200.12
2345.08
318.89
1154.30
535.10
136.67
0.00
200.12
2345.08
273.34
1154.30
535.10
136.67
45.56
200.12
2345.09
250.56
1154.30
535.10
136.67
68.33
200.12
2345.08
318.89
1154.30
535.10
136.67
45.56
200.12
2390.65
318.89
1154.30
535.10
136.67
68.33
200.12
2413.41
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Materials
In this research, the following materials were used: normal Portland cement (obtained from GHACEM), spent
catalyst from Tema Oil Refinery (specific gravity 2.44),
hydrated lime, fine aggregate (source: washed beach
sand from Cape Coast beach, specific gravity 2.68,
coarse aggregate (granitic chippings, from Consar
Quarry Ltd., Kumasi, specific gravity 2.69, absorption
capacity 0.60%, maximum size 20 mm), (water-binder
ratio 0.42).
2.3
2.2
Mixture proportions
321
Results
Table 3.1 shows the results obtained from the compressive strength test tests carried out on the test cubes. It
also includes the slump tests results on the fresh concrete before casting the cubes.
Table 3.1.
14 days
28 days
Test ID
Slump
(mm)
Strength
(N/mm2)
Strength
(N/mm2)
Strength
(N/mm2)
CON
SC 30
SC 30 L10
SC 30 L15
SC 30 L10
SC 30 L15
95
27
13
5
10
5
30.10
23.47
25.30
23.38
31.91
28.92
30.57
32.95
31.17
25.57
40.77
40.74
41.90
39.79
35.89
33.59
47.50
45.30
3.3
Discussions
45
40
35
Control
SC30
SC 30 L10
SC 30 L15
SC30+L10
SC30+L15
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
15
20
Age (Days)
Figure 3.1.
Variation of compressive test with age of concrete for the test samples.
322
25
30
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Mr. J. A. Frimpong; Ghana
Highway Authority (Materials Lab) Kumasi
Mr. Gilbert Fiadzoe; Civil Engineering Department of
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Kumasi, Mr. Charles Anku and Agnes
Afi Fugah; Department of Feeder Roads Kumasi for
their immense assistance in the laboratory works.
REFERENCES
Hsu, K.Ch., Tseng, Y.S., Ku, F.F. & Su, N. 2001. Oil cracking catalyst as an active pozzolanic material for superplastisized mortars. Cem. Concr. Res. 31: 18151820.
Monz, J., Paya, J., Borrachero, M.V., Velzquez S.,
Soriano, L., Serna, P. & Rigueira, J. 2004. Reusing of
323
324
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
M.A. Yurdusev
Celal Bayar University, Civil Engineering Department, Manisa, Turkey
S. Targan
Celal Bayar University, Department of Chemistry, Manisa, Turkey
K. Yilmaz
Sakarya University, Civil Engineering Department, Sakarya, Turkey
ABSTRACT: An investigation was carried out on the effect of sulfate attack on the sulfate durability of mortars
produced with natural zeolite and silica fume having pozzolanic character. Experiments were accomplished on
the standard Rilem sand and portland cement mortars where the cement was replaced by various rates of natural
zeolite (Z) and silica fume (SF) separately and together. 5% sodium sulfate solution and 5% magnesium sulfate
solution were 5% sulfate exposures of mortars were initiated after 28 days of lime saturated water curing, compressive strength and density were determined at the beginning of exposure and at the 2nd, 7th, 28th, 90th days.
Water and solutions were renewed after each period of experimental time, 14 days. Mass changes were determined at the time of renewing the solutions. The effects of sodium sulfate solutions on the properties of mortars
were related to the zeolite and silica fume ratio. It is found that zeolite and silica fume replacement had caused
significant increase in sulfate durability of mortars even at the highest sulfate concentration up to 90 days of
exposure. The durability to sulfate attack was obtained with silica fume replacement 510%, but strength loss of
1015% can be expected. Mortars with SF and Z were damaged in magnesium sulfate solution. The compressive
strengths decreased with increasing SF and Z content. The test results showed that the use of Z and SF in concrete exposed to magnesium sulfate environment is not recommended.
INTRODUCTION
325
326
EXPERIMENTAL
Table 1.
used.
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
Free CaO
Physical properties
Specific gravity
Blaine Fineness (m2/kg)
Remaining on 32 m
sieve
Remaining on 90 m sieve
Clinker
Natural
zeolite
19.43
5.78
3.69
63.34
0.66
0.74
0.29
0.68
1.44
62.17
9.76
2.02
1.43
0.75
0.07
0.46
3.72
89.48
0.41
0.38
1.59
1.04
0.48
0.50
2.29
3.18
186
25.6
2.19
815
32.20
2.50
1980
22.1
6.10
3.30
2.7
Silica
fume
Mineralogical Components
determined by Bogue
calculations
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
Liquid phase
66.04
5.90
9.08
11.23
27.35
327
Table 2.
Symbol
Cementitious materials
PC 42.5
SDC 32.5
ZC5
ZC10
ZC15
SFC5
SFC10
SFC15
ZSFC5
ZSFC10
ZSFC15
100% PC
100% SDC
95%PC 5% Z
90%PC 10% Z
85%PC 15% Z
95%PC 5% SF
90%PC 10% SF
85%PC 15% SF
90%PC 5% Z 5% SF
85%PC 5% Z 10% SF
80%PC 5% Z 15% SF
Table 3.
Fineness ( wt.%)
Grinding
time
Specific
Cement 32 m 90 m 200 m (minutes) gravity
PC
ZC5
ZC10
ZC15
SFC5
SFC10
SFC15
ZSFC5
ZSFC10
ZSFC15
27.4
26.7
25.4
24.5
26.8
27.1
27.3
27.0
26.5
26.8
2.2
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.1
2.3
1.9
2.4
2.2
2.1
20
35
33
29
24
22
19
22
19
17
3.13
3.09
3.02
2.96
3.15
3.07
3.03
3.07
2.90
2.94
Water, %
Initial
Final
Volume
expansion
(mm)
PC
ZC5
ZC10
ZC15
SFC5
SFC10
SFC15
ZSFC5
ZSFC10
ZSFC15
25.4
29.2
29.0
30.5
25.6
27.5
29.0
27.2
29.3
29.0
Min.
2:37
3:17
3:37
2:41
3:06
5:12
6:02
3:02
3:16
2:51
Max.
4:37
4:42
4:42
3:31
3:31
5:38
6:17
3:47
4:16
3:36
2
2
4
3
1
2
1
4
3
1
328
Figure 4.
In mortars made of zeolite and silica fume additives (ZSFC) with 5, 10, 15% additive rates, there are
significant increases in compressive strength values
with respect to the reference sample the age of 2.
This is caused by the existence of pozzolanic activity. The increases in strength values are slightly bigger in ZC samples. This can be attributed to the fact
that the quantity of the mineral additive replacing
portland clinker in ZSFC samples are more than others. In addition to the positive effect on compressive
strength, pozzolonic activities of the additives
improve the impermeability of the mortars since the
pozzolans fill the micro pores, which make positive
contribution to the durability of mortars. The strength
values obtained are within the limits specified by the
Turkish Standards. For the cements prepared by silica
fume and zeolite the additives are proved to be used in
cement production up to 15%. When the zeolite rate
rises up to 15 %, the strength increases with respect to
withoutadditive samples. At later ages the strength
values close to each other. In this group, the appropriate additive rate is 15% for all ages. For the first 7
days, the compressive strength value of specimens
containing zeolite decreased as the quantity of zeolite
increases.
3.1.2 The groups kept in sulfate solutions
The results of the compressive strength test carried
out using the specimens kept in 5% sodium sulfate
solutions (Fig. 4) show that there are variations in
time. However, a decrease in strength values of all
groups was observed on 90th day. This is also true for
Relative compressive strength of the hardened mortars in water and sulfate solutions at 90th day.
329
Specific gravity
CONCLUSIONS
330
331
Targan S., Olgun A., Sevinc E.V. 2002. Effects of supplementary cementing materials on the properties of cement
and concrete, Cement and Concrete Research 10(32):
15511558.
Tikalsky P.J., Carrasquillo R.L. 1993. Influence of Fly Ash
on The Sulfate Resistance of Concrete, ACI Material
Journal 89: 6975.
332
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D. Kwak
Research & Development Laboratory, Taiheiyou Materials Corporation, Sakura, Japan
O. Abe
Research Center of Superplasticity, Faculty of Engineering, Ibaraki University, Hitachi, Japan
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the basic study on the technology which uses ground granulted slag made
from municipal waste as alternate material of the portland cement. The granulated slag from municipal waste
has the latent hydraulic property, because it is made through the quenching process, and it forms the hardening
body by the stimulation of the alkali material. In this study, it was confirmed that various factors such as average particle size of the slag powder, dosage of the alkali stimulative material and curing condition influence the
compressive strength of mortar and a high strength concrete is obtained using the slag.
INTRODUCTION
In Japan, municipal wastes are fused at a high temperature more than 1,200C to adapt the upper limit of dioxines in the residual material regulated in the dioxines
countermeasure special action law enforced in January
2000 and reexamined in December 2002. The fused
material discharged from the furnace is cooled rapidly
with water, and the granulated slag is produced. From
the viewpoint of the eco design, effective utilization of
the granulated slag has become a matter of concern.
The research on slag utilization as a fine aggregate for
concrete or as the sub-base material for road has been
started by many researchers. Considering that a large
amount of energy is used to produce the slag, a higher
price material should be replaced by the slag. We propose that it must be used as a cementitious material, utilizing the latent hydraulic property of the slag. The
characteristics of the concrete with ground granulated
slag made from sewage sludge has already been
reported [Nitta et al. 2000]. However, the components
of ground granulated slag made from municipal waste
is different from that made from sewage sludge.
Therefore, the results could not be applied to the concrete with ground granulated slag made from municipal
waste. In this study, influence on mortar strength of various factors such as average particle size of the slag
powder, curing condition and dosage of the alkali stimulative material are discussed. Further the strength of
concrete used granulated slag from municipal waste as
cementitious material was examined.
2
2.1
TESTING PROCEDURES
Property of ground granulated slag made from
municipal waste
333
Figure 1.
Table 1.
Oxides, %
Slag A
Slag B
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
TiO2
Basicity, b
42.2
18.0
2.8
28.2
3.5
0.7
1.4
1.7
1.18
44.4
13.4
2.4
30.8
2.7
0.6
2.5
1.0
1.06
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Five kinds of alkali stimulative materials were compared, namely; water glass, Na2SiO3, Na(OH),
Ca(OH)2, Al2(OH)3. The component of this water
glass is composed of sodium oxide 17.48%, anhydrous
334
3.1
The maximum temperature in steam curing was varied to 45, 65 and 85C. The molten slag powder with
an average particle size of 5 10 6 m was used in
the experiment. The effect of the maximum curing
temperature on the compressive strength at the age of
7, 14 and 28 days is shown in Figure 5. The compressive strength of the mortar is influenced by the maximum curing temperature as is shown in the figure.
Within the curing temperature set in this study, it is
confirmed that the relation between compressive
strength and curing temperature is linear.
3.3
335
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF CONCRETE
336
Table 2.
Terms
Value
alkali/slag
water/slag
water
slag
alkali stimulative material
fine aggregate
coarse aggregate
22.5%
42.9%
142 kg/m3
331 kg/m3
74 kg/m3
769 kg/m3
949 kg/m3
REFERENCES
Figure 9.
CONCLUSIONS
337
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Z. Abou Saleh
PTE Strand, Miami, FL, USA
ABSTRACT: Corrosion damage is caused by penetration and diffusion of chloride ions into the outer layer of
the concrete, causing the destruction of the gamma-ferric oxide layer on the reinforcement. The selection of
materials for repairs of corrosion damage in reinforced/prestressed concrete is more difficult than for new construction. The range of materials used is broader than just cementitious materials, because many polymeric
composites can be used effectively for concrete repair. Frequently, the period in which the structure can be
brought back into service, the accessibility, and the position of the repair in relation to the level of the tide are
also important considerations in the selection of materials and methods for repair. In the earlier analytical investigation by Reddy et al. [2004] the time for chloride concentration to reach the threshold value that initiates corrosion in the reinforcement was determined by Ficks law, extended to 2D and 3D chloride diffusion, for a)
uncracked concrete, and b) for cracked concrete with the Simplified Smeared Approach (SSA). The structural
integrity of the concrete circular pile was compared, before and after repair, by a) finite element modeling using
ANSYS software with the maximum deflection, and b) beam strength analysis to find the moment capacity for
cracked and ultimate conditions. The overall analytical findings indicated the adequacy of the repair procedures. The objective of the on-going experimental investigation is the comparison with the analytical values. Six
different types of repair are being carried out on sets of three specimens. All the specimens will then be exposed
to simulated tidal conditions in seawater tanks to determine their durability. Ultimate strength testing will be
carried out to determine the loss of structural integrity.
LITERATURE REVIEW
339
Figure 1. One of the Bryant Patton bridges displaying reinforced concrete piles with significant corrosion induced
damage Florida (reproduced from Concorr, Inc).
Figure 3. Deteriorated pile previously repaired by fiberglass jacketing (reproduced from Concorr, Inc).
Figure 2. Marine pile zones and their corresponding corrosion susceptibility (reproduced from Corrpro Companies,
Inc).
340
Glass fiber woven roving can be used to repair concrete structures in a similar manner to carbon fiber
UD tape wrapping. Mehta [1991] suggested the use of
alkali resistant glass fiber reinforcement wrapping on
repaired concrete surfaces, with acrylic rubber emulsion film coating, to strengthen the structure. This
would also improve the resistance to ingress of water,
chloride, and oxygen for marine concrete structures.
The use of High Density PolyEthylene (HDPE)
corrugated exterior/smooth interior pipe jacketing,
together with high performance fiber reinforced concrete, is an innovative repair method proposed by
Reddy [1995]. Many repair processes similar to those
reviewed in Cost-Effective Repairs of Marine
Concrete Piles, by Reddy & Ahn [1999] have been
carried out in the past. However, most laboratory and
field investigations focused mainly on the elimination
or deceleration of the corrosion process in repaired
marine piles, without addressing durability characteristics. Of course, corrosion in prestressing and reinforcing steel directly affects the durability of the
concrete structure, although little research seems to
exist on the strength of actual patch material and
bonding agents.
Corrosion of steel reinforcement limits the service
life of concrete exposed to sea water. Because of the
expansion of the steel due to corrosion, concrete piles
are extremely susceptible to cracking and spalling.
Although steel reinforcing bars are initially protected
by the alkaline nature of the surrounding concrete,
341
342
343
(1)
(7)
(2)
1.2.4 Diffusion constants for cracked concrete
Equation 3 assumes that chloride ions ingress into
cracked concrete can be approximated using Ficks
Second Law of diffusion in which the following average coefficient is used:
(3)
where Dav is the average diffusion coefficient; D is
the diffusion coefficient of the uncracked concrete; w
is the crack width; l is the crack spacing; and Dcr is
the diffusion coefficient inside the crack.
The average diffusion coefficient is hence proportional to the crack width and inversely proportional to
the crack spacing.
1.2.5
344
(10)
(11)
(12)
1.3
Material properties.
Modulus of
elasticity
(Ep)
Compressive
strength
(fpc)
Unit
weight
(p)
Repair material
GPa
GPa
kg/m3
SIFCON
Styrene butadiene
latex mortar
Silica fume
Normal concrete
High performance
concrete
42.29
48.95
55.15
59.98
4309
4806
51.71
30.44
41.79
61.36
41.37
55.15
5126
2403
4277
345
where
(15)
f
c Compressive strength for undamaged concrete,
f
c 28 Mpa (4000 psi)
(16)
d diameter of beam 6
M Mp
(17)
In order to compare the strength of structure before
and after repair, the maximum deflection has been
calculated due to the force P before repair as follows.
For a simply supported beam due to concentrated
force P at mid-span
Figure 5.
(18)
Where
maximum deflection;
l the beam length;
E modulus of elasticity before repair;
I0 gross moment of inertia.
(19)
1.4
SIFCON repair.
Table 2.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Cement
Sand
Fly Ash
Aggregate
Water
4.36
6.82
1.09
6.82
2.77
346
Figure 7.
Figure 9.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Sika 211
Sand
Water
Lime
4.55
5.68
1.70
1.50
Figure 10.
Figure 8.
1.4.1.2
Carbon wrapping.
347
Figure 11.
Table 4.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Cement
Sand
Aggregate
Water
Silica fume
3.64
8.00
9.21
2.27
0.30
Figure 12.
FRP splicing.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
1.4.1.3
1.4.1.5
348
Table 5.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Cement
Sand
Aggregate
Water
Gypsum
3.64
5.09
4.67
2.91
0.36
Figure 17.
Table 6.
Figure 15.
HDPE jacketing.
Figure 16.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Cement
Water
Aggregate
Sand
Silica Fume
Fly Ash
Superplasticizer
3.64
1.45
4.55
5.09
0.30
0.30
0.07
Figure 18.
349
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 19.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Figure 20.
Table 7.
Material
Quantity (kg)
Sika 211
Water
Lime
Sika Latex R
Sand
4.55
2.00
0.09
0.45
5.68
Abou Saleh, Z. 2003. Analytical evaluation of marine concrete pile repairs. Masters thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, College of Engineering, Florida Atlantic
University. Boca Raton, FL, USA.
ACI Committee 440 1995. A state-of-the-art report on Fiber
Reinforced Plastic (FRP), reinforcement for concrete
structures. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,
USA.
ANSYS 1998. Engineering analysis system users manual.
Release 6.1.
Boulfiza, M., Sakia, K., Banthia, N., & Yoshida, H. 2000.
Prediction of cracking effect on the penetration of chloride ions in reinforced concrete. JCI Proceedings 22:
9197.
Funahashi, M. 1990. Predicting corrosion-free service life
of a concrete structure in a chloride environment. ACI
Materials Journal 87: 581587.
Kuhlmann, L.A. 1981. Performance history of latex modified concrete overlays applications of polymer concrete. ACI Materials Journal 69: 123144.
Mehta, P.K. 1991. Concrete in the marine environment:
Elsevier Applied Science.
Mullins, G., Sen, R., Suh, K., & Winters, D. 2005.
Underwater fiber-reinforced polymers repair of prestressed piles in the Allen Creek Bridge. Journal of
Composites for Construction, University of South Florida,
Tampa, FL, USA.
350
Sen, R. & Mullins, G. 2005. Use of FRP for corrosion mitigation applications in a marine environment. University
of South Florida, Tampa FL, USA.
Sohanghpurwala, A. & Scannell, W.T. 1994. Repair and protection of concrete exposed to seawater. Concrete Repair
Bulletin. Merritt Island, FL, USA.
Trader, B., Pile restoration of the Lake Pontchartrain
Causeway, worlds longest bridge. MADCON Corporation,
Ellicott City, MD, USA.
Tsukahara, E. & Unomoto, T. 2000. A study on corrosion
rate of reinforcing steel bars in cracked concrete.
Concrete Research and Technology 11(1): 7584.
Tutti, K. 1982. Service life of structures with regard to corrosion of embedded steel, performance of concrete in
marine environment: 223236.
Whiting, D.A., Corley, W.G., & Tabatabai H. 2000.
Deterioration and Repair of Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Members. Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.
Skokie, IL, USA.
351
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
H. Seki
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng., Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: This study has been carried out to clarify changes to the properties of concrete surrounding anode
material when cathodic protections is adopted to protect corrosion damage to reinforced concrete members. An
accelerated impressed current was applied between anode and cathode within a short period, so that the accumulated current density corresponded to a period of 40 years. The specimens were soaked in water to increase the concretes conductivity. The instant-off potential of the anode material remained higher than that obtained from
NACE, but was within 4.0 V and thus satisfied NACE. After the accelerating impressed current test, a test was carried out on the adhesion test between lower concrete and overlay material. To determine changes in properties of
overlay mortar, EPMA and SEM analysis were adopted for overlay mortar surrounding the anode material. Test
results indicated the following:
(1) There was no degradation of adhesion between concrete and overlay after the severe accelerated test.
(2) The properties of overlay mortar surrounding the anode area were changed by localized severe impressed current. Some of concrete components, such as Ca, liquated out, so that the cement mortar probably became porous.
INTRODUCTION
Cathodic protection is probably effective in minimizing deterioration of RC structures caused by corrosion of reinforcing bars. A merit of this method is that
it prevents corrosion of reinforcing bars without damaging the concrete.
This method may prolong a structures service life.
When using an impressed current system, it is necessary
to examine its influence on the material surrounding the
anode material, particularly its durability. NACE
(National Association of Corrosion Engineers) suggests
a method for testing the anode material, in which its is
immersed in a solution to evaluate its durability. In a
pilot experiment which used the anode material in a new
structure as embedding electrode to the concrete beam
member, the crack was generated by applying excessive
impressed current on the surface of structure. A large
current impression is required when the electrodes
charge area is increased. Therefore, the electric current
from the anode material must be restricted. In the present study, experimental work was carried out to determine the influence of impressed current on surrounding
materials, i.e., mortar material. The impressed current
from the anode material was excessive.
2.1
TESTING METHOD
Specimens
50
15
20
9.3
50
50
Figure 1.
353
Shape of Specimen.
200
PC tendons
Test Method
No.
3
3.1
Kind of Specimens.
Accumulating
current
density
Ah/m2
Applying
term
days
0-0A
0-0B
1-1A
1-1B
1-2A
1-2B
1-3A
1-3B
28
Current
density
A/m2
0.00
7000
(20 mA/m2
40 )
5.21
112
2.60
Table 2.
0.0
9.0
0.0
9.0
10.42
56
Content of
chloride
kg/m3
0.00
9.0
0.00
9.0
Slump
W/C Air
cm
8.0 1.5 37
Figure 3.
Admiture
Figure 2.
354
The potential of the anode material in the test specimen without chloride increased with time, but the
instant-off potential was almost constant. This may have
been because the organization of overlay mortar was
altered by the lowering of the pH surrounding the anode
material. The overlay material near the anode material
became discolored.
The potential change of the anode material is shown
in Fig.4. The potential did not exceed 4.0 V, and it is
clear that anode material satisfied the NACE standard.
3.3
3.2
Adhesion property
No. specimen
0-0A
2
0-0B
1
2
1.5
Test of NACE
1-1A
1
2
1.0
3
0.5
1-1B
NaCl
NaOH
Mocksolution
1
2
0.0
3
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
Fracture
plane*
Value
Average
conc.
conc.
conc.
conc.
conc.
conc.
conc.
conc.
inter.
conc.
inter.
conc.
conc.
conc.
inter.
conc.
inter.
conc.
conc.
conc.
1.90
2.08
1.25
2.43
2.11
1.52
1.21
2.26
2.51
1.79
2.05
2.24
2.18
1.77
1.49
1.82
1.71
2.06
2.07
1.81
1.92
1.77
2.09
1.83
Figure 4.
anode
overlay mortar
lower concrete
355
Figure 6.
Analysis of EPMA.
phenomenon was remarkable when the applied current was high and chloride was added.
3.3.2 Analysis by EPMA
Plane analysis of EPMA(Electron Probe Micro
Analyzer)was carried out to clarify the above phenomenon. An example of an analysis result is shown in Fig.6.
356
Figure 7.
357
REFERENCES
Aoyama,T. Igawa,K, Seki,H. & Abe,M.Properties of Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Members Supplied with
Cathodic Protection for Ten Years, Proc. of Interantional
Seminar on Repair, Rejuventation and Enhancement of
Concrete held at the Univ. of Dundee, 56 Sept.,2002:
330337
JACE Recommendation 2001. Recommendation for Design
and Construction of Concrete Structures Using Electrochemical Protection Method, JACE Concrete Library
No.107, 2001
NACE Standard, 2001. Testing of Embeddable Anodes for
Use in Cathodic Protection of Atmospherically SteelReinforced Concrete, TM0294-01 Item No.21225, 2001
SUMMARY
358
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
N. R. Short
SEAS, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
ABSTRACT: This project is aimed at investigating the potential for using a supercritical carbonation process in
combination with other novel processing techniques to fabricate a new class of ceramic composites from a variety
of calcium-based precursor materials, including lime and cement. The process has the potential to help mitigate
the CO2 impact of the manufacture of cements by re-combining some of the CO2 emitted. Compression moulding
techniques, as used for mass-produced polymer components, are used to fabricate green forms, which are then
treated with supercritical CO2. Considerable development of the moulding process and mix design was required to
produce viable green forms. The effect of the treatment on the microstructure and engineering properties of specimens was investigated using XRD and 4-point bending tests. XRD tests confirmed that complete depletion of calcium hydroxide and anhydrous species was achieved during the carbonation process in most samples, with
consequent formation of calcite. Mechanical testing indicated that considerable improvement in flexural strength
could be achieved by carbonation, well over and above that which would be expected during conventional water
curing. Results also indicated that full carbonation as indicated by calcium hydroxide depletion is not a reliable
indicator for achieving high strength; the mix design plays a critically important role.
INTRODUCTION
The carbonation process under atmospheric conditions is however very slow and it may take years for full
carbonation to develop within the structure. This is due
mainly to the low partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere, about 0.030.06% v/v, and the slow rate of diffusion of CO2 into the structure of hardened cement
paste [Fernandez Bertos et al. 2004].
Passive, atmospheric carbonation of reinforced concrete is normally seen as deleterious owing to the
depassivation of reinforcing steel caused by the reduction in pore solution pH. However, the effect on plain
concrete is to reduce porosity and increase compressive strength. If carbonation could be effected within
reasonable timescales, then active carbonation might
be of interest in the production of e.g. pre-cast concrete
elements. By using supercritical CO2 technology, the
carbonation process can be significantly accelerated,
from years to a matter of a few hours.
2
359
Figure 1.
Supercritical carbonation
PROJECT OUTLINE
360
Figure 2. Photo of the two part mould and the green sample
produced by the tool.
Sustainability aspects
Green samples were manufactured using a compression moulding technique combined with vacuum
dewatering. The tool as shown in Figure 2 is capable
of producing six samples at a time, each 170 mm long
having a trapezoidal cross sectional shape with
22/34 mm wide 17 mm depth. This shape was chosen for ease of demoulding and was settled upon after
many trials and alterations.
The mould was fixed to a thermoset compression
moulding (DASSETT) machine and samples were
subjected to 19 MPa pressure (466 kN load) from the
machine for 1 minute. Excess water was squeezed out
of the samples and removed by vacuum through a filter sheets and holes in the tool.
Binders used were combinations of Limbux shaft
Lime [L] and Ordinary Portland cement [C]. Aggregates
361
Figure 3.
362
12
Flexural Strength/ MPa
Treated
Control
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0:0.5:0.75
0.25:0.75:1
0.25:0.5:0.75
0.4:0.6:1
0.5:0.5:1
0.5:0.5:1.25
0.5:0.5:2
0.5:0.5:2*
0.5:0.5:2**
12000
34.1 Control
CH-Counts/K
10000
34.1 Treated
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0.0:0.5:0.75
0.25:0.75:1 0.25:0.5:0.75
0.4:0.6:1
0.5:0.5:1
0.5:0.5:1.25 0.5:0.5:2
0.5:0.5:2*
0.5:0.5:2**
363
Table 1.
C1
C1-28
C3
C3-28
C7
C7-28
C3*
C3*-28
C7*
C7*-28
Water Curing regimes for control and treated samples produced by optimum mix design.
P: preC : scCO2 : test both control and carbonated specimens
P: preC : scCO2 : C28: test both control and carbonated specimens
P: C3 : preC: scCO2 : test both control and carbonated specimens
P: C3 : preC : scCO2 : C28: test both control and carbonated specimens
P: C7 : preC: scCO2 : test both control and carbonated specimens
P: C7 : preC : scCO2 : C28: test both control and carbonated specimens
P: preC: scCO2 : C3: test both control and carbonated specimens
P : preC : scCO2 : C3: C28: test both control and carbonated specimens
P: preC: scCO2 : C7: test both control and carbonated specimens
P : preC : scCO2 : C7: C28: test both control and carbonated specimens
18
Treated
16
Control
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
C1
C1-28Day
C3
Figure 6. Flexural strength vs. mix design 1.5C:0.5L:5Agg with different curing regimes. Treated scCO2, 60C, 100bar,
24Hr. Aggregate 35%S, 65%CL. Error bars st. dev. See Table 1 for details of samples.
4000
34.1 Control
3500
34.1 Treated
CH-Counts/ K
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
C1
C1-28Day
C3
Figure 7. XRD analysis of CH depletion vs. curing regime. Samples as Fig. 6. Angles refer to 2 peaks on XRD traces using
CuK radiation wavelength 1.5418 . Average of triplicate samples.
364
1400
33.06 Control
C3S-Counts/ K
1200
32.06Treated
1000
800
600
400
200
0
C1
C1-28Day
C3
C7* C7*-28Day
Figure 8. XRD analysis of C3S depletion vs. curing regime. Samples as Fig. 6. Angles refer to 2 peaks on XRD traces using
CuK radiation wavelength 1.5418 . Average of triplicate samples.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Sufficient green strength for robust sample handling can be obtained by using compression
moulding methods combined with vacuum dewatering. These green forms will carbonate readily
given simple pre-processing for moisture content.
In general, higher cement: lime ratios produce
higher strength carbonated samples.
2. Over the range studied, all samples were more or
less fully depleted with regard to CH and C3S content after carbonation as indicated by XRD. The
exception to this was samples cured in water prior
to carbonation, in which some CH and C3S
remained. Wet (i.e. not pre-conditioned) samples
were resistant to carbonation.
3. In samples containing only lime as a binder (i.e.
with no cement), full carbonation of the lime was
observed with little corresponding increase in
strength. Thus carbonation (measured as CH
depletion) is not necessarily a reliable indicator of
strength development in carbonated samples and
some addition of cement in the mix is necessary
for achieving high strength materials.
4. C3S depletion, over the entire range of samples
studied, was more marked than CH depletion during carbonation. Thus C3S would appear to be
more susceptible to carbonation than CH.
5. No significant benefit was gained from any period
of water curing either pre or post carbonation.
365
366
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
T.R. Jones
Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
M. Carsana
Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica G. Natta, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
ABSTRACT: Lime-based composite materials gain strength through atmospheric carbonation but the process
is normally very slow. Using supercritical carbon dioxide to carbonate lime-based composites rapidly could
potentially produce strong, chemically stable materials. Investigations were therefore carried out to assess the
effectiveness of supercritical carbon dioxide treatment, applied to samples of a particular type of lime-based
material (Casamic), produced by autoclaving compacted mixtures of soda-lime glass, hydrated lime and water.
Increased bending strength and reduced reversible shrinkage were observed after supercritical carbonation, but
the strength increase was not sustained when samples were exposed to water. Microstructural changes induced
by supercritical carbonation were examined by SEM and 29Si MAS-NMR and it was found that formation of
crystalline sodium bicarbonate was a factor associated with the increase in bending strength. The high water
solubility of this substance appeared to account for the observed reversion of strength on wetting of supercritically carbonated Casamic. Work in progress is aimed at evaluating effects of replacing soda-lime glass powder
with flyash and preliminary results have been promising.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Materials
Preparation of Casamic
367
Hydrated lime
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Mn3O4
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
Cr2O3
LOI
67.96
0.06
2.05
0.63
0.04
2.01
10.59
13.38
0.84
0.02
0.06
0.4
0.7
0.01
0.1
0.07
0.01
0.5
74.85
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
23.45
Oxides %
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100.0
10.0
Table 1.
Before SCC
After SCC
1 cycle
2 cycle
3 cycle
Lime
2.4
Glass powder
Measurements of variation in disc diameter were carried out to evaluate volume changes caused by cyclic
wetting and drying. This was done using a standard
micrometer with a reading error of 10 m. Also
weight measurements were performed using a digital
balance with reading error of 100 g.
To evaluate the shrinkage behaviour these samples
were exposed to seven days wetting with de-ionised
water at a temperature of 20C, alternating with seven
days of drying (in a sealed box at 20C and 35% R.H.,
the latter controlled by a saturated salt solution of
MgCl2).
1.0
0.1
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Moisture conditions have to be optimized for supercritical carbonation to proceed efficiently, Purnell et al.
[2001b] have demonstrated the need for an internal relative humidity (R.H.) of 33% in order to achieve a
fully carbonated condition rapidly in cement pastes.
Therefore, the discs were placed into a container with a
relative humidity of 33% for 7 days, before they were
sealed in a pressure vessel. The pressure vessel was
placed inside an oven, set at 38C and liquid carbon
dioxide was pumped into the pressure vessel until
80bar was reached. The supercritical carbon dioxide
was maintained within the pressure vessel for 12 hours.
3
3.1
Shrinkage tests
368
Strain (10^6)
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
-6000
-7000
-8000
-9000
-10000
-11000
-12000
Sample 1
Super-critical carbonation
Sample 2
Wet
(W)
Dry
(D)
35% (R.H.)W D W D W D W D W D W D
20
40
60
80
Time (days)
100
120
140
Figure 3. Variations in diameter of Casamic in both wet (de-ionized water) and dry (35% R.H.) conditions before and after SCC.
Table 2.
Sample
Cured
Casamic
SCC
Casamic
3.2
Highest
bending
strength
(MPa)
Lowest
bending
strength
(MPa)
Mean
(MPa)
26.01
22.42
23.58
37.38
30.26
32.99
Figure 4.
369
glass
Casamic before carbonation
Casamic less glass signal
Q2
Q3
-40
-60
Figure 7.
Figure 5.
0.18
29
0.16
0.14
Cured
0.12
SCC
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.001
0.1
10
-100
-120
3.5
Figure 6.
-80
29
370
40
glass
Casamic after carbonation
Casamic less glass signal
33.0
Q4
Q2
Q3
30
23.6
21.0
22.7
20
10
0
-40
-60
Figure 8.
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160 ppm
Figure 10. Mean bending strengths for Casamic after exposure to water with error bars showing 95% confidence limits.
glass
casamic after carbonation
casamic less 80% glass signal shown
casamic less 100% glass signal shown
casamic less 120% glass signal shown
3.6
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
glass signal can affect the resulting spectra for the silica present in either the gel or the hydrates. Either one
of these spectra is possible and so it is not clear how
much of the glass signal needs to be subtracted in
order to obtain the correct spectra for the silicates
present in the C-S-H or silica gel, therefore the spectra for the silicates present within C-S-H or silica gel
is just an estimate based on our own judgement. The
solid traces, shown in figures 7 and 8, indicate the
29
Si NMR spectra of Casamic samples. The intermediate dotted traces represent 29Si NMR spectrum of
glass powder. A more thinly dotted trace describes the
difference between 29Si NMR spectrum of glass powder and that of Casamic sample to reveal the spectra for
After Casamic was exposed to water, a loss in bending strength was observed for supercritically carbonated samples (figure 10). Further investigations by
thermal analysis revealed a reduction in the amount
of sodium bicarbonate within the matrix. SCC
Casamic contains 3.31% sodium bicarbonate, after
submersion in water for 1 day, the level of sodium
bicarbonate had reduced to 1.67%.
3.7
371
Calcium silicate
hydrate
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Glass powder
Flyash
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Mn3O4
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
Cr2O3
LOI
67.96
0.06
2.05
0.63
0.04
2.01
10.59
13.38
0.84
0.02
0.06
0.4
52.92
0.01
26.85
8.64
0.01
1.65
4.49
1.2
3.26
0.01
0.01
0.36
like lolly sticks, spot x-ray analyses on these crystals show them to be high in sodium and are probably
sodium bicarbonate crystals.
After the sample has been exposed to water (figure
13), the lolly stick shaped crystals have disappeared
leaving only silica gel and calcium carbonate to bond
the glass particles together. Crystalline sodium bicarbonate probably has an effect on the strength of the
material.
3.8
Oxides %
372
50
40.82
39.6
SCC
SCC &
submerged in
water - 1 day
40
30
24.65
20
10
0
Cured
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Hartmann, T., Paviet-Hartmann, P., Rubin, J.B.,
Fitzsimmons, M.R & Sickafus, K.E. 1999. The effect of
supercritical carbon dioxide treatment on the leachability
and structure of cemented radioactive waste-forms, Waste
Management 19(5): 355361
373
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Groundwater contamination from vehicular oil spills due to stormwater runoff is a major concern in highly impervious areas. This paper examines the potential of Enhanced Porosity Concrete (EPC) in
retaining spilled oil in its pore structure. In this study EPC mixtures with porosities varying between 13 and
35% were examined. Known quantities of oil were introduced in different EPC specimens and rain events of
different magnitudes were simulated. Oil recovered in the water that drained through the sample was quantified
using a partition gravimetric method. The influence of (i) material properties of EPC such as porosity and pore
sizes, and (ii) varying environmental conditions such as rainfall intensities and rates of oil and water addition
on the quantities of oil retained by the system was quantified. It has been found that there is a certain optimal
range of porosity in which the oil retention by the system is maximum. These experimental studies provide an
understanding of the influence of pore structure features that contribute to retention of seeped oil in EPC.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials and mixture proportions
Type I normal portland cement and limestone aggregates were used to prepare the EPC mixtures. The
aggregates were sieved into different size groups to
facilitate gap grading. Two different aggregate sizes
375
Permeability cm/s
0.02
R2 = 0.93
0.01
0.01
0.00
15
Figure 1.
20
25
30
Porosity %
35
40
Figure 2:
To quantify the physical properties of EPC, the permeability and porosity were determined. The diameter
of specimen was reduced to 95 mm by grinding.
Cylindrical specimens (95 mm in diameter and 150 mm
long) were immersed in water for 24 hours to saturate
the pores in the matrix phase. A falling head permeability cell (Neithalath et al. 2006) was used to measure
hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of the EPC specimens. The coefficient of permeability of the specimen
was calculated using Darcys law.
The porosities of the EPC specimens were measured using a volumetric method. The 150 mm long
specimens were cut into 50 mm thickness, thus producing three companion slices. The saturated specimens
were then placed on a stainless steel plate and the sides
and edges were sealed. Water was added to the top of
the specimen until it was filled which indicated that all
the interconnected pores were saturated with water.
The volume of water added expressed as a percentage
of the total volume of the specimen is reported as the
porosity of the specimen.
Fig. 1 shows the relationship between porosity and
permeability of various EPC specimens tested in this
study. It can be clearly noted that permeability of the
EPC specimens increases with porosity. The porositypermeability relationship obtained from this study is
fairly linear with a R2 value of 0.93. Such a relationship
is not uncommon for porous materials; however there
are other pore structure features like pore sizes and
2.3
For laboratory oil transport studies of constructed pervious layers, an optimal oil loading rate of 25 mL per
rainfall event has been reported. (Newman et al. 2004).
On the basis of this finding, an oil-loading rate of 3 mL
per rainfall event was used. To replicate rainfalls of varying intensities, 25, 51 and 102 mm of water addition per
day was adopted. The volume of water required to simulate each of these rainfall intensities were calculated by
multiplying the specimen surface area with design rainfall intensities. This amount of water was uniformly distributed over the entire duration of the experiment at
intervals of 3 hours.
2.3.1 Simulation of oil spill and rainfall
The 50 mm thick EPC specimens were sealed on their
sides to prevent seepage of oil and water. Each experimental run comprised of 3 mL (2.5 g) of oil addition
and water corresponding to the chosen rainfall intensity, which was distributed over the entire duration.
Both oil and water were distributed uniformly over the
surface area of the EPC. In the preliminary study
102 mm of water was added over the entire surface of
the specimen over 24 hrs. Further studies were carried
out with 25 mm, 51 mm, and 102 mm water additions.
The specimen was kept undisturbed for 3 hours, before
the start of the next run, to measure oil recovery. Fig. 2
shows recovery of a mixture of oil and water, seeped
376
40
35
Porosity (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
12.5
9.5
Figure 4. Comparison of porosity between different aggregate specimens for preliminary study.
Porosity
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
23%
18%
34%
30%
75
125
175
225
275
325
377
Porosity
20
14%
25%
20%
12
Cumulative oil
retained (g)
16
8
4
Porosity
14%
15
25%
20%
10
5
0
0
0
100
200
300
400
100
200
300
Cumulative rainfall (mm)
400
25 mm Rainfall
(a)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
14
2.5
20
Porosity (%)
51 mm rainfall
(b)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
18
3.2
20
Porosity %
25
102 mm rainfall
(c)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
13
Porosity %
20
3.3
378
Porosity
Cumulative oil
retained (g)
12
13%
20%
3
0
30
155
280
405
530
Rainfall (mm)
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support from the Clarkson Center for Environment
and the Coulter School of Engineering at Clarkson
University towards this research project.
REFERENCES
1. ACI 522 R. 2006. Pervious Concrete, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
2. Newman, A., Puehmeier, T., Kwok, V., Lam, Coupe, S.,
Shuttleworth, M. & Pratt, C. 2004. Protecting groundwater with oil retaining pervious pavements: historical perspectives, limitations and recent developments, The
Quarterly journal of Engineering Geology 37: 283.
3. Colandini, V., Legret, M. & Brosseaud, Y. 1995. Metallic
Pollution in clogging materials of urban porous pavements, Water Science Technology 32: 5762.
4. Neithalath, N., Weiss, J. & Olek, J. 2005. Modeling the
influence of pore structure on the acoustic absorption of
Enhanced Porosity Concrete, Journal of Advanced
Concrete Technology 3: 2940.
5. Legret, M., Nicollet, M., Miloda, P., Colandini, V. &
Raimbault, G. 1999. Simulation of heavy metal pollution
from stormwater infiltration through a porous pavement
with reservoir structure Water Science Technology 39:
119125.
6. Newman, A., Coupe, S., Puehmeier, T., Morgan, J.,
Henderson , J., & Pratt, C. 2002 Microbial ecology of oil
degrading porous pavement structures, Global Solutions
for urban drainage proceedings of the ninth International
Conference on Urban Drainage, Portland.
379
7.
8.
9.
380
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The possibility of using concrete building products to absorb flue gas carbon dioxide through
their curing process is studied. Portland cement based products were exposed to a simulated flue gas with a CO2
concentration of 25%, under 5 bar pressure and in two-hour duration. Their carbon uptake and immediate
strength gain were measured. It was found that the flue gas CO2 uptake was in a range of 79% based on dry
cement as reference. Its corresponding two-hour strength exceeded 8 MPa in a multiple injection release procedure. To investigate the maximum possible CO2 uptake by cement, loose powder samples of same mass were
carbonated under the same condition. The uptake could reach approximately 17%. Microstructure of the carbonated cement and concrete indicated that the material was mainly composed of poorly crystalline calcium
carbonate incorporated in the calcium silicate hydration products.
INTRODUCTION
381
(1)
(2)
The early age carbonation curing of concrete provides a direct means to consume carbon by converting
the carbon dioxide to calcium carbonates, which are
geologically stable, environmentally durable, and
economically beneficial. For applications without
reinforcing steel, the carbonated concrete products
can perform better in achieving strength, durability
and dimensional stability due to the near-complete
depletion of calcium hydroxide. The rapid carbonation reaction with cementitious binders accelerates
the strength development and shortens the time
required for the production. It is best suited for manufactured concrete products, such as bricks and
blocks, cement boards and precast concretes with
non-metallic reinforcement.
Concrete technology has shown one more feature.
It can use flue gas directly in the process with no need
of carbon separation. This paper presents a study on
the carbonation technology for CO2 uptake and fast
strength gain through early age accelerated curing. A
gas of 25% CO2 concentration was used to simulate
the as-captured flue gas without processing. The carbonation time was fixed at two hours to make the
process feasible for industry production and the properties of carbonated products were evaluated by their
mass gain, strength development and microstructure
characteristics.
2
EXPERIMENTAL
Table 1.
Type 10
Type 30
Table 2.
C1
C3
C1Q
C3Q
Figure 1.
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
MgO
63.1
63.9
19.8
20.2
4.9
2.32
2.0
3.54
Quartz
Time
Concentration
T 10
T 10
T 30
T 30
0%
0%
25%
25%
2 hr
2 hr
2 hr
2 hr
25%
25%
25%
25%
(3)
The mass gain was also quantified by infrared based
CO2 analyzer. The CO2 content determined by the carbon analyzer was based on total mass after carbonation, including dry binder, water, quartz aggregates and
calcium carbonates. Therefore the definition of mass
gain would be different between direct weight increase
by samples (Eq. 3) and infrared test results. Eq. (3) represents an average measurement while the infrared
technique is a point analysis. Since infrared technology
requires only 0.5 g powder for analysis, the results can
still serve as an independent check for comparison.
Powders were collected both on surface 1-mm layer
and at the core to examine the uniformity of carbonation. Three-point bending tests at a span of 101 mm and
compressive strength tests were performed right after
two-hour carbonation to determine the modulus of
382
0.55
80
70
0.48
Pressure
0.41
0.34
50
Temperatur
40
0.21
20
0.14
10
0.07
0.00
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time, (second)
25
Mass gain (%)
CO2 analyzer, surface (%)
20
14.3
15
13.1
12.9
11
10
9.3
7.9
7.2
7.2
5
2.2
2.6
1.8
1.4
0
C1
C3
C1Q
C3Q
Figure 4.
0.28
30
3.1
18
16
Temperature, ( C)
60
Pressure, (MPa)
C3
14
C1Q
12
C3Q
9.3
10
8
C1
7.9
7.2
16.2
14.2
13
8.3
7.2
4
2
0
Figure 5.
383
MOR (MPa)
Compressive Strength
(MPa)
Figure 7.
Figure 6. Although CO2 concentration is low, the globular carbonate crystals as reaction products are still
clearly seen. An EDX analysis was performed at random locations to verify the existence of carbon in carbonated samples. Typical result is depicted in Figure 7
for Type 10 cement paste. The spectrum demonstrates
a strong peak for carbon together with calcium, silicon, magnesium and oxygen, suggesting the presence
of carbonates, although the quantification of carbon
by spot analysis was difficult due to the use of fracture
surface. As a comparison at the same magnification,
typical microstructure of hydrated Type 10 cement is
displayed in Figure 8 with the apparent hydration
products, such as C-S-H, calcium hydroxide, and
ettringite plates. The carbonated cement demonstrated
a much denser structure with considerably reduced
permeability.
3.3
Because of the low concentration, CO2 uptake is limited. The maximum value did not exceed 10%. Its
efficiency was less than 20%, if compared with theoretical prediction of 50% at full conversion. Therefore
Figure 8.
384
Table 3.
Process-2
Process-3
Batch
W/C
Time
W/P
Time
W/P
Time
MA1
MA2
MA3
MA4
MA5
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
15/30/30/60
15/30/30/60
15/30/30/60
30/60/60/120
15/30/30/60
0.15
0.05
0
0
0.05
G,15/30/30/60
G,15/30/30/60
G,15/30/30/60
0
G, C-120
D, 0.1
0
0.03
0
0
G, C-120
0
G, C-900
0
0
Note: G ground by mortar and pestle; C carbonation; W/C water to cement ratio; W/P water to powder ratio;
15/30/30/60 carbonation cycles at 15, 30, 30, 60 minutes for each.
20
15
Mass Gain (%)
MA1
MA2
MA3
MA4
MA5
10
0
0
10
20
0.5
Time (min)
30
40
MA1
MA2
MA3
MA4
MA5
Process-2
Process-3
10.1%
11.4%
12.2%
14.2%
11.4%
14.6%
16.1%
15.0%
15.9%
17.2%
15.2%
385
25
25
MA1
MA2
MA3
MA4
MA5
20
17.20
15.90 16.10
16.85
14.20 15.20
20
15
16.4
15.86 15.94
12.69
10
15
15
13.5
11.8
14.2
12.812.4
13.6
13
11.6
11.2
10.1
10
5
0
C1
Figure 11.
Figure 10. Comparison of CO2 content by mass gain method
and carbon analyzer method for powders.
C1Q
C3Q
70
63
C1
60
3.4
C3
C3
C1Q
50
57
47.7
C3Q
36.6
40
30
20
16
13.5 15 13.6
8.8 7.5
7.1 8.4
10
0
Mass Gain (%)
Figure 12.
MOR (MPa)
Compressive Strength
(MPa)
in light of the use of 100% carbon dioxide and the average of surface and core was always lower than the
direct mass gain, attributing to the different denominator used as reference in calculation. Overall, it was estimated that a 10 to 16% CO2 uptake by cement in a
concrete was readily achievable.
The strength gains of carbonated samples in pure
gas are shown in Figure 12 together with mass gains.
Compared to the two-hour strengths obtained with
pure CO2, concrete carbonated by flue gas had shown
less strength. Its flexural strength (MOR) was only
about 50%, compressive strength 2025% with a CO2
uptake half as that by pure gas. Obviously the crystallized solids created through carbonation curing were
influenced significantly by the carbon dioxide concentration. Higher concentration promotes more carbonation reaction and creates more CaCO3 solids which are
attributed to the strength development at early age.
3.5
A 79% carbon dioxide uptake by cement via concrete production is readily achievable using cement
386
and concrete with varied aggregates through its carbonation curing. This percentage of uptake is calculated based on the cement binder used in the product.
There are many concrete products which are excellent
candidates for the process. One example is the concrete masonry units (CMU) which are mass produced
at a rate of 3000 units/hour by a typical block manufacturing machine and steam-cured currently in a
chamber at a temperature of 70C for about 24 hours.
The CMU can be treated in the same chamber using
flue gas CO2 at ambient temperature to accelerate the
strength gain and shorten the curing time. A standard
concrete masonry unit (200 mm equivalent) contains
about 1.36 kg (3 lb) cement. If 10% CO2 uptake is
assumed, one masonry unit can absorb about 0.136 kg
carbon dioxide. One block machine operating for 16
hours per day produces 48,000 units, consuming
6.528 tons of CO2. For a production, using 10 block
machines over 42 days, 2,742 tons of carbon dioxide
can be sequestered, which is close to the scale of
small geologic storage projects. However, the mass
production of CMU will continue and its annual CO2
uptake can reach about 23,830 tons. Moreover, there
is an incentive for the industry to get involved
because of the accelerated curing which eliminates
presetting time for steam-curing. If CO2 absorption
can be enhanced to 20% or more, the capacity of the
sequestration will be doubled. A 20% uptake of CO2
by concrete represents only 40% of its theoretical
limit. Therefore a large window of opportunity exists
to improve the technology for better sequestration. It
is certain that an increased conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonates would result in stronger and more
durable concrete products, as long as there is no steel
reinforcement used in the concrete products.
4
CONCLUSIONS
Study has demonstrated that concrete has the potential to absorb carbon dioxide through its early age curing. The technology can help alleviate a serious
environmental problem associated with the greenhouse effect and global warming.
It was found that concrete carbonated in a flue gas
could consume up to 9% CO2 in two-hour carbonation curing at 0.5 MPa pressure. Non-uniform carbonation across the section was divided into a harder
condensed shell and a softer non-carbonated core.
The early age strength of carbonated specimen was
attributed mainly to the condensed surface layer. As
the carbonated surface layer became thicker, both the
modulus of rupture (MOR) and compressive strength
(fc) increased, especially the compressive strength,
which reflected the average strength of the shell and
the core. The carbonation depth showed that the
complete carbonation was not achieved within the 2hour carbonation period.
Of all parameters that affect CO2 uptake, the most
critical one is the CO2 concentration in the gas. The
higher the carbon dioxide content, the more the calcium carbonates could be generated and the less the
time and pressure are required to achieve the mass
gain. Longer curing time promoted more CO2 absorption. However the carbonation duration had a threshold value over which the rate of mass gain would be
substantially decreased because of the densified surface layers and the loss of moisture. A gas of 2025%
CO2 concentration represented a typical flue gas from
cement kilns or thermal power plants. Although the
low concentration could still partially harden the concrete in a reasonably short time and produce comparable performance to conventional curing in long run,
the corresponding CO2 uptake was not substantial
because of the lack of carbon dioxide in flue gas.
The maximum possible CO2 uptake by cement powder was studied through the changes of parameters
such as the reaction time, the particle size and the additional water. The CO2 uptake by the cement powder
through grinding it to nearly its original particles size,
adding more water and extending the exposure time
fell in the range of 15 to 17%. These values gave the
maximum possible uptake under the test conditions of
less than 24 hours, being 5 bars gas pressure and 25%
CO2 concentration at the ambient temperature.
REFERENCES
Berger, R. L., Young, J. F. and Leung, K. (1972). Acceleration
of Hydration of Calcium Silicates by Carbon Dioxide
Treatment, Nature Physical Science, 240, 1619.
Goodbrake, C. J., Young, J. F. and Berger R. L., (1979).
Reaction of Beta-Dicalcium Silicate and Tricalcium
Silicate with Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapor, Journal
of The American Ceramic Society, March, 168171.
Lackner, K.S., Wendt, C.H., Butt, D.P., Joyce Jr., E.L. and
Sharp, D.H. 1995. Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate
minerals. Energy, 20: 11531170.
Malhotra, V. M. (1999), Making Concrete Greener with Fly
Ash, Concrete International, 21(5), may, 6166.
NETL, (2004). Carbon sequestration: technology roadmap
and program plan. National Energy Technology
Laboratory, US Department of Energy.
Reardon, E.J., James, B.R. and Abouchar, J. (1989). High
Pressure Carbonation of Cementitious Grout, Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 19, 385399.
Worrel, E., Price, L., and Martin, N. 2001. Carbon dioxide
emissions from the global cement industry. Annual
Review of Energy and Environment, 26: 303329.
Young, J.F., Berger, R.L. and Breese, J. 1974. Accelerated
curing of compacted calcium silicate mortars on exposure to CO2. Journal of The American Ceramic Society,
57: 394397.
387
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The properties of a hydrated high-performance calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement were investigated by means of XRD, DTA-TGA, SEM analyses and mercury porosimetry. The early hydration behaviour was
strongly influenced by the high (0.78) stoichiometric water-solid mass ratio required by the reaction of C4A 3 S with
calcium sulfate and water towards ettringite and aluminium hydroxide. The high rate of this reaction resulted into
a rapid depletion of water within a relatively short curing period and both full consumption of reactants and hydra
tion of other CSA cement components were hindered. However, C4A3 S conversion degrees of 0.60 and 0.87 were
obtained at 3 hours and 28 days respectively, for CSA cement pastes cured with a water-cement ratio equal to 0.45.
Both the fast formation of ettringite and the rapid establishment of prevailing low-porosity regions can play a very
important role in regulating the technical behaviour of high-performance CSA cements.
INTRODUCTION
sulfosilicate (C5S 2S ) and a variety of calcium aluminates (C3A, CA, C12A7, C4AF, C2AS, CAS2) as well as
lime and/or calcium sulfate (depending on the type of
application) can occur in calcium sulfoaluminate
(CSA) cements. Among these phases, C2S is particularly interesting, due to its hydraulic activity and ability to regulate strength and durability of hydrated
cements at medium and long ages.
Ettringite formed in the reaction (1) has expansive
characteristics which can be exploited by special
binders like shrinkage-resistant and self-stressing
cements [Mehta 1973; Kurdowski et al. 1986;
Muzhen et al. 1992]. There are two types of expansive
389
4) greater usability of industrial wastes and by-products whose reuse and disposal is quite complicated.
2.2
CSA cement samples were paste hydrated (watercement mass ratio equal to 0.45) and investigated by
XRD, DTA-TGA, SEM analyses and mercury
porosimetry. The pastes, shaped as cylindrical discs
(15 mm high, 30 mm in diameter), were cured in a
FALC WBMD24 thermostatic bath at 20C for times
ranging from 3 hours to 28 days. At the end of each
aging period, the discs were in part submitted to mercury porosimetry, in part broken for SEM observations
or pulverized for XRD and DTA-TGA analyses after
grinding under acetone (to stop hydration), followed by
treating with diethylether (to remove water) and storing in a desiccator over silica gel-soda lime (to ensure
protection against H2O and CO2).
XRD analysis was performed for both qualitative
and quantitative purposes using a BRUKER-D4 XRD
apparatus. XRD patterns were obtained in the range
555 2 (Cu K radiation), at the scanning rate of
0.02 2/sec.
DTA-TGA was carried out through a NETZSCH
TASC 414/3 apparatus, operating between 20 and
1000C with a heating rate of 10C/min.
For SEM observations a PHILIPS XL-30 ESEM
instrument was used. Specimens were metallized
with gold by means of an EMITECH K 950
apparatus.
Porosity measurements were performed with a
THERMO FINNIGAN PASCAL 240 Series
porosimeter (maximum pressure, 200 MPa) equipped
with a low-pressure unit (140 Series) able to generate
a high vacuum level (10 Pa) and operate between 100
and 400 kPa.
EXPERIMENTAL
2.1
Mineralogical
CaO
Al2O3
42.5
26.5
SO3
SiO2
Fe2O3
MgO
TiO2
Na2O
K2O
19.3
6.3
2.5
1.3
0.8
0.6
0.1
C4A 3S
Calcium sulfates
(as CaSO4)
-C2S
C5S 2S
C3A
C4AF
CT
43
21
3.1
12
8
8
4
2
CSA
Portland cement
3 hours
8 hours
1 day
7 days
28 days
6.1
23.9
33.1
57.7
63.4
4.6
23.3
41.5
54.2
390
The last phenomenon is most likely due to an acquisition of crystallinity by some alumina gel. So the final
increase of Al(OH)3 concentration is only apparent.
the hydration process; b) unreacted C4A 3S and calcium sulfates are still present in the hydrated systems.
The early stopping of the hydration and the reduced
capillary porosity (due to the free water consumption)
as well as the persistence of anhydrous phases (stable
like their hydration products) and the environment
without moisture (fast established owing to the selfdrying process) can enhance the durability of the
hydrated systems.
18
(a)
Concentration, mass %
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3h
6h
16h
1d
3d
7d
28d
Concentration, mass%
(b)
4
3.2
3h
6h
1d
16h
3d
28d
7d
1/2
(a)
Concentration, mass %
60
50
40
30
20
DTA-TGA results
10
0
3h
6h
1d
16h
3d
7d
3.3
28d
1/2
Concentration, mass %
(b)
3
3.4
3h
6h
16h
1d
3d
SEM observations
7d
28d
1/2
Porosimetric results
391
Figure 3.
DTA-TGA thermograms for CSA cement paste cured at: (a) 3h; (b) 16h; (c) 1d; (d) 3d; (e) 7d; (f) 28d.
392
Figure 4. SEM (SE) micrographs of CSA cement pastes cured at: (a) 3 hours; (b) 8 hours; (c) 3 days and (d) 28 days (lower
magnitude on the upper side).
393
120
(a)
6 hours
1 day
3 days
7 days
28 days
Hg volume, mm3/g
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
10
100
1000
10000
Pore radius, nm
140
(b)
DV/Dlog(R)
120
6 hours
1 day
3 days
7 days
28 days
100
80
60
40
20
0
4
1
10
100
1000
10000
Pore radius, nm
(a)
140
120
100
6 hours
80
3 days
60
40
7 days
24 hours
28 days
20
0
Curing period, t (hours)1/2
250
(b)
Pore radius, nm
200
6 hours
CONCLUSIONS
From the investigation on a hydrated high-performance calcium sulfoaluminate cement cured at early
ages it can be argued that:
a) only one reaction occurs in the system, namely the
150
REFERENCES
100
50
24 hours 3 days
7 days
28 days
0
Curing period, t (hours)
1/2
394
395
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Production of Portland cement (PC) causes significant CO2 emissions. A recently proposed
family of alternatives are reactive magnesium oxide (MgO) cements. These are mixtures of normal hydraulic
cements, such as PC, magnesium oxide and a pozzolan, such as pulverised fuel ash (pfa). In this paper, an
overview will be given of ongoing research on these cements. The physical characteristics of the pastes and the
hydration reactions that occur initially are described and supplemented with a description of the reactions that
occur later on. The effect of carbonation on these materials is discussed. The chemical changes that occur in
these materials are then correlated with measurements of strength or stiffness as a function of time. To illustrate
possible applications the results of 2 case studies are summarised: (1) a light-weight masonry unit made almost
entirely out of pfa, and (2) the use of these cements to produce standard aggregate-cement masonry units.
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
CaO
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3
MgO
K2O
Na2O
TiO2
SO3
L.O.I.
C.A.
397
r-MgO
d-MgO
PC
pfa
1.2
1.2
0.2
0.2
97.2
5.6
7.5
0.9
3.4
83.0
64.3
14.1
2.8
10.3
0.6
0.9
5.8
42.8
10.4
29.2
1.3
2.6
1.1
2.1
4.0
11.0
0.1
6.9
0.27
33
PASTE CHARACTERISTICS
Initial work was carried out to determine the characteristics of pastes as a function of the relative quantities of
MgO, PC and pfa used in the blend. Hereto, the standard consistence and setting time were measured following the procedures in BS EN 196 Part 3 [BSI 1994].
As shown in Figure 1, it was found that the standard
consistence, SC, of blends of the three powders could
be described with a rule of mixtures and the standard
consistence of pastes made with each of the three components alone:
(1)
398
Figure 3.
X-ray diffraction results after 28 days of hydration for blends containing 50 wt% pfa.
HYDRATION
399
400
M
MP
P
MgO
PC
w/s
50 wt%
25 wt%
0 wt%
0 wt%
25 wt%
50 wt%
0.5
0.375
0.3
The water demand of reactive MgO is not an important factor for blends with 90 wt% pfa, where the minimum water to solids ratio is determined more by the pfa
than by either PC or MgO. It would appear therefore
that the design rule, which suggests that reactive MgO
cements with a high MgO content should only be used
in applications where only a limited amount of cement
is needed, effectively expresses the problems due to
the water demand of reactive MgO. It follows that if
the water demand could be reduced while retaining the
reactivity, more applications could become within the
reach of reactive MgO cements. Therefore, more work
is needed on tailoring MgO powders specifically for
use in cements.
6
Figure 6. Scanning electron micrographs of the microstructure of samples with composition (a) MgO:pfa 1:1,
(b) MgO:PC:pfa 1:1:2, (c) PC:pfa 1:1.
401
CARBONATION
402
Figure 10.
7.1
Natural carbonation
Forced carbonation
403
Figure 11. X-ray diffraction patterns for samples with composition MgO:pfa 1:1 for various conditions of exposure as indicated in the figure (n : nesquehonite, h : hydrotalcite, b : brucite).
404
Figure 13. (a) Change in stiffness and (b) change in toughness with carbonation time.
M
MP
P
405
MgO
PC
w/s
Density
kg m3
0 wt%
10 wt%
20 wt%
20 wt%
10 wt%
0 wt%
0.5
0.375
0.3
1318 2
1294 1
1280 3
406
Figure 18.
Figure 17. Cross-section of a sample of type M after carbonation, showing a wide carbonated rim indicated by the
dashed line as well as spots of concentrated carbonation in
the interior marked such as the one marked by the arrow.
Nevertheless, the significant increase in compressive strength shows that it is possible to achieve sufficient mechanical properties for light-weight masonry
units using mostly an industrial by-product (pfa). The
trade-off is that the cement content needed is fairly
high (20 wt%), which makes it an expensive solution.
To allow a reduction in the cement content, the use of
aggregates in conjunction with reactive MgO
cements was studied in a second case study.
8.2
Mna
MPna
Pna
w/c
MgO
PC
Pfa
Sand
Gravel
0.95
0.75
0.65
10%
5%
0%
0%
5%
10%
5%
5%
5%
50%
50%
50%
35%
35%
35%
MgO
PC
Lytag
(04)
Lytag
(48)
1.1
1.0
0.8
10%
5%
0%
0%
5%
10%
39%
39%
39%
51%
51%
51%
MLyt
MPLyt
PLyt
407
408
Other applications
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Ahari, K. G., J. H. Sharp, et al. 2002. Hydration of refractory oxides in castable bond systems-I: alumina, magnesia, and alumina-magnesia mixtures. Journal Of The
European Ceramic Society 22(4): 495503.
409
410
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
W. Verstraete
Laboratory for Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University, Belgium
ABSTRACT: Disadvantages of conventional surface treatments have drawn the attention to alternative formulations for the improvement of the durability of concrete. Promising results of an innovative biotechnology
based on microbial mineral precipitation have lead to research concerning the use of bacteria in concrete. This
paper reports the effects of bacterial CaCO3 precipitation on parameters affecting the transport processes and
durability of concrete and mortar. Pure cultures of ureolytic bacteria were compared for their effectiveness in
relation to conventional surface treatments, such as water repellents and coatings. Microbial calcite precipitation was visualized by SEM. The results indicated the presence of a newly formed layer on the surface of the
mortar specimens, consisting mainly of calcite. Bacterial deposition of a layer of calcite on the surface of the
specimens resulted in a decrease of capillary water uptake and permeability towards gas. The results obtained
with cultures of the species Bacillus sphaericus were comparable to conventional surface treatments.
INTRODUCTION
411
2
2.1
Group
Control
Biodepositiona
Subgroup
Composition
Bacillus
sphaericus
No calcium
source
Calcium
chloride
Water based
dispersion, one
component
Water based,
gel-like
Alkoxysilane/
siloxane
Sodium silicates
in water
Surface coatings
Acrylates
Penetrating
sealants
Silanes
The mortar samples were made using an normal portland cement (CEM I 52.5 N) content of 350 kg/m3,
sand 0/4 content of 1050 kg/m3 and water-cement
ratios of 0.5, 0.6 and 0.7.
Average compressive strength of each mix was
obtained from the measurements (according the
Belgian standard NBN15-220) on three cubes
(100 mm) after 28 days of water curing and amounted
to 50.3 3.96 MPa, 48.5 3.40 MPa and 41.6 3.91
MPa respectively. Cubes (40 mm) for capillary water
suction experiments were cut from mortar slabs (900
600 40 mm). Cylindrical specimens (H = 50 mm
and D = 150 mm) were drilled out of mortar slabs for
the determination of gas permeability. For each mixture, a number of slabs were cast and cured for one
day at 90% R.H. and 20C. The specimens were
demolded after 24 h and then stored in water for
27 days prior to the drilling of the specimens. Afterwards the specimens were stored under humid atmosphere (60% R.H., 20C) until application of the surface
treatment (at the age of 12 months).
2.2
Treatment procedure
Silane/siloxane
mixture
Silicates
a
Nutrient components in media of biomineralisation
experiments had the following concentration: (basic
medium:) urea, 10 g/L; sodium bicarbonate, 2,12 g/L;
ammonium chloride, 10 g/L; nutrient broth, 3 g/L;
(additions:) calcium chloride, 25 g/L.
Water absorption
412
Figure 1. Capillary water suction results expressed as the sorptivity coefficient for different grades of mortar (w/c 0.5: ,
w/c 0.6: and w/c 0.7: ) applied with different types of surface treatments.
2.5
Gas permeability
(2)
where K is defined as the gas permeability coefficient, p2 is the atmospheric pressure [bar], Q is the
volumetric gas flow rate [mL/s], L is the thickness of
the specimen [m], A is the cross section of the specimen [m2] and p1 the applied oxygen pressure [bar].
Measurement of the oxygen flow rate was performed using a Martin Sommer oxygen permeability
apparatus (Schmidtheim, Germany). Koxygen (m2)
calculated is the mean of three K values obtained at
three pressure stages (2, 3 and 4 bar). Measurements
were performed on 3 cylinders (with the same treatment) at the same time. Before the test, cylinders
were dried at 60C establishing a mass equilibrium of
413
Figure 2. Gas permeability coefficients, K, for different grades of mortar (w/c 0.5: , w/c 0.6: and w/c 0.7: ) applied
with different types of surface treatments.
3
3.1
RESULTS
SEM examination
Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs showing the surface of (a) an untreated mortar cube and (b) a cube treated with
bacteria and calcium chloride. (c) Magnification of the area in
(b) Rhombohedral crystals can be observed. (d) Enlarged
image of a section in (c). Rod shaped holes (see arrow) indicate bacterial mediation of crystallization. Rhombohedral
crystals are characteristic for calcite.
414
3.2
Water absorption
Gas permeability
CONCLUSIONS
Biodeposition has the potential to improve the durability of concrete structures. The transport mechanisms
in concrete are influenced by the surface treatment
with the ureolytic bacteria and a calcium salt. Best
results were obtained with the combination of Bacillus
sphaericus and calcium chloride, with which a similar
protection as some of the conventional surface treatments was obtained.
Further research however is needed to investigate
the impregnation depth and the durability of the treatment under environmental conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
Bang, S. S., Galinat, J. K. & Ramakrishnan, V., 2001. Calcite
precipitation induced by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus
pasteurii, Enzyme and Microbial Technology 28(45):
404409.
Basheer, L. & Cleland, D. J., 2006. Freeze-thaw resistance of
concretes treated with pore liners, Construction and
Building Materials 20(10): 990998.
415
416
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Thin bonded asphalt and thicker, unbonded concrete overlays for concrete pavements can offer
some benefits to worn concrete pavements such as restore skid resistance and riding quality as well as reduce
routine maintenance. Continuously Reinforced Bonded Concrete Overlays (CRBCO) can offer all the above
plus a greener and sustainable solution to the problem of rigid road and airfield repairs, because they make use
of the remaining strength of the worn pavement. Hence, they can offer both, real savings as well as environmental benefits over the wholesale demolition, removal and complete reconstruction of the existing pavement.
This paper is the introduction of a research study dealing with the development of CRBCO as a new material
and method of construction. It demonstrates that it is possible to go for a wholesale replacement of the traditional steel reinforcement with new, innovative, corrosion free, easier and faster to apply synthetic alternatives
and at the same time make a positive contribution to flexural resistance, crack control, shear and bond strength
of the rehabilitated pavement. Finally, it stresses the need for further research for the new material and method
to become widely applicable. It is hoped that the advent of more high-quality, high-tensile strength concretes
and techniques, such as high-speed paving and roller compaction, combined with careful attention to all the
design requirements will enable pavement engineers to exploit the advantages in terms of economy, convenience and long maintenance-free, greener life which CRBCO could offer in the future.
KEYWORDS: Sustainability, Concrete pavements, overlays, synthetic reinforcement, roads & highways, airports.
INTRODUCTION
The need to implement sustainable development practice in all sectors of construction has been widely recognised and, in particular, improvements in the approach
to the design, construction, operation and rehabilitation
of major transport infrastructure projects have already
been proposed. Some have also been implemented
[Britpave 2000]. Whole life costing for highway maintenance work in the UK was pioneered in the 1980s. For
example, environmental, social and financial needs have
been carefully balanced for bridges and access structures and a minimum design life of 100 years or more is
now typical. However, despite these advances, UK, in
comparison to other economically advanced nations,
has not in general embraced sustainability and whole
life costing considerations for the highway pavements
due to under investment and short term non-sustainable
solutions [The Highways Agency & Britpave 2003].
The later may also be due to the reluctance of pavement engineers to incorporate new and innovative solutions into new pavements. Hence, existing analytical
and design methods for new pavements are based on
417
2.5
Flexural failure
Delamination at discontinuities
418
at the hinge due to the crack in the semi-rigid pavement is strictly limited by restricting the crack width in
the BCO. When the BCO cracks the flexural strength,
stiffness and fatigue life, as well as the shear strength
must remain at least adequate. The finer the crack, the
higher the flexural stiffness and the higher the longterm fatigue life. However, decreasing the design crack
width increases the cost of the reinforcement (smaller
diameters and/or increased amounts) but maintains sufficient overall pavement stiffness to ensure adequate
preservation of the subgrade. Obtaining data for the
optimum design crack widths to use for an ideal balance between an adequately extended life and economy
is a most crucial objective of the proposed research.
4
4.1
Preliminary work
All preparatory work such as the design and manufacturing of the necessary formwork was carried out
at the Universitys workshops. Marine plywood was
used to construct a series of prismatic moulds in order
to produce the appropriate small beam and slab specimens for testing. These moulds were transported to
Aggregate Industries laboratories and their recently
acquired facilities were used to design, mix and cast
the polymer modified concrete. Preliminary, basic
results such as cube strengths were extracted and sent
back to University together with a number of specimens for further testing. An indicative table is shown
below (Table 1).
As it was mentioned earlier, a major drawback of
the concrete roads compared against their asphalt
counterparts is the very slow speed of construction of
the former. This is owned to the time taken for the
reinforcement to be placed and for the concrete to
develop its full strength (Figure 1).
Hence, alternatives have to be found. First, the
advantage of using polymeric concrete for road paving
is that it develops adequate strength and can be passed
to traffic within the first three days of its life. Second,
a new type of reinforcement has been introduced, that
of a synthetic (modified polyolefin) reinforcing fibre,
which has a contoured surface similar to steel to maximise bond, a high tensile strength of up to 550 MPa
and the trade name of BarChip[Bernard S 1999].
A wholesale replacement of steel reinforcement is
therefore sought, by providing a cocktail of synthetic
fibres in the mix and a mesh as main and secondary
Table 1. Indicative cube strengths for different types of
concrete mixes.
Trial Mix
&
Comments
TM06/113
Plain Concrete
MEAN
TM06/114 F1
Polymer. Mod.
Concrete
MEAN
TM06/114 F2
Poly. Concrete
Fibres
MEAN
TM06117
Poly. Concrete
Fibres H2O
MEAN
419
Strength Density
N/mm2 Kg/m3
Strength
N/mm2
Density
Kg/m3
7
Days
36.54
2338
36.54
66.3
2338
2297
66.3
64.52
2297
2298
64.52
46.15
2298
2292
46.15
2292
28
Days
46.88
43.33
46.87
45.69
74.59
72.73
73.44
73.59
76.02
67.26
76.09
76.06
57.98
62.45
66.59
62.34
2330
2327
2334
2330
2293
2299
2294
2295
2309
2303
2302
2306
2281
2274
2291
2282
Table 2.
Specimen
Description
Deflection (mm)
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00
1.00
Plain
3-BChip wires
4-BChip wires
5-BChip wires
(a)
2.00
3.00
Load (kN)
4.00
5.00
3-Steel wires
3-BChip wires
4-BChip wires
5-BChip wires
Load (KN)
300
250
200
150
continuously during the test. However, for the present, pilot study, it was considered to be acceptable.
100
50
-2
0
0
-50
10
Extension (mm)
12
14
16
4.2
18
(b)
420
300
250
200
150
(a)
100
50
Figure 5.
0
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
Load (kN)
Plain
3-BChip wires
5-BChip wires
3-Steel wires
4-BChip wires
5-BChip wires
4.000
5.000
3-BChip wir
4-BChip wir
(b)
Beam no.
No of Brushpasses
Max load
Pmax [kN]
Mode of
failure
Batch
beam no.
10
3
4
20
30
2
3
4
5
6
50
100
150
200
250
8.5
9.0
9.0
8.5
8.5
40
50
109.6
111.4
93.6
147.8
106.9
130.8
60
Debonded during
transportation.
Debonded at very
low load.
Debonded
Bond failure
Bond failure
Bond failure
Bond failure
Compression
failure
Premature failure
Premature failure
4.3
57.4
71.2
Delamination during
transportation
Flexural
Flexural
Flexural
Flexural
Delamination due to
loose aggregate
421
Deflection (mm)
0.6
Figure 7.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
100
P= 0
P= 1
80
P= 2
Beam 3
4
6
Load (kN)
Beam 4
8
Beam 5
10
Beam 6
P= 3
60
P= 4
P= 5
40
P= 6
P= 7
20
P= 8
0
15
0
20
0
25
0
10
50
50
00
-5
0
-1
-1
00
P= 9
-2
-2
50
Microstrain
Microstrain
Beam 2
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
(2)
10
Load (kN)
@ 100 mm
@ 90 mm
@ 60 mm
@ 10 mm
422
Table 5.
Material
Polymeric
concrete
Figure 11.
N/A
Polymeric BarChip
concrete wires
BarChip
12 top
12 bot
Polymeric BarChip
concrete wires
BarChip
12 top
12 bot
Polymeric BarChip
concrete wires
BarChip
12 top
12 bot
Polymeric BarChip
concrete wires
BarChip
12 top
12 bot
Warping failure.
N/A
Polymer mod.
plain
concrete slab
used as ref.
2 kg/m3
2-layers of
Barchip wire
3 kg/m3
2-layers of
Barchip wire
4 kg/m3
2-layers of
Barchip wire
5kg/m3
2-layers of
Barchip wire
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
00
4.
3.
75
25
3.
50
00
3.
3.
50
2.
75
25
2.
00
2.
2.
50
1.
75
25
1.
00
1.
75
1.
0.
0.
25
0.
50
0.
00
-4
"Time (h)"
Plain Concrete
BarChip+3kgm-3
BarChip+5kgm-3
Figure 12.
lay out (b).
BarChip+2kgm-3
BarChip+4kgm-3
423
Warping (mm)
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
75
50
25
00
75
50
00
4.
3.
3.
3.
3.
2.
00
25
2.
2.
50
75
2.
1.
1.
00
25
1.
1.
50
75
0.
0.
00
0.
0.
25
-0.005
Time (h)
Plain Conc
2 kgm-3
3 kgm-3
4 kgm-3
5 kgm-3
0.005
Curling (mm)
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
-0.001
0.
00
0.
25
0.
50
0.
75
1.
00
1.
25
1.
50
1.
75
2.
00
2.
25
2.
50
2.
75
3.
00
3.
25
3.
50
3.
75
4.
00
-0.002
Time (h)
Plain Conc
2 kgm-3
3 kgm-3
4 kgm-3
5 kgm-3
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to express their gratitude to
Aggregate Industries for their continuous technical,
financial and in-kind support. Also, thanks are
directed to Elasto Plastic Concrete Europe, for providing our Group with the reinforcing material and
their technical support.
REFERENCES
Bernard S. 1999. BarChip Synthetic Reinforcing Fibres,
Flexural Toughness Equal to Steel, UWS Engineering
Report CE9, University of Western Sydney, [unpublished].
424
425
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: High-strength concrete (HSC) columns were found to be more prone to explosive spalling due
to their low permeability and high brittleness. Adding polypropylene fibers to the mix could be a solution since the
fibers melt during the early stages of heating and create channels in the concrete. Hence, the water vapor finds
an escape without causing spalling. Coating of concrete members with special mortars, e.g. perlite and vermiculite rendering, could be another solution since the coating works as an insulation, which prevents heat from penetrating to the heart of concrete. Previous researchers pointed out that the data on the effect of fire on the behavior
of HSC loaded columns is scarce. In addition, the authors did not cite any literature on the effect of cooling
regime on the fire behavior of HSC loaded columns. This paper presents an experimental program on the behavior
of HSC columns with or without polypropylene fibers and/or those coated with perlite or vermiculite mortar
under fire. The research includes testing seventeen reinforced HSC columns heated to 750C for one hour under
three loading levels (30%, 40% and 50% of the control specimens ultimate load). To study the effect of cooling
regime, the columns were left to cool in air or quenched by water. The results indicated that a preload level, not
more than 40% of the columns ultimate load, leaving the column to gradually cool in air, inclusion of polypropylene fibers and coating with perlite mortar greatly improved the residual capacity after fire. The column with the
above specification had a capacity almost identical to the control column, which was not heated.
INTRODUCTION
starts to evaporate. If the concrete has a low permeability, like HSC, the pore pressure starts to build up and
induces stresses on the internal structure of the concrete. Vapor stresses can build up to high levels with
temperature increase and if these stresses overcome the
tensile strength of the concrete, local failure happens
releasing high energy and leading to a chain of concrete
micro-structural failure in the adjacent parts and the
violent explosion of concrete takes place [Anderberg
1997]. It has been reported that even a small volumetric
contents of polypropylene fibers can improve the behavior of HSC in fire [Meda et al. 2002].
An extensive review by Ali et al. [1997] cited in Ali
et al. [2001], showed that high-strength concrete is
more prone to explosive spalling than normal strength
concrete due to its high density and low permeability.
Spalling is governed by many complicated factors such
as the rate of temperature elevation, mineral constituents
of aggregates, thermally induced stresses, density of
concrete, moisture content and so on [Luo et al. 2000].
Coatings of concrete structures have a great effect on
the behavior of structures under fire conditions. If a
427
coating is non-combustible, such as perlite or vermiculite rendering, it can improve the fire safety of structures. Perlite is a glass volcanic rock of rhyolitic
composition usually containing 26% of water. It
shows thermal and chemical inertness and is friendly
to the environment as stated elsewhere [Abdel-Razek
et al. 2004a]. Perlite plasters offer up to 46 times more
resistance to heat transmission compared to the
ordinary sand plaster. Vermiculite is a member of the
flake-silicate group of minerals, resembling mica in
appearance. It is commonly used as flake insulation
since it has a remarkable ability to expand many times
more than its original volume when heated. Vermiculite
plaster is 4 times more resistant to heat transmission
compared to sand plaster. The use of perlite and vermiculite is recommended in the Egyptian Code, the
Arab Unified Code, the Jordanian Code and the British
Code for improving the fire resistance [Abdel-Razek
et al. 2004b].
Despite that some investigations [Ali et al. 2001,
Aldea et al. 1997 and Copier 1983] considered the
effect of loads on explosive spalling of high-strength
concrete columns, the data from tests carried out on
stressed columns is scarce [Phan & Carino 1998]. This
data is of particular interest as it simulates the conditions in structural elements when exposed to fire
[Phan & Carino 1998]. In addition, only a few investigations were cited on the effect of cooling method on
the residual capacity of samples (e.g. [Nassif 1999]) or
test columns (e.g. [Issa & Anwar 2004]). The authors
did not cite any studies on the effect of cooling
method on the residual capacity of loaded columns.
This paper is an experimental study which aims to
investigate the effect of some factors related to the fire
Table 1.
safety of concrete structures, in particular, level of loading, cooling regime, presence of polypropylene fibers
and coating type (perlite and vermiculite) on the residual load capacity, deformations and temperature distribution across the sections for high-strength concrete
columns subject to fire. The tests were conducted at
the Housing and Building Research Center, where the
test facilities permit fire exposure of loaded columns
and the application of different cooling regimes.
Seventeen columns were tested to cover the range of
variables in the test program.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1
Sample No.
Group
Loading level
(% of ultimate
load)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Control
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
40
40
40
40
Code in
figure 4
Fibers in
mix
Type of
cooling
Type of
coating
C-I
C-I-40 A
C-I-40 W
C-II-40 A
C-II-40 W
C-I-55 A
C-I-55 W
C-II-55 A
C-II-55 W
C-I-70 A
C-I-70 W
C-II-70 A
C-II-70 W
C-I-PRE
C-II-PRE
C-I-VER
C-II-VER
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
None
Air
Water
Air
Water
Air
Water
Air
Water
Air
Water
Air
Water
Air
Air
Air
Air
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
perlite
perlite
vermiculite
vermiculite
428
Type of mix
Cement
Sand
Crushed basalt
Silica fume
Water
Fiber
Superplasticizer
liter/m3
No fibers
With fibers
550
550
600
600
1250
1250
55
55
150
145
0.9
23
28
Table 3.
Coating type
Cement (kg)
Water (liter)
Air entraining
agent (liter)
Perlite mortar
Vermiculite mortar
500
500
275
400
800
800
4
4
429
Temperature
800
600
400
Furnace
200
ISO-834
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
3.1
60
TIME, min
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
columns.
430
Figure 4.
(Continued).
431
Figure 5.
432
Air cooled
Water cooled
57.3
71.8
53.2
90.9
54.4
70.0
34.8
74.2
Nassif et. al. [1999] found that the damage index for
air-cooled concrete after firing to 320C is at the
same level as that for concrete heated to 220C and
quenched by water. Therefore, it is well established
that water-cooling is more damaging to concrete than
gradual air-cooling. The results of the current investigation show that the damage by water-cooling was
increased with the increase in preload level. The
residual loads of the studied columns are summarized
in Figure 6. It can be seen that the air-cooled column
in Group A without fibers had a residual load higher
than that for the water quenched one by 5% only. The
difference was increased to 6.7% for Group B samples and further to 34.6% for Group C samples. For
specimens containing fibers, the difference was 13.6%,
21.2 and 22% for Groups A, B and C respectively.
This indicates that the higher the loading level, the
higher the incurred damage after water quenching for
samples without fibers.
3.5
It was observed also that the columns contain polypropylene fibers have ultimate loads slightly less than those
without fibers. This may be due to the fact that the presence of polypropylene fibers may reduce the compressive strength of concrete, hence the columns with fibers
may have had a lower ultimate capacity than the ones
without fibers before heating. A similar observation
was made by Purkiss [2000] who reported that the
fibers significantly lower the cube compressive strength
and he argued that the reduction might be attributed to
the increase in pore volume caused by the fibers during
concrete production.
It is also clear from Figure 6 that presence of fibers
can reduce the damage caused by water-cooling when
the samples are highly stressed. This is observed in
spite of the fact that fibers disappear by melting at an
early stage of heating. For example, the Group C column without fibers exhibited 34.6% more damage,
when water quenched, compared to the air cooled
one. In the same group the sample with fibers exhibited only 22% more damage under the similar conditions. Therefore, the presence of fibers seems to
protect highly stressed columns from damage by
433
water-cooling after fire. It is postulated that the channels opened by fiber melting may help transfer the
quenching water to the inner parts of the concrete
more easily. This may lead to a reduction in the severe
thermal gradients caused by rapid cooling in the samples with fibers. Furthermore, the effect of fibers is
more noticeable in the columns with higher loading
levels since these become severely cracked after
exposure to fire and again the cracks co-operate with
the channels from fiber melting in reducing the thermal gradients. Hence the observed residual load is
improved.
3.6
3.7
Temperature-time relationships of
the studied columns
434
Figure 7.
CONCLUSIONS
435
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
REFERENCES
Abdel-Razek, M. M., Khalil, M. H. & El-Sokkary, T. M.,
2004a. Some Adequate Fire Protection Coating for
Structural Members, Proceedings of International
Conference: Future Vision and Challenges for Urban
Development, Cairo, Egypt: 2022 December 2004,
SG61F.
Abdel-Razek, M. M., Ragab, A. M., Hodhod, H. A., &
Rashad, A. M. 2004b. Coating Protection of Loaded R.C.
Columns Against Elevated Temperature, Proceedings of
International Conference: Future Vision and Challenges
for Urban Development, Cairo, Egypt: 2022 December
2004, SG159F.
Abdel-Razek, M. M., Fahmy, E. H., Abou-Zeid, M. N.,
Serag, E. M. & Helal, M. A., 2004c. Evaluation of Some
Coating Materials to Predict Fire Resistance of R. C.
Concrete Columns, Proceedings of International
Conference: Future Vision and Challenges for Urban
436
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In this investigation, the effect of simulated desert climate on moisture loss (as it is related to
drying shrinkage), ultrasonic pulse velocity (internal crack detector), absorption (durability index) and compressive strength (mechanical properties pointer) were studied. Concrete mixes, having w/c ratios of 0.35, 0.45 and
0.55 and polypropylene fiber volumes of 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, were prepared and subjected to one of three conditioning regimes after 14 days of moist curing. The samples were either kept in laboratory air, placed in an oven
operating two daily temperature cycles between 75C and room temperature or placed in a continuous heating oven
at the same temperature. It was found that heating adversely affected all studied properties of concrete. The moisture loss and absorption were increased by a factor that ranged between 4.2329.96 or 2.818.67, respectively.
The compressive strength was reduced by 3.16 to 33.82% compared to the samples kept in laboratory air. The
inclusion of fibers improved the performance of concrete mixes compared to the no fiber mixes subject to temperature, to a certain degree. Fiber volumes 0.10.2% are recommended in these conditions depending on the
type of mix. The presence of polypropylene fibers interferes with the elastic waves traveling through concrete
and hence reduces the pulse velocity. Heating of fiber concrete seems to magnify this interference and therefore
ultrasonic pulse velocity readings could not be used as internal crack indicators in the current study.
INTRODUCTION
437
Mix proportions
438
Table 1.
3
Cubes
in air
for 14
days
then
drying
for 48
hours
Soaking
Mixing
Curing
of cubes
for 14
days
Measure
3 Cubes
Measure
weight
of cubes
Measure
UPV
Stage 1
in
cycled
oven
for 16
days
weight
Measure
for
UPV
moisture
Stage 2
for 48 hours
Compressive
to obtain
strength
absorption
test
loss
3 cubes
in
constant
oven for
16 days
Figure 1.
Test program.
439
7
Laboratory Air
Cycled Heating
Constant Heating
6
w/c=0.35
w/c=0.55
w/c=0.45
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 2.
3
3.1
440
100
Laboratory Air
Cycled Heating
Constant Heating
0.1%Fibers
0.2%Fibers
0.3%Fibers
80
60
40
20
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.35
0.45
0.55
w/c ratio
Figure 3.
Absorption
441
50
Laboratory Air
Constant Heating
Cycled Heating
w/c=0.35
w/c=0.45
w/c=0.55
UPV Loss
40
30
20
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
442
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 6.
0.2% fibers seemed to give the lowest absorption values, whereas with the constant heating 0.10.2% fiber
contents gave low absorption results. It seems that the
inclusion of 0.2% fibers in concrete subject to desert
environment would offer some improvement to its
absorption, relative to the samples without fibers.
3.4
Compressive strength
443
CONCLUSIONS
444
445
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
S. Mohamad pour
M.Sc. Student, Shaheed Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
ABSTRACT: Lightweight concretes have been successfully applied in the building constructions for decades
because of their favourable material properties, especially their low specific weight in connection with a high
strength, a high capacity of thermal insulation and a high durability. The development leading to a self compacting light weight concrete (SCLC) represents an important innovative step in the recent years. This concrete
combines the favourable properties of a lightweight concrete with those of a self compacting concrete. Research
work is aimed on development of (SCLC) with the use of light aggregates Light expand clay aggregate
(Leca). In this investigation, first by trial and error, different mix design of SCLC were casted and tested to
find out the values of slump flow, L-box, V-funnel and 28 day compressive strength. Based on the results
obtained, the best so-called standard mix design was selected for further investigation. For two selected mix,
engineering properties of SCLC, such as compressive and flexural strength, E-modulus, shrinkage and swelling
(expansion) values for three different curing conditions were measured at short and long ages (upto-90 day).The
results are shown that use of SCLC can improve the engineering properties as well as the durability of structural
concrete made of light weight materials such as Leca.
INTRODUCTION
lightweight dense concrete and self compacting concrete [Hubertova 2005]. In structural applications, the
self weight of the concrete structure is important since
it represents a large portion of the total load. Hence by
use of the lightweight aggregates it is possible to
reduced member size of the structures and foundation
force [Caijun & Xiaohong 2005]. Therefore, by reducing the self-weight of the structures, considerable savings could be attained, not only in materials but also in
construction costs.
Experimental research is required to understand the
mechanical properties of SCC including the light
weight aggregate, Leca. The objective of this research
study is to i) design and construct so called standard mix
design of SCLC and ii) provide information on mechanical properties of SCLC for short and long term ages.
2
MATERIALS USED
447
Cement
Silica fume
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
SO3
Na2O 0.658 K2O
Cl
MgO
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
Loss on ignition
Insoluble Residue
Free CaO
Na2O
K2O
SiC
C
P2O3
Fineness (Cm2 /gr)
Residue on 90 m sieve %
63.04
21.74
5.00
4.00
2.30
1.00
0.035
2.00
45.50
28.00
6.50
12.20
1.30
0.60
1.40
2900
4.00
0.49
93.86
1.32
0.87
0.10
0.974
0.04
0.97
0.31
1.01
0.53
0.34
0.16
200000
Sand
Leca
mm
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.15
Physical properties
24-h water absorption, %
Moisture content of
as-received aggregate, %
% passing
100
97
91
65.8
46.2
21.2
2.5
% passing
100
0
2.94
18.02
0.704
Figure 1.
448
Table 3.
Mix no.
SL1
SL2
w/cm
Water kg/m3
Cement kg/m3
Silica fume kg/m3
Lime stone powder kg/m3
PCE L/m3
Leca kg/m3
Sand kg/m3
0.38
256.40
360
40
150
4.950
175
1133.80
0.35
240.33
450
50
50
4.675
175
1153.40
449
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
J-ring test
5.4
L-box test
450
35
30
25
20
15
10
SL1
SL2
0
0
Figure 5.
20
40
60
Age (days)
80
100
Table 4.
Mix
No.
Slump flow
diameter cm
J-ring
cm
V-funnels
L-box
h2/h1
SL1
SL2
72
67
1.2
1.5
5.0
5.5
0.85
0.83
6.1
451
35
30
25
20
15
10
SL1
SL2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Age (days)
Figure 7. Compressive strength of SL1 and SL2 in (D)
condition.
Figure 9.
30
Compressive strength(MPa)
35
30
25
20
15
10
SL1
5
SL2
25
20
15
10
fcu/3
SL1
0
0
0
0
20
40
60
Age (days)
80
100
m37
m728
m2890
W,D,S
W
D
S
W
D
S
SL1
SL2
0.400
0.433
0.376
0.404
0.029
0.030
0.009
0.975
0.600
0.562
0.552
0.027
0.029
0.038
0.002
0.003
Mix no.
0.001
Strain
Table 5.
6.3
To observe the stress-strain behavior of SCLC specimens, for some cub samples, the electrical strain
gages were fixed and during the test (Fig. 9), the data
from the load cell and electrical strain gage were
recorded by the data logger for any load increment and
the typical stress-strain diagrams for SL1 and SL2
samples are plotted and shown in Figures 10 and 11.
The obtained ultimate strain and slope of the
curves at fcu/3 (i.e., Ec) are 0.00241, 0.00222 (which
is less than the minimum value suggested in building
codes for traditional concrete, i.e., cu 0.003) and
13500, 16400 MPa for SL1 and SL2 respectively. The
amount of Ec obtained by this method is closed to
those obtained by the Universal Testing Machine
452
(D) condition
5
30
35
25
20
15
EC=16400 MPa (EC=2.49 fcu1/2)
fcu/3
10
5
SL2
0.001
0.002
3
SL1
SL2
2
0
0
0.003
20
Strain
40
60
Age (days)
80
100
(W) condition
SL1 - W
SL1 - D
3
0
SL1
SL2
2
0
20
40
60
80
Figure 14.
conditions.
100
Age (days)
Figure 12.
condition.
(see Table 9). The SL1 and SL2 were in 90 days age
and (D) storage conditions.
6.4
3.5
6.5
20
40
60
Age (days)
80
100
453
17000
Modulus of elastisity (MPa)
4.5
SL2 - W
SL2 - D
4
0
20
40
60
80
16000
15000
14000
12000
100
20
Age (days)
Figure 15.
conditions.
Table 6.
SL1
SL2
14150
15900
13650
15250
14700
16100
14200
15650
17000
16000
15000
14000
SL1 - W
SL1 - D
12000
60
Age (days)
100
m2890
40
80
90 days
Mix no.
20
60
13000
40
Age (days)
28 days
SL2 - W
SL2 - D
13000
80
100
Mix no.
SL1
SL2
8.7
3.2
8.7
6.4
454
1400
Shrinkage (microstrain)
Shrinkage (microstrain)
1200
1000
800
600
400
SL1
SL2
1200
1000
800
600
Figure 18.
8
10
Age (weeks)
12
14
Figure 20.
1400
Shrinkage (microstrain)
Shrinkage (microstrain)
8
10
Age (weeks)
12
14
1400
1600
1200
1000
800
600
SL1
400
1200
1000
800
600
SL2-W
400
SL2-D
SL2
200
200
3
7
9
Age (weeks)
11
13
Figure 21.
8
10
Age (weeks)
12
14
1000
Swelling (microstrain)
Figure 19.
SL1-D
200
200
4
SL1-W
400
800
600
400
SL1
SL2
200
1
Figure 22.
6.7
7
9
11
Age (weeks)
13
15
455
CONCLUSIONS
456
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In this research, normal concrete with three water-cement ratios (0.45, 0.5 and 0.6), self compacting concrete, enhanced self compacting concrete and silica fume concrete are considered for shrinkage
study. An experimentally derived relationship between shrinkage and moisture loss is obtained for the various
concretes and the following invariant form is suggested: sh hygro * M where sh free shrinkage strain;
hygro coefficient of moisture contraction; and M moisture loss percentage. Here a new concept of hygro,
referred to as coefficient of moisture contraction, is introduced. It is similar to that of coefficient of thermal
expansion therm. The introduction of hygro makes stress computations due to moisture movement rather convenient, much in the same manner as thermal stress computations. Loss of moisture M can be obtained from
the associated boundary value problem governed by Ficks law (analogous to change of temperature T from
the associated heat transfer problem), followed by computations of free shrinkage strain using the suggested
form and the associated stress buildup can then be found by using a standard finite element package.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Mix proportions of concrete
457
Table 1.
Type of
concrete
Cement
(NPC,
Type I)
kg/m3
UFA
NC1
NC2
NC3
SCC
ESCC
SFC
420
420
420
425
500
355
106
SF
Coarse
aggregate
kg/m3
Fine
aggregate
kg/m3
Super plasticizers
W/C
HRWR
DA
PEP
CP
30
770.4
770.4
770.4
840
762
1110
945
1003
788
800
924
680
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.34
0.36
0.4
4.25
1.6
1.4
(1)
where
sh free shrinkage,
hygro coefficient of moisture contraction,
M moisture loss percentage.
The concept of hygro introduced in this research
leads to the definition of a new material constant
similar to coefficient of thermal expansion. Use of
Equation (1) can also be valuable in estimating limiting
values of shrinkage by simply conducting a moisture
458
700
NC1
NC2
NC3
SCC
SFC
ESCC
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
-100
Figure 1.
20.00
25.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
450
6
For NC1
For NC2
For NC3
For SCC
For SFC
For ESCC
400
350
300
250
SCC 75
200
SCC 25
150
100
50
0
30.00
20
30
40
Figure 2.
To study the effect of specimen size on hygro, moisture loss and shrinkage plot are shown superposed for
10
CONCLUSIONS
459
350
300
250
200
SFC 75
150
SFC 25
100
50
0
0
10
50
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 3.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support of Civil Engineering Department at King
Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM)
is deeply acknowledged. This work was completed
under a grant from Research Committee of KFUPM
under Project CE/Mix Design/267.
600
500
400
ESCC 75
300
REFERENCES
ESCC 25
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 4.
Collepardi, M. 2003. Recent developments in self compacting concrete. Proc. of the Seventh CANMET/ACI Intern.
Conf. on Superplasticizers and Other Chemical
Admixtures in Concrete, Berlin, Germany, 116.
Ozawa, K., Kunishima, M., & Maekawa, K. 1989.
Development of high performance concrete based on the
durability of concrete structures. Proc. of the Second
East-Asia and Pacific Conf. on Structural Engineering
and Construction (EASEC-2), Vol. 1: 445450.
Penev, D., & Kawamura, M. 1991. Moisture diffusion in soilcement mixtures and compacted lean concrete. Cement
and Concrete Research 21(1): 137146.
Rahman, M.K. 1999. Simulation and assessment of concrete
repair system. PhD Dissertation, King Fahd University
of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Sakata, K. 1983. A study on moisture diffusion in drying and
drying shrinkage of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research 13(2): 216224.
Sakata, K., Nishigaki, M., & Kuramoto, O. 1980. Finite element analysis of nonlinear moisture transfer problems in
concrete. Research & Development, Okayama University,
1(4): 1133.
460
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with durability of Self-Compacting Concrete with limestone filler during
Thaumasite Sulphate Attack. For this purpose six concrete with varying amounts of limestone filler, particle size
of limestone filler, pressure height during casting and mixing order were studied. One normal concrete (without
limestone filler) with vibrator compaction was studied in parallel. In the ongoing experiment the specimen are kept
at 5C in a solution sodium sulphate with circulation with a propeller. The solution is being change every third
month. Only low-alkali sulphate resistant cement was used as binder but limestone filler seem to have some effect
on the hydration as well. The results show a sudden breakdown after five years due to Thaumasite Sulphate Attack
similar to salt-frost scaling of all concrete with limestone filler. The normal concrete without limestone filler is still
performing well after six years in the very same basin as the concrete with limestone filler. The ongoing research
was performed at Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden, 20002006.
1
1.1
461
Objective
2
2.1
462
(%)
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
K2O
Na2O
MgO
SO3
Ignition losses
CO2
Clinker minerals: C2S
C3S
C3A
C4AF
Water demand
Initial setting time
Density
Specific surface
65
21.6
3.5
4.4
0.58
0.05
0.78
2.07
0.47
0.14
21
57
1.7
13
25
145 min.
3214 kg/m3
305 m2/kg
Figure 2.
16,000
8,000
4,000
1,000
0,250
0,063
0,016
0,004
0,001
Material passing
1,00
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
Figure 1.
Crushed stone
Natural gravel
Natural sand
Limestone K
Limestone S
Cement
463
Table 2.
Material/mix composition
KN
KN8
KO
KOB
KOT
363
853
316
183
418
585
2.97
163
0.39
5.6
355
836
309
180
409
1203
3.2
160
0.39
8
367
864
320
186
423
106
3.39
165
0.39
5.5
371
872
135
375
427
213
4.13
167
0.39
4.9
363
855
316
184
419
117
3.69
163
0.39
6.3
720
5
0.64
20.8
50.0
63.3
76.0
2297
2345
2385
2.1
3.8
0.54
0.96
3.54
5.56
735
8
0.63
26.0
63.0
83.5
92.0
2250
2299
2309
2.2
2.6
0.90
0.92
5.02
4.92
620
10
0.65
14.0
38.0
49.8
58.0
2323
2351
2380
1.2
2.5
3.8
3.1
12.5
6.99
780
7
0.65
23.8
56.0
74.5
81.0
2348
2436
2416
3.7
2.9
0.14
1.09
0.83
4.66
640
8
0.65
23.8
56.0
74.5
81.0
2300
2436
2428
5.9
5.6
0.35
0.28
1.79
3.54
RO
862
715
146
0
431
474
7.32
168
0.39
5.8
110
0.65
16.0
45.0
60.5
70.0
2325
2440
2415
4.9
3.9
0
0
0
0
SO
402
786
422
94
416
125
2.99
162
0.39
5.6
710
5
0.64
24.5
54.0
67.5
79.0
2285
2361
2362
3.3
3.4
2.25
1.82
6.02
5.49
80,0
60,0
2.2
40,0
20,0
0,0
1
Figure 3.
10
Age (days)
100
KN
KOB
KN8
KO
SO
RO
Methods
464
RESULTS
3.1
KN 28 KN 90
KN8
28
KN8
KOB
90 KO 28 KO 90 28
KOB
90
KOT
28
KOT
90 RO 28 RO 90 SO 28 SO 90
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
Figure 4.
H2O
H2O-sea
Na2SO4
FRF change after 900 days at 5C. FRF fundamental resonance frequency.
465
8
4
0
-4
H2O
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
H2O-sea
Na2SO4
KN
28
KN
90
KN8
28
KN8
90
KO
28
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
KO
90
KOB KOB
28
90
H2O
H2O-sea
KOT KOT
28
90
RO
28
RO
90
SO
28
SO
90
Na2SO4
KN 28 KN 90
Figure 7.
KN8
28
KN8
KOB
90 KO 28 KO 90 28
90 days
450 days
KOB
90
KOT
28
KOT
90 RO 28 RO 90 SO 28 SO 90
FRF change after 1400 days of exposure in 18 g/l of sodium sulphate in distilled water at 5C.
SO 90
12
One-thousands-four-hundred-day TSA
466
KN 28 KN 90
KN8
28
KN8
KOB
90 KO 28 KO 90 28
KOB
90
KOT
28
KOT
90 RO 28 RO 90 SO 28 SO 90
12
8
4
0
4
Figure 8.
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Figure 9.
90 days
450 days
900 days
1400 days
Length change after 1400 days of exposure in 18 g/l of sodium sulphate in distilled water at 5C.
KN 28 KN 90
KN8
28
90 days
KN8
KOB
90 KO 28 KO 90 28
450 days
900 days
KOB
90
KOT
28
KOT
90 RO 28 RO 90 SO 28 SO 90
1400 days
Mass change after 1400 days of exposure in 18 g/l of sodium sulphate in distilled water at 5C.
without any sign of destruction, exhibited white residuals, probably from escaped Ca(OH)2, brook down when
touched because an empty space was left just behind the
surface. The surface deposits are not yet investigated
with respect to composition since the tests are ongoing.
However, all loose deposits were removed with brush
before weighing. After brushing up to 12% mass loss
was observed for SCC, KO 28. For SCC except for
KOB 28, KOT 28 and KOT 90, the surface scaling, still
after taking into account the water absorption, exceeded
0.5 kg/m2 (up to 3.8 kg/m2 for specimen KO 28), which
was much, Table 2. With 0.5 kg/m2 surface spalling the
aggregate of the surface is clearly visible indicating
severe TSA on the gel. However, even though large
mass losses were observed for most of the SCC, almost
no specimen exhibited internal percolation of Ca(OH)
leading to loss of FRF and elastic modulus decrease.
After 1400 days of TSA all surface of SCC was
affected. However, the sulphate concentration and the
time of exposure are not linear parameters from the
experimental point of view [Johansson 2003].
3.3
One-thousands-seven-hundred-day TSA
467
limestone filler, Table 2, Figure 10. For NC with lowalkali cement but without limestone filler no scaling at
all took place due to TSA since no carbon acid was available in the concrete in this case, Figure 10. The mechanism of TSA is a interaction by carbon and sulphate
acids which attack the gel forming Thaumasite. If no
limestone filler was presented as in NC with low-alkali
cement in this investigation, no weight decrease was
observed. No normal sulphate attack with Ettringite formation was observed in the gel on NC since low-alkali
sulphate resistant cement was used. Low-alkali cement
NC without limestone filler withstood a high concentrated solution of sulphate at 5C for 5 years.
10
8
6
4
2
Figure 10.
SO
RO
KOT
KOB
KO
1400-day 90 d
1700-day 28 d
1700-day 90 d
2450
2400
2350
2300
2250
Mixing
Figure 11.
28 days
SO
RO
KOT
KOB
2200
KO
1400-day-28 d
KN8
KN8
KN
DISCUSSION
KN
4.1
12
Density (kg/m)
14
90 days
468
(1)
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
Density change between mixing and
test start (%)
NC
SCC-filler last
SCC-filler first
SCC-high press.
Figure 12.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
m/m denotes the mass losses between start of testing and 5 years age (%)
ln(/) denotes the natural logarithm of density
increase between fresh and hardened state.
The accuracy of Figure 12 is acceptable
(R2 0.68) taking into account that the starting age
of the test differs, 28 or 90 days, and also the pouring
pressures and mixing order differs. Figure 12 indicates a tendency that the TSA attack of SCC is
dependent on the compaction of the SCC, i.e. differences between density at start of testing and at fresh
state influenced the sulphate resistance.
5
469
LIST OF SYMBOLS
B
FRF
K
N
NC (R)
O
S
T
8
470
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
R. Rahgozar
Civil Eng. Dept., Shaheed Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
M.Motavaselian
Shaheed Bahonar, University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
ABSTRACT: This paper reports a laboratory investigation on the contribution of polypropylene fibers
(15 mm long) to the reduction of crack widths and area caused by restrained plastic shrinkage of different self
consolidating concrete (SCC) and self consolidating light concrete (SCLC) mixes during the first 24 h after
casting. The polypropylene fiber (PF) fresh concrete to be tested was laid on top of a fully hardened and grooved
based concrete that provided the bottom restraint and this resulted in cracking in freshly (PF) concrete placed
overlay. Prismatic (PF) concrete specimens (1060 76.2 38.1 mm) freshly cast on top of a grooved and
hardened concrete substrate were investigated under adverse environmental conditions, high temperature, namely,
25C, 35C, 45C, low relative humidity, and high volume and velocity of airflow. The parameters of this study
were three polypropylene volume fractions of 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3% in three different matrix types of (SCC),
and three drying environments. The test showed that polypropylene fibers were effective in controlling the plastic shrinkage cracking of (SCC). The use of 0.3% volume fraction of polypropylene fibers was found to be successful in combating plastic shrinkage cracking in all concrete mixes tested even under a particularly severe
environment.
INTRODUCTION
471
cast on top of a transversely grooved already hardened concrete substrate base that was designed to produce a high restraint to enhance the potential of
cracking. This method is believed to simulate well the
actual situation of restraint in practice for slab placed
directly on grade. These specimens were exposed to
adverse environmental conditions immediately, and
high velocity and constant large-volume airflow over
the surface of the concrete. No report was observed
for (SCC).
As previously mentioned, water evaporation and
unrestrained shrinkage of concrete during 24 h after
mixing are two of the most important factors to generate tensile stress in concrete. The influence of fibers
on these two mechanisms, however, is not clearly
understood. It is believed that the reduction of water
evaporation and unrestrained shrinkage lead to a
decrease in built-up tensile stress. Thus, cracking is
potentially lessened in fiber-reinforced cementitious
systems [Antonio 2005].
The main objectives of this study are: (1) to evaluate
the effect of number of fibers on the plastic shrinkage
cracking characteristics of (SCC); (2) to make a recommendation on the optimal amount of fibers needed
to effectively control plastic shrinkage cracking for
(SCC); and (3) to describe the mechanisms involved.
These objectives will be supported by tests on plastic
shrinkage cracking resistance, evaporation, free
shrinkage, and bond strength development. Only the
results to plastic shrinkage cracking resistance of fiberreinforced cementitious composites for (SCC), however, are presented in this paper.
2
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
472
Table 1.
base.
Cement
PCE,
liter
Water
Lime
stone
powder
0.41
0.27
Sand
Coarse
agg.
SF
2.36
2.16
0.11
Table 2.
Property of polypropylene.
Elastic
Modulus,
MPa
Tensile,
Mpa
Diameter,
mm
Max
tensile
Strain,%
Length,
mm
13001500
350400
0.023
1112
150
3
3.1
RESEARCH PROGRAMME
Substrate base preparation
Materials
3.3
The plastic shrinkage test set up used for this investigation was similar to the one used by Antoine, et al
[Antonio 2005]. A radiator heater provided an ambient temperature of 25C to 45C during the tests. Two
high-velocity fans provided a constant high flow of
air over the specimens to ensure rapid evaporation. A
chamber was constructed to hold six plastic shrinkage
specimens and to supply additional heat and airflow.
The relative humidity varied between the duration of
the whole testing program 23.5 3.5%. Figure 1
illustrates the chamber and its components of the test
set up.
3.4
473
Table 3.
Specimen
Type of
SCC
Type of
cement
Cement
Fiber
content
Micro
silica
Water
Lika
Coarse
aggregate
Sand
AA0
AA1
AA2
AA3
AA4
AA5
AA6
AA7
AA8
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
SCC
SCC
SCC
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
II
II
II
II
II
II
V
V
V
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
4.66
5
5.5
4.66
5
5.33
4.66
5
5.5
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.51
0.58
0.61
0.51
0.58
0.61
0.76
0.81
0.9
0.486
0.486
0.486
0.486
0.486
0.486
2.16
2.16
2.16
3.06
3.06
3.06
2.36
2.36
2.36
3.06
3.06
3.06
Test procedure
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.41
0.41
0.41
474
Table 4.
Specimen
Type of
SCC
Fiber
content
Max width
of crack,
mm
Total length
of cracks,
mm
Length of
longest
crack, mm
Area of
cracks, mm2
Control,
%
Crack
reduction,%
AA0
AA1
AA2
AA3
AA4
AA5
AA6
AA7
AA8
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
SCC
SCC
SCC
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Table 5.
Specimen
Type of
SCC
Fiber
content
Max width of
crack, mm
Total length
of cracks, mm
Length of
longest
crack, mm
Area of
cracks,
mm2
Control,
%
Crack
reduction, %
AA0
AA1
AA2
AA3
AA4
AA5
AA6
AA7
AA8
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
SCC
SCC
SCC
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0
0
0
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
0
100
100
100
100
100
Table 6.
Specimen
Type of
SCC
Fiber
content
Max width of
crack, mm
Total length
of cracks, mm
Length of
longest
crack, mm
Area of
cracks,
mm2
Control,
%
Crack
reduction, %
AA0
AA1
AA2
AA3
AA4
AA5
AA6
AA7
AA8
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
SCC
SCC
SCC
SCLC
SCLC
SCLC
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.35
0.26
0.2
0
0
0
0.22
0.16
0.08
189
150
34
0
0
0
64
43
8
31
28
2
0
0
0
80
80
80
14.32
9
6.1
0
0
0
10.57
4.3
1.08
100
62.85
45.6
0
0
0
100
40.68
10.2
0
37.15
54.4
100
100
100
0
59.32
89.79
out and selected as the suitable one, and, for the range
of fiber content used in (SCC), no problems were
encountered during mixing or placement. The fibers
mixed well with the matrix; with no balling effect.
Therefore uniformity of polypropylene fiber distribution was not separate variable (it is remained that such
an achievement are reported by [Midness 2003;
Nemkumar & Rishi 2006] for (OC) but not for (SCC)).
Control specimens were cast for each (SCC) mix in
each drying environment so that the crack area and
475
SCLC(II)
SCLC(II)
SCLC(V)
0.12
SCLC(II)
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
120
SCC(II)
100
80
60
40
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
SCC(II)
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
20
0.1
0.2
0.3
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 3.
for 25C.
SCLC(II)
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
6
5
4
SCLC(II)
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
SCC(II
SCLC(V)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
1
0
0.1
0.2
Figure 6.
35C.
0.3
476
SCC(II)
SCLC(II)
SCLC(V)
0.4
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.1
0.2
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
SCLC(II)
0.35
0.3
SCLC(V)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 7.
SCC(II)
SCLC(II)
SCLC(V)
120
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
90
SCC(II)
SCLC(V)
100
80
60
SCLC(II)
40
20
0
0.1
0.2
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.3
0.1
Figure 8.
for 45C.
0.2
0.3
Figure 10.
for 45C.
REFERENCES
5
CONCLUSIONS
477
478
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Connections have very important role in pre-cast concrete structures, especially in seismic
zones, and grout connections increase strength and resistance of pre-cast concrete structures for lateral forces.
High performance grout connections (HPGC) provide new opportunities to design cost-effective pre-cast concrete structures. HPGC have been proposed to decrease cost of insulation, erection and crane cost of pre-cast
concrete structures and to overcome weakness of traditional pre-cast concrete structure connections .This
research focuses on properties of grout materials properties which produced in Iran and the effect of propylene
fiber on the performance of grout connection. In the first stage, more than 65 MPa (28 days) compressive
strength was achieved for Iranian traditional grout which the results (failure in the rebars and performance of
the sleeves) demonstrated sufficient strength of the grout. New type connections (sleeve) were examined and
the results are reported in this paper .The experimental results demonstrated better performance of these types
of connections. These connections are also considered to be more suitable for pre-cast concrete construction in
regarding to failure of the rebars (ultimate strength) in stead of the sleeves connection.
INTRODUCTION
system. Therefore, improvement of mechanical characteristics of grout, shape of rib deformation and sleeve
strength would lead to an increase in the ultimate load
of connection and change failure process and forcedeformation curves.
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Grout selecting
In regarding to commonly, lower strength of grout mortar which produced by adding expander additive to ordinary mortar which mixed in site, and more cost of
epoxy grout, powder ready mix grout (which supply by
manufacture) was selected in this study. In regarding to
high strength and suitable performance of S220 grout of
Sarapoush Company, for final specimens was prepared.
General properties of this product are shown in table 1.
For improving of mechanical characteristics of
grout especially volume expansion of grout and
increasing of toughness, synthetic fibers were used.
Grout was used, it was made by adding chopped
fibers of Glass FRP, Carbon FRP and Polypropylene
(PP) fibers (general properties of used PP fibers are
shown in table 2), for which the compressive strength
is presented in table 3.
The results show that 19 mm PP fibers (table 4) with
mixture ratio 1.6 kg at cubic metre of grout (table 5)
have optimal efficiency.
479
Table 1.
Color
Grey powder
Compressive strength
3-Days
7-Days
28-Days
Bending strength
3-Days
7-Days
120-Days
Mix Water
Powder Density
Grout Density
Maxi Agg. Size
6.5 MPa
9 Mpa
12.5 Mpa
140160 ml/kg
1700 kg/m3
2200 kg/m3
2.0 mm
type III
Description
Density
Length
Diameter
Tensile Strength
Melting Point
910 kg/m3
6,12,19 mm
20 m
350 MPa
160C
Table 3.
type II
Table 2.
33.5 MPa
42.5 MPa
70 MPa
Figure 1.
GFRP
CFRP
PP
36.4
2.3
35.5
2.2
33.2
1.9
Table 4.
2.2
6 mm
12 mm
19 mm
40.2
1
42.7
1.2
44.3
1.7
Volume ratio
(kg/m3)
3-Day Com.
Str. (Mpa)
7-Day Ten.
Str. (MPa)
1.2
33.5 33
1.4 1.6
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
1.9
1.8
Specimen design
Length of fibers
Table 5.
Type of fibers
Sleeve types.
1.8
30.2
1.6
480
Table 6.
Item
sleeve
Sleeve type
Rebar-strand
Rib type
Diam.
variation* (mm)
Overlap
Rebar Fy
(MPa)
Rebar Fu
(MPa)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
S1P1
S1P2
S1P3
S1P4
S1P5
S1P6
S1P7
S3P8
S3H9
S3H10
S3H11
S2S12
S2S13
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
III
III
III
III
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
20
25
28
32
s 12.7
s 12.7
Parallel1
Parallel
Parallel
Parallel
Parallel
Parallel
Parallel
Parallel
HRRA2
HRRA
HRRA
7x0.4 Strand3
7x0.4 Strand
41 63 41
41 63 41
41 63 41
41 63 41
41 63 41
41 63 41
41 63 41
53 78 53
53 78 53
53 78 53
53 78 53
35 53 35
3.5 53 35
250 mm
250 mm
250 mm
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
486.4
423.9
443.6
450.3
443.6
476.8
397.3
417.9
540.0
504.9
418.2
701.9
609.2
622.4
648.9
635.7
662.2
595.9
672.8
681.1
672.8
662.6
1511**
* Inside Diameter.
** Maximum Stress.
Test result.
Item
Sleeve
Ultimate
load (kN)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
S1P1
S1P2
S1P3
S1P4
S1P5
S1P6
S1P7
S3P8
S3H9
S3H10
S3H11
S2S12
S2S13
106
92
94
98
96
100
90
196
328
390
540
136
Sleeve
length
(mm)
Anch.
length
(mm)
ACI
Ld
(mm)
Grout
28-day
com. str.
(MPa)
Mix
water
(ml/kg)
Failure
description
Performance
680
680
680
680
680
680
680
680
680
680
680
750
750
460
460
460
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
375
375
328
328
328
328
328
328
328
4666
631
6777
7936
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
67
67
72.5
67
67
72.5
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
160
160
140
160
160
140
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Pull Out Rebar
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Failure in Rebar*
Pull Out Strand
137%
more than 185 %
more than 199 %
more than 233 %
2.3
3.1
Test setup
All sleeves were pulled by a 1000 kN capacity computerized universal machine with defined stroke rate.
The machine drew load-stroke graph for each test.
3.1.1 Type I
Setting: Three specimens with perpendicular ribs
rebar 14 were made and three of them had 250 mm
481
140
120
Load ( kN )
100
80
60
40
Sleeve Type II Strand (S12.7mm) with Low Strenght Grout
20
0
0
Figure 2.
20
40
60
80
Stroke ( mm )
100
120
140
160
200
180
160
Load ( kN )
140
Sleeve Type III with 20 Rebar
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
Figure 3.
50
100
150
200
Stroke ( mm )
250
300
350
482
160
140
120
Load-Stroke Curve for High Strenght
Load ( kN )
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
Figure 4.
10
12
Stroke ( mm )
14
16
18
20
22
3.1.2 Type II
Setting: Two specimens were made with particular
Post-Tensioning strands. The specified compressive
strength of grout for one was 67 MPa and for other
specimen was 72.5 MPa.
Force-deformation curve: The force-deformation
behavior of number 1 specimen (figure 2) consists of
two main parts. In the first part, load-stroke behavior
of the specimen was elastic until the load reached
approximately 130 kN. As the surface of the strand
was plain, the bond between strand and grout was
weak. Therefore, strand pull out from connection and
curve continued with cyclic process in the second
part. When the load level reached 140 kN, adhesive
bond between strand and grout was lost and when the
test was continued, the maximum load of each cycle
decreased smoothly. For the helix shaped strand, in
each cycle the pull out was 3 mm approximately and
the specimen got twisted. At a Constant minimum
load value (70 kN approximately) strand pulled out.
Grout did not fail but the adhesive bond between the
strand and grout failed. With the decreasing of
anchorage length of the strand, the maximum capacity of each cycle decreased.
3.1.3 Type III
Setting: Results of type I tests illustrated grout sleeve
connection have a great bearing ability. For 32 rebar
and getting minimum grout cover (10 mm), increase
of sleeve dimensions was necessary. Specimens were
made with 20, 25, 28 and 32 without overlap.
483
(2)
Grout
(3)
(4)
(5)
(1)
SUMMARY
484
CONCLUSIONS
The test results and the performance of splice demonstrate that this type connection satisfy type 2 mechanical splice of ACI 12.14.3.2, and it can be used in special
moment frames constructed using pre-cast concrete
according to ACI 21.6.b
REFERENCES
ACI 2006. Building Codes requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary (318R-02).
Farmington Hills, MI, USA: American Concrete
Institute.
ACI 2002. Splice and development length of high relative
rib Area reinforcing bars in tension (408.3-01) and commentary (408.3R-01). Farmington Hills, MI, USA:
American Concrete Institute.
ACI 2002, State-of-the-Art Report: Bond under Cyclic Loads
(408.3-01) and Commentary (408.3R-01). Farmington
Hills, MI, USA: American Concrete Institute.
Raynor, D. J., Lehman, D. E., & Staton, J. F. 2002. Bond-slip
response of reinforcing bars grouted in ducts. ACI
Structural Journal, Technical Paper, Sept.Oct. 2002.
Zheng, L. X. 1996. Grouted precast concrete column connection under reversed cyclic bending and compression.
ACI Structural Journal, Technical Paper, MayJune 1996.
Rodriguez, M. D., Lotxe, D., Zhang, Y. G., Klingner, R. E., &
Graves, H. L. 2001. Dynamic behavior of tensile anchorage
to concrete. ACI Structural Journal, Technical Paper,
JulyAugust 2001.
Zhao, X. L., Grundy, P., & Lee, Y. T. 2002. Grout sleeve connection under large deformation cyclic loading,
Proceeding of 2002 ISOPE Conference, Volume IV,
Kitakyushu, Japan, May.
485
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: One of the most important aspects of sustainable development in the field of civil engineering is
strategic planning and management of structures. Understanding various damaging effects of aggressive environment on structures and vice-versa plays an essential role in assuring sustainable construction. The paper discusses
issues regarding sustainable design and construction of bridges, using in-service performance of large concrete
Sibenik,
Pag and Krk Bridges, resulting in huge, complex and expensive repair works. Lessons learned from their
performance in service were adopted in the design of more recent Maslenica and Skradin Bridges.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability issues
Sustainable bridges
Figure 1. Krk Bridge in Croatia the worlds largest reinforced concrete arch bridge dominates its surroundings and has
enormous environmental, social and cultural impact.
487
Figure 2.
2
2.1
488
arches are usually erected using the cantilever procedure thus avoiding the need for scaffolding, expensive
auxiliary equipment is required during the construction
process, because of the significant differences in internal
forces during the construction stages and at the final
stage, once the arch is completed.
In todays technology, reinforced concrete arches are
generally considered well suited for spans ranging
from 200 to 400 m, which coincides with span range of
steel girder or truss bridges and cable-stayed bridges.
Arch bridges have considerable advantage because
of their inherently interesting form, strong visual appeal
and attractiveness, reducing the adverse environmental
and social impact imposed by huge man-made structures. But, for an arch span to be competitive economically over other bridge types, the right site with good soil
to provide adequate foundation condition is needed.
Such surroundings are an important structural
requirement to resist the thrust at the arch springing,
but are also providing for aesthetically exceptionally
successful structures. The most preferable sites for an
arch structure are river canyons or valleys with high
bluffs. When the arch is placed below the deck, such
topographic features provide visual and structural
resistance to both horizontal and vertical reactions at
the springing points.
Such favourable topographic conditions can be
easily found along the Croatian Adriatic coast.
Consequently, six large span reinforced concrete
arches were constructed over the years to provide
important road crossings.
2.2
489
Figure 5.
in 1997.
Figure 6.
in 2005.
Figure 7. Superstructure supports most affected structural elements of the Sibenik Bridge.
490
Figure 9.
Maslenica Bridge introduced significant improvements with respect to considering long-term performance of the structure already at planning stage. Design
took into account highly aggressive environmental
effects. High quality concrete was used with watercement ratio less than 0.4. Portland cement with 20%
slag addition was utilized. Structural members and
concrete cover were significantly increased in size
compared to the first generation of Adriatic arch
bridges to achieve a robust and durable structure. This
led to the increased initial cost, but was justified with
lower probability of costly and complex repairs in the
future, which were experienced on the older bridges.
Skradin Bridge is a rarely used combination of
reinforced concrete arch and superstructure composed of steel and concrete.
Instead of a conventional prestressed concrete superstructure made of precast girders and a cast in place
slab, it consists of steel girders and reinforced concrete
deck-plate. This enabled omitting the cap beams on
columns and reducing the size of the arch cross-section,
resulting in 35% less mass of the Skradin Bridge when
compared to the Maslenica Bridge. Smart combination
of two materials reduced the resources consumption.
The short overview of older Adriatic arch bridges
performance in service clearly indicates the importance
of efficient and effective management as a primary
response to sustainability challenge. Outstanding management efforts are essential to ensure preservation of
such large and significant bridges and their environment. Croatia is currently placing large efforts to
develop a reliable and efficient motorway asset management system, an important part of which is bridge
management system. In the course of this work it was
established that major structures should be hand-picked
from the entire bridge stock and treated separately
because these are very complex structural systems that
have huge environmental, social and cultural impact.
The intention is to develop bridge-specific maintenance
and management strategy and programme, as well as
employ dedicated bridge engineers for each of the
bridges. The programme would be tailored to individual
structural aspects and present structural condition.
Additionally, effective management of bridges for sustainability should be adaptive and learn from success or
failures of past actions. Here, monitoring plays a crucial
role as it provides information on condition of a system
to assess whether the structures are managed in a sustainable fashion.
Both Maslenica and Skradin Bridges are equipped
with a range of sensors for long-term monitoring of
both structural performance and durability related performance in order to facilitate the future maintenance
activities by triggering timely adjustments and interventions. The monitoring system also records indicators of
environmental conditions. Unfortunately, Maslenica
Bridge monitoring project was stopped due to lack of
491
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CEN 2002. EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design.
Brussels: European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
Maydl, P. 2004. Sustainable Engineering: State-of-the-Art
and Prospects. Structural Engineering International 3:
176180.
Ochsendorf, J. 2004. Sustainable Structural Design: Lessons
from History. Structural Engineering International 3:
192194.
Radic, J., Zderic, Z. & Puz, G. 2004. Construction methods
for reinforced concrete arch bridges, In B. Katalinic (ed),
DAAAM International Scientific Book 2004: 519536.
Vienna, Austria: DAAAM Int.
Radic, J., Bleiziffer, J. & Tkalcic, D. 2006. Salt and Wind
Attack on Large Adriatic Bridges. In C. Majorana,
V. Salomoni & T.S. Lok (eds.), Protection of Structures
against Hazards. Proc. intern. conf., Venice, 2829
September 2006. Singapore: CI-Premier PTE Ltd.
Troyano, L.F. 2003. Bridge Engineering A Global
Perspective. London, UK: Thomas Telford.
UN 1987. Report of the World Commission on Environment
and Development. http://www. un. org/documents/ga/
res/42/ares42-187.htm United Nations (UN) General
Assembly (Oct. 30, 2006).
Yates, A. 2001. Quantifying the business benefits of sustainable buildings. Project report number 203995: Building
Research Establishment (BRE).
492
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the scientific-technical bases for the application of the new proposed procedure by Thermal Gravimetric Macro Analysis (TGMA) monitored by DTA for determining the quantity of the
hydrated cement in hardened concretes and mortars. The loss on ignition as determined by Thermal Analysis
(TG) within the temperature range of 102C to 410C under the given conditions, includes the water of constitution of the phases existing in the concrete: calcium silicate phases and aluminate, ferrite, sulphate phases with
exception of the portlandite. This Loss On Ignition (L.O.I.) is proportional to the amount of cement in the concrete for a determined employed cement. When these values are compared with those obtained from the pure
pastes of the cement used in the concrete under the given conditions, the cement content in the concrete can be
determined. The proposed method allows the direct application to whole samples on macro and semi-micro
scales. This method is simple, quick with multi-application that enables representative results to be obtained
from varied multiple application zones in structural elements. In combination with ASTM C 642 method for
determine physical parameters, it allows the water-cement ratio to be determined operationally. Certain possible
interferences that could be produced due to the presence of the any types of the aggregates are determined and
enable the procedure application limit to be established. In combination with the Soluble Fractions Analysis
method by the same author, it becomes possible apply the method to the concrete containing active additions,
base materials for the necessary sustainability. The results of the same homogenised samples are compared with
the classic method based on the determination of the modified soluble silica by the same author. The modification consisted of the correction of significant errors that continue to exist in current methods with which the
standard deviation is reduced by a factor of three and providing an operationally valid procedure. The results show
that the TGMA procedure hydrated cement content to be obtained with equivalent precision and operational
time savings and also permits multiple results to be obtained at the same time. Finally, its application is suggested
for the tracking of the quality of onsite-poured concrete in order to reveal the distribution of water-cement ratio
(W/C) variations in determined structural elements and for the tracking of cement hydration in onsite-poured
concrete in function of curing and its effectiveness.
INTRODUCTION
493
temperature range of 102C to 410C for sample calcination, the main hcp phases are the CSH, the CAH
phases and their variety of AFm phases and the various mono-sulfo-aluminates and tri-sulfo-aluminates.
The carbo-aluminates and Portlandite are released at
significantly higher temperatures. For this reason, the
carbonation of the concrete does not directly affect
the results.
Because of all these, we can see that the losses on
ignition as determined by TG Thermal Analysis offer
possibilities for determining the hydrated cement contents in mortars and concretes. We have not discovered
any background in the literature for this specific application, therefore, a proposal of a new method for
determining the amount of cement in hardened concretes by this technical is given for first time.
The properties of this new procedure make it possible to, not only establish the average quality of a
mass of concrete, or the quality of a particular part of
the mass of the concrete that may be in question [3],
but also to obtain better knowledge of the from the
tracking of the reaction with the active additions.
This point is significant in obtaining monitoring
information on concrete with type II cements, with
active additions and/or active additions introduced in
the dosing of general use concrete in the role of sustainable construction.
2
The determination of the amount of cement in hardened concrete is carried out using the classic gravimetric method after digesting the sample with
hydrochloric acid, filtration of the insoluble residue
and the determination of the soluble silica in the filtrate. The procedures are described in BS [BS,1988]
and ASTM [ASTM, 2001], and specially in a document from the Concrete Society on the Analysis of
Hardened Concrete, [CONCRETE SOCIETY,1990].
These procedures are the best available [Gom,
2005], but the standard deviation in the gravimetric
determination of the silica is significantly large and
the results provide too high a variation to offer efficient operation so that it is not currently used regularly unless in order to provide complementary data.
This state of the circumstances was not emphasised until the papers of Professor Neville in the last
few years [Neville, 1999, Neville, 2000].
The errors discovered in the classic gravimetric
method for determining silica in silicates in the authors
papers [Gom,1975,& Gom,1976] on the determination of silica in silicates, and the application on soluble silica [Gom,2005, & Gom 2006], still unknown
494
The chosen temperature interval for the determination of the water of constitution is from 102C to
410C. The temperature interval above 410C up to
550C will allow the determination of amount of
portlandite and finally the loss from 550C to 950C
is determined in order to obtain the CO2 content, from
of aggregates and carbonation effect.
Within the temperature interval from 102C to
410C, the corresponding losses on ignition at suitable
intermediate temperatures can also be determined in
order to have more information when desired. The
accumulative sum of these losses constitutes the usual
TG curve. If the percentages, referred to dry sample
weight at 102C for the losses on ignition corresponding to each temperature are determined individually
and represented on a graph in function of the temperature, a diagram is obtained that permits the establishment of the dehydration peak intensities in function
of a given temperature interval, together with the
existing dominant phase in this interval, in the hydrated
concrete or mortar. This manual method of obtaining
the DTG curve enables multiple simultaneous determinations to be carried out, unlike an automatic single-sample unit, which also requires cooling before
continuing. This circumstance makes it possible to
work with many samples simultaneously and to obtain
information distributed over extensive areas of the
concrete, together with a more exact mean value of the
studied structural element, providing the procedure
with special operational interest.
The determination of the complete physical parameters in accordance with ASTM designation C-642,
[ASTM-C-642, 2001], both for micro-cubes and the
hardened concrete samples has also been performed
to establish the hygroscopic water content and to
express the composition in kg/m3. The weighing accuracy is 0.02 g for a mass from 100 to 400 g on a macro
scale, and 0.001 g for 15 g masses on a micro scale. It
has to be taken into account that the total amount of
concrete mass in the oven as well as the muffle oven
are related to their calorific powers in order to obtain
results that are correct in pre-established times and
sufficient for obtaining constant weight.
5 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCEDURE
5.1
Sampling
495
5.2
Calcination
5.3
INTERFERENCES
496
8.1
CALCULATION
where:
a the dry weight of concrete at 102 C
b the weight of concrete calcined at 410C
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS
Cement analysis, reference standard and
micro-cube on a semi-micro scale
Clinker
TiO2
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
L.O.I.
Insoluble
Residue
Free Lime
Bogue
Compounds
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
0.13
23.5
4.1
5.1
63.0
0.72
0.80
0.11
0.85
1.60
0.19
21.4
5.9
6.0
63.2
2.1
0.28
0.40
0.10
0.38
0.16
23.4
5.2
0.35
67.3
1.76
0.47
0.15
0.68
0.50
0.80
0.45
0.74
0.52
0.90
0.85
Values in percentages.
497
43.0
34.9
2.2
15.5
46.3
26.4
5.5
18.3
62.1
20.2
12.9
1.1
Table 2.
Clinker A
7.2
7.4
7.1
6.3
6.4
6.2
Xi
7.2
0.12
6.3
Clinker B
7.9
8.0
8.1
5.6
5.4
5.6
0.08
8.0
0.08
5.5
Clinker C (White)
8.3
8.2
8.2
7.4
7.4
7.3
C.V.
0.08
8.2
0.05
7.4
0.05
410550C
550950C
5.6
5.2
5.1
2.2
2.8
2.7
3.9
3.8
3.9
2.4
2.3
2.4
5.2
5.2
5.3
2.8
2.8
2.7
4.1
4.1
4.0
2.4
2.5
2.5
5.7
5.8
5.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
5.3
5.3
5.2
2.8
2.8
2.7
1.7%
1.3%
1.0%
1.5%
0.6%
0.7%
498
Table 3.
Aggregate of Concrete A
Aggregates of Concrete B
Dolomitic
Aggregate
Mycritic
Limestone
Quartz
Aggregate
Granitic
Aggregate
Table 5.
MgO%
[102410C]%
Concrete B
1.5
0.2
0.40
0.22
No of
sample
410550 %
Cement %
kg/m3
9.5
1.4
2.0
0.45
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1.04
0.90
0.98
0.94
1.00
1.02
0.96
0.94
1.02
11.7
9.9
10.9
10.4
11.2
11.5
10.7
10.4
11.5
252
212
235
224
241
247
230
224
247
Xi
C.V.%
0.98
0.05
5.10
10.9
0.58
5.32
234
12.5
5.34
Values in percentage.
Table 4.
Concrete A
No of
sample
410550 %
Cement %
kg/m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Xi
C.V.%
1.35
1.40
1.30
1.35
1.37
1.37
1.39
1.35
1.37
1.36
0.03
1.98
13.6
14.3
12.0
13.6
13.9
13.9
14.2
13.6
13.9
13.7
0.64
4.67
296
312
261
296
303
303
310
296
303
298
14.1
4.70
10
11
12
Xi
% Water
absorption
Bulk
density
g/cm3
Apparent
density
g/cm3
Porosity %
in volume
8.2
8.3
8.6
8.4
2.18
2.19
2.18
2.18
2.69
2.68
2.68
2.68
17.9
18.3
18.6
18.3
10
11
12
Xi
% Water
absorption
Bulk
density
g/cm3
Apparent
density
g/cm3
Porosity %
in volume
8.4
7.0
9.0
8.1
2.15
2.17
2.12
2.15
2.63
2.62
2.62
2.62
18.3
17.2
18.2
18.2
Their respective physical parameters were determined for the remaining three parts of each, in accordance with ASTM, [ASTM C-642, 2001] in the
described manner, as the densities of the micro-cubes
modified by boiling in vacuum at a maximum temperature of 35C, to avoid phases transformations.
The results are given in the Table 4 and 5.
One series of group A, together with one series of
group B were fully ground down to a fineness of just
below 63 microns. The amount of cement in the
homogenised sample was determined using the
authors method [Gom, 2005 & Gom, 2006].for the
determination of quantity of cement from the soluble
silica method.
The results are shown in table 6.
499
Table 6.
Xi
C.V.%
xi cement content kg/m3
maximum
minimum
Concrete B
Goms method
Goms method
0.11
19.0
2.60
2.44
2.45
2.36
2.55
2.63
2.54
2.51
2.53
2.51
0.08
3.18
278
292
261
0,22
19.5
2.81
2.89
2.92
2.87
2.83
2.78
2.79
2.81
2.82
2.84
0.04
1.55
302
312
296
0,18
19.3
2.21
1.90
1.94
1.98
2.03
2.14
1.85
2.17
2.10
2.03
0.12
5.91
212
233
192
0,25
19.5
2.16
2.18
2.21
2.27
2.29
2.24
2.25
2.20
2.24
2.23
0.04
1.79
227
238
218
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed procedure has good repeatability accuracy on both tests scales. It is an operational procedure because of its simplicity and speed.
500
REFERENCES
ASTM., Standard Test Method for Portland Cement Content
of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. Designation:
C 108492. 2002.
ASTM, Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of
Hydraulic Cement. Designation C-114, 2001.
ASTM, Designation C 642, Standard Test Method for
Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened
Concrete. 2001.
BS., 1881; Part 124: 1988 British Standard Testing Concrete
Method Analysis of Hardened Concrete, Concrete Society.
Analysis of Hardened Concrete. A guide to test Procedures
and Interpretation of Results. Concrete Society Technical
Report, Vol. 32, Boston 1990.
CEN 1962, Test methods for cements. Part 2. Chemical
Analysis of cement, 1996.
FUZZY control, Fuji electric Co.Ltd Model PXW.
Gom, F., Sobre la determinacy gravimtrica de la slice, Tesi
Doctoral, 1975, Universitat de Barcelona, Departament
de Qumica Analtica. (Lectura, 04-12-1975), Seminari de
Cincies Qumiques.
Gom, F., Nuevo mtodo gravimtrico para la determinacin
de slice en Materiales silceos. Cemento-Hormign,
1976, Vol. 505, pp. 40.
Gom, F., New Method for Analysis of Cements with
Secondary Components. I.E.T.C.C. Materiales de
Construccin, 1986, no 201, Vol. 36. pp. 524, Madrid.
Gom, F., & Vicente. M. Chemical Analysis of Hardened
Concrete and Mortars with Active Additions: A New
Procedure for its Identification.UtilizingReady-mixed
Concrete. Ed. Dhir, R.K. and Limbachiya, M.C.
501
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
A. Augonis
Department of Building Materials, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania
ABSTRACT: In structural concrete elements opening up of structural and non-structural cracks can lead to irreversible damage of the structure. A more precise prediction of the process of fracture would help us to avoid this
occurring and the terrible consequences of an accident arising from it. Methods of assessing concrete fracture are
not sufficient in order to determine the mechanical behaviour of concrete in case defects appear in it. The available
analytical methods not always allow us to calculate all parameters of fracture while the experimental methods are
expensive and sometimes their application is infeasible. In the work, along with analytical and experimental methods, digital methods are suggested. Here it was aimed at calculating the critical crack opening and fracture energy
of concrete prisms being bent. In accordance with three-point bending scheme concrete specimens with cut cracks
inside were bent. Concrete specimens have been formed from different mix. Bending force was added at deformation speed of 0.4 mm/min. At the same times the changing deflection of concrete specimen and lower opening
of the crack were recorded. Stress intensity factor KI was calculated by the ANSYS computer program because the
traditional analytical equation was found to be inappropriate due to the distance between the supports (250 mm)
and measurements (100 100 400 mm). With the aid of the stress intensity factor KI derived by the computer
program and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) the determined experimentally critical crack opening
were calculated. Also calculation of fracture energy was made.
INTRODUCTION
its aggregates and pay greater attention on small aggregates fractions. This would enable not only segregation
and bleeding to be avoided but also cement quantity to
be decreased for obtaining the specified strength of
concrete. For this one of the ways is the use of fly ash
in concrete composition. The use of fly ash depends on
its chemical and granulometrical content and on the
way of its collection. Chemical activity of fly ash is one
of the most important properties determining the field
of its use. In comparison to other active mineral aggregates and SiO2 silica fume, fly ash of heat power plants
is more chemically active than rotten stone, geize or
diatomite and by far cheaper than SiO2 silica fume.
Some minerals containing fly ash in concrete (for
example amorphous SiO2, metakaolin, CaO and MgO)
can make chemical reactions with cement hydration
products and form stable hydro silicate compounds.
Therefore fly ash is to be attributed to active microfillers group because its active part turns into hydro silicate compounds while the other part that does not
react with the binding agent remains as on inert microfiller [Rudzionis et al. 2005].
The stress intensity factors (KIC, KIIC, KIIIC) depend
upon the mode type (when the crack is opened by
503
Table 1.
The components
of concrete mix,
kg/m3
Portland cement
Gravel 4/8 mm
Gravel 8/16 mm
Sands 0/4 mm
Water
Superplasticizer
Fly ash
Fibres
FRC
F0
F10
F20
450
372
558
860
190
4.52
446
369
553
853
188
4.48
20
450
372
558
860
170
4.52
405
372
558
860
170
4.52
45
360
372
558
860
170
4.52
90
Denotation
Deflection,
m
CMODC,
m
Time till
peak, s
C
FRC
F0
F10
F20
109
180
114
103
100
147
138
127
105
114
27
42
30
28
27
FRACTURE PARAMETERS
504
Load, kN
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Mechanical properties
Deflection
CMOD
500
1000
1500
Strain, m
Tensile
strength*,
ft (MPa)
Modulus
of
elasticity,
E (GPa)
C
FRC
F0
F10
F20
44.1
41.8
53.6
49.1
51.2
2.19
2.91
2.57
2.17
2.20
30.935
33.030
32.282
31.385
35.079
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Load, kN
Denotation
Compressive
strength, fc
(MPa)
Table 4.
Deflection
CMOD
Fracture properties
Denotation
Strain, m
C
FRC
F0
Load, kN
10
8
F10
F-0%
F-10%
F-20%
6
4
F20
2
200
400
600
Fracture
toughness,
KIC
(MPa m1/2)
Fracture
energies,
GC and GF
(N/m)
0.524
(0.533)*
0.697
(0.710)*
0.615
(0.625)*
0.521
(0.530)*
0.527
(0.537)*
8.9
(137)
14.7
(6500)**
11.7
(146)
8.6
(136)
7.9
(124)
Characteristic
length, lch
(mm)
884
25353
714
906
899
0
0
800
Strain, m
modes), CTODC, which is a constant value and fracture energies GFand GC. However, in the literature
there are more parameters indicating fracture, such as
fracture process zone (FPZ) and effective fracture
process zone length cf [Gettu et al. 1998, Zhang & Wu
1999]. The parameters of fracture calculated in this
work are presented in Table 4.
4.1
505
(3)
(10)
(7)
(8)
(11)
4.3
506
(12)
4.4
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Augonis, A. & Stuopys, A. 2005. The fracture attributes of
fibre reinforced beams. Progressive Building. Data of
Conference Notice, Kaunas, Lithuania: Technology
155163. (in Lithuanian).
Bazant, Z. & Becq-Giraudon, E. 2002. Statistical prediction
of fracture parameters of concrete and implications for
choice of testing standard. Cement and Concrete
Research 32: 529556.
507
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In a free-market society, business decisions are driven by economic incentives, i.e. mostly
profit, subject to government regulations and interventions. Decisions about the use of recycled materials in
construction are no exception. In fact, based on purely economic factors, virgin materials are usually preferable
for various reasons. But the playing field is often skewed, because the US economy does not value sustainability issues such as disposal costs and life cycle assessment as it should. This becomes obvious when comparing
the situation in the United States with that of Japan and many European countries with greatly different degrees
of governmental interventions.
This paper addresses some of the economic drivers that influence the extent to which recycled materials are
utilized in the American construction industry. It examines the major differences between the United States and
other developed countries, which have a number of root causes. Recommendations are made regarding actions
necessary for the United States to catch up with countries such as Germany, The Netherlands or Japan.
INTRODUCTION
ECONOMICS 101
The economics of recycling cannot be discussed without first stating a few elementary facts. Above all, in a
free-market economy the price of a service or commodity is determined by supply and demand. But even in
such a free-market economy, government can and regularly does intervene with incentives (for example, in the
form of tax write-offs) and disincentives, such as fees,
penalties, or outright prohibitions, if it thinks this is in
the best interest of the public. In general, government,
with its legislative power, defines the boundary conditions for both supply and demand to develop. If these
boundary conditions remain constant, changes in supply and demand for certain goods and services take
place at their natural and usually slow pace, unless
important inventions or innovations with wide ranging
consequences accelerate that pace. In an open society
509
When analyzing the economics of recycling in the concrete industry, the various ingredients of concrete need
to be analyzed separately with regard to their value,
as expressed by their market price, as well as the profit
margin. Discounting for now the various chemical
admixtures, cement is by far the most expensive ingredient, at about $ 110 per ton in the New York area. The
aggregate retails for about $ 20 per cubic yard, but that
depends to a large extent on the cost of transportation.
This means, cement may cost 10 times as much as
aggregate. Therefore any efforts to use supplementary
cementitious materials that are less costly than
Portland cement are likely to realize economic benefits, regardless of any other advantages, such as
improved performance or environmental benefits. This
explains why no governmental intervention was
required for the industry to recognize the advantages of
using fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as
partial replacement of Portland cement.
The economic situation is quite different for aggregate, because this is so much less expensive than
cement. Based on current economics considerations
alone, it will be difficult to justify the substitution of a
recycled aggregate for virgin material, whether natural
gravel or crushed stone. Let us consider several materials that might serve as substitute for natural aggregate.
3.1
510
of suitable virgin limestone aggregate. These are sufficient reasons for the Japanese concrete industry to rely
increasingly on recycled concrete aggregate.
The economic feasibility of recycled concrete
aggregate may be described in simplified form by
defining the cost of virgin aggregate, Cva, and of recycled concrete aggregate, Cra, as follows:
(1)
(2)
where:
Cpv cost of processing virgin aggregate (e.g.
crushing and grading),
Ctv cost of transportation of virgin aggregate,
Cd cost of disposal of demolished concrete (if
there is such),
Cpr cost of processing recycled concrete aggregate (sorting, cleaning, crushing, grading),
Ctr cost of transportation of recycled concrete
aggregate, and
Csd a strength or quality deficit that needs to be
quantified, since it is known that the performance of
concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate is
generally inferior to that of concrete made with virgin
aggregate.
Purely economic factors, i.e., discounting any additional factors such as local, State, or Federal rules or
regulations, thus will make the use of recycled concrete
aggregate a feasible proposition if and only if Cra Cva.
And even in this case, other factors such as old habits
or business relationships with long-time suppliers may
outweigh a slight economic advantage, thus preventing
a concrete producer from switching supplies.
The cost of any bulk material in general and aggregate in particular depends to a large extent on the cost
of transportation, which is basically proportional to the
distance to the nearest source of suitable aggregate.
Thus it is obvious that the distances to the sources of
virgin and recycled concrete aggregate alone may be
decisive in determining the economic feasibility of
using recycled concrete aggregate.
3.2
Specialty aggregates
The economics can change considerably when considering specialty aggregates, which endow the concrete
with properties that the regular aggregate does not. The
most important example is lightweight aggregate,
which is popular for either the reduction of dead weight
or improved thermal properties or both. The improved
performance has a certain economic value for which the
customer is willing to pay a premium. For example, in
the New York City area, lightweight aggregate may cost
three times as much as regular aggregate.
Aggregates for special architectural concrete applications are governed by their own rules of economics. For
example, terrazzo is a very popular material for floors in
buildings, and producers can pay a premium for specialty aggregates such as marble ships imported from
Italy, because they can pass on these cost premiums to
the owners for the special architectural effects they produce. The cost of terrazzo concrete is a multiple of that
of regular concrete largely a result of the increased labor
cost involved), which allows the producer to pay a considerable premium for the marble chips.
This last example points the way in which the use
of recycled materials may make economic sense. If it
is possible to identify certain concrete properties
made possible with the use of such recycled materials
no further economic incentives will be necessary to
promote their use. For example, preliminary studies
at Columbia University have indicated that material
dredged from the Port of New York and New Jersey
(which is typically highly contaminated), after undergoing a special treatment process, can serve as a coating for wall panels with superior fire retarding and
smoke suppressing properties. Other coatings with
similar performance characteristics may cost an order
of magnitude more than the dredged material, which
otherwise needs to be deposed of at great cost. This
example illustrates that targeted research may lead to
breakthroughs that do not require government intervention to level the playing field.
4
4.1
511
2. Glass has excellent hardness and abrasion resistance, which makes it an ideal aggregate for floor
tiles and paving stones.
3. Glass is a very durable material and resistant to
many chemicals.
4. Maybe most important is the esthetic potential of
colored glass and the various effects produced by
light reflection and refraction. If used in combination with white cement and color pigments, it
gives architects and other design professional an
important new tool with basically unlimited combinations of color-coordinated cement matrix and
glass particles.
5. It has also been shown that very finely ground
glass powder has pozzolanic properties. This
means that part of the Portland cement may be
replaced by glass powder.
6. Glass powder has been shown to be a very good
filler material.
4.2
Economic aspects
The use of post-consumer glass as aggregate for concrete products is associated with a number of cost items.
The largest cost factor in large metropolitan areas such
as New York City is the collection. New York City pays
recyclers well over $100 per ton to collect and dispose
of the glass, which residents place at the curbside, commingled with metals and plastic containers. The glass
needs to be separated from the other materials before it
can be cleaned and crushed. Sorting the glass by color
increases its market value. For example, the glass industry will take back only clear glass (flint) for remelting.
Automatic equipment is available to sort glass particles
by color. Cleaning and crushing operations are also performed automatically. Compared with the cost of collection, these other costs of recycling glass for use as an
aggregate for concrete are often minor, while the cost of
transportation, as stated earlier, is very much a function
of distance between the point of collection and the concrete producer.
In spite of the various technical advantages of glass
aggregate listed above, practical applications are subject
to important economic constraints. To evaluate these, we
have to categorize such applications as either commodity products or value-added products. Commodity products, such as concrete masonry units or paving stones,
are characterized by large volumes, low values and low
profit margins, and the use of glass as aggregate is not
very likely to affect the market value of the end product.
For that reason, a concrete producer will not use recycled glass aggregate if he has to pay more for it than for
the aggregate it replaces, that is, very inexpensive sand
and gravel or crushed stone. Although such commodity
products have the potential of absorbing large amounts
of waste glass (one single paving stone manufacturer
in the New York area could single-handedly use all
waste glass collected in New York City), the economic outlook is not very promising. To avoid costly
ASR-suppressing admixtures such as metakaolin, one
might grind the glass fine enough to pass mesh size
#50. But in this case it is be impossible to see the glass,
so that the potential of added value due to the esthetic
aspects of colored glass aggregate would be lost.
Value-added products, such as terrazzo tiles and
table top counters, are characterized by low volumes
but high profit margins. In this case, the glass would
replace much more expensive specialty aggregates. To
make full use of the esthetic benefits, larger size glass
particles are needed, which call for ASR-suppressing
additives. But the market value of the end product is
considerably higher than products using regular aggregate, so that the added costs are immaterial. It is known
that customers are willing to pay substantial premiums
for high-quality products, such as natural stone. A large
slab of Italian marble for a conference table may retail
for hundreds if not thousands of dollars. A similar table
top counter made of glass concrete may not fetch the
same kind of price, but still a price high enough so that
the material costs become all but irrelevant. An added
advantage is the fact that such a slab may not only be
engineered to given specifications, it can also be reinforced with short and randomly oriented fibers (for
example, recycled carpet fibers) to improve the materials toughness and energy dissipation potential. It also
can be reinforced with textile fabrics a new and very
promising technology. Such fabrics of fiber meshes
can even be prestressed to further enhance the mechanical performance of the products.
Other economic factors are even less quantifiable,
such as the novelty aspect and the label of environmental friendliness. For example, the LEED rating
system of the U.S. Green Building Council is gaining
increasing popularity among builders and developers,
who recognize the value, both tangible and intangible,
of a LEED rating. It is said that apartments in the
Solaire, the first green high-rise residential building
in the United States, fetch higher rents than comparable units in conventional high-rise buildings, simply
because of the cachet associated with living in a green
building. The LEED rating is based on credit points for
a variety of environmentally friendly attributes such as
energy-saving measures and use of recycled materials.
5
CONCLUSIONS
512
513
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: During construction of the Milwaukee School of Engineerings (MSOE) Kern Center, a fivestory, 210,000 square-foot state-of-the-art athletic, health and wellness facility, 785 tons or an estimated 7,500
cubic yards, of waste materials were sent to a landfill rather than recycled, because of space constraints at the
site. The purpose of this National Science Foundation (NSF) funded Research Experience for Undergraduates
(REU) project was to determine the potential for cost savings and landfill diversion if the construction management company and MSOE had been able to recycle rather than landfill these materials. Actual trash invoices
were used for quantities of construction waste. Average Wisconsin construction waste composition data from
WasteCap Wisconsin, Inc., an environmental organization which has managed construction waste on many
local construction projects, was used to estimate the composition of Kern Center waste materials. The composition assumed for this project was wood 28%, concrete/masonry 14%, drywall 13%, cardboard 8%, metal 8%,
trash 28% and 4% reused. Assuming that it would have been possible to recycle 75% of the construction waste,
it is estimated that between $19,400 and $25,800 could have been saved and over 590 tons or 5,800 cubic yards
of waste materials diverted from local Wisconsin landfills. Based on this analysis, if issues with site constraints
could have been resolved, we concluded that it would have been cost-effective to recycle construction waste
during this project.
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND ON CONSTRUCTION
WASTE
Wood
515
Table 1.
Trash 8%
Cardboard 13%
Concrete & Masonry 8%
Drywall 20%
Metal 13%
Wood 38%
Reuse 0%
Figure 1.
Material
Cardboard
Cardboard collected onsite is most often sorted, bundled and sold in bulk to be made into new products
such as paper, cardboard, paper office supplies and
packaging materials. The average market value per
ton of cardboard during the time of construction was
$73.83 [WDNR].
2.4
Metal
Concrete/masonry
Drywall
Wood
Ferrous Metal
Trash
Cardboard
Commingle
Trash 25%
Cardboard 8%
Concrete & Masonry 14%
Drywall 13%
Metal 8%
Wood 28%
Reuse 4%
2.2
Reuse
2.0
4.08
6.25
8.27
8.78
47.62
35.0
METHODOLOGY
516
the cost; actual trash invoices were used for these figures. Once the total weight and volume of waste was
calculated, the waste composition was determined
using EPA and WasteCap Wisconsin construction
waste percentages shown in Figures 1 and 2.
To determine the cost of each scenario, the number
of loads of each material was calculated. The most
frequently used roll off container size for these materials is 30 cubic yards; to calculate the number of
loads of each material, the total volume of each material was divided by 30. After the number of loads of
each material was calculated, it was multiplied by the
hauling and dumping costs of a 30 cubic yard
container for that specific material.
Metal and trash include separate hauling and
dumping costs. For other materials it is a flat rate per
load regardless of tonnage.
The cost of each load is calculated using a local
hauler cost of $80 per load and a landfill tipping fee
of $28 per ton [Kunde]. The equation for cost calculation is below.
(1)
where hc cost of hauling one load; l number of
loads; dc cost of dumping one ton; t total tons of
material; and C total cost.
To determine the theoretical cost savings if MSOE
had recycled, the calculated cost of recycling is subtracted from the cost of sending everything to the
landfill.
ASSUMPTIONS
During the building of the Kern Center all construction waste generated was hauled as trash to local landfills. The analysis using EPA numbers is based on a
92% recycling rate, this is not an easily attainable recycling rate to achieve. WasteCap Wisconsins percentages are based on their experience with Milwaukee area
construction. WasteCap numbers are based on a 75%
recycling rate, a more realistic recycling goal [Kunde].
To calculate the total weight and volume of waste
taken from the site, actual trash invoices were used.
However, not all invoices gave actual tonnages, each
dumpster had a maximum tonnage and only the weight
of those loads which went over the maximum tonnage
was documented. Because more than half of the loads
were overweight, an estimate of half a ton less than
the maximum roll off weight was used for those tonnages not listed on the invoices.
All trash and recycling costs used in this analysis
are based on the rates of a local waste and recycling
hauler; this was not the actual hauler used during
construction.
Table 2.
Material
Cost per 30
cubic yards
US dollars
Concrete/Masonry
Drywall
Wood
Ferrous Metal
Trash
Cardboard
75.00
100.00
150.00
100.00
80.00
75.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
98.68
28.00
0.0
Volume
Material
tons
cubic yards
Trash
Cardboard
Concrete/masonry
Drywall
Metal
Wood
Reuse
TOTAL
62.95
102.30
62.95
157.38
102.30
299.02
0
786.9
552.72
4871.38
125.9
642.11
846
1868.89
0
8907
517
Volume
Material
tons
cubic yards
Trash
Cardboard
Concrete/masonry
Drywall
Metal
Wood
Reuse
TOTAL
196.73
62.95
110.17
102.30
62.95
220.33
31.48
786.9
1727.25
2997.77
220.33
417.37
520.61
1377.08
276.36
7536.77
Cost to
recycle
Total
savings
US dollars
US dollars
US dollars
Trash
3,236.57
Cardboard
15,854.67
Concrete/masonry 2,098.40
Drywall
6,118.93
Metal
5,120.31
Wood
13,356.32
Reuse
0.00
TOTAL
45,785.20
3,236.57
12,178.46
314.76
2,140.37
7,274.68
9,344.44
0.00
19,939.91
0.0
3,676.21
1,783.64
3,978.56
12,394.99
4,011,88
0.00
25,845.29
Material
Cost to
recycle
Total
savings
Material
US dollars
US dollars
US dollars
Trash
Cardboard
Concrete/masonry
Drywall
Metal
Wood
Reuse
10,114.29
9,756.72
3,672.20
3,977.31
3,150.96
9,841.50
881.33
10,114.29
7,494.44
550.83
1,391.24
4,476.73
6,885.38
0.00
0.0
2,262.28
3,121.37
2,586.07
7,627.69
2,956.12
881.33
TOTAL
41,394.30
21,959.44
19,434.86
518
519
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D.C. Goss
American Coal Ash Association, Aurora, CO, USA
ABSTRACT: The marketability of a specific source of fly ash is dependant on several factors; quality (relative quality and quality perception), location relative to demand, competing materials, competing fly ash
sources and market pricing dynamics. Quality and economics are arguably the most critical factor when determining the marketability of a specific fly ash source and are closely interrelated.
This paper will focus on the impact of current and proposed future federal environmental regulations on fly ash
marketability related to quality in the United States. Specifically this paper will discuss the effect of plant combustion modifications (over fired air and low NOX burners), the installation of SCRs and SNCRs (ammonia
injection), the installation of scrubbers (wet and dry), the addition of additives to adjust opacity, fuel changes to
control SOX emissions and proposed mercury capture technologies on fly ash quality and marketability.
The paper will also discuss how the fly ash marketing industry has reacted to fly ash quality changes and worked
with stakeholders to overcome the general decline in fly ash quality as market demand and quality expectations
have steadily increased. Specifically, the paper will illustrate how the development of improved quality control
methods and tests, the development of cost effective beneficiation processes, along with greater flexibility in fly
ash handling, logistics and transportation have helped to offset the general decline of fly ash quality and how these
changes were made possible by the economics of product value. The paper will also address what steps the U.S.
CCP industries are taking to find beneficial uses for non-specification fly ash as well as discussions of current
process technologies and treatments used to improve the quality and marketability of non-specification fly ash.
INTRODUCTION
technologies to ensure fly ash remains a source of revenue, in preference to disposal liabilities. The recent
implementation of two new rules will further challenge
industry to find ways of maintaining fly ash quality for
concrete and may drive some companies to explore
other applications.
2
2.1
521
522
another, without extensive testing and field performance. As mentioned above, another impact of fuel
blending has been the reduction of concrete-quality
fly ash available to the marketplace. Previous and current state-approved sources of coal ash may also need
to be re-evaluated based on the use of the new or
blended fuels.
3.3
A Flue Gas Desulfurization system typically uses limestone or lime to capture sulfur. Depending on the design
of the system, FGD gypsum, i.e. synthetic gypsum, may
be produced. More plants will add this system in the
next ten years, causing the output of FGD gypsum to
more than double. In addition to wallboard, FGD gypsum can be used in agricultural applications, and in the
production of portland cement. Other types of FGD
materials have much more limited applications and the
markets for their end-uses are growing very slowly.
4
MARKETING CHALLENGES
523
524
The U.S. EPA is the agency tasked to lead the compilation of the Report to the U.S. Congress and ACAA
and other industry associations have been asked to participate in an industry-government work group to
gather data in support of the study. This opportunity for
partnering, which supports the goals of the beneficial
use summits, C2P2, the Green Highway Partnership
and the Industrial Resources Council, will help build a
greater awareness among government agencies of the
possible uses for CCPs in transportation projects, from
the national to the local level.
6
CONCLUSIONS
525
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
C. Diggelman
Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI, USA
ABSTRACT: During the construction of MSOEs Kern Center, construction workers were exposed to 3.6 tons
of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) off-gassed by products used in the caulking, painting, terrazzo floor, and
gymnasium floor phases of the project. VOCs pose significant health hazards to people working with or around
the products as many of the VOCs are also classified hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). HAPs off-gassed during
construction included: isophorene diisocyanate, toluene diisocyanate, m-xylene, and toluene. The most effective
approach to reducing VOCs is through product substitution with low-VOC products. Through the development
of the Environmental Risk Value (ERV), the products off-gassing VOCs were assigned a risk value that includes
the volume and toxicity of each product. Alternatives were found for products with the six highest ERVs.
A Product Selection Flowchart (PSF) was developed and used for alternatives to the 6 products evaluated based
on ERV, performance measures, and cost. The products used during the construction of the Kern Center were
found to have the highest ERV and lowest costs when compared to the alternatives. Also, the performance measures for the products used did not outperform the majority of proposed alternatives. Incorporating the PSF before
the submitted stage of a project will allow the construction manager to select products that pose a lower health
risk to construction workers. The ERV and PSF are tools that quantify health hazards and identify alternative
products that are comparable in performance and cost while reducing employee health risks.
INTRODUCTION
527
2
2.1
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Health effects of VOCs
528
529
Figure 1.
develops standard test methods, specifications, practices, guides, classifications, and terminology in 130
areas covering subjects such as metals, paints, plastics,
textiles, petroleum, construction, energy, the environment, consumer products, medical services and devices,
computerized systems, and electronics [ASTM
International Standards Worldwide 2004].
5
5.2
530
Table 1.
VOC
CAS #
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
Xylene
Light Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
1,3,5
Trimethylbenzene
1,2,4Trimethylbenzene
108-88-3
5%
100-41-4
2%
1330-20-7 10%
64742-95-6 2%
864
866
868
883
43.20
17.33
86.75
17.66
56
23
113
23
108-67-8
2%
859
17.18
23
95-63-6
4%
876
35.04
46
Total
Table 2.
Component
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
Xylene
Light
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
1,3,5Trimethylbenzene
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Total
284
1.41 108
2.26 107
1.13 109
6.07 106
7.74 107
1.58 108
1.54 109
ERV: 9.19.
(NYSDEC), values of individual annual toxicity limits were obtained for each of the VOCs. The guideline
concentrations in the tables are based on limits published by the USEPA, 2003 American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) and TLV ceiling limits, and NYSDEC.
5.3.1 Environmental risk value
Using the guideline concentration tables, AGC values
are obtained for all of the VOCs identified in product
MSDSs. Dividing the total VOC (mg) by the AGC
value (mg/m3) gives a total toxicity value for each
component in volume (m3) units. Individual component toxicity volumes are totaled and assigned a total
toxicity value for each product based both on the
quantity of VOC and on toxicity.
The total volume of air into which these materials
are off-gassed can also be divided by the AGC total to
produce a dimensionless toxicity value. This would
allow the total toxicity levels to be a function of the
space in which they are off-gassed. For the purpose of
this report, the total volume of contaminated air on
site was not used because the specific volumes where
products were applied were not known. Since there
was a large range in the toxicity volumes, a log transformation was performed on the data to give the
Environmental Risk Value (ERV):
531
14.00
12.04
12.00
10.22
10.00
10.12
9.21
9.19
8.71
8.36
8.18
8.04
7.89
7.33
8.00
7.32
7.24
6.32
6.00
4.00
2.00
ym
na
siu
m
Tu
rf
Ve
rti
ca
lS
ea
H
lan
or
t
iz
on
Xy
ta
lS
le
ne
ea
la
(S
nt
ol
ve
nt
C
le
an
er
)
M
et
al
Ac
Pr
ry
lic
im
Te
er
ra
zz
o
Se
ale
r
D
ry
Fa
ll F
ini
sh
Po
lyt
ur
fC
at
Sp
al
or
ys
t
ts
Fl
oo
rP
Sa
rim
tin
er
La
te
x
W
D
al
iv
lP
id
ai
er
nt
St
rip
Ad
he
siv
W
e
at
Ac
er
ry
Ba
lic
Pr
se
im
d
Ca
er
ta
lyz
ed
Ep
ox
y
Tr
ow
el
C
le
an
er
0.00
Material
Figure 2.
Test
Result
ASTM D-2794
7.909 Nm
ASTM D-4541
Recoat window
Manufacturer
Specification
17.692 atm
2.5 hours
50 yrs
Table 4.
Cost
per
Product liter
Total &
recoat
volume (L)
Total &
recoat Life
cost
exp
50 year
life cycle
cost
$4,468
$4,468
50 yrs
5.4
532
Direct
impact
resistance
(Nm)
Acrylic
7.91
Resin
Urethane 15.82
Epoxy
3.62
Acrylic
15.82
Table 6.
Adhesion
(atm)
Cure
time
(hrs)
17.70
2.5
68.05
48.65
34.02
2
5
6
Environmental
risk value
(ERV)
9.19
12.59
8.41
7.54
Total cost
Acrylic Resin
Urethane
Epoxy
Acrylic
$6,551.55
$17,232.75
$8,462.85
$7,103.55
twice as high as the acrylic resin used and the proposed alternative epoxy metal primers. Based on this
performance measure, the more durable alternative is
either the urethane or acrylic metal primer.
The adhesion performance of a material indicates
the ability the material has to bond to a substrate. The
higher the adhesion (atm), the less likely a material
will be to peel in the short term and over time. The
acrylic resin metal primer used on the Kern Center
has the lowest adhesion value when compared with
the alternatives. The urethane primer is almost four
times stronger than the metal primer used.
Cure time is also important for primers due to the
need for additional coatings after the primer has
cured. All of the primers tested have short enough
cure times for multiple coatings in a day. The acrylic
and urethane metal primers have the fastest cure
times and can be recoated up to four times in a single
day. This advantage allows for multiple primer coats
and a thinner base coat that will cure faster and more
uniformly with less material applied. The expected
lives for the metal primers were the same and were
not considered as a performance measure. Since
recoats seldom require abrasion down to the substrate
for metal primers, it was assumed all four primers
life expectancies would last the duration of the
50 year life cycle.
The next part of the product evaluation quantifies
the environmental risk to employees exposed to these
products. Using the MSDSs and VOC analysis previously detailed for the acrylic resin primer, the ERVs
were then calculated for the alternatives.
533
Figure 3.
By narrowing the choice to two products, the contractor has eliminated products that are most hazardous to the construction workers on site and are too
costly. Taking a closer look at performance measures
impact on the quality of the specified products for
their intended uses and cost comparisons will aid
finding the desired product for the job. As a result of
this evaluation and selection process, the acrylic
metal primer would be the accepted product with
higher performance standards and lower cost than the
epoxy alternative.
Selection: Acrylic metal primer.
6
534
Environmental Risk
Value (ERV)
6.1
Aromatic prepolymer
Aliphatic polyurethane
Solventless elastomeric polyurethane
Water-based elastomeric
12.04
9.29
12.83
7.19
Gymnasium turf
535
Table 8.
sealers.
Terrazzo sealer
Environmental
Risk Value (ERV)
Total cost
Acrylic
Urethane
Chemical resistant epoxy
UV cured resin
8.71
9.42
5.91
6.71
$25,154
$53,083
$150,081
$109,200
eliminated under the assumption there is no ventilation. The chemical resistant epoxy and UV-cured
resin terrazzo sealers have lower ERV values. The
cost analysis is shown in table 8. The 50 year life
cycle analysis for terrazzo sealers shows a large variability in costs. Based on the assumption that there is
not a ventilation system in place, the less expensive of
the two remaining products is the UV-cured resin terrazzo sealer. Since the selected alternative is more
than four times the cost of the acrylic sealer used, and
they have comparable performance measures, an
increase in air exchanges could reduce the ERV number for the acrylic sealer and the cost of installing a
temporary ventilation system for this phase may be a
less expensive alternative. As mentioned earlier, however, for the simplicity of this study, ventilation systems are not in place and the acrylic terrazzo sealer
has already been eliminated.
Selection: UV-cured resin terrazzo sealer.
6.3
536
Table 9.
caulks.
Vertical caulks
Environmental Risk
Value (ERV)
Total cost
Polyurethane
Silicone
Latex
Polyurea
10.22
6.86
6.75
10.22
$71,043
$129,047
$68,491
$153,008
Solvent cleaner
537
Table 10. ERV and 50 year life-cycle total cost for horizontal caulks.
Horizontal caulks
Environmental Risk
Value (ERV)
Total cost
Polyurethane
Polysulfide
Silicone
Epoxy
10.12
8.52
8.31
0.00
$8,566
$12,160
$5,990
$14,770
Table 11.
cleaners.
Solvent cleaner
Environmental
Risk Value (ERV)
Total cost
Xylene
Mineral spirits
Methyl ethyl ketone
Acetone
Citrus natural solvent
9.21
8.06
7.48
6.73
0.00
$15,201
$7,010
$32,720
$14,792
$50,683
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ASTM International Standards Worldwide 2004.
http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/SoftCart.exe/ABOUT/
aboutASTM.html?Lmystoreijnu98991125028763
(December 17, 2004).
Burak, L. 1997. The Success of UV/EB Curing: Environmental Compliance, Performance and Safety. In Journal
of Coatings Technology 69(874): 2932.
California Department of Health Services 1999. Reducing
Occupant Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs) from Office Building Construction Materials:
Non-Binding Guidelines. http://www.cal-iaq.org/
VOC/VOCmain.PDF CDHS (November 7, 2004).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2002. Leading
Causes and Types of Fatal and Nonfatal Injuries in
Construction. http://www.cdc.gov/elcosh/docs/d0100/
d000038/sect36.html (March 2005).
Chapuis, Y., Klvana, D., Guy, C., and Kirchnerova, J. 2002.
Photocatalytic Oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds
using Fluorescent Visible Light. In Journal of the Air &
Waste Management Association 52(7): 845944.
Conklin Company Inc 1999. Acrylic Latex Caulking
Compound Product Specifications. http://www.
mooreagrisales.com/building/pdf/sealants/kwik_kaulk_s
pec.pdf. (March 22, 2005).
Diggelman, Carol. Milwaukee School of Engineering. 2003.
Quantifying Flows of Resources and Wastes during
Construction of a Medium Sized Urban Building.
Dow Corning 2002. Silicone Joint Sealant Product Specifications.
http://www.dowcorning.com/applications/
product_finder/ProductSearch.aspx?searchfor888&co
untryUSA&languageE. (March 27, 2005)
538
539
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper details the construction and preliminary thermal performance of three small test
buildings constructed by the University of Technology Sydney in Sydney, NSW, Australia. The project involves
testing the thermal performance of three buildings of differing thermal mass and resistance one of standard
brick veneer construction, one of mud brick and one of insulated AAC wall panels (Hebel) with additional
board insulation. The paper details the construction of the three buildings and examines their relative thermal
performance during a cool spell and a hot spell in late 2006.
INTRODUCTION
The present level of carbon emissions is a major concern for the world, and action is urgently needed to
reduce them if we are to avoid the disastrous consequences of global warming. According to Smith (2001)
buildings in use or in the course of erection are the
biggest source of carbon emissions generated by fossil fuels, accounting for over 50% of total emissions.
Air- Conditioners are a significant user of energy, and
where fossil fuels are used to generate electricity,
such as in Australia, any improvement in energy efficiency of buildings should lead to major reductions in
CO2 emissions.
In the past there have been many experimental
studies examining the thermal performance of residential buildings, eg Richards (1954), Peleg and
Robinson(1964), but it is only recently that computer
programs have reached the stage that mathematical simulations of the total performance of buildings, including
the effects of thermal mass, can be performed. There
remains some doubt however as to the accuracy of these
simulations, and the present study was initiated in order
to test the accuracy of the Accurate program (www.
hearne.com.au) in predicting the thermal performance
of three buildings having varying thermal inertia.
The experimental program consisted of the construction of three small test buildings, identical
except for their wall construction. One building is of
heavy mass construction (Mud Brick), one a heavily
insulated construction (Insulated AAC Hebel) and
the third is a control building with standard brick
veneer walls. The latter is the most common form of
walling in residential building in Sydney.
DESCRIPTION OF BUILDINGS
541
Figure 1.
2.1
Floor construction
Roof construction
Completed Buildings.
www.aircell.com.au.
542
Door details
2.6
According to Van Straaten (1967) the thermal performance of buildings is determined by the product of
total heat storing capacity and thermal resistance the
lower the product of total heat-storing capacity and
the thermal resistance, the lower the minimum and the
higher the maximum indoor air temperature and the
larger the diurnal range of indoor air temperatures
This is merely a reflection of the role Diffusivity (1/resisistivity times heat capacity) plays in the fundamental
differential equation of heat flow. Szokolay (2004)
shows the relationship between diffusivity and the
Decrement Factor (ratio of amplitude of internal to
external surface temperatures) . Lower values of diffusivity (higher values of resistivity times heat capacity) lead to lower values of Decrement Factor. For the
purposes of this report the wall mass per square metre
will be considered to be representative of the total
heat storing capacity of the wall and the product of
this and total thermal resistance will be termed the
Thermal Performance Factor (TPF)
3.1
The Total R- Value for the insulated Hebel wall system can be calculated as follows
Outside Air Film
75 thick Hebel Panels
0.04
0.51
50 thick Styrofoam
1.79
543
R1.5 BATT
INSULATION
REFLECTIVE
INSULATION
300 BY 250 BY
100 MUD BRICKS
95 BY 45
MGP 10 @ 600
75 THICK
HEBEL
PANELS
250
R1.5 BATT
INSULATION
95 BY 45
MGP 10 @ 600
10 mm PLASTERBOARD
10 mm PLASTERBOARD
110 FACE
BRICK
50 THICK
STYROFOAM
SARKING
25 mm CAVITY
30 CAVITY
HEBEL
Figure 3.
MUD BRICK
Unventilated Airspace
0.17 (BCA, Table 2b)
Extra for Reflec Surface 0.48 (BCA, Table 2b)
Blanket Insulation
1.50
10 mm Plasterboard
0.06
Inside Air Film
0.12
Total 4.67 m2.K/W
BRICK VENEER
The Total R- Value for the Mud Brick wall system can
be calculated as follows
Outside Air Film
0.04 (BCA, Table 2b wind 3 m/sec)
250 Mud Bricks
0.49 (*)
Inside Air Film
0.12 (BCA, Table 2b)
Total 0.65 m2.K/W
4.1
544
12:00:00 PM
Outside
Figure 4.
12:00:00 AM
Hebel
12:00:00 PM
Mud Brick
12:00:00 AM
Brick Veneer
25
20
Degrees Centigrade
15
10
5
0
12:00:00 AM
6:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
6:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
6:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
6:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
-5
-10
-15
Hebel
Figure 5.
Heb Diff
545
12:00:00 PM
Outside
Figure 6.
12:00:00 AM
Hebel
12:00:00 PM
Mud Brick
12:00:00 AM
Brick Veneer
6:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
6:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
6:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
6:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
-5
-10
-15
Hebel
Figure 7.
Heb Diff
546
4 Hrs
H
10.0
9.1
4.5
5.0
0.0
12:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
12:00:00 PM
12:00:00 AM
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
Outside Wall
Figure 8.
Inside Wall
the Autumn and is reflected in the higher average internal temperatures recorded.
4.3
R Value m2.K.W
Thermal Mass kg/m2
TPF
Thermal Lag (hrs)
Variation from outside
max (Cool Spell)C
Variation from Outside
max (Hot Spell) C
Figure 9.
Brick
Veneer
1.89
230
416
0
1
Hebel
4.67
65
303
0
1
Mud
Brick
0.65
410
266
4
0
6
7
4
Performance factors.
547
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Building Code of Australia (BCA), 2006, Volume 1- Class 2
to Class 9 Buildings, ABCB.
548
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
K.W. Kramer
Department of Architectural Engineering and Construction Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
ABSTRACT: Comprehensive understanding of building materials has been the basis of structural engineering.
The rising environmental concern is making sustainability a crucial issue in our society. In creating a sustainable
built environment, the architect usually takes the lead role with the mechanical engineer having the key responsibility for energy and water savings. Only recently have structural engineers and civil engineers begun to see the
real potential of their contributions. This paper contains information pertaining to the four most common structural materials: reinforced concrete, reinforced masonry, steel, and timber. For each material, the sustainability of
the material as defined by the LEED-NC Version 2.2 rating system is discussed. Information is provided on how
to attain LEED points for a specific material. Whether the LEED-NC Version 2.2 rating system accurately portrays sustainability of common structural materials or needs further development is discussed in the conclusion.
A comparison is provided of the four common structural materials in relation to the rating system.
INTRODUCTION
549
IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY
The functionality, aesthetics, healthfulness, safety, environmental quality, and economy of buildings are vital to
the quality of life and productivity of the individuals
who use these buildings. In the United States (U.S.) in
2002, new construction and renovation of buildings
accounted for about 9% of the Gross Domestic Product;
the value of existing buildings comprised about 48% of
the fixed, reproducible, tangible wealth; buildings consume about 40% of the energy; and construction wastes
were estimated to be 2030% of the contents of landfills [U.S. Bureau of the Census 2002]. In addition,
Structural engineers have the duty to lessen the environmental impact by using their comprehensive
understanding of building materials to create integrated sustainable designs.
3
550
As previously stated, USGBC members from all segments of the building industry collaborated to continually develop LEED. LEEDs mission statement is:
LEED encourages and accelerates global adoption of
sustainable green building and development practices
through the creation and implementation of universally
understood and accepted standards, tools and performance criteria [LEED 2005].
The evolution of LEED was based on promoting
integrated building design practices and raising consumer awareness of the benefits of building green
while in the process generate a consensus-based standard for evolving sustainable buildings. The objective
is that LEED standards would stimulate a transformation of the building market towards green competition and in turn LEED would recognize sustainable
leadership in the building sector. Currently, LEED has
six standards. The forefather standard, originally published in 1999 and now on edition three (LEED-NC
Version 2.2), and the most commonly used in the green
building industry is New Commercial Construction
and Major Renovation Projects (LEED-NC). LEEDNC provides a comprehensive framework to assist in
meeting the sustainability standards and assessing the
overall building performance.
3.1.1 LEED-NC Version 2.2 rating system
LEED-NC is a sustainable building rating system
designed to guide and distinguish high-performance
551
Table 1.
Level
Points Required
Certified
Silver
Gold
Platinum
2632
3338
3951
5269
69 Possible Points.
Table 2.
Category
Prereqs
Credits1
Points
Sustainable sites
Water efficiency
Energy & Atmosphere
Materials & Resources
Indoor environmental
Quality
Innovation & Design
Process
3
1
2
14
5
6
13
15
14
5
17
13
15
Includes sub-credits.
Sustainable Sites
552
area. This credit is achieved by meeting the requirement of one of three options. Option 1 is as follows,
reduce the development footprint (defined as the total
area of the building footprint, hardscape, access roads
and parking) and/or provide vegetated open space
within the project boundary to exceed the local zonings open space requirement for the site by 25%.
Option 2: for areas with no local zoning requirements
(e.g., some university campuses, military bases), provide vegetated open space area adjacent to the building
that is equal to the building footprint. Option 3 is
defined as where a zoning ordinance exists, but no
requirement for open space, provide vegetated open
space equal to 20% of the projects site area [LEEDNC 2005].
The design engineer has multiple options to obtain
this Sustainable Sites, Credit 5.2. Generally the development footprint can be reduced by having parking
garages on the lower levels of structural systems such
as cast-in-place, precast, tilt-up, reinforced masonry,
steel, or wood structural systems. Another option, as
used for the Kandalama Hotel located in Damulla, Sri
Lanka, is to provide columns to elevate the buildings
above the natural features such as boulders and to
reduce cut-and-fill needs.1 This credit is worth 1 point.
4.1.4
553
energy by reducing temperature which in turn cuts airconditioning usage leading to less power needed and
improved air quality. Concrete generally has an albedo
or solar reflectance of about 0.35, although values may
vary. New asphalt concrete generally has a reflectance
of around 0.05 and asphalt concrete older than four
years has a reflectance of approximately 0.10 to 0.15
[Vangeem & Marceau 2002]. Though not an obvious
application for structural concrete the possibility exists
to achieve credit.
Option 2 deals with the structure, Place a minimum
of 50% of parking spaces under cover. Any roof used to
shade or cover parking must have an SRI of at least 29
out of a possible 100 [LEED-NC 2005]. Option 2, of
this credit, pertains to using parking garages. All four
common structural materials discussed in this report
can assist in obtaining this option. Meeting the requirements of either option is worth 1 point.
4.1.5
Another rating system category which applies to structural materials is Materials & Resources. This category
covers a broad range of credits including Building
Reuse, Construction Waste Management, Material
Reuse, Recycled Content, Regional Materials, Rapidly
Renewable Materials, and Certified Wood. Building
materials choices are important in sustainable design
because of the extensive network of extraction, processing and transportation steps required to process
them. Almost all of the credits available can apply to
structural materials.
4.3.1
554
555
556
located near the future building site. All four structural materials may obtain these credits.
4.3.7
557
CONCLUSION
2
For further discussion refer Masters Report entitled
Primary Sustainable Features and LEED Applications of
Common Structural Materials by J.E. Maher, 2006.
558
REFERENCES
Bland, K. 2005. Green Wood: Building Green with Wood.
Structure Magazine: 3739.
Burke, E. 1790. Reflections on the Revolution in France.
Clay Brick Association of Canada 2006. Clay Brick: Natural
Sustainability in Design and Construction. http://www.
masonrycanada.ca/pdf/bricka_bro.pdf Clay Brick Association of Canada (CBAC) (Feb. 7, 2006).
Denver AIA 1997. Division 6: Wood and Plastics. http://
www.aiacolorado.org/SDRG/div06/index.html Denver
American Institute of Architects (AIA) Committee on the
Environment (Feb. 5, 2006).
Field, R.C., & Hun, D. 2006. From Gray to Green:
Sustainability and the Engineer. A Publication of Walter
P. Moore.
FWPRDC 2006. Timber Building in Australia: Environmental
Properties of Timber. http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/
environment/env_prop/env_prop.asp Forest and Wood
Products Research and Development Corporation
(FWPRDC) (Jan. 15, 2006).
GDRC 2006. Life Cycle Analysis and Assessment.
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/life-cycle.html The
Global Development Research Center (GDRC) (Feb. 11,
2006).
Headwaters Resources 2005. Building Materials: Better
Performance Without Higher Costs. http://www.
flyash.com/flyashenvironment.asp (Dec. 29, 2005).
Hewitt, C. 2003. The Real Deal: Sustainable Steel. Modern
Steel Construction: 3234.
Larry McFarland Architects Ltd. 2003. Guide to the Use of
Wood in LEED Projects. Vancouver, BC, Canada.
LEED 2005. http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage. aspx?
CategoryID 19 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) (Dec. 30, 2005).
LEED-NC 2005. Green Building Rating System for New
Construction and Major Renovations Version 2.2 Manual.
https://www.usgbc.org/FileHandling/show_general_file
.asp?DocumentID 1095 Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design for New Construction (LEED-NC)
(Dec. 30, 2005).
559
APPENDIX
Table 3.
Applies
structurally
14
Required
1
1
1
1
1
Yes
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Yes
Yes
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
5
1
1
1
1
1
17
Required
Required
Required
110
13
1
1
1
1
Required
Yes
13
Required
1
Required
Yes
Yes
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
1
1
Indirectly1
Yes
(Continued)
Credit 4.4
Credit 5.1
Credit 5.2
Credit 6.1
Credit 6.2
Credit 7.1
Credit 7.2
Credit 8
Water Efficiency
Credit 1.1
Credit 1.2
Credit 2
Credit 3.1
Credit 3.2
Credit 4.3
560
Table 3.
(Continued).
Points
Available
Applies
Structurally
15
Required
Required
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Yes
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
5
1
1
1
1
1
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
Indirectly1
Credit may be indirectly relevant to a structural material or opportunities may exist under Innovation & Design Process
credits.
561
562
Sustainable Sites
Credit 3
Brownfield Redevelopment
Credit 5.1
Site Development, Protect or Restore Habitat
Credit 5.2
Site Development, Maximize Open Space
Credit 7.1
Heat Island Effect, Non-Roof
Credit 7.2
Heat Island Effect, Roof
Energy & Atmosphere
Prereq 2
Minimum Energy Performance
Credit 1
Optimize Energy Performance
Materials & Resources
Credit 1.1
Building Reuse, Maintain 75% of Existing Walls, Floors & Roof
Credit 1.2
Building Reuse, Maintain 95% of Existing Walls, Floors & Roof
Credit 2.1
Construction Waste Management, Divert 75% from Disposal
Credit 2.2
Construction Waste Management, Divert 50% from Disposal
Credit 3.1
Materials Reuse, 5%
Credit 4.1
Recycled Content, 10% (post-consumer 1/2 pre-consumer)
Credit 4.2
Recycled Content, 20% (post-consumer 1/2 pre-consumer)
Credit 5.1
Regional Materials, 10% Extracted, Processed & Manufactured Regionally
Credit 5.2
Regional Materials, 20% Extracted, Processed & Manufactured Regionally
Credit 6
Rapidly Renewable Materials
Credit 7
Certified Wood
Indoor Environmental Quality
Credit 4.4
Low-Emitting Materials, Composite Wood & Agrifiber Products
Credit 8.1
Daylight & Views, Daylight 75% of Spaces
Credit 8.2
Daylight & Views, Daylight 90% of Spaces
Innovation & Design Process
Credit 1.1
Innovation in Design
Credit 1.2
Innovation in Design
Credit 1.3
Innovation in Design
Credit 1.4
Innovation in Design
Credit 2
LEED Accredited Professional
Possible Projects Totals
Table 4.
1
1
1
Required
110
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
11
11
1
25
Required
110
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
11
11
1
25
Masonry
1
1
1
1
1
Reinforced
concrete
1
11
11
11
1
17
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Steel
1
11
11
11
1
16
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Wood
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
N.D. Mowry
School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
ABSTRACT: Noted sustainability authority Paul Hawken points out that nearly all production and distribution
business models entirely ignore associated environmental burdens when calculating acquisition prices for goods
and services; further, purchase prices rarely reflect true costs of the aftermath when remnants are disposed of,
most often by landfilling. Does the current price of construction account for the damage inflicted on the environment through materials production, construction activities, and ultimately the disposal of facilities when their
service life is exhausted? What are these ignored impacts and how does one begin to define and account for
them? This paper acquaints the audience with the life-cycle consequences of generating and landfilling construction and demolition debris, and the benefits of salvaging, reusing, and recycling construction materials. The
United States Army continuously upgrades its infrastructure to meet current mission requirements. Wood framed
barracks complexes constructed in World War II are being removed. Concrete and masonry complexes built during the Cold War are being replaced by contemporary facilities. In so doing, enormous quantities of debris materials are generated. These include wood, concrete, metals, asphalt materials, fibrous materials, masonry and other
construction materials. Efforts to divert construction and demolition debris from landfills, and to recycle these
materials for construction applications are described. By examining available Life Cycle Assessment data, a first
approximation of the value of these recovered materials is presented; however, their value is expressed in terms
of the reduction in burdens to the natural environment by virtue of the process. This information provides a piece
of the sustainability puzzle, which is the determination of the true costs of goods and services which must
incorporate the value of that part of the environment which was used to create the product.
1
1.1
563
Figure 1.
US Army installation.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
barracks.
Barrack interior.
1.2
2.1
564
The potential
3
3.1
565
acquisition; manufacturing, processing and formulation; distribution and transportation; use/reuse/maintenance; recycle; and waste management. At each
Life Cycle phase, energy and raw materials inputs are
identified, as are the process outputs of airborne
emissions, solid waste, other environmental releases,
and useable products. Thus, a holistic approach is
taken to address all environmental issues occurring at
each phase throughout the materials or processs life
cycle.
There are several sources of Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) data for building materials. These include
the American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Environmental Resources Guide [AIA 1998]; the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys (USEPA)
Waste Reduction Model [USEPA 2006]; the U.S.
National Institute for Standards and Technologys
(USNIST) Building for Economic and Environmental
Sustainability [USNIST 2002]; from Canada, the
Athena Institutes LCA database and Environmental
Impact Estimator software [Athena Institute 2006];
from the Netherlands the SimaPro LCA software
[PPEC 2006]; and others.
Life Cycle Assessment data will not, in and of
itself, prove that salvage, reuse, recycling is cheaper
(or better) than traditional demolition and landfill disposal. LCA data will provide tangible, objective
information about the relative effects of landfilling,
reusing, or recycling materials, and will reveal a
magnitude-level quantities of environmental stressors
associated with each approach.
The authors acknowledge there is a degree of
uncertainty in LCA data. No effort was made to confirm or rebut the accuracy of the LCA analyses. Over
the life cycle process, the resulting values could be
greater or smaller depending on specific conditions if
they were to actually be measured. However, when
thinking in terms of the number of trees saved by
recycling construction materials, this exercise can
lead to a number of useful outcomes.
The authors used the following sources for life
cycle assessment data when developing this paper:
USEPA WAste Reduction Model (WARM).
Athena Environmental Impact Estimator.
3.2
566
Four examples are described to illustrate the environmental benefits of reusing and recycling building
materials. These are based on various U.S. Army
experiences with which the authors are familiar.
4.1
Framing lumber
Asphalt shingles
What would be the environmental benefits if the shingles from the same barracks buildings (Figs 78)
were recycled into new asphalt paving for the training
facilities?
Our characterization model indicates there are
1.54 kg of shingles, in two layers, per gross square
foot (101 m2) of building. Altogether there are
1
567
Figure 8.
Shingle pile.
Figure 9.
4.3
Figure 6.
Barracks deconstruction.
4.4
Figure 7.
Concrete
approximately 326 tonne of shingles on the 78 buildings to be removed. A recycling rate of 95% is realistic for shingles; some loss is expected. Roughly 312
tonne of asphalt would be available for recycling.
Steel
568
Figure 10.
5.2
5.2.1 Lumber
If 1,206,000 board feet (equivalent of 1315 tonne of
southern yellow pine framing lumber) were salvaged
from 78 WWII-era wood buildings, and reused
instead of being landfilled:
Almost 10 Million Mega joules of energy would be
saved.
Approximately 430 tonne of solid waste would be
saved by virtue of not manufacturing new lumber.
The equivalent of approximately 61 Million Cubic
Meters of air would not be polluted.
The equivalent of approximately 80,000 liters of
water would not be polluted.
Approximately 237 tonne of carbon equivalent
(greenhouse gas) would not be emitted to the atmosphere.
Approximately 93,000 liters of water would not be
consumed.
The equivalent of approximately 4.8 kilotonne of
material resources would not be consumed.
The majority of environmental burdens associated
with lumber construction are generated during the
manufacturing processes, which include materials
extraction and transportation. These include over
80% of the total life cycle energy consumption, and
between 97% and 100% of the other of the other
waste, emissions, and consumption burdens.
569
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
5.2.2 Concrete
If 29 kilotonne of concrete were recycled and reused
(Figs 1213) for aggregate materials on-site, instead
of being landfilled:
Almost 588,000 megajoules of energy would be
saved.
Approximately 127 tonne of solid waste would be
saved by virtue of not quarrying and processing new
aggregate.
The equivalent of approximately 1.34 Billion
Cubic Meters of air would not be polluted.
The equivalent of approximately 60,000 liters of
water would not be polluted.
Approximately 143 tonne of carbon equivalent
(greenhouse gas) would not be emitted to the atmosphere.
The equivalent of approximately 13.2 kilotonne of
material resources would not be consumed.
The majority of environmental burdens associated
with aggregates used in construction are generated
during the manufacturing processes, which include
materials extraction and transportation. These include
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Assoc.).
570
CONCLUSIONS
571
REFERENCES
AIA 1998. Environmental Resources Guide. American
Institute of Architects (AIA), Joseph A. Demkin (ed.),
Washington DC, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. publishers.
Athena Institute 2006. Environmental Impact Estimator
software version 3.0.2. <http://www.athenasmi.ca/tools/
software/index.html.> The Athena Sustainable Materials
Institute, Merrickville, Ontario, Canada (April, 2006).
Authors pers. comm. 2006. Personal communication; telephone discussions among the authors and Mr. Jamie
Meil, Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, October
2006.
BMRA 2006. Building Materials Reuse Association (BMRA)
Website. <http://www.buildingreuse.org/.> Building
Materials Reuse Association, State College, PA, USA.
BuildingGreen 2006. Articles related to construction and
demolition
waste.
<http://www.buildinggreen.com/menus/headings.cfm?S
ubtopicID18.> BuildingGreen.com, Battleboro, VT,
USA. (October 2006).
CIWMB 2006. Construction and Demolition Debris
Recycling
guidance.
<http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/
ConDemo/>. California Integrated Waste Management
Board, Sacramento, CA, USA (CIWMB) (2006).
CMRA 2006. Construction Materials Recycling
Association.
<http://www.cdrecycling.org/>.
Construction Materials Recycling Association Eola, IL,
USA, (CMRA) (2006).
Units
New lumber
Reused lumber
Savings
MJ
kg
103 m3
104 L
kg
L
kg
10,006,432
34,503
49,264
6
190,838
73,807
3,938,691
2,167,111
14
481
0
2,699
0
104,759
7,839,321
34,489
48,783
6
188,139
73,807
3,833,932
572
Units
MJ
kg
103 m3
104 L
kg
L
kg
7,445,754
11,193
40,852
4
112,383
0
863,817
Hot asphalt
paving w/
recycled shingles
Savings
350,560
2
53
0
297
0
3,851
7,095,194
11,191
40,799
4
112,086
0
859,966
units
Natural
aggregate
Recycled
aggregate
Savings
MJ
kg
103 m3
104 L
kg
L
kg
4,385,809
12,732
1,333,489
6
146,505
0
31,193,778
1,922,695
16
556
0
3,117
0
39,282
2,463,114
12,716
1,332,933
6
143,388
0
31,154,469
Units
New steel
Reused steel
Savings
MJ
kg
103 m3
104 L
kg
L
kg
1,336,352
10,295
8,219
159
54,834
1,074,966
144,419
63,961
1
20
0
142
0
1,494
1,272,391
10,294
8,199
159
54,692
1,074,966
142,925
WARM SUMMARY
Energy use from baseline waste management
Material
Recycled
Ton landfilled
Ton combusted
Ton composted
Million BTU
Dimensional
0
2126
0
Lumber
Energy use from alternative waste management scenario
n.a.
796
Material
Ton reduced
Ton recycled
Ton landfilled
Ton combusted
Dimensional
Lumber
2126
n.a.
573
Million BTU
7504
8300
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D.N. Smith
Head of Resource and Environment Group, Scott Wilson, Peterborough
S. Johansson
Environmental Advisor, Skanska Integrated Projects UK, Rickmansworth, Herts
J. Cope
Materials Project Manager, Plasterboard, The Waste and Resources Action Programme, The Old Academy,
Banbury, Oxon
ABSTRACT: This article outlines the preliminary findings of a project commissioned by the Waste and
Resources Action Programme (WRAP). The paper is based on practical experience of the collection and segregation of plasterboard waste at three construction and demolition sites between December 2005 and November
2006. The operating procedures for the reclamation of plasterboard waste on site; tonnages of plasterboard
waste arising; factors affecting on-site recovery; economic constraints and opportunities, and; logistical constraints and opportunities are described and considered for each site.
In assessing the barriers to segregating and recycling plasterboard from construction and demolition sites in
the UK, it is argued that too much emphasis may be placed on legislative barriers. Whilst such barriers are
influential, there is, in practice, an interplay of factors governing the success of plasterboard recovery. Where
there is an organisational commitment to segregate for recycling legislative barriers become less important than
the site-based factors in determining the success of a particular scheme.
The three cases described demonstrate the logistical, economic and technical viability of plasterboard segregation and recycling schemes on different types of site with different material handling and waste management
arrangements in place. It is hoped that the findings from these three case studies can be used to support and
inform the wider adoption of similar plasterboard recovery schemes in the future.
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the preliminary findings of ongoing research exploring the ways in which the barriers
to the successful segregation and recycling of plasterboard waste on construction and demolition sites can
be addressed. The research is funded by the Waste and
Resources Action Programme (WRAP) and is based
on construction sites operated by Skanska UK Ltd.
2
CONTEXT
575
intended purpose but that it may run contrary to political objectives aimed at increased recycling and
reduced resource consumption.
3
Both the plasterboard recycling industry and campaigners for sustainable resource management have
been frustrated by the lack of uptake of plasterboard
segregation for recycling in the construction industry.
The focus of this frustration on the legislative arrangements alone, however, conceals a multiplicity of factors acting as barriers to the increased segregation and
recycling of plasterboard waste. Whilst the Landfill
Regulations are an easy target, and changes to the regulations (i.e. reducing or removing the 10% sulphate
allowance) might induce an improvement to the management of plasterboard waste,2 it has also been recognised that efforts are required to address other barriers
[WRAP 2005] that may be less conspicuous, but more
ingrained and therefore more difficult to change.
Many of the barriers to plasterboard segregation and
recycling are common to construction waste, and the
construction industry in general. It has been argued
that during the 1990s construction waste management
research focussed on how existing work practices,
processes and technologies act as barriers to recycling,
and that people have been ignored in the waste
equation[Teo & Loosemore 2001]. From the beginning
of the 21st Century however, there has been a shift
toward the study of organisational and individuals perceptions, behaviour, understanding and attitudes as
barriers to waste management [Lingard et al. 2000,
Teo & Loosemore 2001, Saunders and Wynn 2004].
Table 1 provides a summary of the key barriers to on-site
construction waste segregation for recycling. In practice, these factors do not operate discretely but there is
an interplay between them. James et al. 2006 consider,
in detail, the principal barriers affecting the segregation
and recycling of plasterboard. Specific barriers not
covered in Table 1 include:
3.1
576
Table 1.
General barriers and influences on the segregation of waste for recycling in the construction industry.
Category
Construction
Industry and
organisational
characteristics
Logistical
It is perceived that waste segregation requires more space than traditional waste
management practices and space often comes at a premium on construction sites
Similarly there may be limited space for the storage of products on-site, making it difficult
to minimise waste caused by damage to stored goods
Each project is unique making it difficult to standardise procedures
Site conditions are often difficult
[Wilson et al. 1998, Craven et al. 1994, Johnston & Mincks 1995, Tam & Tam 2006, Seydel
et al. 2002, Guthrie & Mallet 1995]
Legislative
Behavioural and
Educational
Both managerial and operational commitment are essential for successful segregation
schemes
Behaviour is often dictated by employees perceptions of the waste management climate.
Perceptions of relevance include:
Perceived importance of waste management and environmental issues more generally;
Perceived management commitment to waste management;
Perceived ability for construction sites to effectively segregate and recycle waste; and
Perceptions about the cost-effectiveness of segregation and recycling
It remains rare for waste management to be covered during site induction for individuals
who are unlikely to be on site for a long period
Segregating waste on site may be regarded as a hassle
[Lingard et al. 2000, Teo & Loosemore 2001, Saunders & Wynn 2004, James et al. 2006]
Contractual
577
recyclers have been unwilling to invest in new infrastructure while plasterboard waste can be legally disposed of in low cost landfill sites.3
3.2
Dry-lining is usually undertaken by specialist contractors who are typically paid by the area installed.
At present, material costs for plasterboard are low,
therefore the time element of a contractors costs are
greater than the material element and wasteful practices are accepted if they reduce the time taken to
complete a job and consequently the overall cost.
Furthermore, unused material is likely to be disposed
of rather than re-transported for use on the next job.
OBJECTIVES
It is the purpose of this paper to report the preliminary findings from three of the demonstration sites
and to consider these findings in the context of the
broader literature. The findings will also be used to
direct research for the remainder of the project and
will hopefully provide some initial insights that are of
interest to the construction industry. The specific
objectives of this paper are to review:
3
It should be noted that Northern Ireland Heritage Service
and the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency do not
currently require high sulphate wastes to be disposed of in
mono-cells as specified by the Environment Agency in
England and Wales.
4
This project is currently in construction phase, and this will
be reported at a later date.
578
579
Plasterboard fitted
Waste off-cuts placed in 1,100 l colour-coded waste plasterboard bins close to the point
of work
Plasterboard bins collected by forklift with rotating telehandler and tipped adjacent to
the plasterboard skip next to the waste compound
Figure 1.
8
8.1
580
Plasterboard fitted
Waste off-cuts placed in 660 litre bar-coded waste plasterboard bins close to the point
of work
Plasterboard skip removed by waste carrier and taken for reprocessing at New West
Gypsum Recycling in Bristol
Recovered gypsum waste transferred to Lafarge in Bristol for recycling into new
gypsum-based products
Figure 2.
581
includes figures on waste type, volume, tonnage, disposal cost and percentage recycled. In line with common industry practice the site demolition contractor
was wholly responsible for managing site waste in
accordance with Skanskas waste management plan
during the demolition phase of the project.
Procedures for the management of plasterboard
waste for the site are summarised in Figure 3. Plasterboard was cut away from the frame of the internal partitions using hand tools, allowing significant capture of
plasterboard waste in large sheets with minimal contamination from parts of the frame and attachments.
The demolition contractor provides a pool of sixty
1,100 litre wheeled-bins for the collection of demolition
wastes. The bins were labelled but not colour-coded and
were used for the segregation of different waste streams
as required. Due to space limitations, both within and
external to the building, filled wheeled-bins were held
in the basement holding area pending transfer of waste
from site for as little time as possible and skips were not
always stored on site but brought in as required.
Requirements to segregate waste were communicated to operatives during site induction and through
focussed toolbox talks. More detailed environmental
and waste training was provided by the Skanska site
Environmental Coordinator to Site Managers (Skanska
and contractor) as required. Skanska Site Environmental and Waste Representatives undertook frequent
tours of the site to ensure that waste was correctly stored
and segregated and signs were placed around the site
to encourage waste segregation.
The Waste Management Plan for the site requires subcontractors to provide monthly figures of all wastes
removed from site to Skanska site management. This
582
Plasterboard stripped
Uncontaminated plasterboard
Waste plasterboard placed in 1,100l wheeled bins and pushed manually using
existing lifts -to basement holding area
guide for summary and discussion. Whilst these headings have been used to guide the discussion it should
be borne in mind that the principal aims, and thus
findings, of the project concern the site-based factors
that affect recovery of plasterboard. The concluding
section of this paper considers the importance of these
site-based factors within the broader context of the
current climate for recycling plasterboard in the UK.
10.1
Organisational characteristics
Skanska is highly regarded for its corporate environmental commitment. In the absence of clear legislative and economic incentives for the segregation and
583
584
10.3
Economics
Legislative
As outlined in Section 10.1 the environmental commitments of Skanska as a company are of utmost
importance to the success of their waste management
schemes. Whilst the attitudes and values of different
tiers of employee have not been analysed (as for
Contractual
585
FURTHER WORK
12 CONCLUSIONS
In assessing the barriers to segregating and recycling
plasterboard from construction and demolition sites
in the UK, this paper suggests that too much emphasis
is frequently placed on the primacy of perceived
legislative barriers. Whilst such barriers may be
important, the success of plasterboard segregation for
recycling on UK construction sites is governed by an
586
587
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Yksel Abali
Celal Bayar University, Chemistry Department, Muradiye, Manisa, Turkey
M. Sadrettin Zeybek
Gazi University, Chemical Engineering Department, Corum, Turkey
Fethullah Canpolat
UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics,
University of Wisconsin, Milvaukee
ABSTRACT: In this study, usability of wastes produced in phosphoric acid plants in structural brick manufacture has been investigated. A series of experiments for three different material combinations namely original
waste plus normal brick clay, washed waste plus normal brick clay and normal brick clay with no additive were
carried out to achieve this end. The results have shown that the industrial wastes considered improve the performance of the bricks. However, the results have also shown that further investigations are needed to explore the
effects of interim or outer values on the performance of the bricks. To active that end, a neural experimental study
is adopted. The outcome of these artificial tests have provided the appropriate values for the waste addition rate,
firing speed and firing temperature.
1.
INTRODUCTION
589
within which the search for the suitable values for the
production variables namely waste addition rate, firing
speed and firing temperature can be undertaken based
on the four criteria mentioned previously.
2.
2.1
Although the number of specimens by which experiments were carried out is quite large, it is obvious that
it is impossible to cover so many possible interim and
outer values based on the four parameters considered,
namely the rate of additives, firing speed, firing temperature and plasticity water. In this study an ANN
approach is developed to extent the experimental data
in an attempt to cover as many values as possible. This
will enable to explore the effects of the interim values
which were not considered during the experiments on
the criteria by which the performance of the corresponding parameter set is examined.
In this study, the comparisons of traingdx and
trainlm training functions employed in MATLAB have
investigated in an attempt to find the most suitable
algorithm for the data considered. All the ANNs transfer functions were sigmoid function. At the end of the
training the ANNs output the experiments output were
compared each other 10. Two different feedforward
backpropagation artificial neural networks (FBANN)
for two different phoshogympsume were used. Inputs
and outputs are chosen according to the experimental
parameters mentioned previously. The inputs are added
waste, firing speed, firing temperature and the outputs
are natural drying shortening, water absorption, and
weight losses.
When undertaking ANN exercise, the training was
stopped at an appropriate epoch based on the mean
square error and training, validation and test squared
error were drawn in figures. Regression analysis was
made between the outputs of FBANNs and experiments
590
14
20
12
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
8
6
4
% Water Adsorption
% Weight Loss
16
10
700 C
750 C
12
800 C
850 C
900 C
950 C
1000 C
2
0
0
0
12
% Additive
16
20
12
16
20
% Additive
16
700
5
% Natural Drying
% Weight Loss
700 C
12
750 C
800 C
850 C
900 C
950 C
750
800
850
3
900
950
1000
1000 C
1
0
0
12
16
20
0
% Additive
12
16
20
% Additive
Figure 5. Natural drying shortening with respect to additive rates in percentage for OP.
6
20
700
750
800
850
15
10
% Natural Drying
% Water Adsorption
25
850
950
1000
700 C
750 C
4
800 C
850 C
900 C
950 C
1
0
0
12
16
1000 C
20
% Additive
12
16
20
% Additive
Figure 6. Natural drying shortening with respect to additive rates in percentage for WP.
591
Table 1. The appropriate additive rates and firing temperatures with respect to natural drying shortening, water absorption
and weight loss.
Additive
type
Addition
rate (%)
Firing
temperature
(C)
OP
2
18
18
2
18
18
700
1000
700
1000
1000
900
WP
Natural drying
shortening (%)
With*
With
With
Without**
14.38
2.02
2
1.6
15.6
Without
12.3
13.23
12.8
10.5
13.32
13.7
10.4
5
11.36
1.72
Without
12.3
12.3
* The first figures in with columns show the results of ANN whereas the second ones do those obtained by experiments
taken from Abali et al, (2007).
** These values are obtained from the experiments and taken from Abali et al, (2007).
REFERENCES
3.
CONCLUSIONS
592
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
D.R. Moore
Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and the Built Environment, The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen,
Scotland
ABSTRACT: Rural Bangladeshis face many problems; low incomes due to an inability to participate in wealth
generating activities, access to clean drinking water and loss of shelter due to flooding and cyclonic conditions.
More durable building materials, based on building lime, would reduce shelter losses and facilitate the harvesting of rainwater for provision of clean drinking water. Producing such materials as a complimentary activity to
agriculture could provide an additional income stream for some of the worlds poorest people. The use of solar
energy to process common waste products, such as shells from the fishing and Ger farming industries, could
facilitate such an opportunity.
Proposals for design improvements to increase the payload capacity of a solar kiln through changes to traditional kiln operation, and methods of reducing heat losses so as to achieve efficient production of Building
Lime are presented. Building lime based products would facilitate more durable shelters, in regions where supplies of traditionally harvested building materials are becoming scarce.
INTRODUCTION
593
594
POVERTY IN BANGLADESH
595
Insubstantial housing
Rainwater harvesting
NATURAL DISASTERS
596
For any technology to be successful it needs to be sustainable within the region. Any equipment needs to be
affordable, usable with appropriate training, maintainable and economically viable. Hence development of a
solar kiln needs to address the following issues.
Any equipment must be robust and simple to manufacture and maintain in Bangladesh.
Its operation must be simple, and possible to operate in a manner which is complimentary to the primary agricultural activities.
The starting point for research was the issue of economic viability, estimated at a daily production of not
less than 50 kg of quick lime or six 25 kg bags of slaked
lime. Using traditional (non-solar) kiln technology
597
With direct focusing of all available energy, operational heat losses and the distribution of heat
throughout the kiln to be overcome.
The solar gathering equipment must be sustainable
in terms of the area of the reflector, the robustness of
its design and ability to track the Bangladeshi sun.
Design of a Solar collector.
Results.
Reflector
No
Rim angle
degrees
Width FP
mm
No tilt
Width FP
mm
0.5 tilt
Width FP
mm
1.0 tilt
Width FP
mm
2.0 tilt
Width FP
mm
5.0 tilt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
72.5
58.7
48.5
44.5
41.1
35.6
21.2
62.8
42.6
38.6
38.4
39.0
40.8
58
87.1
54.7
46.7
45.5
46.4
46.9
60.8
135.9
84.2
63.2
59.7
57.7
56.0
56.2
248.5
128.7
95.9
88.0
82.8
76.3
76.6
529.4
273.9
189.0
168.3
148.2
111.3
93.8
598
Table 2.
10.3
Results.
Reflector
No
Distance from
kiln apperture
Curvature
of radius
Focal area
no tilt mm
Focal area
tilt of 0.5 mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
1414
1203
1033
870
774
674
588
513
448
391
339
293
251
151.8
151.0
149.8
148.6
147.6
146.6
146.0
146.0
146.0
147.4
149.0
152.0
158.2
247.6
248.4
250.0
263.0
255.0
258.4
264.0
269.6
276.8
285.6
304.8
331.6
366.8
1000
910
850
800
750
680
640
590
540
500
450
410
370
599
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the work of Evangelos
Kourentis who undertook much of the laboratory and
fabrication work as part of a thesis for MSc Engineering
award.
REFERENCES
Ahsan S. (2004) Harnessing Power from the Sun. Daily Star
Cover Story February 13 2004. www.thedailystar.net/
magazine/2004/02/01/coverstory.htm
Asian Development Bank (1999). Country Assistance Plan.
www.bangladesh-review.co.uk.
Auroville (2005). The Solar Bowl. www.auroville.org/
research/ren/alturnative_energy/sites/solar_oven.htm_
Benson C, Clay E. (2003) Economic and Financial Impacts
of Natural Disasters: an Assessment of Their Effects and
600
601
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Advances in sustainability can be achieved by extending durability. Freeze and thaw damage is
a major source of degradation in limestone structures that causes cracking and increased porosity. The increase
in porosity tends to compromise durability further. Organic sealants used to curb the moisture intrusion are
associated with ground level ozone production. In addition, the limited penetration of these compounds tends
to cause freeze and thaw damage to occur deeper within the wall. This study investigated the application of reactive electrokinetic treatment to improve the strength and durability of limestone. The reactants in this case were
sodium silicate and calcium hydroxide. Treatments were applied to vertical surfaces using novel re-circulating
flow electrodes. A given treatment was applied for 12 days, during which sodium silicate was driven deeply into
the limestone block from one electrode and calcium hydroxide from the other. The reactants met inside the stone
and formed pore-blocking phases that increased the strength while reducing porosity. Freeze and thaw damage
was induced within specimens in accordance with ASTM D 5312. The treatments prevented deterioration of
porosity and strength. In other cases, the treatments appeared to reverse the effects of freeze and thaw damage.
Some treatments yielded strength increases of 100% and higher.
INTRODUCTION
Lime water
Lime Stone
Capillary Pore
Reaction Product
Rigid Support
Sponge with
Sodium Silicate Particles
BACKGROUND
603
appearance of spalled sections and popouts. The interior sections can also suffer cracking induced by freezing water. This damage can increase porosity and
degrade strength in the stone structure (Viklander and
Eigenbrod, 2002). During a period of thaw, resident
water can migrate to other parts of the pore system
where it can refreeze. These processes can thus cause
widespread damage throughout the material regions
that are subject to freeze and thaw cycling.
Surface treatments are used to seal outer surfaces
of masonry walls. These include polymeric as well as
ceramic species that can penetrate the pores to some
extent and even provide some strengthening of the
outer layer of the stone (Brus and Kotlik, 1996 and
Kumar and Ginell, 1997). Unfortunately, the depth of
penetration of these surface treatments tends to be
limited. Since no mechanically applied surface barrier
is completely without defect, water can migrate past
this layer through the process of capillary draw. Even in
the case of a perfect coating, water can still occupy
pores located on the interior side of the coating boundary but still close enough to the wall surface to permit
freeze and thaw damage. For organic sealants, high
VOC content creates disposal restrictions. In addition,
the simple use of these products directly contributes to
the production of ground level ozone which itself is
associated with respiratory health risks.
A more sustainable manner in which porosity and
permeability has been reduced in concrete is by electrokinetic agent transport (Otsuki and Ryu, 2001 and
2002). There are several transport phenomena through
which the ions and particles can migrate inside a
porous material such as stone, concrete, or soil. These
include capillary adsorption, ionic conduction, liquid
diffusion, electromigration, electrophoresis, and electroosmosis (Hearn, N., Hooton R.D, Mills, R.H.,
1994). The electrokinetic transport of nanoparticles is
largely influenced by electrophoresis, electroosmosis
and electromigration (Cardenas, 2002). The motion
of charged ions is termed electromigration
(Wieczorek, S., Weigand, H., 2004). The motion of
charged particles in the size range of colloids is
termed electrophoresis (Budhu, M., Rutherford, M.,
1997). The motion of fluid contained in pores when
an electric field is applied is referred to as electroosmosis (Devasenathipathy, S., Santiago, J. G., 2003).
In prior work applied to concrete, a voltage potential was used to transport charged ions and suspended
particles such as calcium and silicate ions and silica
particles into the pores of hardened cement paste
(Cardenas, 2002 and Cardenas and Struble, 2006).
These ions and particles reacted with available calcium inside the concrete to form precipitates of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the primary binder in
portland cement (Mindess et al., 1996, and Taylor,
p.296, 1997). The precipitate (C-S-H) forms when
calcium hydroxide is permitted to react with sodium
PROCEDURE
12.7 cm square cubes and 5.1-cm square cube specimens of Cordova Cream limestone were obtained from
Texas Quarries, Cedar Park, TX. Freeze and thaw
cycling was carried out according to ASTM D 5312.
Mass loss was monitored during the thermocycling
period. During the freezing cycle, each specimen was
maintained inside individual containers that were partially filled with water. They were placed in a freezer
and maintained at a temperature in the range of
18 to 20C for 12 hours. Following this period the
specimens were removed from the freezer in order to
commence a thawing cycle. During the thaw portion of
the cycle, the specimens were maintained at 32C for a
period of 8 hours. 10 freeze and thaw cycles were run for
each specimen in accordance with ASTM requirements.
The specimens were electrokinetically treated using
sodium silicate and saturated calcium hydroxide solution for 12 days. The sodium silicate was a 44 wt %
product manufactured by Oxychem, Dallas, TX. The
calcium hydroxide was a reagent grade material that
was combined with deionized water to yield a saturated solution that exceeded 0.17 g/l of dissolved calcium hydroxide. Each stone was sandwiched between
two sponge electrodes as shown Figure 1. The sponges
were manufactured by Armaly Brands, Walled Lake,
MI. The electrodes were manufactured by Corrpro.
Calcium hydroxide solution was pumped to the top
side of one sponge electrode and sodium silicate was
pumped to the top of the other sponge electrode. The
fluids were permitted to flow down through each
electrode. A voltage of approximately 1530 V was
used to provide a treatment of a constant current density of 1 A per square meter. The electric field drew
the reactive agents out of each sponge and into the
stone. A return port located at the bottom of each
sponge was used to capture the exiting flow and recirculate it back to the top. 4 liters of each treatment
fluid was circulated over the 12-day treatment period
using 800 liter per hour submersible pumps.
Several treatment cases were considered. Each
case was replicated a total of three times for each of
two specimen sizes, the 5.1-cm cube, and the 12.7-cm
cube. The cases are summarized as follows.
Case F-E:
Case E-F:
604
50 m
Figure 2. SEM image of specimen exposed to freeze and
thaw cycling.
Case F:
Case E:
Case C:
Compressive strengths were obtained for all specimens in accordance with ASTM C170. Components of
fractured specimens were used for microstructural
characterization using a Field Emission Scanning
Electron Microscope. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
was also conducted to assess chemical changes to
microstructures. Samples for these post-treatment analyses were removed from the geometric center of each
cube specimen.
For porosity testing, a 5-gram sample was acquired
from each fractured specimen. These samples were
immersed in lime water for approximately 20 days
until the specimen mass was stable. Immersion was not
required in cases involving electrokinetic treatment
since these specimens were already saturated. The
porosity was taken as mass of water lost (due to drying
at 105C) divided by the original mass of the specimen.
3
RESULTS
Figure 2 shows an image of the limestone microstructure that contains an apparent microcrack. This specimen was removed from the geometric center of a
specimen that was subjected to 10 freeze and thaw
cycles. The image shows a broad range of grain sizes.
These cracks appeared to propagate in between the
larger and smaller grains.
Figure 3 contains an energy dispersive spectroscopy
(EDS) spectrum obtained from the specimen shown
in Figure 2. This spectrum indicates the presence of
carbon, oxygen and calcium. Trace amounts of sulfur
and chlorine were also detected.
Figure 4 contains an SEM image of a limestone
specimen that was subjected to electrokinetic treatment with sodium silicate and calcium hydroxide. This
50 m
Figure 4. SEM image of an electrokinetically treated
specimen.
605
Table 2.
Specimen size
Case F
Case F-E
Case E-F
13 cm 13 cm cube
5 cm 5 cm cube
1.81
1.65
0.55
1.04
0.12
0.76
Table 3.
Treatment Case
(F-E) Freeze and thaw
exposure followed by
electrokinetic
treatment
(E-F) Electrokinetic
treatment followed
by freeze and thaw
exposure
(F) Freeze and thaw
exposure only
(E)Electrokinetic
treatment only
(C) Control, no
freeze and thaw and
cycling and no
treatment
Compressive
strength
(psi)
Porosity
(%)
1,600
2,600
880
15
2,800
1,300
10
Treatment case
F-E
E-F
F
E
C
96.58
95.99
99.20
95.90
99.11
Weight loss.
DISCUSSION
606
30.0
3,000
28.0
Strength (x100 psi)
25.0
26.0
Porosity (%)
20.0
2,000
15.0
10.0
15
16.0
13.0
10
8.8
9
7
1,000
5.0
0.0
C
0
0
10
15
20
F-E
E-F
Porosity, %
Figure 6. Relationship between altered porosity and strength.
increase in porosity. When it comes time to heal damage, this distinction is very important because filling
a circular pore with a restorative deposit is much easier to attain than it is to fill in the tip of an infinitely
sharp crack. It seems unlikely that the radical
increases in strength achieved in this work would be
realized if large numbers of infinitely sharp cracks
were in need of repair.
It is conceivable that damage repair from microcracking may largely manifest as a reduction in porosity. The pathways that allow access to water and that
become interconnected through freeze and thaw damage may also provide passage for restorative particles
(Figure 1). This behavior was observed in the undamaged porous path when the porosity of the undamaged
specimens was found to decrease from 10% to 6% as
a result of treatment. Similarly among the damaged
specimens, post-treatment reduced the apparent
porosity from 15% to 9%. In both the damaged and
undamaged cases, the resultant strength increases
were approximately 100%. Since the samples came
from the middle interior of the specimens, these
observations appeared to show that the original
porous path as well as the newly created paths and
microcracks could be penetrated deeply and effectively with these restorative treatments. This protection is more sustainable than could be achieved with a
surface sealant since the depth of the surface seal can
continue to permit sub-surface water to freeze.
Figure 7 contains a bar chart comparing the strengths
and porosities achieved in various cases involving both
controls and treated specimens. As mentioned earlier,
607
CONCLUSIONS
than the pre-damaged state. The treatments significantly reduced the susceptibility to freeze and thaw
damage by blocking the pores that enabled this degradation to occur. This work also showed that freeze and
thaw damage may be viewed as a damage-related
increase in porosity. When it comes to healing damage,
this distinction is very important because filling a circular pore with a restorative deposit is much easier to
do than it is to fill in the tip of an infinitely sharp crack.
It therefore seemed unlikely that the radical increases
in strength achieved in this work could be realized if
large numbers of infinitely sharp cracks were present.
This work also showed that a preventative treatment
may be significantly more effective at reducing freeze
and thaw damage as compared to a restorative treatment. This may be due to the single-direction in which
the treatments were oriented. This singular orientation
may have bi-passed some pore space regions that were
not well connected to the rest of the material. When
there was relatively little porosity to engage, this meant
that there were fewer possibilities of missing such
regions. The key sustainability feature of this work is
the avoidance of VOC-containing surface sealants that
lead to the development of ground level ozone. The
other key feature is the deep penetration of protective
inorganic sealants that avoids the possibility of subsurface freezing and thawing attack. Future work will
examine the best combination of treatment directions
needed to maximize treatment effectiveness along side
corridors of the pore network.
REFERENCES
ASTM. 1992. D 5312-92. Standard Test Method for
Evaluation of Durability of Rock for Erosion Control
Under Freezing and Thawing Conditions. American
Society For Testing Materials: Philadelphia.
ASTM. 1990. C 17090. Standard Test Method for
Compression Strength of Dimension Stone. American
Society For Testing Materials: Philadelphia.
Brus, J., and Kotlik, P. 1996. Consolidation of Stone by
Mixtures of Alkoxysilane and Acrylic Polymer, Studies
in Conservation, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 109119.
Cardenas H. 2002. Investigation of Reactive Electrokinetic
processes for Permeability reduction in Hardened
Cement Paste, Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, pp.1.
Cardenas, H., Struble, L. 2006. Modeling Electrokinetic
Nanoparticle Treatment for Permeability Reduction in
Hardened Cement Paste, American Society of Civil
Engineers Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
Vol. 18, No. 4, June/July, pp. 554560.
Kumar, R., Ginell, W. S. 1997. A New Technique for Depth
of Penetration of Consolidants into Limestone Using
Iodine Vapor, Journal of the American Institute of
Conservation, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 14350.
Mindess, S., Young, J. F., and Darwin. D. 1996. Concrete,
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
608
609
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
J. Elsen
Department of Geography and Geology, Physico-chemical Geology Section, K.U. Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
ABSTRACT: Hardening of calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate binders composed of cement, rice husk ash
(RHA) and lime in different compositions were studied with mortars using thermal analysis, mechanical strength
and SEM. When cement is partially replaced with RHA and lime, hardening occurs as a result of combined
hydration, pozzolanic reaction and carbonation reaction. While hydration of cement contributes to the early
strength development of the mortars, carbonation is much more pronounced at later stage with the decrease in the
cement content and increase in the porosity of the mortars. RHA-cement mortars indicated a long-term strength
development, which is lower than that of the reference cement mortar. This was attributed to their higher porosity due to the high water demand of the porous RHA grains. Strength reduction was recorded at the very early
stage for RHA-cement-lime mortars containing 10%-wt cement as well as RHA-lime mortars. This has been
explained with the insufficient cement content, destructive effect of the calcium carbonate phases on the initially
hydrated cement phases and partial carbonation of the initially hydrated phases. This decrease can also be related
to the presence of excess RHA in the matrix as excess silica can react with the initially formed C-S-H phase,
which can lead to the formation of polymerized C-S-H phase.
INTRODUCTION
The use of artificial pozzolana as a partial replacement with cement in mortar and concrete has been
considered recently in order to produce durable, lowcost and sustainable mortar and concrete. Alternative
cement blends containing waste materials as artificial
pozzolana such as fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace
slag and rice husk ash have the advantage of energy
saving, cost reduction, recycling of the wastes and
reduction of the carbon dioxide emission during cement
production. Such cement blends are known to have
promising results for the production of high performance concrete.
It is crucial to fully understand the hardening mechanism of cement-pozzolana blends since the presence
of the pozzolana influences the progress of cement
hydration and its compounds to some extend. The main
hardening mechanism is a combined reaction composed of cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction,
which is rather complicated as each reaction follow different reaction processes at different rates. Additional
hydrated phases are formed upon pozzolanic reaction
611
RESEARCH PROGRAMME
Materials
Portland cement (CEM I 52.5 N), RHA and commercial lime hydrate were used for the production of
supplementary cementitious binders for mortars.
The lime hydrate is composed of 83.22% calcium
hydroxide content with a Blaine specific surface area
of 19,464 cm2/g and a mean value of its particle size
distribution of 4.40 m.
Table 1.
Composition
(%)
SO3
CaO
MgO
SiO2
Fe2O3
K2O
Loss on ignition at 975C
0.25
0.78
0.53
90.86
0.24
1.13
2.49
Cr: Cristobalite
Tr: Tridymite
Q: Quartz
Cr,Tr
Q
Q,Tr
Tr
Cr,Tr
Tr
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Cr
55
60
65
70
2 Theta []
Figure 1.
2.2
RHA was provided from Tanzania where the ash samples were obtained by burning rice husks in a local
kiln under poorly controlled conditions. The RHA is
composed of high contents of silica (90.86%-wt) and
low contents of carbon (2.49%-wt) (Table 1). XRD
analysis indicated the amorphous nature of the silica
due to the broad band between 1530 2 and certain
amounts of cristobalite and tridymite as crystalline
silica (Figure 1). The latter gives evidence to high
burning temperatures (8001000C) leading to the
crystallization of the amorphous silica. This is the
result of the poorly controlled burning conditions in
the kiln, creating locally high temperatures [Shinohara
and Kohyama 2004].
Reactivity of the RHA with lime significantly
depends on its specific surface area which is controlled
by unburnt carbon particles that are very porous.
Recent studies have reported a significant influence
of grinding time on the specific surface area of the
RHA [Bui 2001]. Therefore, RHA was ground to various degrees of fineness using a laboratory vibrating
ring mill in order to determine the optimum grinding
time for achieving adequate pozzolanic activity. Upon
initial grinding until 10 minutes, the specific surface
area increased as a result of a decrease in the particle
diameter of the ashes (Figure 2). However, further
grinding caused a decrease in the specific surface area
of the RHA even though the fineness of the particles
remained mostly the same. This decrease was reported
612
2.2E+04
CaCO3
Ca(OH)2
2.1E+04
2.0E+04
C-S-H
28 days
1.9E+04
1.8E+04
1.7E+04
1.6E+04
1.5E+04
21 days
1.4E+04
1.3E+04
1.2E+04
1.1E+04
8.0E+03
2
10
20
30
40
14 days
DTG [mg/mg/C]
1.0E+04
9.0E+03
80
7 days
3 days
2.2E+04
2.1E+04
2.0E+04
RHA10
1.9E+04
1.8E+04
RHA20
0.001
1.7E+04
1.6E+04
RHA80
1.5E+04
1.4E+04
1.3E+04
1.0E+04
8.0E+03
0.55
400
600
800
1000
Temperature [C]
RHA30
1.1E+04
9.0E+03
200
RHA40
1.2E+04
RHA02
0.65
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.35
1.45
90
80
100
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Figure 5.
in time.
Mortar compositions
613
Table 2.
Cement
Lime
Water/binder
Flow
Mortar
(%)
(%)
(%)
(by weight)
(mm)
Cref
RHA-C.3-7
RHA-C.5-5
RHA-C.7-3
RHA-C-L.7-1-2
RHA-C-L.5-1-4
30
50
70
70
50
100
70
50
30
10
10
20
40
0.48
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.82
144
150
146
147
151
148
RHA
Sand
Binder/sand
Binder/sand
Water/binder
Mortar
(g)
(g)
(g)
(by volume)
(by weight)
(by weight)
RHA-Lwt
RHA-Lvol
225
87.5
225
87.5
1350
1350
1:3
1:3
1:7.7
0.80
1.25
Methods
3
3.1
RESULTS
Thermal analysis
614
120 days
120 days
RHA-C.3-7
60 days
90 days
DTG [mg/mg/C]
DTG [mg/mg/C]
90 days
120 days
RHA-C.5-5
90 days
DTG [mg/mg/C]
Cref
60 days
60 days
28 days
28 days
28 days
7 days
7 days
7 days
0.0002
0.0002
200
400
600
800
1000
200
Figure 6.
400
600
800
200
400
600
800
1000
Temperature (C)
DTG of the Cref, RHA-C.3-7 and RHA-C.5-5 mortars at 7, 28, 60, 90 and 120 days of hardening.
RHA-C-L.5-1-4
RHA-C-L.7-1-2
DTG [mg/mg/C]
DTG [mg/mg/C]
28 days
RHA-Lvol
90 days
60 days
60 days
28 days
7 days
7 days
0.0003
0
1000
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
DTG [mg/mg/C]
0.0002
60 days
0.0003
200
400
600
800
1000
Temperature (C)
200
400
600
800
Temperature (C)
1000
28days
in a decrease in the hydrated phases. In the RHAcement-lime mortars and RHA-lime, carbonated
phases are much more pronounced than the hydrated
phases (Figs. 7,8).
3.2
Mechanical strength
200
400
600
800
1000
Temperature [C]
Figure 8.
90 days.
RHA at 30%, 50% and 70%-wt respectively. RHAC.3-7 and RHA-C.5-5 mortars yielded an increasing
flexural strength development until 360 days whereas
no strength increase was recorded for the RHA-C.7-3
mortar after 120 days. Early strength development of
the RHA-C.3-7 mortar between 7 and 28 days was
615
11
0.40
10
0.35
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
1
0.00
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
30
60
90
Cref
RHA-C.3-7
RHA-C.5-5
RHA-L.wt
RHA-C.7-3
150
180
RHA-L.vol
Figure 11. Reduction in the flexural strength of the RHAlime mortars after 60 days.
0.14
0.8
0.7
Flexural strength (N/mm)
120
Time (days)
Time (days)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.0
0
30
60
90
120
RHA-C-L.5-1-4
240
270
300
330
0
0.001
360
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
RHA-C-L.7-1-2
RHA-C.3-7
RHA-C.5-5
RHA-C.7-3
RHA-C-L.5-1-4
RHA-C-L.7-1-2
Figure 10. Reduction in the flexural strength of the RHAcement-lime mortars after 28 days.
Use of RHA and lime together with cement led to modification in the microstructure of the mortars. The
microstructure of the reference cement mortar was
composed of needle-like and reticular C-S-H phase,
and calcium hydroxide crystals formed inside the pores
and in the cement matrix (Figure 13). RHA-cement
mortars were characterized by the microstructure with
flocs-like and fibrous-like C-S-H phase that were well
connected to each other (Figure 14). Needle-like C-S-H
616
617
Figure 18. SEM micrograph of the matrix of the RHAC-L.5-1-4 mortar at 28 days, indicating amorphous hydrated
phases.
Figure 19. SEM micrograph of the matrix of the RHAC-L. 5-1-4 mortar at 60 days when strength reduction was
observed.
RHA-cement-lime mortars exhibited a totally different microstructure when compared with the RHAcement mortars. The early-stage matrix was mostly
characterized by amorphous C-S-H phase with large
pores in-between (Figure 18) while this microstructure
was modified upon hardening. The matrix at 60 and
120 days was composed of silica-rich and carbonated
dense phases which agglomerated with rather large
pores in-between (Figure 19). Clusters of needle-like
crystals and hexagonal plate-like crystals were observed
in the matrix of these mortars at all stages of hardening,
mostly at 120 days (Figure 20).
Microstructure of the RHA-L mortars revealed
some similarities with that of the RHA-cement-lime
mortars with the morphology of the carbonated
phases (Figure 21). However, needle-like crystals
DISCUSSION
Blended binders composed of RHA-cement, RHAcement-lime and RHA-lime revealed different hardening reactions, strength development and microstructure.
Thermal analysis results indicated that while hardening
of the reference cement mortar was governed by the
cement hydration, that of RHA-cement mortars
occurred as a result of early-stage cement hydration
combined with pozzolanic reaction and carbonation
at later stage (Figure 6). Decrease in the calcium
hydroxide content in the RHA-cement mortars upon
618
cement mortar was characterized by large pores containing needle-like and reticular C-S-H phases (Figs. 13,14).
RHA-cement-lime mortars revealed totally different
hardening mechanism and relatively lower strength
values when compared with those of the RHA-cement
mortars. Strength reduction was recorded at the very
early stage of 28 days and continued until 360 days of
hardening (Figure 10). This reduction was also reported
in the literature for the same type of mortar composition
after 28 weeks [Stroeven et al 1999] and for ternary
grouts containing 10%-wt cement after 60 days or
more [Van Rickstal et al. 2003]. As the cement content
was relatively low (10%-wt) in the composition of the
RHA-cement-lime mortars, its hydration would be at
the very early stage together with the pozzolanic reaction, and carbonation would be expected to be much
more effective at later stage. This has been verified by
thermal analysis results revealing that hydration and
pozzolanic reaction were effective until 28 days when
the highest strength values were recorded. Carbonation
was much more pronounced at 60 days when strength
reduction was recorded. This could indicate that calcium carbonate phases formed afterwards could have
a destructive effect on the initially hydrated cement
phases. In addition, decalcification of the C-S-H phase
is possible due to the slight decrease in the intensity
of the C-S-H peak and increase in the intensity of the
peak of carbonated phases at 60 days. The overall effect
of this would be to weaken rather than to strengthen
the existing C-S-H phase. Dry curing conditions
(60% R.H.) should be considered for the progress of
the hardening reactions as it is more ideal for the carbonation rather than for the cement hydration and
pozzolanic reaction.
Strength reduction of the RHA-cement-lime mortars
can be related with their microstructure that has modified upon hardening. Amorphous C-S-H phase can be
observed at the 28 days (Figure 18) while the matrix is
quite poor at 60 and 120 days with the silica-rich carbonated dense phases that were agglomerated with
rather large pores in-between (Figs. 19,20). This can
strengthen the finding on the decalcification of the
initially hydrated phases, which was determined by thermal analysis. This verifies that the carbonation has negative consequences on the microstructure of the initially
hydrated phases, leading to a decrease in the strength of
the mortar. In agreement with the earlier research, it can
be concluded that 10%-wt cement was not sufficient for
the long-term strength development of these ternary
blended mortars [Van Rickstal et al. 2003].
Concerning the results on the RHA-lime mortars,
hardening occurs as a result of rapid pozzolanic reaction within 28 days and carbonation mostly after that
period (Figure 8). The rapid consumption of lime by
highly reactive RHA resulted in the formation of C-S-H
phase. Strength reduction recorded after 60 and 90 days
of hardening can be explained with the phenomenon
619
given for the strength reduction of the RHA-cementlime mortars. This decrease in both mortar compositions can be also related with the presence of excess
amount of the unreacted RHA in the matrix as all of the
lime was consumed mostly by highly reactive RHA and
carbonation reaction. It is reported in the literature that
when all lime is consumed, the excess silica can react
with the initially formed C-S-H phase, which will lead
to the formation of highly polymerized C-S-H phase
[Wu and Young 1984]. The overall effect of this was
reported to be a decrease in the Ca/Si (1.0) of the
existing C-S-H. In this case, it seems that 1:1 RHA:lime
is not suitable for the binder composition of the lime
mortar. Decrease in the RHA amount and increase in
the lime content can help in maintaining the C-S-H
structure, promoting the carbonation reaction and contributing the long-term strength development of the
lime mortar.
5
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is the part of an ongoing Research Project
(OT/04 3E030765) conducted at the Department of
Civil Engineering and a Master thesis research
Performance Evaluation of Pozzolanic Rice Husk
Ash Binder in Tanzania by Jan Campforts at the
K.U.Leuven. The research grant offered to Ozlem
Cizer by the OT/04 project funded by the K.U.Leuven
is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Bui D.D. 2001. Rice husk ash as a mineral admixture for
high performance concrete, PhD Dissertation, TUDelft,
The Netherlands.
Bui D.D., Hu J. & Stroeven P. 2005. Particle size effect on
the strength of rice husk ash blended gap-graded Portland
cement concrete, Cem. Concr. Comp. 27: 357366.
Chengzhi Z., Aiqin W. & Mingshu T. 1996. The filling role
of pozzolanic material. Cem. Concr. Res. 26: 943947.
Collepardi M., Baldini G., Pauri M. & Corradi M. 1978.
Tricalcium aluminate hydration in the presence of lime,
gypsum or sodium sulphate, Cem. Concr. Res. 8:
571580.
EN 196-1. 1987. Methods of testing cement-Part 1:
Determination of strength. European Standard.
Isia G.C., Gastaldini A.L.G. & Moraes R. 2003. Physical
and pozzolanic action of mineral additions on the
mechanical strength of high-performance concrete, Cem.
Concr. Comp. 25: 6976.
Luxan M.P., Madruga F. & Saavedra J. 1989. Rapid evaluation of pozzolanic activity of natural products by conductivity measurement, Cement and Concrete Research 19:
6368.
Massazza F. 1998. Pozzolana and pozzolanic cements. In:
Hewlett P.C. (ed.), Leas Chemistry of Cement and
Concrete, 4th ed.: 471631, Arnold Publishers, London.
Mehta P.K. 1981. Studies on blended Portland cements containing Santorin earth, Cem. Concr. Res. 11: 507518.
Mehta P.K. & Gjorv O.E. 1982. Properties of Portland
cement concrete containing fly ash and condensed silica
fume, Cem. Concr. Res. 12: 587595.
Nehdi M., Duquette J. & El Damatty A. 2003. Performance
of rice husk ash produced using a new technology as a
mineral admixture in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 33:
12031210.
Ogawa K., Uchikawa H. & Takemoto K. 1980. The mechanism of the hydration in the system C3S-pozzolana,
Cem. Concr. Res. 10: 683696.
Rodriguez de Sensale G. 2006. Strength development of concrete with rice-husk ash, Cem. Concr. Comp. 28: 158160.
Sharara A., Didamony H., Ebied E. & El-Aleem A. 1994.
Hydration characteristics of -C2S in the presence of some
pozzolanic materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 24: 966974.
Shinohara Y. & Kohyama N. 2004. Quantitative analysis of
tridymite and cristobalite crystallized in rice husk ash by
heating, Industrial Health 42: 277285.
Sousa Coutinho J. 2003. The combined benefits of CPF and
RHA in improving the durability of concrete structures,
Cem. Concr. Comp. 25: 5159.
620
621
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The paper describes the construction and monitoring of pilot scale composite emplacements at
two sites in Yorkshire, in which designed combinations of coarse mineral (limestone, coal shale or construction
& demolition waste) were compacted together with fines (stabilised sewage sludge with fly ash and lime or
sodium hydrogen sulphate) within lined systems. Results after 1824 months indicated that the composites
were mechanically and microbiologically stable, and effectively isolated from the surrounding environment.
The emplacements termed Biostore showed the potential for sustainable waste management by permanent
co-utilisation of organic and mineral wastes in civil engineering groundwork for brown field site restoration to
amenities or the light built environment.
INTRODUCTION
623
lime in the mass ratio 17:5:3, respectively). The specimens exhibited unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) in the range 220250 kPa, similar to stiff soil or
soft rock, after 28 days of curing. They showed hydraulic
conductivity and porosity of 0.55 107 m/s and
1114%, respectively. The values of UCS were satisfactory for use of these materials in engineering foundations while the hydraulic conductivity indicated the
need for lining systems to protect the environment.
Figure 1 shows ettringite growth on fly ash spheres
believed to be partly responsible for the observed
strength development.
Figure 1. Fly ash spheres in a sewage sludge matrix showing needle-like ettringite crystallization.
Figure 2. Pipes
construction.
METHODOLOGY
Pipe emplacement
624
14
(foreground
to
background)
Area emplacement
Table 1.
Materials
Pipe 1 acidic
Pipe 2 alkaline
Pipe 3 alkaline
Pipe 4 control
Limestone 0.52 cm
Limestone 510 cm
Burned shale 520 cm
TCSS mixture
TCSS compacted
Fly ash
CaO
DSS mixture
DSS compacted
Fly ash
CaO
NaHSO4
Total biostore mass
Clay & gravel layers
Water added
Weight of pipe
Total weight
353
536
520
201
217
104
31
23
120
280
20
653
77
25
154
909
105
32
25
698
77
62
154
991
678
77
100
154
1009
538
77
100
129
844
625
Figure 3.
Pipe
area at the surface and containing Biostore to a maximum depth of 3 m, approximately the minimum
dimensions required to achieve results relevant to
practical ground surface. It adopted the materials and
proportions derived from the pipe systems and, with
the exception of Yorkshire Water treated conditioned
sewage sludge, Lhoist lime and Wyoming bentonite,
was constructed entirely with materials and equipment provided by Biffa Waste Management, which
were already on site.
The structure was set in the mixed fly ash/spoil
horizon typical of that part of the former Oxbow
Colliery, later used as a fly ash lagoon for the Skelton
Grange power station (also now closed and dismantled). It was therefore subject in principle to movement as a whole, a fact taken into account by
surveying to blocks within the structure to assess
Biostore stability rather than to external reference
points. Ideally the structure should have a conventional profile (slopes 1:2) for security and be much
Material
Volume m3
BOTTOM LAYERS
Drainage layer
Clay layer
BIOSTORE LAYERS
Fly ash
Quicklime
TCSS
Construction &
demolition rubble
SIDES
Clay
Top layers (capping)
Clay and spoil
13
2
Quantities tonne
3
26
52
7
4
27
62
27
54
24
48
626
mixture of TCSS, fly ash and lime in the ratio mentioned above, mixed by machinery on site. Heat and
steam were evolved during mixing. For emplacement,
a layer of about 30 cm sludge was covered by a layer
of 30 cm C&D material. The sludge was wetted from
a bowser to increase its plasticity and compacted with
the aid of the excavator.
Nominally 10 layers were so prepared and compacted, and the final surface was similarly covered with
clay (0.5 m) and spoil (0.5 m). A 5 tonne load (C&D
material plus a large rock), equivalent to approximately 2 tonnes/m2 (the same as in the Bradley pipe
trial), was applied after three months. Regular monitoring (monthly) was carried out to check for any gas
emanation and collect leachate for analysis. Any relative movement either vertical or horizontal of the
blocks beneath the three pipes was measured by standard surveying techniques (spirit levelling and electronic distance measurement). This area emplacement
was regulated by means of an Environment Agency
waste management licence.
627
3500
1.6
NH3
2500
As
Co
Mo
Ni
1.4
TOC
Concentration (mg/L)
3000
2000
1500
1000
500
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
01/08/04 20/09/04 09/11/04 29/12/04 17/02/05 08/04/05 28/05/05 17/07/05
date
Figure 5. Pore water ammonia and organic carbon composition from alkaline Biostore in Pipe 3.
water. Cuts through pipes 2 and 3 after test work facilitated direct observations of internal structures: solid
and leachate analysis, indicated the maintenance of
high pH and significant pozzolanic hardening. It had
been predicted that the mechanical integrity of the
alkaline Biostore would increase through pozzolanic
re-crystallization with time [Mindness & Young
1981]. Conditions were anoxic but without evidence
of anaerobic bacterial activity. Recovered pore water
had moderate conductivity (68 mS/cm) but little free
water remained. Thus, chemical reaction had resulted
in consumption of oxygen and partial hydrolysis of
the sludge materials. Figure 5 shows dissolved ammonia and total organic carbon determined over one year
for Pipe 3, which, owing to its relatively large hydraulic
head, yielded leachate more reliably from the bottom
tap. This leachate yield was the main apparent difference between Pipes 2 and 3. As can be seen in Figure 5,
ammonia was fairly stable in the range 0.50.65 g/L
while organic carbon varied more erratically between
1.53.0 g/L, although with most readings close to the
average value of about 2.0 g/L. These concentrations
were as might be expected for an alkaline leachate
from sewage sludge [Bagchi 1994] [Reinhart & Grosh
1998].
Figure 6 gives typical examples of heavy metal concentrations leached from the Biostore in Pipe 3. The
values were, as expected, low and approximately constant, although slightly elevated with respect to trigger
levels given in the groundwater Dutch list [Netherlands
Ministeire van Volkshuisvesting Roe 1994].
The Biostore in Pipe 4 was a neutral control.
Analysis of leachate indicated increased conductivity
(914 mS/cm), probably the result of greater reactivity in the presence of active bacteria. The total organic
carbon was slightly lower than in Pipes 2 and 3, possibly owing to re-use of carbon by bacteria. An absence
of significant pressure increase suggested a slow
process toward fully anaerobic conditions and, possibly, greater sulphate reduction than methanogenesis.
date
Figure 6. Typical pore water metal composition from alkaline Biostore in Pipe 3.
628
Area emplacement
Figure 7.
2005.
629
brought-in materials, and should become mechanically competent, stable and effectively isolated from
the outside environment. Costly separation and disposal will be obviated. Because of the simple physical
processing base, expensive additives or heat treatments will also be avoided. Moreover, on account of
immediate stability and permanence, relaxation of the
landfill tax requirements may be appropriate. Thus,
several current material management problems are
addressed. Not only will pipe end waste producers
gain access to this management route, but also site
owners and construction companies will benefit from
an additional re-development methodology. A large
potential application exists. Much of the contaminated land in industrial and urban areas suited in principle to this proposed technology over the short to
medium term. In the longer term application is possible as part of general urban regeneration and development. Each hectare emplaced to a depth of 10 m could
in principle utilise some 35,000 tonnes of judiciously
mixed materials equivalent to the annual raw sludge
output of many sewage treatment works. A wide variety of shapes, sizes and materials mineral and
organic, coarse and fine, in-situ or local import
would be potentially applicable. If this technology is
successfully developed and authorised, significant
reductions in requirements for landfill, incineration
and disposal can be anticipated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Project staff at Imperial College, British Geological
Survey and Clean Rivers Trust would like to acknowledge support from Biffaward, Biffa Waste
Management, Yorkshire Water Services and the
Institution of Civil Engineers. Particular thanks are
due to Ian Fairless and Tom Taylor (Yorkshire Water
Services) and Mike Winterbottom (Biffa Waste
Management) for advice, materials supply and site
access and to Lindon Sear (UKQAA) and James Ng
(Lhoist UK) for provision of fly ash and quicklime,
respectively. They also appreciate the assistance of
John Harrison, Irina Tarasova, Graham Nash, Pavlos
Tyrologou, Steve Bouzalakos, Kimberley Neville,
Barry Coles and Ines Baptista.
REFERENCES
630
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Composting industry is a progressive and innovative industry that has been growing worldwide,
especially in the last 20 years. Firstly, in this paper, an overview of fundamentals and processes on composting
and anaerobic digestion are compiled, showing the versatility and multivariable profile of these processes.
Secondly, a methodological proposal for a mid-size city is presented. It is proposed that the biodegradable part
of the municipal solid waste, called BSW, can be efficiently composted with wastewater sludge, wood ash, coal
ash, lime-kiln dust, and/or limestone quarry dust to improve the profile of the compost. In addition, anaerobic
decomposition followed by vermicomposting is pointed as one of the best and efficient MSW treatment system,
since it may reduce total time of the composting process. Furthermore, it generates liquid fertilizer and biogas,
which provides energy to supply the composting plant. This makes the plant auto-sustainable in energy. Finally,
an outline using real data from the City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, is being presented to illustrate an
example of this proposed methodology of efficient composting.
INTRODUCTION
631
OVERVIEW OF COMPOSTING
AND ANAEROBIC
DIGESTION FUNDAMENTALS
AND PROCESSES
2.1
Biological fundamentals
In anaerobic digestion, four different types of microorganisms are responsible for the the degradation of
MSW: hydrolytic, fermentative, acetogenic, and
methanogenic [Braber 1995]. In the first step of anaerobic digestion (depolymerization), the hydrolytic bacteria are responsible for depolymerization of polymeric
solid substrates into smaller molecules such as organic
acids, alcohols, and the methanogenic substrates. Some
bacteria involved in this step are: Bacteroides succinogenes, Clostridium lochhadii, Clostridium cellobioporus, Ruminococcus flavefaciens, Rumminococcus
albus, Butyrivibriofibrisolvens, Clostridium thermocellum, Clostridium stercorarium, and Micromonospora
bispora. In anaerobic digesters with MSW, the predominant bacteria are Clostridia. In this stage, typically only
50% of the organic matter is degraded. Also, some
intermediate reactions occur: for example, products of
depolymerization reactions are converted to fermentation products [Chynoweth & Pullammanappallil 1996].
The last step is the methanogenesis. Methanogic
bacteria are slow-growing anaerobes that degrade
acetate, methanol, carbon dioxide, formate, carbon
monoxide, methylamines, methyl mercaptans, and
reduced metals [Chynoweth & Pullammanappallil
1996].
A variety of microorganisms are present in a composting system. Even though the microbial population
may be vast, the main microorganisms that affect the
composting system are fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria. Also present are protozoa and algae [Stoffela &
Kahn 2001]. Bacteria and fungi are the most important
microorganisms for composting [Haug 1993].
A composting system may contain three classes
of microorganisms: cryophiles or psychrofiles,
mesophiles, and thermophiles [Stoffela & Kahn
2001]. Cryophiles bacteria do their best work at about
13C, although they work even until 20C. Between
0C to 40C, mesophilic bacteria predominate. Above
this temperature, thermophilic bacteria work faster.
When the temperature of the compost comes down,
mesophilic bacteria again predominate [Wassenaar
2003].
Considering a windrow system, mesophiles and
thermophiles are the most common microorganisms
in composting, contributing to composting at different
times of the process. This has four different stages. In
the first stage, there are abundance of substrate and
mesophiles that are predominant and very active.
During this stage, large quantities of heat energy are
generated, which increases the temperature of the
compost pile. The favorable temperatures to this kind
of microorganism are between 35C and 45C [Miller
1996, Stofella & Kahn 2001].
As the temperature rises, it becomes more favorable to thermophiles, for which the best temperature
632
Chemical fundamentals
Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) are essential to the composting process. Carbon provides the primary energy
source and it is utilized for cellular growth. Nitrogen
is also essential to the growth of microorganisms in
633
Physical fundamentals
Moisture content is an important variable in composting process in order for the bacteria to assimilate their
nutrients that could be dissolved in water. Moisture
comes from the original moisture of substrates and
from the biological oxidation of organic matter. It is
lost through evaporation. Diaz et al. [1993] have
stated that the microbial activity ceases when the
moisture is less than 8% to 15%. It is reported that it
may start to occur when the moisture content is about
12% to 15% [Stofella & Kahn 2001]. The desirable
moisture content is between 50% and 60% [Epstein
1997, Hamoda et al. 1998, Stofella & Kahn 2001];
although, for domestic waste, the optimum moisture
is between 52% and 58% and for food waste it is
60%. Lower moisture levels can make composting
facility operators prematurely conclude that their
compost process has stabilized. In addition, microbial
activity decreases when moisture is below 40%. On the
other hand, high moisture levels (above 60%) can block
the air passageways, enabling anaerobic conditions
with the potential for odor formation. Composting
containing materials with structural strength, with a
degree of resistance of individual particles to consolidate under compression, (e.g., woodchips, straw, hay
(dried grass), rice hulls, and corn stover) can tolerate
high moisture of about 75% to 80%. On the other hand,
if particles are structurally weak, they are deformed and
compressed upon compression, and the volume of
interstices is proportionally reduced, which means that
it reduces the available space for air and water; so, the
permissible water content is lower. Fruit wastes, caning
process wastes, sludge, and manures are example of
materials that have little or no structural strength. In this
case, it is necessary to add a bulking material, which
will improve the strength of the compost material. Any
material can be added with a high degree of structural
strength or even finished compost material (which is
usual), or some amorphous material can be added after
undergoing a specific process [Diaz et al. 1993].
Particle size affects moisture retention, free air
space, and porosity of the compost mixture. Large
Thermodynamics fundamentals
The designer of a composting plant needs to understand the microbes involved, reactions they mediate
to obtain energy, environmental conditions required
for growth and metabolism, and, in certain cases, conditions required to kill organisms such as pathogens
[Haug 1993].
The First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of the
conservation of energy. The concepts of heat, work,
internal energy, and enthalpy are related to the First
Law. The Second Law of Thermodynamics resulted
from a search to explain the direction in which spontaneous process would occur. The concept of free
energy was developed from the First and Second
Laws. Free energy gives the useful work, which can
be derived from a chemical reaction that occurs under
constant pressure and temperature conditions (most
microbial reactions occur under such conditions). The
water and solid fractions of a composting material
can be treated as separate components from a thermodynamic standpoint, which allows calculating the
energy balance of a composting process [Haug 1993].
Interesting studies were done in this area very
recently. For instance, mass and energy balances of
four alternatives strategies were examined for energy
recovery from MSW by dedicated waste-to-energy
plants generating electricity through a steam cycle.
The largest energy savings were achieved by combusting materials recovery without treatment in large
scale plants [Consonni et al. 2005]. In another study,
energy conservation and carbon dioxide emission
634
Composting
process is based on passive aeration, natural decomposition, to produce compost. It is normally used to
slowly decompose cellulostic feedstocks, such as
leaves, brush, bark, wood chips, and some agriculture
residues. Feedstocks may be combined and mixed to
adjust moisture, porosity, density, and/or C/N ratio.
After the pile is formed, this is turned with a bucket
loader every one to three month, resulting in one or
two turnings during the composting cycle [Stoffela &
Kahn 2001].
For the static pile process, it is difficult to maintain
the aerobic condition; usually, aerobic condition
exists only within one to three meters from the pile
surface and perhaps along air channels that form
within the pile. However, oxygen conditions can be
improved with well-mixed feedstocks and with the
increasing of porosity.
One of the most common assisted passive aerated
methods is the Passively Aerated Windrow System
(PAWS). This method involves short windrows with
one to three meters height and they are not turned.
There are some characteristics usually common for
any variation of this method: feedstocks have homogeneous and relatively porous mixture; a delivery system for passive air flow; a base layer of stable absorbent
material like straw or compost; and an exterior layer
(approximately 150 mm thick) of stable coarse material that retains heat, moisture, odor, and NH3.
In the aerate static piles method, fans aerate the
composting materials. It improves aeration, reduces
the processing time, and reduces the potential to produce odors, while providing oxygen, cooling the pile
and removing water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
products. There is no intentional turning or agitation;
it occurs just when materials are moved [Stofella &
Kahn 2001].
Some advantages of this method are that it is simple, requires less area than passively aerated methods
and turned windrows, while aerating is better. In addition, it can be enclosed within a building because it is
a more compact process and require less space
[Stofella & Kahn 2001]. Additionally, static piles are
not required to be turned regularly [Manser &
Keeling 1996]. This method, however, requires attention due to compaction, short circuiting of air, and
inconsistent decomposition within a batch of compost
[Stoffela & Kahn 2001]. Moreover this system needs
a power supply for the fans, and a control system to
alternate the fans between suction and blowing.
Another problem is that the air pipe could be in the
way of handling equipment inside a plant, interfering
in the process [Manser & Keeling 1996].
Within the vertical processes, there are agitated
solids bed and packed bed. Agitated solids beds have
multiple hearths; solids are agitated during movement
down the reactor, with forced aeration. Feeding can be
continuous or intermittent and there is some mixing
635
in reactor. A very good example of this type of reactor is the NGK reactor that began operation in 1989 in
Japan. In this system, two reactors are provided, each
with six cells arranged vertically. The facility composts slightly over two dry tons/day (2,000 kg/day) of
lime and ferric conditioned, raw sewage sludge, filtered press cakes. Packed bed (silo reactors) are usually used for composting of sludge cake amended with
sawdust and other materials [Haug 1993]. Periodic
transfers of solids from the bottom to the top of the
reactor occur [Haug 1993, Stofella & Kahn 2001],
allowing agitation of the solids. Feedstocks must be
mixed before loading. The time that the material
remains in the silo ranges from 10 to 30 days, depending on the application [Stofella & Kahn 2001].
Within the horizontal and inclined solids flow,
there are the tumbling solids bed, agitated solids bed,
and static solids bed. Tumbling solids bed (rotary
drums or kilns) have drums usually slightly inclined,
rotating slowly (continuously or intermittently), tumbling the material inside. With this movement, the
material is mixed, agitated, and moved through the
drum or kiln. Feedstocks are feed at the top of
the drum and the compost is removed at the opposite
side [Stoffela & Kahn 2001]. Agitated solids beds
have two variations (agitated bins or open channels).
One has cylindrical tanks with a set of screws that
allows air to be discharged into composting material.
If retention time is less than two or three weeks, the
material must be finished in windrows [Diaz et al.
1993]. The other has rectangular bins. Feedstocks are
placed into designated cells along the bin length, and
they are turned about once a week. They remain in the
system for about six days and the material is allowed to
mature in windrows over one to two months. This system combines forced aeration with tumbling; the air is
forced through the composting mass at least once each
day [Diaz et al. 1993, Stofella & Kahn 2001]. For the
static solids bed there are two types: tunnel reactor and
conveyor type. This system has been applied to a variety of feedstocks, for example: sludge, manure, and
MSW fractions. The vessel is essentially a plug flow,
tubular reactor or tunnel of rectangular cross section.
One design uses a pusher plate with forward and backward movement which is situated at the feed end of the
tunnel. Air can be supplied and gases can be removed
along the length of the reactor [Haug 1993].
Nonflow reactors (compost boxes) are very simple
systems in which materials are loaded in the box reactor and remain there for 7 to 14 days. Aeration is usually controlled and curing is usually conducted in
windrows for several months afterwards [Haug 1993].
2.6
Anaerobic digestion
636
Other processes
Although Milwaukee has recycling plants for newspaper, office paper and cardboard, aluminum and steel/tin
cans, glass bottles and jars, and # 1 and 2 plastic containers, and has already plants for composting yard
trimmings, in this paper a new methodological proposal is being advocated for Milwaukee (or, any other
mid-size cities in USA) that would cover the recycling
of the whole amount of MSW generated by the city.
Wisc-DNR reported that Wisconsin generates more
than four million tons of MSW per year and has a very
successful recycling and waste diversion program. The
report also showed that Wisconsins overall MSW
diversion rate is about 40%. Wisconsins Recycling
Law requires everyone in the state whether they are at
home, at work, or at a special event to recycle newspaper, office paper and cardboard, aluminum and steel/tin
cans, glass bottles and jars, and # 1 and 2 plastic containers. [WDNR 2003].
The City of Milwaukee has approximately 940,000
habitants [DHFS 2004], which is about 17% of the
population of Wisconsin, according to the Census
2004. Therefore, the MSW generation from Milwaukee
can be extrapolated, considering 17% of the total MSW
generated by Wisconsin. It means that Milwaukee produces about 2,000 metric tons/day of MSW. From this
total amount, about 18% consists of organics (yard
waste, food, diapers, animal waste/kitty litter, and bottom fines/dirt). In addition, the DNR report showed that
food waste is a material found in sufficient quantity
(10%) to offer significant opportunities for increased
diversion for composting.
A flow chart for the proposed MSW treatment
plant is shown in Figure 1. The methodology of recycling MSW consists of a combination of various unit
operations. The proposed unit operations in this paper
are generally known in the world of recycling. The
design of the cited unitary operations is simple most
of the time, but extremely important. The key to success
637
Figure 1.
638
Processing plant
The plant would have six conveyor belts, one for each
of the six silos.
The volume (V) of the silo is one m3, considering
dimensions of 0.5 m 0.5 m 4 m. The mass (m) of
the material of the silo is 0.24 metric tons.
Considering that
(1)
where v is velocity of the conveyor belt, Q is flow of
the material of the silo, L is length of the silo and m is
mass of the material of the silo, the velocity of each
conveyor belt should be 24 m/min. As 24 m/min is so
fast, it is suggested to have 2 silos and two conveyor
belts (one for each silo) in the plant, in order to reduce
the velocity of each conveyor belt to 12 m/min.
In regard to the sorting station, it is known that
nowadays there are a considerable number of studies
against the sorting of all material only manually, since
it increases costs with employees and reduces the
639
Anaerobic digester
640
Vermicomposting
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Composting and anaerobic digestion are multivariable processes, based on microbiological, chemical,
physical, and thermodynamics fundamentals. They
have several variations; they may be operated in open
or closed reactors. They represent intelligent options
for processing MSW, converting organic matter into
soil amendment, managing dwindling landfill space,
and be a potential source of renewable energy.
641
642
http://www.cahe.mmsu.edu/pubs/circulatrs/circ562.ht
ml (April 8, 2004).
USEPA 2003. Municipal solid waste generation, recycling,
and disposal in the United States: facts and figures for
2003: EPA 530-F-05-003, Office of solid waste and
emergency response.
Wassenaar, T. M. 2003. Actinomycetes pp. http://www.
bacteriamuseum.org/species/actinomycetes.html
(March 21, 2004).
643
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Granular materials, sourced from quarried natural aggregates, are usually specified as backfill
to retaining walls. These natural materials are becoming a scarce and expensive resource, particularly in
Southern England. If used for urban projects, they will inevitably lead to additional construction traffic, with
associated environmental damage. At Wembley Stadium, the use of clay backfill, derived from the on-site excavations, provided significant environmental benefits and a sustainable solution. Approximately 130,000 cubic
metres of clay backfill was placed behind different types of retaining wall, varying from large embedded bored
pile walls up to ten metres high (both propped and anchored) to small L-shaped walls. In order to verify
the acceptability of the use of clay backfill, which can lead to large swelling pressures developing on the back
of retaining walls, novel investigation and analysis techniques were necessary. This included specialist laboratory testing, an earthworks trial, and non-linear numerical analyses (using the FLAC code). The use of clay
backfill is compared to the use of granular backfill in the context of sustainability and a whole life cost
approach to engineering solutions. Social, environmental and economic issues are considered in order to provide a quantitative assessment rather than a simple qualitative assessment of the sustainable nature of the resulting scheme, taking into account any alterations or additional work required to accommodate the use of the clay
backfill.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Traditional construction
1.2
Wembley stadium
645
2
2.1
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
80
E'/p'c
Fil
Natura
60
40
2.2
Numerical modelling
20
0
0.01
0.1
Log (axial strain)
Figure 3.
Stress-strain data.
646
3
3.1
QUANTIFYING SUSTAINABILITY
Introduction
There are over 200 definitions of sustainable development, Parkin et al. (2003), however there is currently
no consensus with regards to a definition applicable
to the built environment, Bartlett & Guthrie (2005).
The definition suggested by Brundtland (1987) is still
widely used, which states that sustainable development
meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. An alternative definition is provided by the
UK government, which outlines four key objectives,
DETR (1999):
1
1
2
3
Backfill options
647
Economic impact
648
0
Materia
Cost
6
10
12
10.1
1.0
Labou
0.7
1.0
Plan
0.7
1.0
Total
6.5
1.0
3.4
Environmental impact
649
Table 1.
Table 2.
Embodied energy*
GJ/tonne
Material
Material
Natural aggregate
Sand
Crushed stone
0.03
0.12
0.29
0.006
0.054
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.04
Diesel
37.5
39.2
45.8
650
Material
Transport
Construction
Total
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
25480
278
18471
179
273
410
44224
867
transportation to site and installation of these materials. This needs to be quantified for each of the backfill options. It is important to consider emissions for a
number of reasons. Manufacture and transportation
of construction materials releases CO2, CH4, CO,
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Non-Methane
Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs), NOx, SO2
and PM10 (particulates that are less than 10 microns
in size). It is possible for the VOCs and NOx to react
in sunlight and produce ozone at ground level where it is
toxic to humans, plants and animals. Also, NOx and SO2
are acidic in combination with rainwater. The particulates released are extremely harmful to the lungs, causing diseases such as silicosis and other respiratory
problems. Also, particulates can combine with SO2 in
affecting the lungs.
Pollution is also important to consider as it crosses
borders. The effects of water pollution cross frontiers,
and air pollution is very much a trans-boundary phenomena. The effects of acid deposition are felt many
thousands of miles from their country of origin.
Gaseous emissions have global effects.
Using figures from various published sources, it is
possible to calculate the amount in kg of each gas and
particulate emitted due to particular processes such as
transport, quarrying of material and placement of
backfill. However, simply calculating the amount of
each particular gas emitted for each system is not necessarily the best way to compare the two backfill
options, and to assess their affect on the environment.
Suggested categories of comparison that take into
account environmental impact are listed below:
1 Global Warming Potential (GWP): This concept
compares the ability of each greenhouse gas to trap
heat in the atmosphere relative to another gas. IPCC
651
3
4
Table 3.
Emission
Backfill option
grams
Option 1:
granular backfill
Option 2:
clay backfill
CO2 eq.
1428
15
17.1
18
16
15.2
14
SO2 eq.
tox.
12
ethene eq.
grams
PO4 eq.
10
8
6
4
2
2.2
2.5
0
Option 1: Granular
Backfill
Option 2: Clay
Backfill
3.4.3 Waste
Waste is becoming increasingly important to consider,
particularly following recent governmental legislation
such as the Landfill Tax, which was introduced in
1996. As well as considering the economic impact of
waste, the environmental impact needs to be considered. The UK construction industry produces approximately 60 million tonnes of waste a year, Griffiths
et al. (2002).
Due to the granular backfill option requiring backfill to be imported to site, all the clay material cut
and used in Option 2 would need to be disposed of in
Option 1. There are opportunities for the clay material
to be sold to industries such as the landfill industry to
be used as the capping layer on landfill. However, it is
extremely unlikely that this volume of material would
have been able to be disposed of in this manner.
Therefore a large proportion of it, if not all, would
652
grams
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
4.7
4.2
SO2 eq.
tox.
ethene eq.
PO4 eq.
0.6
0.7
Transportation of waste
Figure 7. Emissions generated during transportation of
waste to landfill (excluding CO2 eq.).
COMPARISON SUMMARY
653
Table 4.
2 The clay fill behaviour will be sensitive to placement and compaction procedures, as well as its
moisture content. Good site control and uniform
compaction is necessary. Backfilling in small confined areas would be inappropriate
3 Swelling pressures will be sensitive to both the
state of the clay fill and soil structure interaction
Summary of comparison.
Option 1 Option 2
Cost
Embodied energy
Emissions
CO2 eq.
SO2 eq.
tox.
ethene eq.
PO4 eq.
Deliveries*
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
no.
8.5
60
124
130
136
138
157
18000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
clay material scores significantly better than the granular fill option. Therefore it is relatively straightforward
to conclude that the clay option is a more sustainable
method of construction than the use of imported granular fill.
However, when undertaking attempts to quantify the
sustainability of schemes, it may not always be as clear
which option is considered to be the most sustainable.
If one option scores better than the other in one category, but is less favourable in the other two, how do we
assess which scheme overall best promotes sustainable
development? In order to do this there needs to be a
weighting scheme and a common variable across all
three criteria, as previously noted in section 3.1.
One available method for comparing the environmental impacts on a single scale or score is that of UK
Ecopoints, Dickie & Howard (2000). A UK Ecopoint
is a single unit measurement of environmental
impact, which is available across thirteen categories
such as climate change and minerals extraction.
Impacts are then related to the environmental impact
of an average UK citizen over one year, and Ecopoints
awarded. However, this system is only valid for environmental impacts, and therefore cannot be used to
compare two schemes across all three criteria.
5
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
AggRegain. 2005. Environmental Sustainability of
Recycled
and
Secondary
Aggregates
Tool.
http://www.aggregain.org.uk
654
655
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
J. Griffiths
Plymouth University, UK
ABSTRACT: Construction using material made from raw earth may seem to lie in the domain of the historic
or vernacular. However, using Devon Cob as an example of a viable earthen building material, this paper shows
that raw earth offers a real and sustainable alternative to todays more conventional construction materials. The
viability of Devon Cob is shown through a clearly defined rationale which guides material selection, mix, and
compaction methods. The adoption of this rationale within a rigorous laboratory test program produces a material of consistent load bearing capacity for a given sample of raw earth. This paper addresses the relationship
between raw earth samples and highlights the importance of the earthen matrix to material performance. The
pressure membrane test is introduced as a means of assessing the earthen matrix and classifying the fabric of
Devon Cobs at a microstructural level. The ability to classify at this level offers a clear insight into the durability of this sustainable building material which has been proven against the historical background of its use. In
exploring Devon Cob as a contemporary material, this paper concludes by explaining why material selection
has determined those structures that endure today.
INTRODUCTION
DEVON COB
657
658
Proving ring
Strain Gauge
Frictionless plate
Cylindrical
sample
200mm
Frictionless plate
The use of Devon Cob as a building material is evidenced throughout the County of Devon and the
longevity of many of the existing traditional cob buildings, as documented by Forde (2002), cannot fail to
impress a generation of constructors that discusses the
design life of buildings in terms of but a few decades.
The primary mode of load transfer through a cob structure is in the form of compression forces through the
structural walls. However the drying-out of cob also
induces lateral stressing in the matrix as the soil shrinks
but remains bound with the straw.
Practitioners (designers, engineers, and architects)
utilise material capacity in order to achieve appropriate
design. Thus quantification of the compressive strength
of traditional Devon cob, qualified by material definition, is required to inform design at both the time of
construction and subsequent stages of drying of the cob
matrix. In the absence of a standard test specification
for cob, the formation of an appropriate test methodology becomes an integral step towards realising the ultimate objective, to determine the quality of the cob mix.
4.1
Test methodology
Figure 1.
659
Hw
Hw
Du
Tn
Du: Dunsford
Hw: Halstow
Tn: Tedburn
660
Soil series
42.4
6.9
Dunsford 13.2
Tedburn
35.69
6.62
Halstow
0.66
0.225
Bridgnorth 26.50
9.53
Crediton
Sand
%
2 mm
0.06 mm
Silt
%
0.06 mm
0.002 mm
Clay %
0.002 mm
48
7.5
4.69
13.33
1.26
4.41
1.679
66.48
2.80
2.1
2.8
21.74
25.42
7.91
45.17
3.41
4.50
8.76
2.9
3.11
5.13
26.36
4.2
49.35
0.98
2.53
3.35
Average peak
unconfined
compressive
strength (kN/m2)
Approx.
yield
strength
(kN/m2)
360.75 17.55
721.34 24.43
564.25 27.5
709.44 31.68
372.98 21.7
478.92 43.91
1234.84 118.87
1185.52 95.49
1030.76 125.14
1188 134.4
160
300
300
400
200
300
600
650
500
550
Average peak
unconfined
compressive
strength (kN/m2)
Approx.
yield
strength
(kN/m2)
81.89 4.20
274.09 41.0
100.76 9.21
179.84 29.26
96.39 14.82
138.39 11.82
96.20 4.51
159.83 11.9
122.87 9.97
312.17 4.01
3040
150
40
75100
2040
3040
80
80
60
200
661
REFERENCES
Soil samples
(20-30mm in height)
O-rings
Visking
Outflow pipe
Figure 4.
CONCLUSIONS
662
663
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: There has been a sharp increase in Japan over the past ten years in the application of so-called
soil mortars, made by mixing soil, cement, water, and admixtures. Among soil mortars, ERS mortars (soil mortars made of excavated recycled soils) are produced by mixing soil with cement slurry. To produce ERS mortar
of controlled quality, it is necessary to continually modify the mixture proportions carefully throughout the construction period because of the nonuniformity of the soil. The authors have devised a practical method for determining mixture proportions which involves referencing a diagram in which the optimum mixture proportions
are expressed as a function of the fine fracture content of the soil. Furthermore, they have found that the compressive strength of a soil mortar, including ERS mortar, at a material age of 28 days can be predicted from its
compressive strength at 7 days and its water-cement ratio. This information will enable mixture proportions to
be determined even more efficiently.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
665
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
2.2
Applications
Quality control
Table 1.
State of ERS
mortar
Performance
Control index
Hardened
Cutoff
Strength
1 106 cm/s
0.6 N/mm2
Fresh
Possibility of fill-up
under drilling slurry
Fluidity
Resistance against
bleeding
Permeability
Unconfined compressive
strength
Density
Table flow (JHS 313)
Bleeding rate
(JSCE-F 522)
180260 mm
1%
666
1.5 t/m3
3
3.1
MIXTURE PROPORTIONING
Objective
3.4
Application target
Soil properties.
Property
Soil A
Soil B
2.678
21.5
69.9
50.0
19.9
53
47.5
37.5
15.0
6.4
13.36
10.9
2.687
35.7
82.9
48.7
34.2
37.5
43.5
35.0
21.5
8.6
17.53
11.2
Table 3.
test.
State of ERS
mortar
Hardened
Fresh
667
Control index
Target value
Permeability
Unconfined
compressive strength
Density
Table flow (JHS 313)
Bleeding rate
(JSCEF 522)
1 107 cm/s
2.0 N/mm2
1.6 t/m2
240260 mm
0%
1000
Soil D
Apparent shortage of
water (kg/m3)
1200
800
Soil A Soil B
600
Soil C
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
150
100
50
0
-50
10
20
30
40
50
Water
Clay
Soil (back calculation)
Soil (plant, N=12)
Flow=185~260 mm (N=12)
Flow=300~440 mm (N=7)
Figure 3. Diagram indicating standard mixture proportions to satisfy the target values listed in Table 3.
Flow=260~300 mm (N=7)
Fitting (Flow=185~260 m)
668
4
4.1
HARDENING CHARACTERISTICS
Objective
Past approaches
Kurihara et al. [1994] and Kitamoto et al. [2006] studied the long-term (up to 22 years) hardening characteristics of artificial soft rock (a kind of high-density soil
mortar) made from sand and mudstone (Nos. 12 and 13
in Table 4). They showed that at a unique curing temperature the unconfined compressive strength (t) is
given by the hyperbolic equation (t) t/( t),
where t is the time since mixing and and are constants dependent on the materials and the mixture
proportions of the soil mortar. To determine the two
unknowns and , it is necessary to perform compression tests at least twice, at different values of t
(for example, at 7 and 14 days).
To put it more simply, analogously to the concept
of multiplied temperature in the field of concrete, a
curing temperature higher than 20C (for example,
40C) is sometimes used to obtain a curing effect
similar to 28 days at 20C in a shorter time, for example, 7 days. It appears that a general formulation of this
method has not yet been well established. Moreover, it
is somewhat inconvenient and undesirable to simultaneously operate containers at 20C and at a higher temperature, since curing at 20C cannot be omitted if the
properties at 28 days are to be confirmed.
4.3 Materials investigated
Tables 4 & 5 list the 14 soil mortars investigated by the
authors to determine the relationship between the
unconfined compressive strength of 28-day-old mortar, 28, and that of 7-day-old mortar, 7, both mortar
specimens having been cured at 20C. Most of these
materials are ordinary ERS mortars made from one or
more kinds of natural or surplus soils. However, to
obtain results that are as universally applicable as possible, other materials similar to ERS mortar were also
investigated, including soil mortar made from waste
sludge in the form of slurry generated from shield
tunnelling (No. 1), high-density soil mortar using only
commercialized mineral materials (No. 8), lowstrength concrete (No. 9), artificial soft rocks (Nos. 12 &
13) containing wet-milled mudstone and having a
compressive strength somewhat higher than ordinary
ERS mortars, and so-called cement-bentonite mortars
(No. 14). In the table, where a unit quantity has a
range, two or more mixture proportions for that mortar were investigated. Nos. 6 & 13 were plant mixed at
the site, while the others were subjected to blending
tests in the laboratory. In this paper, only data from
specimens cured at a constant temperature of 20C are
discussed.
4.4 Prediction of compressive strength
In Figures 5 & 6, 28 and the ratio 28/7 are respectively plotted against 7 for the materials listed in
Tables 4 & 5. The data points in Figure 6 are classified
into four groups ((i) to (iv)) in accordance with the
water-cement ratio (W/C), as defined in Table 6.
Figures 5 & 6 show that 28/7 ranges from almost 1.5
to 3 and tends to decrease as 7 increases. A higher
W/C yields a smaller 28/7 for arbitrary values of 7.
To formulate these tendencies, the representative
relationship:
(2)
was assumed between 7 and 28/7 for arbitrary values of W/C, where c is a constant independent of W/C,
whereas A depends on W/C, and e is the base of natural logarithms. In equation (2), the lower limit of
28/7 is 1, because 28 is always larger than 7. The
669
670
Soil mortar
ERS mortar
ERS mortar
ERS mortar
ERS mortar
ERS mortar
ERS mortar*1
Soil mortar
Low-strength
concrete
ERS mortar
ERS mortar
Artificial soft
rock*2
Artificial soft
rock*2
Cement
bentonite
(CB) mortar
4
5
10
11
12
Backfill
Backfill
Backfill
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Not specified
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall
Target
Laboratory
Plant
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Plant
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Laboratory
Place of
mixing
BB 60180 kg
Blended cement*4
120180 kg
Blended cement*4
60210 kg
Blended cement*4
180 kg
Portland cement
type I (Taiwan)
200400 kg
BB 3668 kg
BB 201 kg
BB 162 kg
BB 150 kg
BB 100200 kg
BB 100200 kg
BB 50200 kg
BB 50150 kg
BB 160200 kg
Cement*3
None
Sand 700 kg
Sand 7001110 kg
Silt 262346 kg
Soil or aggregate
(dry mass)
Clay 172 kg
Bentonite
KUNIGEL-VI)86 kg
Limestone power
200 300 mesh)
392840 kg
None
Bentonite 080 kg
None
None
Mineral admixture
(dry mass)
14
13
Type
List of mixtures.
No.
Table 4.
None
None
None
Retarder (SHO-ACE)
0 6% to C
Retarder (SHO-ACE)
0 6% to C
None
None
Chemical admixture*6
Table 5.
Soil
Compression test
Max.
grain
size
No. (mm)*1
Fine
fracture
content,
Fc (%)
Density
(t/m3)*2
Table
flow
(mm)*3
Bleeding Waterrate
cement
(%)*4
ratio, W/C
W/C
class
(See
Table 6)
No. of No of
Specimen
data*5 specimens*6 size *7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2
4.75
30/15
30/15
30/9.5
2
2.4
5 or
25
96.3
14.028.8
7.7
19.530.3
About 20
64.1
1.481.53
(1.251.26)
(1.611.89)
2.052.10
1.761.97
1.531.73
(1.78)
1.75
2.082.34
224279
150384
251346
185200
120200
170230
270
245668
01.5
0.52.5
1.12.0
0
0
0
0
0
(ii)
(iii)(iv)
(ii)(iv)
(i)(ii)
(i)(iii)
(ii)
(ii)
(ii)
(ii)
9
4
7
3
6
51
9
1
6
3
2
2
3
3
3
1
3
3
1.771.83
1.281.81
1.711.88
2.828.72 (i)(iv)
2.825.94 (i)(iii)
2.628.27 (i)(iv)
5
10
7
3
3
1.71
3.32
Small
1.161.30
170181 00.5
172240 00.1
180200 Less
than 3
189
Less
than 0.5
199263 1.33.1
Small
Small
Small
Large
Large
Small
Small
Small
Small
or large
Small
Small
Small
13
14
Small
3.134.29
5.6717.0
3.1213.0
2.074.15
2.635.32
About 4.0
3.42
3.00
4.004.80
(ii)
2.134.58 (i)(ii)
=1
28
7:
N=124
3
(i) W/C=2.535 ( ) A=0.42
28/7
28 (N/mm2)
3.5
Cured at 20C
3.5
5
:1.
7 :
28
=1
Cured at 20C
N=124
:3
4.5
2.5
2
2.5
2
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
7 (N/mm2)
1
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
7 (N/mm2)
11
12
13
14
Figure 6.
671
practical use, the value of c was modified and equation (2) was rewritten as:
(3)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Number of
Data
Median
Less than 3
35
58
More than 8
2.535
4
6.5
12.5
N=124
3.5
10
98
10
6
(i) W/C=2.535 ( )
Cured at 20C
W/C
Section
Group
4.5
28 (N/mm2)
Table 6.
(ii) W/C=4 ()
2.5
28
7:
2
1.5
1
(iii) W/C=6.5 ( )
0.5
0
(iv) W/C=12.5 ( )
0.5
1.5
2.5
7 (N/mm2)
Coefficient A
Figure 8.
3
2
Equation (4)
1
0
0
10
15
5
where A is again a coefficient dependent on W/C. The
curves in Figure 6 were drawn by obtaining values of
A for each group ((i) to (iv)) using the least-square
method. These curves successfully represent an
approximate relationship between 7 and 28/7 for
each group.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between W/C and
coefficient A, where median values for each of the
groups were used for W/C. For group (i), the minimum value of W/C was considered as the lower
boundary of the section. Similarly, the maximum
value of W/C was considered as the upper boundary
of the section for group (iv). The relationship between
W/C and coefficient A is well expressed by a
parabola, namely:
(4)
where W/C is not expressed as a percentage. For a soil
mortar with an arbitrary mixture proportion, coefficient A is obtained from W/C using equation (4), and
accordingly 28 can be predicted from A and 7 using
equation (3).
In Figure 8, the data shown in Figure 5 are plotted
again using the same classification (namely, groups
(i) to (iv)) as in Figure 6, accompanied by 7 28
curves obtained using equation (3) for each group.
CONCLUSIONS
Mixture proportioning
672
amount of soil indicated by the diagram, in accordance with the water content of the soil, to know the
actual quantities of water and soil to be thrown into
the mixing plant.
The above mixture proportions should be modified
to adjust the fluidity through full-scale production
tests, reflecting the difference in mixing conditions
from those of the laboratory tests. It is considered that
there are cases, as the case presented in this paper,
where it is essential to modify the standard mixture
proportions by adjusting the amount of water in
accordance with the water content of the soil rather
than using a uniform modification. Such requirement
derives, the authors consider, from the porous particles such as fractures of solidified soils or wall bodies, which are often contained within the excavated
recycled soils.
5.2
Hardening characteristics
REFERENCES
Funabasama, T., & Yoshida, T. 2006. A method of utilizing
surplus soils generated by construction and current
trends, Construction Machinery & Equipment 42(3):
913 (in Japanese).
Kitamoto, Y., Igarashi, H., & Fukazawa, E. 2006. Long-term
stability of soil-mortar under the accelerated exposure
condition for 22 years, Proc. 61st Conf. of JSCE,
Division III: 329330 (in Japanese).
Kurihara, H., Kikuchi, K., & Fukazawa, E. 1994.
Experimental study on durability of artificial soft rock,
JSCE Journal, No. 486/VI-22: 8594 (in Japanese).
Manabe, S., Nagatani, H., Anai, H., & Fukazawa, E. 2000.
Standard mix proportioning method of soil cement made
of excavated surplus soil, Proc. 35th Japan National
Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering: 12591260 (in
Japanese).
Sasakura, T., Yoshida, T., Manabe, S., Nagata, M.,
Funabasama, T., & Hasui, M. 2003. Mixture proportion
control of soil mortar cut-off wall made of excavated
recycled soil, Proc. 38th Japan National Conf. on
Geotechnical Engineering: 809810 (in Japanese).
Yoshida, T., & Kitamoto, Y. 2006. Influences of watercement ratio on hardening characteristics of soil cements
made of excavated surplus soils, Proc. 41st Japan
National Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering: 769770
(in Japanese).
673
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Several attempts were done in the last three decades to utilize waste materials through recycling, treatment, or reuse. One of the successful attempts to utilize Zebar, (a liquid by-product of olive oil,
which consists mainly of oil residue) to be used in portland cement concrete (PCC) as an additive. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of adding olive oil liquid waste (Zebar) to basecourse to improve
its properties and attempt to benefit from such discarded materials.
This study was carried out to investigate the physical properties of the basecourse like optimum moisture content, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), density, permeability, shrinkage and swelling, and control fine particulates
when olive oil liquid waste is used as a replacement for fresh water in roadway construction. This investigation
considered properties such as optimum moisture content, dry density, penetration, swelling, dust control, and
shrinkage of basecourse. A number of laboratory measurements were undertaken such as California Bearing Ratio
test, compaction test, shrinkage test, dust control test, etc.
Results showed that using olive oil liquid waste as a blending additive to basecourse reduces the optimum liquid (moisture) content and increase the maximum dry density. In addition, olive oil liquid waste reduced the
amount of dust to zero percent at a replacement by liquid waste of 7 % which makes it an ideal blending material for unpaved agriculture roads. The permeability of basecourse decreased with increase in the percentage of
olive oil liquid waste in the basecourse providing a water tight layer. A significant improvement in CBR values
were noticed with an increase in olive oil liquid waste content in roadway basecourse material.
Key words: olive oil liquid waste, basecourse, physical properties, replacement, CBR, permeability, dust control, swelling, shrinkage.
INTRODUCTION
675
BACKGROUND
Olive oil production industry is characterized by relevant amounts of liquid and solid by-products and by
economical, technical, and organizational constraints
that make it difficult to adopt environmentally sustainable disposal approaches. Olive seeds are usually
crushed and disposed of after processing the olive oil.
The olive oil seeds after production of oil contains
68% oil and when dumped, such oil reacts to yield
hazardous chemicals such phenols and other aromatic
(type of organic material that causes some scent in the
material) (Caputo et al., 2003). In a few cases, the
solid waste is pressed using a costly high pressure
system to recover lower quality oil, usually useful for
the production of soap. For many years, the solid
waste has been partly used as inefficient polluting
heating fuel (Cichelli and Solinas, 1984); Garacia
et al., 1982; Amat et al., 1999).
An additional by-product of olive oil is the aqueous
liquid wastes (Zebar) produced by olive mills which is
usually drained in the form of sewage or sprayed on
agricultural land and unpaved roads. Several attempts
were done to either provide treatment for this liquid
waste or make use of waste in other construction
products.
Waste treatment technologies arrived at energy
recovery represents an interesting alternatives. The
technical and economic analysis of thermal disposal
plant which allow the combined treatment of solid and
liquid waste, although penalizes the energy recovery,
may prove to be feasible and profitable in future legislative scenarios. This may be more critical when
stricter limitations on liquid waste disposal force oil
producers to bear some high disposal costs (Caputo
et al., 2003). Since the liquid olive oil mill waste has
significant oil content, before extracting this oil, the
moisture of the liquid waste has to be reduced from
approximately 65% to about 8% (Arjona et al., 1999).
One alternative (for example in producing energy or
disposing in uncontrolled manner etc) is either utilization as a source of nutrients for animals which may
also contribute to the development of efficient and
environmentally conservative extensive animal production systems within Mediterranean semi-arid
ecosystem (Alcaide and Nefzaoni, 1996). In recent
years both physicochemical and biological treatment
methods for liquid waste have been employed through
the potential use as an additive for the development of
676
Zebar from
automatic mills
Specific Gravity
Oil content gm/l
Dry Materials gm/l
Sugar gm/1
Polyolefinic Materials gm/l
Diolefinic Materials gm/l
Hydroxy Tyrosol mg/l
Ash gm/l
Organic Nitrogen gm/l
Chemical Oxygen Demand (0.02 gm/l)
PH Value
Phosphorus gm/l
Sodium mg/l
Potassium mg/l
Calcium mg/l
Magnesium mg/l
Iron mg/l
Copper mg/l
Zinc mg/l
Manganese mg/l
Nickel mg/l
Cobalt mg/l
Lead mg/l
1.005
0.210.26
52.8
129.6
4.34
110
300
9765
1450
85
340
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
Compaction
5.2
EXPERIMENTAL
In the analysis of the physical effects of olive oil liquid waste, several tests were performed on natural
677
2.205
2.2
2.195
2.19
2.185
R2 = 0.9373
2.18
2.175
2.17
2.165
0
Figure 1.
4
5
Liquid waste content
Maximum dry density versus liquid waste for natural basecourse material.
Olive oil
liquid waste
percentage
Max dry
density t/m3
Optimum
moisture
content
CBR
0
1
3
4
5
7
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.19
2.19
2.20
7.75
7.72
7.60
7.30
7.25
7.20
Top face
Bottom face
1% Olive oil liquid waste content
Top face
Bottom face
2% Olive oil liquid waste content
Top face
Bottom face
3% Olive oil liquid waste content
Top face
Bottom face
4% Olive oil liquid waste content
Top face
Bottom face
81.2
85.2
87.7
87.7
89
89
91
92.7
88
92.7
The volume of the soils tends to change as the moisture content change, even though no change occurs in
678
96
94
92
CBR
90
88
y =-0.3909x2 + 4.0392x + 82.364
R2 = 0.9423
86
Top
Bottom
84
y =-0.2499x2 + 2.9226x + 85.059
R2 = 0.9597
82
80
0
Figure 2.
3
4
5
6
Percentage replacement by olive oil liquid waste
Permeability test
679
0.25%
R2 = 1
Percent shrinkage
0.20%
0.15%
0.10%
0.05%
0.00%
0
Figure 3.
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
Percent Olive oil liquid waste
3.5
4.5
4.5
1.2
R2 0.983
Percent Swelling
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Figure 4.
6.3
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
Percent replacement by olive oil liquid waste
3.5
Percentage swelling of basecourse for different replacements by olive oil liquid waste.
680
0.04
0.035
Coefficient of Permeability
R2 0.9013
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
Figure 5.
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
Percentage replaced by olive oil liquid waste
3.5
4.5
of dust emitted into the air. In the areas of low precipitation or arid regions, dust control is considered a
major cause of air pollution especially for rural highways and farm access roads. Local farmers use water
spraying to control dust on frequent basis helping to
exhaust an already scarce water supply.
To explore the effect of replacement of olive oil
liquid waste on basecourse material, a locally made
mechanism was manufactured to measure the amount
of dust emitted into the air. A cone with openings
from both sides having a dimension of one metre long
and diameters of 10 and 45 centimetres for both sides
were assembled horizontally. The basecourse sample
was placed on one end of the cone (the bigger diameter end) with an air jet polling device directed on the
sample in the direction of the cone collecting the dust
generated on a filter placed on the other end of the
cone. The weight of dust collected on both, the inside
of the cone and the filter are measured. The several
cases of olive oil liquid waste replacements were
tested using this mechanism to explore the effect of
the waste on dust emitted. Figure 6 shows the change
in the a mount of dust emitted versus the percentage
replacements by olive oil liquid waste. A drop of
about 95% in the amount of dust emitted is achieved
at 5% replacement reaching zero dust emission at a
replacement less that 6%. It is evident that the olive
oil liquid waste works as an adhesion material
between aggregate materials especially those particle
sizes less than 0.075 millimeters. It is evident that the
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
681
100%
90%
80%
70%
R2 0.9991
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0
Figure 6.
3
4
Percent olive oil liquid waste
Percentage of dust emitted for the different percentage replacements by olive oil liquid waste.
CONCLUSIONS
682
FURTHER WORK
Further work in the utilization of solid waste
extracted from olive oil can be done in other fields of
construction materials production. Olive husk can be
tested in the production of light weight concrete for
non-structural purposes as well as in the production
of light weight concrete blocks. Utilization of olive
oil liquid waste can be used in agricultural use in hot
climates in its dry state through the utilization of solar
energy, which will help in getting red of the negative
effects of relatively high PH value.
REFERENCES
AASHTO, AASHTO Specification for the Design of
Pavement Structures, Vol. 1, 1993.
Al-Bareq, N., karim, R., and Abaza, O. 2001. The effect of
adding Zebar as an admixture on the durability and permeability of concrete. The Palestine Engineering Conference 2001, College of Engineering, An-Najah National
University, Nablus, Palestine.
Alcaide, E., and Nefzaoui, A. 1996. Recycling of olive oil
by-products: Possibilities of utilization in animal nutrition, International Biodeterioration and Biodegrolation,
Vol. 38 Issues 34, p 227235.
Andre, N., Pinto, F., Franco, C., Dias, M., Gulyurtlu, I.,
Matos, M., and Cbrita, I. 2005. Fluidized bed co-gasification of coal and olive industry wastes, Fuel, Vol. 84
Issue 12/13 p 16351644.
Amat, A., Arques, A., and Miranda, M. 1999. p-Conmaric
acid photodegradation with solar light, using a 2, 4,
6-triphenylpyrylinm salt as photosensitizer: a comparison with other oxidation methods. Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental Vol. 23, p 205214.
Annual Report on Forestry. Ministry of agriculture, Palestine.
Arjona, R., Garcia, A., and Ollero, P. 1999. The drying of alpeorajo, a waste product of olive oil mill industry. Journal of
Food Engineering, Vol. 41, Issue 34 p229234.
Armesto, L., Bahillo, A., Cabanillas, A., Veijonen, K.,
Otero, J., Plumed, A., and Salvador, L. 2003. Cocombustion of coal and olive oil industry residues in
fluidized bed. Fuel, Vol. 82 Issue 8 p 993.
Azbar, N., Bayram, A., Filibeli, A., Muezzinoglu, A., Sengul,
F., and Ozer 2004. A review of waste management potions
in oil production, Critical Review in Environmental Science
and Technology, Vol. 34 Issue 3 p 209247.
Caputo, A., Scacchia, F., and Relagagge, P. 2003. Disposal
of by-products in olive oil industry: waste to energy
solutions. Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 23
p 197214.
Cichelli, A., and Solinas, M. 1984. Phenolic compounds of
olive and olive oil. Rivista Merceol, Vol. 23 p 5569.
683
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Investigation into the use of cement stabilised sand and silty sand
in road pavement construction in Bangladesh
Waliur Rahman, Richard Freer-Hewish & Gurmel Ghataora
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham
ABSTRACT: This paper describes an investigation into the use of cement stabilised fine to medium sand and
silt in the construction of roads undertaken entirely in Bangladesh. Normally brick aggregates are used in subbase and sometimes roadbase layers in Bangladesh as the stones are scarce.
Agricultural clay is burnt in kilns to make bricks, furthermore, wood and coal are used as energy source.
Bangladesh is also a flood prone country, therefore, cementitious materials are expected to provide durability
as well as minimize carbon emission. The laboratory tests were carried out with only about 8 to 15% cement.
The results indicated that the unconfined compressive strength, durability (soaked tests) and constructibility
of sand-cement and sand-silt-cement mixtures were acceptable for road pavement layers. The sand-cement material with 8 to 10% cement proved to be adequate for subbases replacement layer for heavily trafficked roads.
It was also found that if the silt content of the sand-silt-cement mixes was increased, strength increased significantly. Mixes containing sand with 10% silt and 15% cement could be used in roadbases for roads that carried
heavy traffic. The tensile strength properties of these materials were proven to be acceptable. A pilot field trial
showed the constructability of a road pavement using these materials. The unsurfaced trial road only experienced
a few minor cracks after six months of construction. The soil-cement materials also proved to be cost-effective.
INTRODUCTION
In regions of high rainfall (like Bangladesh) the performance of unbound pavement layers and also the
behaviour of subgrade soils on soaking have long been
points of concern for the engineers. During the monsoon period, moisture enters into the pavements from
the flooded roadside drainage system. Subsurface layers weaken due to inundation and can result in shear
failure manifested by rutting in the upper layers. This
also results in the punching of granular upper layers
into the weakened subgrades. The hot and humid climate in the countries like Bangladesh can result in
weathering of black top surface layers in the case of
sealed roads. The weathered asphaltic layer cracks
permitting water to enter from upper pavement layers
from above. Under wheel load hydrodynamic stresses
develop and consequently lead to creation of potholes,
raveling, alligator cracking, rutting. According to
Dempsey [1982], the hydrodynamic pore water pressures exerted by heavy wheel load may reach at least
20.7 KPa, which is high enough to cause ejection of
materials up to 10 mm sieve size. Furthermore, brick
manufacturing process in Bangladesh is an environmental hazard. One way to counteract these problems
BRICK MANUFACTURING AN
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD
In the subbase courses and occasionally in the roadbases locally produced brick aggregates are used in
Bangladesh. Local bricks are manufactured by burning soil in kilns using timber, coal or diesel or natural
gas in very few cases. There are more than ten thousand brick manufacturing plants, usually called brickfields, all over Bangladesh and more than 25 billion
pieces of bricks are produced in these brick-fields
every year (Source: Brick-field owners association of
Bangladesh). The production is increasing very fast
685
MATERIALS
3.1
Soils
120
100
%Passing
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
Particle size, mm
Figure 1.
686
Durability
The soaked tests were performed on selected specimens in accordance with Test 12 in BS 1924 [British
Standard, 2002b]. The compressive strengths of
14-day cured specimens were compared with 7-day
cured and 7-day soaked specimens. The selected sandcement mixes for soaked test were fine to medium
sand mixed with 8 and 10% cement (2% below
OMC). These mixes were selected because they might
provide acceptable compressive strength and expected
to be cost-effective mixes. The strength reduction on
soaking for specimens with 8 and 10% cement were
9.4 and 8.95% respectively as shown in Figure 2.
Table 2.
4.1
Moisture content
Sand 8%
cement (7-day
cured UCS)
(MPa)
Sand 10%
cement (7-day
cured UCS)
(MPa)
Below 2% OMC
Below 4% OMC
1.62
1.76
2.27
2.44
Tests for fine to medium sand cement mixes (cement content was selected to dry weight of sand).
The mixtures
Durability
test
Flexural strength
for 7, 14 and
28 days curing
CBR of 4 day
soaked
specimens
Indirect tensile
strength for 7 days
curing
Sand 6% cement
Sand 8% cement
Sand 10% cement
Sand 12% cement
Sand 15% cement
Sand 20% cement
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
687
Figure 2.
Table 3.
Standard UCS results (7-day cured-7-day soaked) (after TRL Road Note 31, 1993).
Code
Description
Unconfined compressive
strength of 150 mm cubical
specimens (a) (MPa)
CB1
CB2
CS
3.06.0
1.53.0
0.751.5
4
Roadbase for heavy traffic (Department of Transport,
UK 1986)
3.5
3
Specification for
roadbase (CB2)
(TRL Road
Note 31)
UCS (MPa)
2.5
Roadbase for light traffic (Others)
2
1.5
Specification for
subbase (CS)
(TRL Road
Note 31)
0.5
0
6% Cement
Figure 3.
8% Cement
10% Cement
12% Cement
15% Cement
20% Cement
UCS values of sand-cement specimens with a range of moisture and cement content.
688
7-day
Sand 8% cement
624.91
Sand 10% cement 1298.19
14-day
28-day
1298.29
2631.19
1557.94
2894.3
689
Sand+8% Cement
Sand+10% Cement
0.7
0.6
Specified range of FS for 10% cement
[TRH 13 (1986) and Williams (1978)]
Strength (MPa)
0.5
0.4
0.3
Specified range of ITS for 10% cement
[Thom (2004)]
0.2
0.1
0
Flexural strength
Figure 4.
Tensile strength
4-day soaked
CBR
400
350
%CBR
300
250
200
150
Specifications for
subbases and roadbases
for light traffic
[Metcalf (1977)]
100
50
0
8% Cement
Figure 5.
10% Cement
POSSIBLE APPLICABILITY
Many researchers have suggested due to the possibility of reflection cracking that the soil-cement materials could perform better in the subbase layers rather
than in the roadbases. Arnold [2000] said that the stabilized materials should not be accepted as roadbase
materials unless the tensile strength and shrinkage are
within the allowable values. This requirement will
probably limit the amount of cement added to a
maximum of 2%. However, higher cement contents
could be considered if there are provisions for additional maintenance requirements to seal cracks when
690
In the case of cement bound material and soilcement, restrictions on their use in roadbases for
heavily trafficked roads have effectively designated
them as subbase materials in either flexible or
rigid pavements.
Djakfar [1999] tested several pavements using different combinations of crushed stone and soil-cement
bases and subbases with the same wearing course. As
many as nine test sections were constructed. From the
analysis he found that the combination of crushed
stone base over a soil-cement subbase, known as an
inverted pavement, provided the best performance in
resisting rutting and retarding the occurrence of
reflection cracking. Furthermore the stabilized subbase layer stiffens the overall pavement system, thus
reducing the likelihood of physical degradation
occurring in the unbound base [Dunlop, 1980].
According to National Institute for Transport and
Road Research [1996], cracks in bituminous surface
have been observed mostly in pavements where the
cement stabilized layer has been used in the base
courses. However, the post-cracked phase of a
cement-stabilized subbase adds substantially to the
useful life of a pavement. The suitable material for the
subbase layers have been obtained by performing
the standard tests as discussed above. However, it was
predicted that filling the voids in the sand-cement
mixes for obtaining well-graded mixtures could
enhance strengths of the mixes. Therefore, silts were
added in the sand-cement mixes for obtaining materials for using in the roadbases.
SAND-SILT-CEMENT MIX
Table 5.
Mixes
Sand silt
passing #200
sieve
2.95
3.07
3.82
4.14
4.74
6.46
DURABILITY TEST
As far as compressive strength, adverse field conditions, possibility of improper mixing, lack of quality
control, lack of maximum axle load legal enforcement and cost are concern the mix fine to medium
sand, 10% sieved silt and 15% cement was considered
to be the best among the above materials for roadbases of heavily trafficked roads [TRL Road Note 31,
1993]. Therefore, soaked tests were carried out with
this mix. The result showed strength reduction on
soaking only about 8.4% (see Figure 7). Durability
tests of fine to medium sand mixed with 50% silt and
12% cement were also carried out because the UCS
of this mix was high and acceptable for roadbases of
heavy traffic. The strength reduction on soaking was
only about 4%. However, the cost of preparing such a
mix may be prohibitive in practice.
691
7-day cured UCS of Sand, a range of silt content (passing 0.075 sieve) and cement content
10% Silt
7
25% Silt
7-day cured-7-day soaked
7-day cured-7-day
soaked
50% Silt
5
Specification
for roadbase
(CB1)
(TRL Road
Note 31
1993)
Specification
for
roadbase
(CB2)
(TRL Road
Note 31,
1993)
0
10%Cement
Figure 6.
12%Cement
15%Cement
The UCS values of sand, silt and cement mixes and the specifications.
6
5
Strength reduction
Strength reduction 4.05%
4
14-day cured
3
7-day cured-7-day
soaked
7-day cured
1
0
Sand+10%silt+15%cement
Figure 7.
10
Sand+50%silt+12%cement
Tensile strength
(Sand+10%silt+15%cement)
Durability and ITS tests for sand, silt and cement mixes.
The indirect tensile strength test with the above sandsilt-cement mix was also carried out. The 7-day cured
tensile strength was 0.49 MPa. The value is more than
692
UCS (MPa)
Core
strength
Lab
strength
below 2%
OMC
2
7
14
21
28
Lab
strength
below 4%
OMC
11
12.1
TRIAL CONSTRUCTION
Trial section
693
Figure 9. Comparison of construction costs of subbase and roadbase constructed with the conventional and soil-cement
materials (sand 10% cement for subbase and sand-10% silt (passing 0.075 mm sieve)-15% cement for roadbase).
13
14
CONCLUSIONS
Sand-cement mixes
ECONOMIC BENEFIT
Cost saving of about 17 and 28% for subbase and roadbase can be made by using the above mentioned soilcement in pavement structural layers. See Figure 9.
Stabilised layers certainly provide additional benefits in terms of cost savings and longer life when
compared with the conventional unbound construction. With the limited availability of high quality
aggregates and the increasing cost of carrying them
to the construction site, use of stabilised local
materials in the pavement structure must continue to
increase.
14.2
694
REFERENCES
Arnold, G. [2000]. Performance Based Specifications for
Road Construction and Materials. Unbound Aggregates
in Road Construction Dawson, A. R. and Balkan, A. A.,
Eds., Rotterdam, Netherlands. pp 183191
British Cement Association [1998]. Cement-Bound Materials
for Subbases and Roadbases, Material Selection and Mix
Design, Construction and Control Testing. New of
Revised British Standards, Update for BCA Publications.
Crowthorne, Berkshire, England.
British Standard [2002a]. Methods of Tests for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes. BS 1377-2:1990. BSI. Licensed
(Online) Copy, University of Birmingham. JISC, 6th
November 2002.
British Standard [2002b]. Stabilised Materials for Civil
Engineering Purposes, Part 2: Methods of Tests for
Cement-Stabilised and Lime-Stabilised Materials. BS
1924-2:1990. BSI. Licensed (Online) Copy, University
of Birmingham. JISC, 6th November 2002.
Davidson, D. T. [1960]. Comparison of Type I and Type III
Portland Cement for Soil Stabilisation. Highway
Research Board Bull 267. pp 2845.
Dempsey, B. J. [1982]. Laboratory and Field Studies of
Channelling and Pumping. Transportation Research
Record No. 849, Transport Research Board. National
Research Council. Washington D. C. pp 112.
Department of Transport [1986]: Specifications for
Highway Works, 6th Edition. H. M. S. O. London.
Djakfar, L. [1999]. Implementation of ALF Results to
Designing Flexible Pavements in Louisiana. UMI
ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Index of Thesis. Website
Address:
http;//wwwlib.umi.com/dissertation/fullcit/
9926822 date 06/11/02.
Dunlop, R. J. [1980]. A Review of the Design and
Performance of Roads Incorporating Lime and Cement
695
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
T. Simmons
Genesis Centre, Somerset College of Arts and Technology, Taunton, Somerset, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the rationale for using non-food-crop materials in buildings and briefly
reviews the possible uses of such materials as construction materials. The transfer of strawbale building techniques in Western Europe, from established technologies in the North Americas is outlined. Climatic factors,
combined with the major concerns related to the deterioration of strawbale walls through the action of moisture
are discussed. A commonly used monitoring technique is described, and case studies provided. Adaptations to
monitoring systems to allow appropriate measurements of new and emerging straw bale building techniques are
described. Two new case study buildings are introduced and the preliminary results of a proposed monitoring
strategy are briefly analysed.
1
1.1
The choice of the type of materials used by the construction industry has a direct impact upon the performance of buildings in terms of their sustainability.
Sustainable issues and impacts are closely associated
with material extraction, collection, embodied energy
content, transportation and growing processes. Other
issues influence the performance of the building such
as energy efficiency, any end of life or disposal issues
related to the demolition or reuse of any building components. These concerns influence the decisions taken
by individuals and institutions responsible for the specification of such materials.
A raft of different agreements have emanated from
world environmental meetings such as those held in
Rio, Kyoto, Johannesburg over the past 14 years. From
these meetings, a number of agreements have lead to
the introduction of targets and guidance, much of which
have been directly related to reducing the harmful emissions and other impacts of buildings. One of the many
methods of complying with these guidance and targets
is to use building materials that are more benign, both in
use and also in their manufacture and sourcing. A range
of benchmarking, guidance and indicator systems are
now available that allow the building professional to
select appropriate materials and quantify the level of
potential harm in a variety of categories. Some guides
697
Table 1.
The possible utilisation of non-food crops within buildings in the UK (Yates, 2006).
Materials
Uses
Straw
Hemp Shives
Hemp Fibres
Wool
Flax
Reed Mats
Reed
Jute
Sisal
buildings. Within the UK, the local authority is responsible for policing the building regulations normally
through internal building control officers or external
approved inspectors. These officers/inspectors are often
wary of new building techniques and the ability for the
occupier/owner to monitor the condition of a straw
bale/non food crop based building will normally instill
certain amount of confidence. To improve the saleability of such buildings will also involve the owner/
occupier/contractor taking out a form of insurance
system or warranty such as the NHBC system in the
UK. A monitoring system will again, be likely to
improve the chance of a warranty on the property
being successfully enacted. A method of monitoring
the moisture content, and therefore the potential for
degradation of the walls is one method to establish
confidence in these materials/technologies.
The generally accepted danger moisture content in
connection with increased risk of the degradation of
the straw is 20% [Still, 1997]. It has been suggested
that the ideal moisture content of a straw-bale wall is
14%, as this is below the level that is believed to allow
biological activity to begin [Steen et al, 1994]. The
main difficulty for a building owner/occupier is to
assess the moisture content of the wall once the internal and external coverings/render are in place. This is
further compounded by the normal thickness of such
walling systems which hampers the access to the central parts of the wall, even if the walls were still bare.
A solution to this monitoring problem was originally
proposed by Habib Gonzalez a Straw builder from
British Columbia, Canada, [Gonzalez, H. J., 1998] and
pioneered in eastern Canada by Fugler, (2000).
3
698
Figure 1.
The straw bale pavilion is approximately a quarter section of the Genesis Centre, Somerset College, Taunton
Somerset. The Genesis Centre is a collection of 4 different pavilions, each constructed as a showcase of a
unique sustainable construction method ort material.
Each pavilion has a different use connected with education at the College and the Straw Bale pavilion
serves as a group of 3 seminar rooms as can be seen in
the figures 2 & 3. The pavilion uses a load bearing rendered straw construction technique (figure 2) and
endeavors to provide the college with a modern and
unique design, shying away from traditional straw
building techniques and aesthetics exemplified in straw
bale buildings elsewhere in the UK. The occupancy of
699
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
The Totnes house is very different; both in construction and occupancy. The Totnes house is located on a
north west facing slope of a hill in Totnes, Devon. The
homes, as its name implies offers accommodation for
a family of four with all the associated occupancy
rates and sources of moisture. The house is two stories high, constructed from a load bearing timber
frame with the straw bales used on edge as an external cladding. The design is, in some ways, more traditional than the Genesis Centre, providing quite large
eaves, overhangs, tending to protect the wall from any
wind driven rain. The bales differ from the Genesis
centre bale placement as the Totnes bales are placed
on edge and because of this some extra structural support was deemed necessary. A timber ladder system
has been used horizontally through the centre of the
bale walls to enhance its structural stability (figure 4).
However, as the walls in the Genesis Centre are load
bearing and do not rely upon a frame for support,
interesting comparisons are possible.
A new probe, a half length version has been used for
the first time as a part of the monitoring system with
the Totnes house. The intention is that the volume of
straw closest to the internal wall faces adjacent to the
700
CONCLUSIONS
Although, as previously stated, little can be extrapolated from a small series of moisture readings from a
straw bale walling system, some pieces of information are beginning to form a pattern. The stability of
both buildings is far better than any of the previous
case studies that have been monitored. This is further
marked as the monitoring system was installed with
the previous knowledge of the past monitoring and
therefore the sensor/probe positioning is likely to
have a better chance of picking up any areas/volumes
of higher moisture. The overall drier readings from
the sensors/probes in the Genesis pavilion may be due
to the more sealed modern design, or perhaps the
Table 2. Initial monitoring results for the Genesis straw bale pavilion, (LT1 Lecture Theatre 1, LT2 Lecture
Theatre 2, W west, E east, O outer, I inner, numbers height above finished floor level in mm).
Room
Date
EO 200
EO 400
EO 1800
EI 200
EI 400
EI 1800
LT 1
LT 2
LT 1
LT 2
Room
LT 1
LT 2
LT 1
LT 2
19/10/2006
19/10/2006
20/11/2006
20/11/2006
Date
19/10/2006
19/10/2006
20/11/2006
20/11/2006
11
12
9
11
WO 200
12
12
12
12
11
14
11
12
WO 400
12
12
11
11
12
12
12
12
WO 1800
14
12
12
12
12
12
12
11
WI 200
12
12
11
11
****
12
****
11
WI 400
12
****
11
****
****
12
****
11
WI 1800
12
****
11
****
701
Table 3.
Room
Height of
probe
Length of
probe
1st or
ground floor
Orientation
external wall
finish
14th Nov
reading
24th Nov
reading
shower
shower
shower
shower
bath
bath
bath
bath
hall
hall
hall
hall
larder
larder
larder
larder
kitchen
kitchen
kitchen
kitchen
200 mm
200 mm
2200 mm
2200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
2200 mm
2200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
2200 mm
2200 mm
200 mm
200 mm
2200 mm
2200 mm
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
short
long
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
ground
first
first
first
first
first
first
first
first
first
first
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
southwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
northwest
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
25 mm lime
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
timber cladding
12.9
13.5
10.2
12.8
12.7
13.5
11.9
/
12.8
13.2
10.9
11.8
10.7
/
/
/
11.5
11.4
11.8
11.4
12.6
13.4
10.0
12.7
12.3
13.1
11.6
/
12.6
13.0
10.6
11.6
11.5
/
/
/
11.4
11.4
11.3
11.3
REFERENCES
Anink, D., Boonstra, C., Mak, J. 1996. Handbook of sustainable building. An environmental preference method for
the selection of materials for use in Construction and
Refurbishment. James and James/Earthscan.
Christian, J. E. et al, 1998. Straw Bale Wall Hot Box Test
Results and Analysis, ASRAE Conf, The Thermal
Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings VII
4b103. Florida, December.
Curwell, S. R., March, C. 2002. Hazardous Building Materials,
A Guide to the selection of Environmentally Responsible
Alternatives.
Faine, M., and Zhang, J. Q. 2002. A Pilot Study Examining
and Comparing the Load Bearing Capacity and Behavior of
an Earth Rendered Straw Bale Wall to Cement Rendered
Straw Bale Wall. Proc. of the International Straw Bale
Building Conference, Charles Stuart University, Wagga
Wagga, Australia.
Fugler, D., 2000. Straw Bale Moisture Research, Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation.
Gonzalez, H. J. 1998. Home Made Straw Bale Moisture
Meters.The Last Straw, Network productions Inc, Spring,
1998, Issue No: 22, Page No: 31.
Goodhew, S. M. R., Griffiths ,R. and Woolley, T. 2004. An
investigation of the moisture content in the walls of a
straw-bale building. Building and Environment, Elsevier,
Accepted Feb 2004, due for publication Autumn 2004.
Goodhew, S. M. R., Griffiths ,R. and Morgan, C. 2005. An
investigation into the variations of moisture content of
two buildings constructed with light earth walls,
Architectural Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Feb 2005,
702
703
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
R.K. Venables
Crane Environmental Ltd. UK
J. Kirkpatrick
Owen Williams Consulting Ltd
ABSTRACT: Initially in this paper, a brief overview of a recently established COST Action Sustainability of
Constructions an Integrated Approach. is given. Secondly, details are given of recent research at Queens
University Belfast on two innovative forms of construction, both of which have the potential to be highly sustainable. The first is on un-reinforced concrete bridge desk slabs and the second is the development of a flexible concrete arch system for short span bridges with no steel reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
2.1
705
The development of the concept of Sustainable construction is aimed at ensuring more-economical use
of finite raw materials and reducing, or mitigating
against, the accumulation of pollutants and waste.
The complete cycle of sustainable construction activities comprise the ways in which built structures and
facilities are procured and erected, used and operated,
maintained and repaired, modernised and rehabilitated, and finally dismantled for reuse or recycling.
Compared with other industrial products, those in
construction are long-lasting. This fact emphasizes
the need to incorporate sustainability principles at an
early stage in the design and development of construction projects. More specifically the following
aspects need to be considered.
2.2.1
706
3
3.1
applied
load
arching thrust
cracking
Figure 1.
707
3.4
Applied load
Arching
capacity
first
cracking
Bending
strength
reinforcement
yielding
Midspan deflection
Figure 2.
708
Unit cost
repair cost
repair cost
CMA deck
(enhanced durability)
Figure 3.
CMA deck
(normal durability)
Years in service
reinforced concrete bridge slabs gives good correlation with the results from the one-third scale model.
This method has now been endorsed by the UK
Highways Agency and is included in BD81/02 [2002].
3.5
The ultimate load tests referred to above have indicated that strength is not critical in the design of deck
slabs however, designers also have to satisfy the
serviceability limit state requirements. The widths of
the cracks induced in the slabs were monitored during
the model test in the Queens University of Belfast and
it was found that under service load conditions no
cracks resulted. However, as scale effects can affect
the accuracy of these measurements full-scale tests
[Kirkpatrick et al, 1986] were subsequently carried
out on a bridge built by the Northern Ireland Roads
Service. This bridge incorporated beams at 1.5 m and
2 m spacing, and the reinforcement varied from 0.25%
to 1.7% in the standard 160 mm thick deck slab.
The tests showed that current crack control formulae are not applicable because of the enhanced
709
250
3.8
experimenta
l
200
150
Queens method
100
BS5400 (flexural)
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
710
3.9
Figure 6.
top and allowed to harden to interconnect the voussoirs. The same unit can be made in a single casting
operation by using a shutter with wedge formers
spaced to simulate the tapered voussoirs. Both forms
of construction are shown in Fig 6. The arch unit can
be cast in convenient widths to suit the design requirement, site restrictions and available lifting capacity.
When lifted, the wedge shaped gaps close, concrete
hinges form in the top layer of concrete and the unit is
supported by tension in the polymer grid. The arch
shaped units are then placed on a precast footings and
all self-weight is then transferred from tension in the
polymer to compression in the arch.
This is in line with advice given by the UK
Highways Agency [1995b] where the arch form, plain
structural elements and the elimination of corrodible
reinforcement are recommended.
4.2
Materials
711
Table 1.
Sample ID
Tensile strength of
material from
manufacturer
(kN/m width)
Tensile strength of
material from test
results (kN/m width)
100/15
150/15
100
150
43.6
72.2
Table 2.
Arch load
Test No.
Applied ultimate
load: excluding
the self weight (kN)
Ultimate moment:
including the self
weight (kN.m)
1
2
14.0
16.0
7.5
8.3
Figure 7.
some lateral restraint to the arch ring both during construction, prior to completion of the arch system with
spandrel walls and backfill, and in the long-term
under live loading.
4.4
Stability test
712
Figure 8.
713
OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ARCHIE-M: Masonry Arch Bridges and Viaduct Assessment
Software, Version 2.0.8, OBVIS Ltd. UK.
British Standards Institute, BS 8110: Part 2: Structural use
of concrete: Code of practice for special circumstances
Section 9: Appraisal and testing of structures and components for construction, London, 1985.
British Standards Institute, BS5400: Part 2 & 4, British
Standard for the design of steel, concrete and composite
bridges, London, 1978 and 1990.
Canadian Standards Association, Canadian Highway Bridge
Design Code (CHBDC), CAN/CSA-S6-00 (new version
714
715
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Ken J. Smith
Environmental and Natural Resources Division, Public Works, Fort Lewis, WA, USA
ABSTRACT: Faced with thousands of square feet of building demolition per year, waste managers at Fort
Lewis, WA and the Seattle District Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) seek effective ways to keep demolition
debris out of the landfill. Ft. Lewis collects concrete and grinds it for use on training trails. They gather wood
pallets and other clean wood waste for use in creating compost and they treat petroleum-contaminated soils.
When a World War II-era chapel appeared on the demolition list, Ft. Lewis and the USACE started thinking of
waste management in a more holistic view. Why not divert the whole building to a new location and remodel it
for a new use rather than disposing it in a landfill? This holistic approach spurred the development and design
of a new Environmental Education and Conference Center (E2C2) for Fort Lewis. The E2C2 (the old chapel)
will be relocated on a former landfill site, now being reclaimed and transformed into the Sequalitchew EcoPark (Eco-Park). This paper evaluates the benefits of reusing the existing chapel for the E2C2, rather than building a new facility and disposing the old chapel into a local landfill.
1
1.1
PROJECT BACKGROUND
Fort Lewis demolition
717
a dilapidated 60-year old wood structure. Each building system was evaluated for its environmental
impact, as well as its ability to give the chapel a new
life. Lessons learned in the design stage of the chapel
reuse project will be documented, emphasizing systems and methods found to be life-cycle cost effective, benefits of avoiding the landfill, and methods
employed to measure the sustainability of the finished project.
2
2.1
2.3
Figure 1b.
Potential.
The E2C2 project will remake the chapel into a building that will last another 50 years in a much more sustainable manner than building new.
3
3.1
Reusing existing materials is one way in which building salvage is sustainable. Another major factor is the
reduction in landfill requirements. Fort Lewis no
718
719
Figure 2.
5.1
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
MEASURING SUSTAINABILITY
Rating system
Figure 3.
Sustainable sites
720
5.2.1 Roof
Metal Roofing was selected for the new roofing
because it provides a highly reflective surface to help
mitigate the urban heat island and enhance the environment at the Eco-Park. Metal roofing also easily integrates with the self-adhering photovoltaic membranes
that will be installed between the standing metal seams.
5.4
Water Efficiency
5.3.1 Landscaping
The community is assisting with landscaping the EcoPark site. Only native landscaping will be used. No
irrigation system will be installed.
5.3.2 Potable water savings
The design team originally planned to use composting
toilets in the E2C2, which would have saved 80%
more water than a conventional facility of the same
type. Composting toilets also eliminate the need for
using potable water to convey sewage.
Despite the many advantages of composting toilets,
the team decided against using them in the facility.
2 primary reasons for this decision were: 1- The maintenance requirements associated with composting toilets and 2- The cost and complexity of composting
toilet systems.
The primary maintenance challenge with composting toilets in a high-use facility is the addition of wood
chips or other organic materials to the composter.
Due to the transient nature of the E2C2 building occupants and no dedicated maintenance staff, the requirement to add wood chips as often as every day was
simply not feasible for the project.
Composting toilets also require a basement area
below the toilets for the compost chamber, with an
Energy efficiency
721
722
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
723
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In response to a growing awareness of the environmental impacts of construction, a new undergraduate course Environmental Science in Building Construction was developed and incorporated into
architectural engineering and construction management programs at Milwaukee School of Engineering
(MSOE). This senior-level required course is offered concurrently with senior design. Course development
included surveying the AGC of Greater Milwaukee and completing a NSF sponsored project to assess environmental impacts of a campus construction project. Course elements include introducing students to drivers of the
sustainable construction movement (climate change, ozone depletion, environmental degradation and resource
depletion); introducing students to the LEED suite of standards and scientific evidence that LEED strategies reduce environmental impacts; and requiring students to complete a research project on technologies that
have the potential to reduce environmental impacts. If environmental impacts of construction are to be reduced,
future engineers must understand a wide range of sustainability-related issues.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
MSOEs Architectural Engineering and
Building Construction (AE&BC) Department
The AE&BC Department offers BS degrees in architectural engineering and construction management
and MS degrees in structural engineering and environmental engineering http://www.msoe.edu/ae/.
In 2002, program changes were made in both undergraduate programs. With the growth of importance
and influence of the US Green Building Councils
LEED building certification system and student
interest in LEED accreditation, the department
decided to design a new course, Environmental Science
in Building Construction (AE4121), to give students
a background in sustainable construction. This course
was to be taught for the first time in the 2005/2006
winter quarter.
1.2
30% of greenhouse gas emissions, 30% of raw materials use, 30% of waste output (136 million tons annually) and 12% of potable water consumption http://
www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID29
1&. The NSF was looking for an assessment of the
impact of construction, the resources used and wastes
generated at the construction site over the life of the
project should be defined and eventually integrated
with life-cycle metrics of the facilities themselves
and the need for creating new or modifying current
construction processes to reduce or eliminate environmental impacts while also considering construction
costs and construction competitiveness http://www.
nsf.gov/pubs/2003/nsf03510/nsf03510.pdf.
Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) was in
the design phase for a new building, the Kern Center.
The Kern Center is a five-story, 210,000 ft2 state-ofthe-art athletic, health and wellness facility used for
organized athletics and intramural sports.
As owner, MSOE was in a unique position of
requesting construction documents that would enable
us to quantify environmental impacts of the constructing the Kern Center, so we submitted a proposal. Both Wisconsins Focus on Energy Program
and the National Science Foundation provided funding support for this project. Additional NSF support
was received under the Research Experience for
Undergraduates (REU) program. It was anticipated
725
that what we learned in the NSF project would contribute to AE 4121 development.
2
COURSE DEVELOPMENT
2.1
Tasks included determining what construction documents were available to us, developing a data collection methodology, determining where there were gaps
in information, comparing quantities from invoices
(actual amounts) with quantities calculated from site
drawings (estimated amounts) and comparing pollution generated at the site with pollution embodied in
materials and fuels generated off-site.
Undergraduate students were involved from the
beginning in taking meter readings and collecting daily
reports and invoices from the construction manager,
Hunzinger Construction Company. They took site
photos several times per week and cataloged these
photos. We had a copy of the owners plans, but did
not have access to subsequent modifications to these
plans. Our activities could not add costs to the project.
Undergraduate students organized construction documents and developed research projects from this data.
Undergraduate projects included an analysis of
fuel (diesel from construction equipment and gasoline from worker transport) requirements over the
course of the project and the potential for carpooling
of workers to reduce fuel emissions; the accuracy of
daily reports compared site photos for tracking on-site
construction equipment; compiling life-cycle-inventory
data on embodied energy and pollution in construction materials used in Construction Specifications
Institutes (CSI) CSI Division 31 (site work) and CSI
Division 3 (concrete work); and an analysis of the
potential for landfill diversion of construction materials and cost savings had there been construction recycling during Kern Center construction (all material
was landfilled).
Two Master of Science in Environmental graduate
student projects were also developed using these construction documents. One capstone research project,
Quantifying VOCS in Products Off-Gassed during
the Construction of MSOES Kern Center and Proposed
Strategies for Reducing Employee Exposure, evaluated products that off-gassed volatile organic compounds (VOCs) actually used in the Kern Center from
the time of building completion to the end of the project. The other project was Assessing environmental
impacts of site activities during construction of
MSOEs Kern Center: site and concrete construction. The goal of this project was to perform a baseline study of flows of materials and emissions during
CSI Divisions 31 and 3.
726
2.3
Students will gain a foundation in the basics of environmental science, including air, water and soil pollution and hazardous and solid waste management,
Students will gain an understanding of environmental impacts generated both on-site (air emissions
from construction equipment, wind-blown dust and
water pollution) and off-site (embodied energy and
pollution from specific materials and emissions
from transport of workers and materials to the site),
Students will gain an understanding of current
strategies for minimizing environmental impacts
Students will complete a research project that
includes contacting a contractor, identifying an environmental issue of mutual concern, developing a
baseline current practice, researching alternatives
and recommending one cost-effective alternative
with reduced environmental impacts.
COURSE ELEMENTS
3.1
Course description
3.3
3.4
3.2
Course objectives
727
3.5
Course topics
Environmental drivers
Population
Energy
Water quantity and quality
Minerals
Air pollution
Water and soil pollution
Solid and hazardous wastes
Biological diversity
Global atmospheric changes
green building definitions and foundations
green building assessment and process
sustainable sites and landscaping
energy and atmosphere
water
materials
indoor environmental quality
construction operations
building commissioning
economic analysis of green buildings
Grading matrix
Assignments (9%)
Weekly quizzes and final exam (41%)
Technical report (41%)
Project proposal
Data and key work search strategy
Rough draft
Presentation
Final report
Course portfolio (9%)
728
729
reasonable as a means of individual investigation, but generally just more work in an already
busy year
a tough paper, but good
informative
very effective
research paper lets us dig into a LEED topic
and explore the inner workings
the presentations on reports were a good idea;
they let us hear about all sorts of different
products
exposed everyone to the alternatives that exist
in the building environment
honestly, I had so little time to spend on it that I
am not really happy with the result, but had little
choice about that
biggest waste of time of the whole class
As indicated, there was a wide range of student comments. On balance most were positive, but a number
were clearly negative. Students indicted that the total
work load (AE 4121 and senior design) was high,
sustainable construction is important and likely to
become increasingly so, it was valuable to get the perspective of invited speakers and the research report
was useful. For a first time offering, the course was
considered successful. We will continue to integrate
elements of this course with the senior design or other
projects. Completing a LEED checklist will continue to
be required for senior design. Incorporating environmental science content remains a major objective.
The research report and presentation will continue to
be included.
In general, teacher evaluations were favorable
on the topics surveyed organization and planning,
CONCLUSIONS
The course was perhaps too ambitious for a threecredit course offered concurrently with senior design,
considering the large time commitments required for
senior design. Student receptivity to environmental
science content is less than optimal; they expect to
have courses with science content earlier in their academic programs. There is a wide variation in student
receptiveness to sustainable construction that
ranges from environmentalist propaganda to this
course was a true eye opener for me. If environmental impacts of construction are to be reduced, future
engineers must understand a wide range of sustainability-related issues. Teaching sustainable construction to construction students effectively promises to
be an ongoing, but interesting, challenge.
REFERENCES
Milwaukee School of Engineerings Architectural
Engineering
&
Building
Construction
Dept.
http://www.msoe.edu/ae/
National Science Foundation (NSF 03-510), Technology for a
Sustainable Environment-Sustainable Construction
Processes.
http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2003/nsf03510/
nsf03510.pdf
US Green Building Council.
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID291&
730
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Cardboard is indispensable for our daily use, but considering it as a construction material is not
a common practice yet. Cardboard is sustainable, it is based on renewable or even recycled resources, environmentally friendly and recyclable. It is also an inexpensive material; light but very strong. Hence, its application
for temporary constructions is reasonable. In this paper this innovative and sustainable construction material is
presented. In particular it is focused on the mechanical and structural behaviour of cardboard and cardboard
elements. Therefore different types of cardboard structures are analysed. With these different types of cardboard, beam components were designed and tested. The aim was to use the qualities of each basic material for
the adequate part of the beam and to find a preferable design with a favourable strength to weight relation. The
prototypes showed, that cardboard is strong enough to be used as a construction material and through smart
design it can be the preferable construction material.
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Application fields
The Japanese Architect Shigeru Ban has made cardboard presentable as structural material. He already
designed numerous cardboard buildings mainly using
paper tubes [Siegfried 2000]. Among them are the
Japan Pavilion for the 2000 World Expo in Hanover
[McQuaid 2003] and the Paperdome in Amsterdam
[Eekhout 2004]. Some of his paper buildings are still
in use, even though they were only designed and constructed for a short period of time.
Other examples of realized projects where cardboard was used as building material are the Cardboard
School in Westcliff on Sea, UK [Buro Happold 2001]
or the emergency shelters from Durakit, Canada
[Durakit 2006].
All these projects show that cardboard has potential for application in many structural fields.
Figure 1.
Hanover.
731
Figure 2.
The main objection considering cardboard as a building material will concern the impact of water and fire.
It is not possible to make cardboard absolutely fireproof but special flame-retardants in the pulp or surface treatments can make it sufficiently fire-resistant
to meet most fire code requirements as tests at the TU
Delft and TNO have proven [EET 2003].
Water is a significant problem for cardboard constructions, due to the hygroscopic nature of paper.
The cellulose fibers are connected by hydrogen bonds
which are very sensitive to water. Any absorption of
water loosens the fiber bonds and leads to the
decrease of consistency and strength of the material.
Thus cardboard constructions always have to be
adequately protected against direct water contact and
humidity in the air.
Therefore already the design should avoid that the
cardboard elements come in direct contact with water
732
3.1
3.3
Paper and board are based on cellulose fibers. The primary raw material of paper is wood. Wood is a renewable resource. 1/10 of the world wide clearing is used
for the paper production. Mainly the wood supply for
the paper production is the byproduct from timber production or low quality wood from thinning the forests.
However it is important that this wood comes from
sustainable forestry management which actively protects the ecosystem forest. The introduction of a world
wide certification system is necessary.
Furthermore paper can also be based on recovered
fibers. Then paper products are recycled and used as
secondary raw material. The use of waste paper is the
most sustainable solution concerning the protection
of raw materials and energy consumption. However
the strength of recycled paper products is lower than
from virgin (fresh) fibers. In structural application
this has to be considered.
3.2
Production process
Recycling
Economical
733
30
Single sheet
compression, MD
20
10
tension, CD
compression, CD
0
0
General
Paper is the generic term of all cellulose fibre products made in form of a web or sheet by felting virgin
or secondary fibres from a specially prepared suspension. Furthermore there is the subdivision of two
main grades: paper and cardboard. The classification
of these grades is not very uniform within the paper
industry. Cardboard is usually thicker and stiffer than
paper. It also comprehends paper products composed
of several layers such as solid, corrugated or honeycomb boards. In general, all products heavier than
225 g/m2 are referred to cardboard.
The research on the mechanical and structural
behavior of cardboard is essential for the further
development of Cardboard in Architecture. It gives
insight in the material response and hence delivers
indications for design and technology development.
A considerable database of knowledge of paper properties is available in the paper industry, but rather concerning production processing, visual quality,
packaging and personal hygiene. Most of the
mechanical properties required for structural application are generally not determined for paper or board.
4.2
Stress [MPa]
tension, MD
40
Figure 3.
0.01
0.02
Strain [%]
0.03
734
MD
CD
E-modulus
[GPa]
Max tensile
strenght, t
[MPa]
Max compressive
strenght, c
[MPa]
Max tensile
strain, t
[%]
Max compressive
strain, c
[%]
120
1/42/3 * EMD
1545
1/31/2 * t,MD
1/3 * t,MD
1/2 * t,CD
1.52.5
3.05.0
1/4 * t,MD
1/5 * t,CD
MD machine direction.
CD cross-machine direction.
Table 2.
t tension.
c compression.
Isotropic:
Concrete
C20/25
Steel
Fe E235
Glass (EN 572-1)
Float glass
Plastics
Polyethylene
Anisotropic:*)
Wood
Softwood
Paper and Board
General
Solidboard **)
Modulus of
elasticity
[GPa]
Ultimate stress
compression
[MPa]
Ultimate stress
tension
[MPa]
Weight
density
[kN/m3]
Embodied
energy
[MJ/kg]
Recycling
29
20
2.2
24
1.9
Downcycling
210
360
360
78.5
25
Recycling
7075
700900
3090
24
13.7
Recycling
0.60.9
2030
2045
9.5
80.9
Recycling
||
||
||
8.511
0.60.9
3545
39
3080
34
4.56
4.7
Recycling
220
3.5
0.510
1.6
510
8.0
25
5.6
1545
27.1
520
13.5
69
6.9
520
9.4
Recycling
735
in the grain direction but has almost negligible properties in perpendicular direction. One can say during
the processing from wood to paper, the product looses
strength in the x-direction and gains strength in the
perpendicular direction. The table shows that cardboard fits in the range of building materials, however
the stiffness is very low.
The table also includes the outcome of tests performed on a solid board with the grammage of
1050 g/m2 [Schnwlder 2006b], to give an idea of the
strength of common solid board. The results confirm
the relationships of the properties as given in Table 1.
4.3
z, ZD
y, CD
x, MD
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
top liner
filler
back liner
Components
736
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
CARDBOARD BEAMS
737
Figure 12.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
738
Price
Beam
Max F
[kN]
Weight
[kg]
Price
[]
Max F
[%]
Max F
[/kN]
1
2
3
10
4
6
27
17
22
21
24
28
2.7
4.3
3.7
2.10
6.00
4.67
739
CONCLUSION
Cardboard has been introduced as an innovative sustainable building material with structural application
for temporary constructions. It was shown that cardboard is ecological sustainable, as it is from renewable or even recycled resources, bio-degradable and
recyclable and the impact of the production process
on the environment was ameliorated in the past
decades. Cardboard is inexpensive and light which
makes it also economic sustainable.
Furthermore, the mechanical behavior of cardboard
and cardboard structures was closer examined. The
strength and the density of cardboard is comparable to
wood, however cardboard is less stiff. Cardboard is
also viscous and hygroscopic material. By designing
and testing the cardboard beams it was demonstrated
that cardboard is variable in many forms and structures and that structural components can be easily
composed by cutting folding and gluing. The cardboard beams also showed that with smart design
strong, light and cheap elements can be produced.
As cardboard is still a new and undeveloped construction material, the research area is still very wide.
Especially the fields of water and fire-resistance,
improvement of the material stiffness and development of connections have to be further investigated.
However, even though there is still a long way to go,
cardboard is attractive and has big potential for an
innovative, sustainable construction material.
REFERENCES
Buro Happold 2001. Constructing a prototype cardboard
building. Final report, September 2001.
Durakit 2006, Durakit Shelters, www.durakit.com.
Eekhout, M. 2004. Kartonnen IJburgkoepel. Nieuwsbrief
Bond voor Materialenkennis, January: 24.
EET 2003. Kiem 02021: Bouwen met karton (Construction
with Cardboard, in dutch). Final report.
FEFCO 2000. European database for corrugated board life
cycle studies. FEFCO, Kraft Institute, December 2000.
ICFPA (International Council of Forest and Paper
Associations) 2005. Sustainability. Brochure, May 2005.
McQuaid, M. 2003. Shigeru Ban. London, United Kingdom:
Phaidon.
Niskanen, K. 1998. Papermaking science and technology,
Book 16: Paper physics. Finland: Fapet Oy.
Schnwlder, J. 2006a. Determination of creep behavior of
solid board. Report, TU Delft, The Netherlands.
Schnwlder, J. 2006b. Determination of the mechanical
properties of single and multilayered solid boards.
Report, TU Delft, The Netherlands.
Siegfried, S. 2000. Shigeru Ban Architects: Paper tube
architecture 10 works 19902000: international positions in architecture. Hamburg, Germany: Junius.
740
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In this study,Reed (phragmites australis) particles and urea formaldehyde(uf) resin were used
for particleboard manufacturing. The properties of uf bonded reed particle boards were relatively lower then
those of commercial particleboard.the purpose of this study was to improve bondability by pf resin. In this
experiment, phenol formaldehyde(pf) was used to replace 5 and 10% of uf adhesive. The properties of the
resulting mixed adhesive products were then evaluated and compared with particleboard bond with only uf.
Properties evaluated were modulus of rupture(MOR) Internal bond(IB),thickness swelling(TS) and water
absorption. The results showed that replacement of uf with pf improved the mechanical and physical properties
of particleboard. The best condition according to Iranian standard obtained in 5% replacement and 190C press
temperature and 6 min press time.
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.
analysis.
Reeds (phragmites australis) with 25% moisture content were obtained from sowmehsara city of Guilan
province, iran. Reed air- dried density was 0.5 gr/cm3.
the stems were first cut into 70 mm lengths by a dram
chipper and further refined using a Pullman flaker.
The particles were then screend according Bison
Quality Control 44011 standard.
Mesh size
(mm)
Reed
particles (%)
S l/t
J w/t
A l/w
4
42
21
10.4
0.4
25
35
30
7.5
2.5
115.5
105.5
120.5
12.5
90.5
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.1
3.5
15
14.5
13.8
12.7
11.5
Min
110.5
4.36
13.5
Table 2.
Adhesive
Density
(g/cm3)
Solid
content(%)
pH
Viscosity(cp)
Pf
Uf
1.15
1.20
63.5
52
8.5
6.8
150
180
741
Board
type
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2.1
Press time
(min)
4
4
6
6
4
4
6
6
4
4
6
6
21.67
Press
temperature (C)
Replacement(%)
Table 3.
180
190
180
190
180
190
180
190
180
190
180
190
10
18.81
5
15.68
0
0
10
15
20
25
MOR
(Mpa)
Board manufacturing
0.7
Replacement (%)
10
0.77
0.38
IB(Mpa)
742
70
Thickness swelling(%)
60
50
40
30
20
2h
24h
10
0
0
5
Replacement (%)
2h
24h
0
10
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
5
Replacement (%)
10
The average values of Static bending, Internal bond, Thickness swelling and Water absorpting for board type.
Thickness swelling (%)
Board type
Static bending
(Mpa)
Internal bond
(Mpa)
2 hr
24 hr
2 hr
24 hr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
14.51
16.8
17.61
13.8
16.51
22.22
25.41
27.62
14.22
18.22
24.21
30.02
0.30
0.47
0.45
0.30
0.57
0.80
0.84
0.88
0.44
0.67
0.80
0.90
15.43
12.42
11.08
18.51
11.09
6.08
4.11
3.52
15.05
10.04
3.03
2.72
18.45
17.08
13.51
23.11
16.55
12.08
7.57
6.51
20.02
16.08
5.51
5.08
43
42.11
38.11
46.11
27.08
17.09
14.04
13.11
30.08
25.04
15.16
13.11
62
60.12
68.12
64.5
34.11
21.04
18.11
16.52
40.09
30.12
19.11
16.08
The bondability of reed and wheat straw particleboards which bonded with a uf resin using silane
coupling agents were improved(HAN,1998). Like
other nonwood lignocelluloses both reed and wheat
straws have higher hemicellulose and ash contents
than wood.the outer surface of these two straws are
covered with much silica and wax(HAN,1995).
However, the natural characteristics of these materials
make them difficult to bond with urea formaldehyde(uf) resin.an adhesive popularly used in particleboard manufacture(SAUTER,1996; HAN et al 1998).
4
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
743
Particleboard/Composite
Material
Symposium.
Washington State University.Pullman.WA.pp 138190.
YAHYA NS(1994):Particleboard from processed Oil Palm
Lignocellulosic residues. In:proceedings of the 28th
International
particleboard/Composite
Material
Symposium,WSU pp 275.
ZHANG M,KAWAI S,YUSUF S,IMAMURA Y,SAAKI
H(1996): Manufacture of Wood Compsites using
Lignocellulose Materials and their Propertise(in
Japanese) Mokuzai Gakkaishi 42(11):10821085.
ZUCARO J,REEN R( 1995):The second forest: Filling the
Wood source gap while creating the Environmental
Performance Board of the 21st Century. In Proceeding of
the 29th International Particleboard/Composite Material
Symposium. WSU, pp 225231.
744
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This paper investigates an exemplary instance of sustainable housing set against the backdrop
of one of Americas most spectacular natural landscapes Yellowstone National Park. The authors use a qualitative inquiry in the case study tradition to evaluate the design, construction, and assessment of two single family homes designated as the first projects in the National Park system to receive Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) certification. As a result, the houses are extremely well-designed by American
housing standards, even while exhibiting several shortcomings due to tradeoffs encountered during the design
process. However, the LEED reporting and scoring process was mishandled, thus underscoring a deficiency in the
American system for assessing sustainable architecture. The Yellowstone houses perform better than the designated
LEED certification level.
Key words: Sustainable Architecture, Passive Solar Heating, Housing, LEED.
INTRODUCTION
This qualitative study explores current design, construction, and reporting practices for sustainable architecture in the United States. The primary purpose is to
reconstruct and analyze the design and construction
processes for the Xanterra houses and provide an
example of how the architects, clients, and builders
established a design philosophy and made tradeoffs
vis-a-vis the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) scorecard. Such decisions were made
in the context of a high-profile, exemplary project with
significant external pressure to succeed. These houses
were recently designated as the first building projects
in the National Park system to receive LEED certification from the United States Green Building Council
(USGBC). Moreover, the homes are promoted as a
model for future building projects at Yellowstone and
other national parks. A secondary purpose is to explore
how the project achieved LEED certification and to
assess the process of reporting and scoring. The paper
addresses persons interested in sustainable architecture, passive solar heating, housing, and LEED.
This paper builds upon the existing literature on sustainable housing by demonstrating the efficacy of concrete construction and passive solar design. Some of
this literature is oriented to practical recommendations
[Steven Winter Associates 1983, Chiras 2002]. In fact,
the paper shows that the designers of the Xanterra
houses referenced this literature, and thus it analyzes
how sustainable theories are applied and modified in
practice. The academic and scientific literature includes
745
Figure 1.
be used more responsibly in terms of reducing pollution and waste? How should these practices be evaluated to understand their true efficacy? Such questions
are particularly urgent for the American homebuilding
industry, which in general produces structures that consume a large amount of energy since they are reliant on
mechanical systems for heating and cooling. Since the
Xanterra houses were consciously developed as a positive alternative to typical homebuilding practices, an
analysis of their performance, from design through
assessment, will have significant implications for future
projects of a similar type.
The data includes interviews, artifacts, and observations. The interviews were unstructured and included
the clients representative, architect of record, and
sustainability consultant. The unobtrusive artifacts
included elements of the project record such as
drawings, construction photographs, communications,
energy simulations, etc. The observations were derived
in the form of raw field notes and photographs taken
directly at a visit to the research site. The data is analyzed to discover relationships, make interpretations,
develop explanations, and generate theories. The
process involves a combined inductive and interpretive
analysis.
METHODOLOGY
3
3.1
FINDINGS
Project data and design intent
746
Site dynamics
747
748
LEED is now essentially a self-reporting and selfpolicing certification process. It operates, in the words
of Kath Williams, on the honor system [Williams
2006], but at the time this project was certified there
was a fairly strong formal review process involving
reviewers from the USGBC. Under this system, most of
the review materials took the form of a written narrative; the reviewer did not visit the project and did not
necessarily review plans or photographs. Thus the certification depends largely on writing ability, which has
frequently been acknowledged as a skill that many
architects and engineers lack [Cuff & Robertson 1982].
Moreover, the USGBC reviewers judgment on any
given point is able to be appealed, which places a further premium on the design teams ability to communicate persuasively. LEED-accredited professionals are
able to exploit this need by marketing their ability to
communicate and shepherd a project through this
reporting and appeals process.
For the Xanterra houses, the LEED reporting paperwork was not completed by Williams but instead was
assigned to an intern architect, and some of the senior
members of the design team never saw the final USGBC
submittal. In fact, there were several mistakes made during the reporting process.
Despite the copious attention to the performance of
the building envelope, the houses failed to get the
proper number of LEED credits for Optimizing Energy
Performance. This category requires that a mathematical energy model be developed in order to analyze the
buildings theoretical performance compared to a base
case of the same type and size (defined by ASHRAE
90.2). When a third-party energy model was commissioned, the modeler mistakenly employed a highperformance house with an insulated concrete envelope
and southern orientation for the base case house. Even
with the higher standard of comparison, the project
received seven out of ten possible points for Optimizing
749
DISCUSSION
750
average performance. Japanese buildings can therefore lose points due to negative performance in any
given category. Altogether, the LEED rating system
with its narrow perspective of sustainability based on
positive scoring plus the failure to account for useful
building life undoubtedly constitutes an inadequate
measure of true sustainability.
A significant limitation of this study was that the
Xanterra houses were not instrumented, and the authors
could not make an independent determination about the
buildings performance. In fact, this raises another limitation of the LEED rating system: buildings are evaluated according to their hypothetical performance
(which may be calculated in error, as shown above)
rather than their actual performance. If LEED wishes to
be taken seriously as an instrument of assessment,
rather than a public-relations tool, why not require an
actual performance measurement as a prerequisite to
certification? In light of the fact that the LEED process
already adds significantly to a projects bottom line (see
above), it would seem difficult to argue that cost would
be a prohibitive factor. A possible solution is for the
projects electricity, gas, and water usage to be tabulated
and correlated after one year of use.
This research suggests that the process of scoring
and reporting within the setting of a collaborative professional environment may have a significant effect on
a projects assessment. Any of the problems encountered here a faulty third-party energy model, a contractor inexperienced in sustainable construction and its
documentation, an intern architect given new responsibilities and perhaps lacking writing ability, and no internal procedure for appealing the decisions of the LEED
reviewer might reasonably be assumed to exist in
many other examples of green architecture. Given these
contingencies, how accurate is a typical LEED rating?
This single example shows a margin of error of at least
26% between the characteristics of the building and its
LEED score. Additional research is needed to further
explore contingencies of professional practice and their
effect on assessments of sustainability. It is likely that
some canonical examples of green architecture are
assessed and perceived incorrectly.
REFERENCES
Alexander, Christopher, et. al. 1977. A pattern language:
Towns, buildings, construction. New York: Oxford
University Press.
ASHRAE Standard Energy-Efficient Design of New LowRise Residential Buildings, American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc., Atlanta GA. ASHRAE 90.21993.
Barley, C. Dennis, Torcellini, Paul, & Van Geet, Otto 2004.
Design and performance of the Van Geet off-grid home,
Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 126(2): 738743.
751
752
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The production and recycling of lead acid batteries, has a very important role in the lead industry. The entire lead consumption from battery production is about 6070% depending on a country, although
recently the profitability is reducing due to environmental costs mostly in relation to waste generation and
energy consumption. Very large amounts of toxic leachable soda slugs are produced for landfill from recycling
spent batteries. Therefore developing a zero waste generating process to produce a new concept in the battery
reprocessing industry is vital and which is the aim of this project.
In this project a scientific and rational model for the production of gypsum that was validated on a pilot plant
scale. Therefore it was necessary to investigate how the variation in chemical composition will affect the synthetically produced gypsum quality, i.e. analyzing the gypsum produced for some trace metals, such as Pb, Fe,
Cu, As, Sb, Zn, Ni, Cd and Na. Most of these metals can cause a serious hazard to humans through inhalation,
skin contact, eye contact or ingestion [Rai and Amit, Jan 2002].
Na is not toxic however it can cause efflorescence and Fe causes discolouration of the plasterboard. Synthetic
gypsum can be produced by a simple chemical reaction between sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and lime (Ca(OH)2) or
limestone (CaCO3). The non-ferrous metallurgical industry produces large volumes of acidic effluents, or
wastewaters, which are treated using lime neutralization in order to remove the acidity and heavy metals. The
success of this research lead to investigating the possibility of making synthetic gypsum during the neutralization of acidic waste waters with lime or limestone. Gypsum samples were produced at different operational conditions (pH, temperature, mixer speed, residence time, etc.). The samples were analysed for trace metal content
using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma spectrometry.
Ultrasound assisted crystallisation during the synthesis of gypsum was performed to observe the possibility
of obtaining a cleaner gypsum product. A 40 kHz ultrasonic bath and a 20 kHz ultrasonic probe were used in this
investigation. All the experiments performed in this investigation were lasted for 4 hours and were carried out
at room temperature. Different ultrasonic powers and different methods of sonication methods were carried out
at pH 2 and pH 4 in order to obtain the cleanest gypsum product. Various sonication methods were also carried
out using the 20 kHz ultrasonic probe at 25%, 50% and 75% sonication powers.
INTRODUCTION
753
Reaction vessel
Stainless steel tank
Reaction mixture
Water
Transducer
Experiment
number
pH
Lime
Acid
Period/
minutes
1
2
3
2
2
4
analytical
commercial
commercial
analytical
commercial
commercial
240
240
240
Generator
Upper fixed
horn
Detachable horn
Reaction
beaker
Ultrasonic equipment
Power
Sonication
Period/
minutes
4
5
6
2
2
4
100%
100%
100%
continuous
continuous
continuous
120
20
15
Experiment
Sonication
number
pH Power method
period/
minutes
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
25%
50%
75%
25%
25%
50%
75%
50%
240
240
240
240
5
5
5
5
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
25%
50%
75%
25%
25%
50%
75%
50%
2002]. It is only at powers above the cavitation threshold that sonochemistry can occur. That is because at
only these powers, the great energies associated with
cavitational collapse will be released into the liquid.
1.1
pH
Replaceable tip
Solution
Figure 1.1.2
system.
Experiment
number
pulsed
pulsed
pulsed
continuous
pulsed on lime addition
pulsed on lime addition
pulsed on lime addition
continuous to lime
prior addition
pulsed
pulsed
pulsed
continuous
pulsed on lime addition
pulsed on lime addition
pulsed on lime addition
continuous to lime
prior addition
240
240
240
240
5
5
5
5
754
continuous ultrasound as follows; a blast of 25% continuous ultrasound for 1 minute was applied to the first
sample, and a blast of 25% continuous ultrasound
for five minutes was applied to the second sample. The
third sample was blasted with 50% ultrasound for 1
minute, and the fourth sample was blasted with 50%
ultrasound for five minutes. The fifth sample was
blasted with 75% ultrasound for 1 minute, and the
sixth sample was blasted with 75% ultrasound for
five minutes. The number of samples taken for this
investigation varied for each experiment.
The final gypsum pulp was filtered, washed with
two separate portions of 100 ml of distilled water. The
other samples taken (from the impurity level change &
extra sonication investigations) were also filtered and
washed with two separate portions of 20 ml distilled
water. The final gypsum product and all the samples
were dried in a fan-assisted oven at 40C for 24 hours.
2.3
755
2.4
3
3.1
756
Table 3.1.1.
Element
mg/kg
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
23.5
1
1
1
87.1
3
4.8
3.2
Table 3.1.2.
Element
mg/kg
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
70.1
14.9
50.1
13.6
837.2
334.6
86.5
3.1.3
Concentration (mg/kg)
300
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Zn
200
150
100
50
0
3.1.2 (pH2)
Experiment
3.1.3 (pH4)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
Discussion:
This experiment shows a significant increase in
impurity levels in comparison with the previous
experiment. This is due to the fact that this experiment was carried out using contaminated battery acid
and commercial limestone.
250
Pb
Cd
Cu
Na
Fe
Zn
1.2
0.2
350
3.2.1
Normalized
concentration
3.1.2
Discussion:
The solubility of most metal ions and salts generally
decreases as the pH of the solution increases
[Qingyum, Louis, McDonald, Jeffrey and Skousen]. In
other words they become less soluble at higher pH levels. Since experiment 3.1.3 was performed at pH 4,
higher impurity levels were expected in the product.
Graph 3.1.3 show that the lead levels in experiment
3.1.3, which was performed at pH 4, are lower than the
lead levels in experiment 3.1.2 which was performed at
pH 2. Since that the most dominant form of Pb is likely
to be PbSO4, the solubility of PbSO4 increases as the
concentration of the sulphuric acid decreases [Blaskett
and Boxall, 1990]. In other words as the pH of the solution rises, the solubility of PbSO4 increases leaving less
to be co-precipitated in the gypsum product.
1.2 (without
US)
Discussion:
This experiment was carried out using a 40 kHz ultrasonic bath. The sonication commenced when the first
50 ml of CaCO3 was added to the reaction and stopped
after 20 minutes. The remainder time of the reaction
was carried out without sonication and the experiment
lasted for four hours. The final pH of the reaction was
approximately pH 2. When the final product of this
experiment was compared with the final product from
experiment 3.1.2 (no US), it was found that there was
a decrease in impurity levels when ultrasound was
applied for 20 minutes (see table and graph 3.2.1). The
product from this experiment provided the cleanest
gypsum produced in this investigation.
3.3
757
1.2
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
1.6
Normalized concentration
Normalized concentration
1.4
0.2
0.0
3.1.2 (without US)
1.4
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
3.1.3 (without US)
3.3.2 (with US)
Experiment
Discussion:
In this experiment, a 20 kHz probe was used for the
sonication. The reaction was sonicated with a 75%
pulsed power throughout the duration of the experiment (4 hours). The final pH of the experiment was
approximately pH 4. When the final product of this
reaction was compared with the product of experiment 3.1.3, which was carried out without any sonication, it was found that there was a significant
reduction in impurity levels with the exception of Pb,
Sb and Fe which mirrored results found at pH 2. The
discussion given in experiment 3.3.1 is also valid for
this experiment as the metal ions in both experiments
are behaving in the same manner.
3.3.3 Continuous 25% ultrasound at pH 2
Graph 3.3.3:
7
Normalized concentration
pulsed power throughout the duration of the experiment (4 hours). The final pH of the experiment was
approximately pH 2. When the final product of this
reaction was compared with the product from experiment 3.1.2, which was carried out without any sonication, it was found that there was a significant
reduction in impurity levels with the exception of Pb,
Sb and Fe. As previously discussed, sonication can
cause particle size to decrease by fragmenting the
crystals [Perez-Rodriguez, Carrera, Poyato, PerezMaguedu, 2002] [Franco, Perez-Mqueda, PerezRodriguez, 2004]. The fragmentation and the breakage
of the crystals could cause the impurities to go into
solution rather than precipitating on the surface of the
crystals. Since the sonication was pulsed, the crystals
could be continuously breaking which would allow
minimum coprecipitation of impurities on the surface
or even as part of the crystal matrix.
On the other hand, Pb and Sb levels increased when
ultrasound was used in the reaction.
As previously mentioned the free radicals formed
in the course of sonication could have caused the oxidation of Pb2 to Pb4, consequently forming Pb3O4
which is insoluble in water.
Sb2(SO4)3 is insoluble in water but soluble in acid
[West, Robert 19721973]. Therefore as the experiment
continues and the acid concentration decreases, the
level of Sb increases due to the precipitation of
Sb2(SO4)3.
As mentioned earlier, ultrasound causes the crystals
to break, which leads to larger surface area
[Chatakondu, Green, Thompson, Suslick, 1987] [PerezRodriguez, Carrera, Poyato, Perez-Maguedu, 2002].
Therefore as the surface area is increasing it is possible
that Sb2(SO4)3 is precipitating on the surface of the
crystals. All the other metal sulphates included in the
analysis are soluble in water [West, Robert. 1972
1973]. Another factor worth mentioning is that the temperature of the solution also increases when ultrasound
is used [Suslick, Kenneth,1989] [Mason and Lorrimer,
1988] consequently leading to better dissolution. As for
Fe, it can be oxidised to Fe2O3, which is insoluble in
water [West, Robert. 19721973].
Pb
Cd
Cu
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
5
4
3
2
1
0
3.1.2 (without US)
3.3.3 (with US)
Experiment
Discussion:
In this experiment a 20 kHz ultrasonic probe was used
for the sonication. Continuous 25% sonication was
applied to the reaction for the entire duration of
the experiment (4 hours). The pH of the solution
758
Normalized concentration
1.4
1.2
Pb
Cd
Sb
Na
Fe
Zn
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
3.1.3 (without US)
Experiment
Discussion:
In this experiment a 20 kHz ultrasonic probe was used
for the sonication. Continuous 25% sonication was
applied to the reaction for the entire duration of the
experiment (4 hours). The pH of the solution was
approximately pH 4. When the product of this experiment was compared to the product of experiment 3.1.3,
which was carried out without any sonication, it was
found that there was a significant decrease in impurity
levels with the exception of Pb, Sb and Fe mirroring
the findings at pH 2. Since the sonication was continuous, there was continuous damage being applied to the
surface of the crystals, which caused any clusters to
disintegrate and fragment releasing impurities trapped
within or on the surface of the crystal.
The impurities in this experiment are behaving in
the same manner as the previous experiment.
CONCLUSION
Refer to tables 2a, 2b and 2c for the following experiment numbers. Some of the results of the experiments
discussed are not included in the paper due to the
length of the paper, however they can be found in reference [Abdul-Jabber, 2005].
All the gypsum samples produced in this investigation are not suitable for manufacturing plasterboard
since that the levels of the trace metals analysed remain
elevated in all the gypsum samples and exceed the
maximum limits provided by Lafarge plasterboard.
The only suitable gypsum product obtained from this
investigation was the gypsum produced in experiment
1 (pH 2), which used analytical grade reagents.
This investigation showed that sonication could
either increase or decrease impurities in the gypsum
product. This depends on the source of sonication, the
method of sonication, power, frequency, length of
sonication. However this effect varies from one metal
ion to another. For example the levels of Pb is always
increased when ultrasound was introduced, this is due
to the solubility of PbSO4 in sulphuric acid as discussed before.
Experiments 2 and 3 which were carried out without
any sonication and used commercial grade limestone
(provided by Lafarge plasterboard) and battery acid
(provided by BRM), carried out at pH 2 and pH 4
respectively. The gypsum produced in both of these
experiments were not suitable for plasterboard manufacturing since most of the elements analysed exceeded
the maximum limits with the exception of Sb and Fe in
experiment 2 (pH 2) and Pb in experiment 3 (pH 4).
The gypsum produced in experiment 2 (pH 2) has Pb
content that is higher than experiment 3 (pH 4). Since
the most dominant form of Pb in gypsum is likely to be
PbSO4, the solubility of PbSO4 increases as the concentration of the sulphuric acid decreases [Blaskett and
Boxall, 1990]. In other words as the pH of the solution
rises, the solubility of PbSO4 increases leaving less to
be coprecipitated in the gypsum product.
When (pH 2, 4 hours US, using the bath) experiments were compared with experiment 2 (no US, pH
2), it was observed that ultrasound had a positive
effect on the gypsum produced, since the levels of Cd,
Cu, Na, Fe and Zn were decreased after the sonication
with the exception of Pb and Sb. However the gypsum
obtained from the sonicated experiment had impurity
levels which exceeded the maximum levels for FGD.
(pH 4, 15 minutes US, using the bath) experiment
had lower Pb, Cd, Na, Fe and Zn levels when compared with experiment 3 (pH 4, no US) with the
exception of Cu and Sb. However the final product
obtained from the sonicated experiment did not meet
the requirements for plasterboard manufacturing with
the exception of Zn (13.9 ppm) since the maximum
limit is 50 ppm.
759
760
REFERENCES
Abdul-Jabbar, H (2005). Analysis and purification of synthetic gypsum for industrial use. P.h.D thesis. Coventry
University.
Cann, G. (2004). The effect of reaction conditions on the
structure of synthetic gypsum. Mphil/Ph.D. Transfer
report, Coventry University.
Chatakondu, K.; Green, M. L. H.; Thompson, M. E.;
Suslick, K. S. (1987). The Enhancement of Intercalation
Reactions by Ultrasound. Journal of chemical society,
Chem. Comm., 900901.
Blaskett, D.R. and Boxall, D. (1990). Lead And Its Alloys.
Chichester, Ellis Horwood Limited.
Franco, F., Perez-Mqueda, L.A., Perez-Rodriguez, J.L.
(2004) The effect of ultrasound on the particle size and
structural disorder of a well-ordered kaolinite. J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 274, 1, 107117.
Mason, T.J. and Lorrimer, J.P. (1988). Sonochemistry, theory,
applications and uses of ultrasound in chemistry.
Chichester, Ellis Horwood Limited.
Mason, T.J. and Peters, D. (2002). Practical Sonochemistry,
power ultrasound uses and applications. 2nd edition.
Chichester, Ellis Horwood Limited.
Perez-Rodriguez, J.L., Carrera, F., Poyato, J., Perez-Maguedu,
L.A. (2002) Sonication as a tool for preparing nanometric
vermiculite particles. Nanotechnology, 13, 382387.
Pollet, BG., Lorimer, JP., Hindin, JY., Phull, SS., Mason, TJ.,
Walton, DJ. (2002), The effect of ultrasound upon the
oxidation of thiosulphate on stainless steel and platinium
electrodes. Ultrason. Sonochem., 9 (5), 267274.
Qingyum, S., Louis, M., McDonald, Jr. and Jeffrey, G.,
Skousen. Effects of armouring on limestone neutralisation of AMD. Division of plant and soil sciences, West
Virginia university, Morgantown.
Rai, U.N. and Pal Amit (Jan 2002) Health hazards of heavy
metals. International society of environmental botanists.
Enviro. News. Vol. 8 (1).
Suslick S. Kenneth (1989) The chemical effects of ultrasound. Scientific American. 260 (2), 6268.
West, C., Robert (19721973) Handbook of chemistry and
physics. 53rd edition. Ohio, The Chemical Rubber Co.
761
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: The move from natural to synthetic aggregates for use in construction is driven both by mounting
legislation and taxation intended to reduce the growing demand for natural aggregates. Despite increasing re-use
of crushed concrete from demolition waste, this source alone cannot satisfy the demand for aggregate materials.
This paper reports work using cement- bound mineral processing fines, which have been processed to form a synthetic aggregate material. High-shear processing has been used (in combination with polymer additives) to optimise the highest strength with the lowest practical water content, allowing aggregates to be produced by extrusion
and kibbling. Using polyvinyl alcohol at loadings up to 3% by mass, produces aggregates with a compressive
strength around 25 MPa comparable to many commercial concrete products which use limestone aggregates.
INTRODUCTION
763
2
2.1
2.2
Binder systems
Table 1. Compositions used for OPC and PVA mixing trials: percent by mass. (Note water additions made on an
empirical basis to achieve consistency suitable for kibbling).
Wet
silt
Dry
sand
OPC
PVA
Total
water
content
68
61
57
50
36
57
57
57
57
27
24
23
20
14
23
23
23
23
5
15
20
30
50
19.5
19
18
17
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
1
2
3
23.9
24.8
23.9
24.8
22.2
24.8
20.3
22.0
19.8
Dry
sand
Cement
PVA
CaCl2
Total
water
content
67
57
57
28
23
23
5 HAC
20 HAC
15 OPC
0
0
2
0
0
3
23.5
28.8
21.0
2.3
Aggregate testing
764
3.
RESULTS
3.1
Quantity
Four plants, located throughout the UK, wash excavated soils brought in from a variety of construction
and demolition (C&D) sites in their respective area. A
fifth plant, washed soils excavated from one site only
and is co-located at that site. The excavated soils may
or may not contain varying levels of crushed concrete
and/or natural stone, depending on the site from
which they were excavated. Together, the plants generate a combined total of approximately 1000 tonnes
of silt per day, which is predominantly sent to landfill
sites as waste.
Table 3.
Water
content
(wt %)
Organic
content
(wt %)
d50
(m)
PH *
Surface
area
(m2/g)
31.3
36.9
1.5
3.8
13.4
27.0
7.0
8.8
12.1
14.5
steel in concrete structures). Similarly, no soluble sulphates were detected and the equilibrium pH of the
samples in water varied between 7 and 8.8. These
results indicate that there are no readily soluble salts
present that could be deleterious to concrete containing aggregate manufactured from this material.
The surface analysis gave results lower than typical
clay results, most likely due to the fact that there were
larger particles present. Optical microscopy confirmed the results shown above, particularly the presence of quartz and clay particles and identified
occasional opaque magnetic particles.
3.3
Characteristics
OPC
3.2
OPC PVA
765
3.5
Mode = 20m
3
Volume (%)
2.5
1.5
0.5
653
473
343
249
180
131
94.7
68.7
49.8
36.1
19
26.2
13.8
9.97
7.23
3.8
5.24
2.76
1.45
1.05
0.76
0.4
0.55
Figure 1. A typical distribution of particle sizes in filter cake silt from aggregate washing plants. Particle sizes 2 m are
normally considered as clay particles for soil classification purposes.
35
14 day cure
30
28 day cure
UCS (MPa)
UCS (MPa)
40
25
20
15
35
14 day cure
30
28 day cure
25
20
15
10
5
10
0
0
20
40
Cement content (%)
60
3.5
1
2
3
% PVA (PC replacement)
The UCS results for HAC are slightly higher than those
for OPC but the higher cost of HAC would probably not
justify its use in this application.
There was no appreciable strength increase as a
function of curing time and this is to be expected of
HAC as it achieves its maximum strength more rapidly than does OPC.
The addition replacement of 3% OPC with calcium
chloride gave a comparable result to 18% OPC and 2%
PVA. Whilst this appears to be a promising result, the
Aggregate testing
766
18
Compression (mm)
16
14
12
Lightweight aggregate
2% PVA, 3% CaCl2, 15% PC
Control aggregate
Wet Dry
silt sand Cement
(%) (%) (%)
31.5% fines
10
8
PVA CaCl2
(%) (%)
UCS (MPa)
0.56% fines
6
4
14 day
67
57
57
2
0
0.00
0.61% fines
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
28
23
23
5 HAC 0
20 HAC 0
15 OPC 2
0
0
3
28 day
1.3, 1.6
1.6, 1.3
10.3, 8.1 10.0, 10.0
13.9, 12.9 16.4, 16.1
Figure 4.
We must, of course, consider the major use of industrial aggregates; concrete production. British Standard
BS EN 12620:2002 (Annex E) states that aggregate
normally has a strength greater than the concrete itself
[British Standards 2002]. Indeed, in high strength
applications, the compressive load is carried largely by
the aggregate, through particle-particle contact and the
role of the cementitious binder phase is to limit rotation
or slipping of the aggregate particles. In non-structural
concretes, this may not necessarily be the case; often
both the aggregate and the concrete made from it are
far stronger than is necessary, (or in some cases, even
desirable!). Nonetheless, it would seem reasonable to
assume that concrete made from these manufactured
aggregates will have a reduced strength compared to
structural concrete. Consequently, it is expected that
aggregates of this type should be used principally in
non-structural applications, such as blinding concrete,
foundation engineering and mass pours.
It can be concluded that it is feasible to manufacture aggregates suitable for selected backfill and low
strength concrete applications. Increasing OPC and
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution, 1990a. BS 812-110:1990,
Testing aggregates Part 110: Methods for determination of aggregate crushing value (ACV), UK: British
Standards Institution.
British Standards Institution, 1990b. BS 812-111:1990,
Testing aggregates Part 111: Methods for determination
of ten per cent fines value (TFV), UK: British Standards
Institution.
British Standards Institution, 1998. BS EN1097-2:1998,
Testing Tests for mechanical and physical properties of
Aggregates Part 2: Methods for the determination of resistance to fragmentation, UK: British Standards Institution.
British Standards Institution, 2002. BS EN 12620: 2002,
Aggregates for concrete, UK: British Standards
Institution.
Chen F.H., 2000. Soil Engineering, Testing Design, and
Remediation. Florida, USA: CRC Press LLC.
Huang C., Pan J.R., Sun K.D. and Liaw C.T., 2001. Reuse of
water treatment plant sludge and dam sediment in brickmaking, Water Science and Technology 44(10): 273277.
Khedari J., Watsanasathaporn P. and Hirunlabh J., 2005.
Development of fibre-based soilcement block with low
thermal conductivity, Cement & Concrete Composites
27: 111116.
Lester J.N., and Birkett J.W., 1999. Microbiology and
Chemistry for Environmental Scientists and Engineers,
2nd ed. London, UK: E&FN Spon.
Temimi M., Camps J.P. and Laquerbe M., 1995. Valorization
of fly ash in the cold stabilization of clay materials,
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 15: 219234.
767
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Concrete is the second most widely consumed substance on Earth, after water. Total amount of
concrete produced in 2000 in Japan was approximately 500 million ton, which amounted to almost 50% of
resource consumption in construction industry and to 25% of total input resourcess in Japan. Various environmental burdens are produced in cement and concrete production, execution and demolition of concrete structures,
recycling and disposal of concrete waste, etc. and these pose potential hazards for the environment and may result
in monetary damages to industries. To establish sustainable concrete related industries, it is absolutely imperative
to minimize the total environmental risk. This paper proposes a simulation system for resource flow based on
multi-agent-system which contributes to investigate an optimum material flow of concrete materials, an optimum
corporate strategy and an optimum political measure to minimize the total environmental risk.
1.1
12000
Production(x10,000)
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Figure 1.
769
associated with the reductions in construction projects, the ratio of blended cement production has been
gradually increasing. Its increasing trend is expected
to continue in view of the fact that the expected
increase in the number of thermal power plants will
increase the amount of resultant coal ash; that the
crude steel production tends to increase affected by
the construction rush in economically buoyant China;
and that blast-furnace slag cement and fly ash cement
were designated as green procurement products by
the Law on Promoting Green Purchasing in 2001.
Industrial waste and byproducts including slag and
coal ash have long been utilized as cement materials, as
these contain significant amounts of major ingredients
of cement. Combustible waste including waste tires and
waste plastics has also been used as fuels for cement
production. Recently, sewage sludge and incineration
ash from municipal solid waste have been actively utilized as raw materials and fuel for cement, because (1)
the high temperature safely decomposes hazardous
materials including dioxins; (2) no new waste is generated; (3) this requires no additional incineration facilities; and (4) it extends the service lives of final disposal
sites. Table 1 shows the waste and byproducts utilized
by the cement industry in 2005 [Japan Cement Association 2006].
1.3
Production of aggregate
Figure 2.
Table 1.
2005.
Type
Uses
blast furnace
slag
coal ashes
raw material,
addition
raw material,
addition
by-product
gypsum
dirt, sludge
nonferrous slag
steelmaking slag
coal tailing
others
total
770
addition
raw material
raw material
raw material
raw material, fuel
Amount
(1,000 t)
9,200
7,200
2,700
2,500
1,300
500
300
5,900
29,600
Table 2.
waste.
JIS A 5011-1
JIS A 5011-2
JIS A 5011-3
JIS A 5011-4
Type
JIS A 5031
600
500
400
Concrete Production
1.5
Concrete Waste
300
Concrete Waste
from Civil Structures
100
2000
Year
Figure 3.
Concrete Waste
from Buildings
200
0
1950
two-thirds of the peak value, and is expected to continue to decrease due to reductions in investment in
new construction of buildings and civil structures.
Waste and byproducts generated from RMC plants
include returned concrete brought back from job sites
as excess concrete and wash water resulting from the
cleaning of concrete mixers and agitating trucks.
Aggregate in wash water is recovered and reused for
concrete. Recovered water is divided into supernatant
and sludge in sedimentation tanks, and the supernatant
is reused as mixing water for concrete as it is. Sludge
water is also used as mixing water for concrete if the
solid percentage is 3% or less of cement. The sludge
solid is dewatered and dumped as sludge cake or used
as road bottoming. Returned concrete and sludge cake
resulting from 1 m3 of ready-mixed concrete amount to
0.009 m3 and 5.88 kg, respectively, on national average.
Production of concrete
2
2.1
771
CO2
44,725
Limestone
84,267
Slag 12,331
Fly Ash 4,551
Others 8,702
Cement 82,181
Others 28,617
Gravel,
Sand
301,000
Concrete
475,842
(including
cement-based
products)
Aggregate for
concrete 405,404
New stocks
Crushed
stone
412,000
Existing
stocks
Ot hers 16,000
Recycled crushed
stone 51,180
Recycle
on site
Asphalt
concrete
71,400
Asphalt 3,379
The uses for concrete lumps to be recycled are determined by the qualities of the recycled material, such as
density and water absorption, which vary depending
on the percentage of cement paste contained within or
adhering to the surfaces of original aggregate, and the
quality of recycled aggregate depends on the production method. Figure 5 shows general methods for producing recycled road bottoming, recycled aggregate
for leveling concrete (low quality recycled aggregate),
and recycled aggregate having qualities comparable to
those of natural aggregate and used for structural concrete (high quality recycled aggregate). For producing
high quality recycled aggregate, it is necessary to
repeat crushing or carry out high level treatment such as
heating and scrubbing as shown in Figure 6 in order to
minimize the adhering cement paste. When obtaining
772
Vibratory Sieves
Heating Tower
Vibratory Sieves
Cone Crusher
Vibratory Sieves
Road Subbase,
Backfill
Low Quality
Recycled
Coarse
Aggregates
Low Quality
Recycled
Fine
Aggregates
3.1
Powder
Vibratory Sieves
There have been several technical and political proposals to reduce the emission of concrete waste. High
quality recycled aggregate is one of the most major
technical proposals that are assumed as promising.
However, the impacts on the whole supply chain system, the social and economical applicability of the
materials and the location decision of new material
plants etc. have not yet been well investigated.
To evaluate technical and social aspects of the
resource flow of concrete related materials and then to
propose the optimized flow, we have been developing a
Overview of ecoMA
773
Recovery of
Heating Device Recovery of
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate
Filled with
Concrete
Bug Filter
Input
Middle Cone
Cylinder Hollow
Ejection Cone
Sieve
Tube Mill
Tube Mill
Fine
Coarse
Aggregate Aggregate
Fine
Powder
Rotary Blade
Outlet
Concrete Lumps
Scubbing
External
Cylinder
Eccentric
Tubular Mill
High Density
Zone
Drum
Supply
Motor
Rods
Exit
Water Level Range
in Air Chamber
Water Level
Recycled
Aggregate with
Low Density
Recycled
Aggregate with
High Density
Recovery
Transmission Gear
Figure 7.
774
Figure 8.
Table 3.
Agent in ecoMA.
Characteristics
Explanation
adaptivity
autonomy
collaborative
behavior
inferential
capability
communication
ability
personality
reactivity
temporal
continuity
Concrete and concrete related materials are relatively heavy and used in high volume in comparison
with other building materials.Consequently, fluctuation of energy consumption due to transportation
induced from the difference in geographic distribution of construction site, ready-mixed-concrete plant
and materials plant is not negligible even within the
city-scale of the target system. In ecoMA, geographical information such as plant location and statistical
date of building construction is introduced to reflect
the space constraint of resource flow in the real world.
3.3
Case studies
775
Figure 9.
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
stable
zero
emission
at best
linear
price-up of
aggregates
aggregate world to examine the problem that is to happen even in the best case. In the scenario C, cement
plants use recycled-aggregate-origin by-product powders as raw materials of cement clinker, so as to examine
the problem that heated scrubbing method generates
approximately 34% in weight of powders. Strategy
change, e.g. price-up etc., is only evoked per year so that
excessive sensitivity of agents is suppressed.
Figure 11 shows the estimated total amount of
land-filled waste concrete including backfilled and
illegal dumping concrete in the scenario B. The result
shows that amount of final disposal of demolished
776
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Bradshaw, J.M. 1997. Software agents, AAAI Press
Japan Cement Association 2002. Cement sales by type.
http://www.jcassoc.or.jp/cement/2eng/ed3.html
(November 12, 2006)
Japan Cement Association 2006. Waste material used in
cement industry. http://www.jcassoc. or.jp/cement/ 2eng/
eh3.html (November 12, 2006)
Japan Crushed Stone Association 2004. Changes in demand
and supply of aggregate. http://www.saiseki. or.jp/
JYUKYU2002.HTM (in Japanese)
Ministry of the Environment 2003. Annual report on the environment in Japan 2003. http://www.env.go.jp/en/
wpaper/2003/index.html (November 12, 2006)
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport 2002. Report
of survey on construction by-products in Japan 2002.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/sogoseisaku/region/recycle/pdf/
fukusanbutsu/jittaichousa/H14sensus.pdf (November 12,
2006) (in Japanese)
Nagataki, S. & Iida, K. 2001. Recycling of demolished concrete, In V.M. Malhotra (ed.), Recent Advances in Concrete
Technology; Proc. fifth CANMET/ACI intern. conf.,
Singapore, 29 July 1 August 2001, Publication SP-200:
120. Farmington Hills, MI, USA: American Concrete
Institute.
Oikawa, T. & Urabe, T. 2002. Research on controlling the construction waste (1) the stock and lifetime of buildings in
the Tokyos 23 wards estimate for future building demolitions. Annual report of Tokyo Metropolitan Research
Institute for environmental protection: 182190. (In
Japanese)
Tamura, M. et al. 2002. Life cycle design based on complete
recycling of concrete. Proc. first fib congress, Osaka,
Japan, October 2002, Concrete Structures in the 21st
Century 2 (Session 8): federation internationale du beton.
777
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: In this article we investigated different mix designs of concrete which has the various amount
of Rice-Husk Ash as a pozzolan, water-cement ratio and super-plasticizer. Then we tested properties with the
Slump-Flow test, L-Box test, V-Funnel test in order to evaluate bleeding, resistance to segregation and workability. To survey physical and mechanical properties of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) and compare with a
reference normal concrete (NC), we used 48 cubic moulds to determine their compressive strength at the age1,
3, 7, 14, 28, 60, 90 and 120 days. 12 prismatic 5 5 30 cm moulds, 6 prismatic 7 7 30 m and 3 cylinders 15 30 m moulds are prepared to approach their tensile strength, shrinkage and Modulus of Elasticity
subsequently in required ages. These samples cured in three different environmental conditions such as water,
humid and air. The results show higher compressive strength in SCC, while shrinkage does not differ with that
of in NC. We can also find out that the Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons ratio are almost higher in SCC.
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
779
Weight percent
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
k2O
92.5
0.41
0.21
0.41
0.45
0.08
2.31
Table 2.
Mixture
proportions
Particles
size (mm) No.1
Gravel(Kg)
Sand(Kg)
Sand(Kg)
Sand(Kg)
Rice husk
ash (kg)
Water (Kg)
Ratio of water
to powder
materials
Super
plasticizer (CC)
W/C
512.5
05
03
35
Table 3.
10.8
16.2
No.2
No.3
No.4
No.5
No.6
No.7
No.8
No.9
No.10
10.8
16.2
10.8
16.2
10.8
16.2
10.8
16.2
10.8
16.2
10.8
11
10.8
10.8
12
4.4
1.7
11.83
4.37
1.75
11.83
4.37
1.75
3.8
0.4
4.56
0.52
3.06
0.35
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.75
1.75
1.75
11.8
4.37
1.75
2.83
0.32
3.06
0.35
3.42
0.38
3.06
0.35
3.06
0.35
3.06
0.35
3.06
0.35
100
100
0.35
100
0.38
175
0.43
0.44
131
105
0.44
0.44
131
131
0.44
181
0.5
175
0.65
0.44
L-shape box
Test
Lest
dimension
cm
Highest
dimension
cm
Time to
achieve
diameter
Time
5 seconds
(second)
Time
10 seconds
(second)
L2/L1
No.7
No.8
No.9
No.10
70
71
72
69
72
74
74
72
5
5
4
4
7
6
10
12
6
5
8
8
1
1
1
0.9
780
Table 4.
Mixture
Size mm
Final design
Gravel (Kg)
Sand (Kg)
Sand (Kg)
Rice-Husk Ash (Kg)
Cement (Kg)
Water (Kg)
Water-cement ratio
Super-Plasticizer (CC)
Water-powder ratio
512.5
35
03
66.528
26.92
72.892
10.768
43.072
18.852
0.44
1078
0.35
Table 5.
Mixture
Size mm
Final design
Gravel(KG)
Sand (Kg)
Sand (Kg)
Cement (KG)
Water (Kg)
W/C
Slump (mm)
512.5
35
03
57.66
21.6
57.66
44.44
17.776
0.4
130
Figure 1.
781
400
Shrinkage (MicroStrain)
350
300
250
Air
200
in water
150
in 95% RH
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
-50
Age(day)
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Shrinkage of SCC.
400
Ec (Gpa)
v
38.94
0.23
350
Shrinkage (MicroStrain )
Table 6.
NC
Dry
31.86
0.17
wet
29.41
0.17
Dry
27.31
0.14
300
250
200
Air
150
in 95% RH
In Water
100
50
0
-50 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
-100
Age(day)
Figure 4.
Shrinkage of NC.
400
Shrinkage (MicroStrain)
350
SHRINKAGE
300
250
200
150
SCC
100
NC
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Age (Day)
Figure 5.
CONCLUSIONS
782
Age (Day)
0
Shrinkage (MicroStrain)
50
100
150
200
-5
-10
SCC
-15
NC
-20
-25
-30
REFERENCES
-35
Khayat, K.H. & Assad, j. 2002. Air-Void Stability in SelfConsolidating Concrete,ACI Materials Journal,JulyAugust.
Khayat, K.H., Hu, C. & Monty, H. 1999. Stability of SelfConsolidating Concrete, Advantages, and Potential
Applications, Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke,
QC, Canada, 1st International RILEM Symposium on
SCC, Stockholm, Sweden, Sep 1314, pp 143152.
Khayat, K.H. 2000. Optimization and Performance of AirEntrained, Self-Consolidating Concrete, ACI Materials
Journal V.97, NO5, SeptemberOctober.
Kuennen, T. 2003. SCC Momentum Spreads to TRB,Apr 1.
Nasvik, J. 2003. The ABCs of SCC:As a Cast-in-Place
Concrete Contractor, Here s What you Should Know
many Believe Self-Consolidating Concrete is the Way of
the Future, Concrete Construction, March.
PCA-Cement & Concrete Technology Journal, 2003.
Tang, L., Andalen, A., Johonsson, J.O. & Hjelm, S. 1999.
Chloride Diffusivity of SCC, SP. Swedish National
Testing and Research Institute, Sweden, 1st International
RILEM Symposium on SCC, Stockholm, Sweden, Sep
1314, pp 187198.
Persson, B. 1999. Creep, Shrinkage and Elastic Modulus of
Self-Compacting Concrete Lund Institute of Technology,
Lund, Sweden, 1st International RILEM Symposium on
SCC, Stockholm, Sweden, Sep1314, pp 239250.
Persson, B. 2003. Internal Frost Resistance and Salt Frost
Scaling of Self Compacting Concrete, Division of
Building Materials , Lund Institute of Technology ,Box
118, Lund S-22100, Sweden, Cement and Concrete
Research 33, pp 373379.
Sri Ravindraraiah, R., Farrokhzadi, F. & lahoud, A. 2003.
Properties of Flowing Concrete and SCC with HighPerformance Superplasticizer, Centre for Built infrastruct 3rd International Symposium on SCC,1720
August, Reykjavik, Iceland, pp 432441.
Vierira, M& Bettencourt, A. 2003. Deformability of
Hardened SCC, 3rd International Symposium on SCC,
1720 August, Reykjavik, Iceland, pp 637644.
Zhu, W. & Bartos, P.J.M. 2003. Permeation Properties of
Self Compacting Concrete, Department of Civil
Engineering, Scotland, Cement and Concrete Research
33, pp 921926.
Figure 6.
0
0
Shrinkage(mm/mm*10^-6)
50
100
150
200
-5
-10
-15
SCC
NC
-20
-25
Figure 7.
783
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: This article outlines an experimental study on different properties such as compressive
strength, tensile strength, the modulus of elasticity and shrinkage of SCC, containing milled limestone powder.
There is a comparative study on NC, NC (reference mixes). At first, we found an optimum mix design for SCC,
then, with molding in different sizes for the required numbers in three various curing conditions (water, humid,
air cured), we started to investigate. The parallel study also was carried out in order to compare these two types
of concrete in different curing conditions. The results show that shrinkage in SCC is approximately twice more
than that of in NC, while, elastic modulus, compressive and tensile strength do not differ significantly.
INTRODUCTION
785
Table 1.
To achieve of a suitable mixture proportions for Self-Compacting Concretes with different amount of materials.
Mixture
Gravel(512.5).Kg
Sand (05).Kg
Sand(35).Kg
Sand (03).Kg
Lime-stone
powder.Kg
Cement .Kg
Water.Kg
Water/Cement ratio
Superplasticizer.cc
Table 2.
NO.1
NO.2
NO.3
10.8
16.2
0
0
0.9
10.8
16.2
0
0
0.9
10.8
16.2
0
0
0.9
NO.4
13.04
0
3.68
10
1.75
8.1
8.1
8.1
7.5
2.83
3.06
3.24
3
0.35
0.38
0.4
0.4
160
160
160
138
NO.5
13.04
0
3.68
10
2.55
7.5
3
0.4
138
13.04
0
3.68
10
4.24
13.04
0
3.68
10
4.24
7.5
3
0.4
138
Slump-Flow
No. 7
No. 8
SCC-1 (final)
SCC-2 (final)
7.5
3
0.4
103
NO.8
13.04
0
3.68
10
4.24
7.5
3
0.4
207
SCC-1
SCC-2
13.04
0
3.68
10
4.24
50
0
15
45
10
NC
57.66
0
21.6
57.66
0
7.5
25
44.44
3.2
9.75 17.776
0.425
0.39
0.4
150
400
0
V-Funnel
L-Box
D-min(mm)
D-max(mm)
T-50(sec)
5-min(sec)
(L2/L1)
73
73
68
65
79
76
72
71
4
4
5
5
5
7
9
13
4
5
7
9
1
0.94
0.88
0.92
3.1
NO.7
Test
NO.6
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Generally, the compressive strength of SCC is relatively higher than NCs [Kuennen,T.2003].
To study the compressive strength, the cubic rigid
metal molds 15 15 15 cm size was used. These
molds have been prepared with sufficient number to
cure in three types of different environmental conditions and after casting, relevant tests were made. on
them in different ages Figures 1 and 2 show the
increase in compressive strength in different ages.
Tests were continued for 120 days. There is no significant difference between the two types of concretes.
786
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
cured).
Figure 6.
cured).
Tensile strength
787
E(GPa)
SCC-W
SCC-D
NC-W
NC-D
35.95
0.23
36.42
0.24
29.41
0.17
27.31
0.14
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Bosiljkov, V.B. 2003. SCC mixes with poorly graded aggregate and high volume of limestone filler, Faculty of Civil
and Geotechnical Engineering. University of Ljubljana,
Jamva 2,SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, Cement and
Concete Research 33, pp. 12791286.
Bui, V.K. & Montgomery, D. 1999. Drying Shrinkage of Self
Compacting Concrete Containing Milled Lime stone,
788
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
ABSTRACT: Plastered straw bale construction has, in recent years, become an alternative to typical residential construction. Plastered straw bales provide an environmentally friendly alternative to stud-framed walls for
the load bearing components of residential, and other single-story buildings. Although the environmental benefits of straw bale construction are well documented, the structural behaviour of plastered straw bale walls is still
not well understood beyond sporadic anecdotal information. As a result, a program of testing and modeling
has been undertaken to understand the behaviour of plastered straw bale walls subjected to axial compression.
Numerous prior experiments on wall panels 0.33 m tall have given light to the structural performance of plastered straw bale walls. This paper notes that walls with larger aspect ratios (ratio of height to plaster thickness)
may experience different failure modes than walls only 0.33 m tall. In order to study the effect of increasing wall
height on the strength and performance of plastered straw bale walls, panel sections 0.99 and 2.31 m tall have
been tested in axial compression. Three specimens, one bale wide with a plaster width of 0.6 m were tested for
each height. A testing and construction jig was fabricated to facilitate reproducible panels up to seven bales
(2.31 m) in height. The ultimate strength of each wall section is compared to the results for individual plastered
bales to determine the effect of increased aspect ratio. Observing cracking patterns and lateral displacements of
the plaster skins during testing provides an indication of the failure modes which may exist for plastered straw
bale walls loaded in compression. In addition, the stress-strain response for the wall panels is compared to a theoretical non-linear stress-strain curve in an attempt to model the response of the plastered straw bale wall
panels as they are loaded in compression to ultimate failure. The conclusions described in this paper indicate
that there is likely global buckling of the plastered bale walls at ultimate failure. This is supported by lateral
deflection measurements and calculations showing that when buckling is considered, the stresses which exist in
the plaster at ultimate failure of the bale walls varies from 0.777 MPa to 1.032 MPa. These values are in a similar range as the values for the compressive cube strength of the plaster itself. Without considering buckling, calculations suggest that the stresses in the plaster at ultimate failure of the wall are only about 80% of the
compressive cube strength of the plaster. It was also found that a non-linear stress-strain model could be used
as a means of representing the stress-strain behaviour of a plastered straw bale wall panels tested.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Background
With an increasing awareness of the negative environmental impacts associated with many commonly used
construction materials, there exists a desire to find modern alternatives which are both economically and environmentally viable. Given that straw is an annually
renewable agricultural bi-product, which is relatively
cheap to purchase, and which provides excellent insulation as a building material, it seems that straw bale construction has the potential to become a practical
alternative to traditional building methods [Magwood &
Mack 2000].
There are two main types of straw bale construction;
load-bearing and post-and-beam. With post-and-beam
789
790
2
2.1
METHODOLOGY
Design of fabrication and testing jig
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
791
Fabrication procedure
Testing procedure
The testing program consisted of compression experiments on six plastered straw bale wall sections, as
well as a number of cube and cylinder experiments on
the plaster that was used for the walls.
Instrumentation
For all six experiments the load, vertical displacements, and lateral displacements were recorded. The
load was recorded for the three 0.99 m experiments
using the load output from the testing machine. For the
three 2.31 m experiments, the load was recorded using
a 100 kN load cell located between the hydraulic jack
and the steel ladder at the top of the wall.
For all six experiments, the vertical displacement
was recorded at each corner of the top of the wall using
displacement transducers. The techniques used for
measuring the lateral displacements varied from wall
to wall. For the first 0.99 m wall, lateral displacements
were measured with displacement transducers at the
top, bottom, and middle of one side of the wall. For the
second and third 0.99 m walls, and the first 2.31 m
wall, the lateral deflections were measured with displacement transducers at mid-height on both sides of
the wall. For the second and third 2.31 m walls, the lateral deflections were measured using displacement
transducers at mid-height on both sides of the wall and
at the top of the wall on one side of the wall.
In addition, for the third 2.31 m wall, the deflections were recorded using Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) as described by White et al. [2003]. This
involved colour texturing the edges of the plaster skins
using splatters of black paint, and having a camera
take photographs of the edge of the wall at 20 second
intervals throughout the duration of the experiment.
The photographs were used to track the lateral and
792
3
3.1
MATERIALS
Wheat straw bales
Two-string wheat bales were used for all of the experiments. The bales were purchased from a local farmer in
the summer of 2005 and were used for the experiments
in the summer of 2006. At the time of purchase the
bales were dry and were stored in a barn. After purchase, the bales were stored indoors at room temperature and at constant humidity. At the time of testing
the bales were dry and in good condition. Similar to the
bales described by Vardy & MacDougall [2006], the
bales were all approximately 12 kg with approximate
dimensions of 350 mm in height, 500 mm in width and
800 mm in length. They were found to have a density of
approximately 85 kg/m3, which is similar to values
available in the literature [Watts et al. 1995]. The
stress-strain behaviour of the bales was also found to
be very similar to the bales described by Vardy &
MacDougall [2006]. A typical stress-strain curve for
an un-plastered wheat bale laid flat is given in Figure 3.
3.2
Lime-cement plaster
Figure 4.
(1)
where fc theoretical stress; strain; Ec concrete modulus of elasticity; fc
concrete compressive strength.
As indicated in Equation 1, the model can be used
to predict the stress-strain curve when given the modulus and ultimate strength of the plaster. The ultimate
strength used can be determined from cube tests, but
determining the appropriate modulus has proved to be
more of a challenge. Vardy et al. [2005] and Taylor
et al. [2005] showed that the experimentally determined
modulus for lime-cement plaster is highly variable,
even when the mix proportions remain constant.
793
4
4.1
Property
Value
Number of tests
Average strength
Maximum strength
Minimum strength
Standard deviation
18
0.764 MPa
0.963 MPa
0.606 MPa
0.103 MPa
794
Table 2.
Height (mm)
Ultimate stress
(MPa)
Wall modulus
(MPa)
990
990
990
2310
2310
2310
0.562
0.636
0.726
0.715
0.735
0.746
200
175
200
300
275
275
Figure 6.
795
400
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
walls.
796
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
measurements were the most important. It was determined early-on that the bottom of the wall did not
move laterally throughout the experiments as it was
fixed quite securely to the base support. Lateral displacements were found to be most significant at the
mid-height of the wall, thus it was decided to measure
the displacements of each side of the wall at mid
height. The top of the wall essentially did not move
laterally at all, as indicated by displacement transducer measurements. Figure 10 gives a typical plot of
lateral displacement with load for these points on the
wall. The measurements are provided from the start of
the test until ultimate failure.
As expected, the lateral displacements at the top of
the wall remain at about 0.0 mm throughout the duration of the experiment. This indicates that there is no
sway in the wall prior to failure. This is an important
observation as any sway in the wall will lead to bending in the wall as a result of the P- effect (the application of load eccentric to the base of the wall).
Also of importance are the mid-height lateral displacement measurements. Both the left and right readings indicate that as the load is applied there is some
lateral movement at the mid-height of the wall. This
indicates that the wall may be experiencing global
buckling as the load is applied. This is reinforced by
the observation that both the left side and the right side
of the wall moved laterally in the same direction. The
magnitudes of the movements do not appear to be equal
though, and this suggests that either, one of the plaster
skins is buckling more than the other or that there is
some error in the measurements. Given that the measured displacements are, for the most part, less than
1.0 mm, it is possible that there is significant error in
the readings, as the surface roughness of the plaster
skins may be upwards of 1.0 mm.
Given the uncertainty in the measurements, it was
decided for the final experiment (the third 2.31 m
wall) that Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) would be
797
Figure 12.
the line of action of the load will be offset by a distance of 1.6 mm. Thus, assuming the plaster skins are
considered to be individual stand-alone compression
members, the total stress at the extreme fibres of the
plaster skin can be calculated using Equation 2 below:
(2)
where extreme fibre stresses; P applied load;
A area of plaster upon which load is applied;
e eccentricity at which load is applied; y distance
to extreme fibre; I moment of inertia of the plaster
skin. At the ultimate load for this wall, the applied load
on one plaster skin was 22,380/2 11,190 N, the area
of plaster upon which the load was applied was
600 25 15,000 mm2, the eccentricity at which the
load was applied was 1.6 mm, the distance to the
extreme fibre was 25/2 12.5 mm, and the moment of
inertia was 600 253/12 781,250 mm4. Thus, the
extreme fibre stresses at ultimate failure were
1.032 MPa, and 0.460 MPa.
Given the newly calculated ultimate maximum
compressive stress of 1.032 MPa and the previously
calculated ultimate stress of 0.746 MPa assuming no
buckling, it appears that the initially assumed stress is
only about 7075% of the actual maximum stress
reached when buckling is considered. If we assume
that this is the case for all six of the completed experiments, Figure 6 can be adjusted to account for buckling. Figure 12 gives a plot of the maximum stress for
each of the six experiments assuming that the stresses
calculated ignoring buckling are only 75% of the
actual maximum stress once buckling is considered.
Again, the maximum, minimum, and average compressive plaster strengths are shown on Figure 12. The
adjusted values for the maximum stresses for the six
experiments are also given in Table 3.
Height (mm)
990
990
990
2310
2310
2310
0.777
0.880
1.004
0.989
1.017
1.032
798
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
1 For the lime-cement plaster used in the experiments, the ultimate compressive cube strength
varied significantly from 0.606 MPa to 0.963 MPa
with an average value of 0.764 MPa.
2 Calculated assuming pure compression failure, the
stresses which existed in the plaster at ultimate
failure of the bale walls varied from 0.562 MPa to
0.746 MPa. These values were about 80% of the
average compressive cube strength for the plaster.
3 Calculated considering buckling of the plaster
skins, the stresses which existed in the plaster at
ultimate failure of the bale walls varied from
0.777 MPa to 1.032 MPa. These values are all
slightly greater than the average compressive cube
strength for the plaster.
4 The plastered wall modulus was found to vary significantly for all of the experiments. The average
modulus determined from previous individual
bale experiments, and the six experiments discussed in this paper, was found to be 218 MPa.
5 A non-linear stress-strain model for concrete was
used to model the stress-strain behaviour of the plastered straw bale walls. The model provides a good
representation of the behaviour of the walls up to
ultimate failure using plaster cube strengths in addition to typical values for the plastered wall modulus.
6 The failure of the walls appeared as a compression
failure of the plaster as a result of increased
stresses from global buckling. This initial compression failure then lead to the appearance of
shear cracks in the plaster, and eventually the loss
of a portion of the plaster skin, corresponding to a
significant drop in the load resistance.
7 Although PIV provided evidence of buckling of the
plastered straw bale walls. It was found that the wall
height (an important factor for buckling) did not
appear to impact the ultimate load found for the
walls. Further experimentation using PIV appears
warranted.
6
799
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Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies Chun, Claisse, Naik & Ganjian (eds)
2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44689-1
Author index
Abali, Y. 589
Abaza, O.A. 675
Abdel-Razek, M.M. 427
Abdul-Jabbar, H. 753
Abe, O. 333
Al-Daffaee, H. 753
Al-Gadhib, A.H. 457
Al-Tabbaa, A. 397
Ampadu, K.O. 319
Anderson, D.B. 137
Augonis, A. 503
Azhari, A. 779, 785
Farahi, E. 359
Fava, G. 295
Feenstra, L. 27
Forth, J.P. 367
Fowler, D.W. 101
Freer-Hewish, R. 685
Fujimoto, S. 769
Fujita, K. 303
Fujiwara, H. 303
Fukuzawa, K. 333
801
Jiebin, Z. 417
Johansson, S. 575
Jones, T.R. 367
Kandie, B.K.T. 121
Karadelis, J.N. 417
Karami, S. 203, 209
Katzer, J. 91
Khan, A. 417
Kharazi, M.M.A. 479
Khestl, F. 265
Kirkpatrick, J. 705
Kitamoto, Y. 665
Koibuchi, K. 303
Koutselas, K. 417
Kramer, K.W. 549
Kumanlioglu, A.A. 589
Kuo, W.Y. 107
Kurian, V.J. 41
Kwak, D. 333
Lampo, R.G. 717
Levy, S. 45
Liska, M. 397
Long, A.E. 705
Lorimer, J.P. 189, 753
Loveridge, F.A. 645
Lupo, R. 763
Lynsdale, C.J. 313
Ma, X. 183
MacDougall, C. 789
Maghsoudi, A.A. 447, 471
Maher, J.E. 549
Maldonado, N.G. 223
Mannan, M.A. 41
Marroccoli, M. 389
Maruoka, M. 303
Matulova, P. 231
McKay, D.T. 563
Mclean, S.N. 593
Mehrdad, M.A. 779
Meral, . 279
Meyer, C. 509
Michalcova, G. 231
Milestone, N.B. 313
Millard, S.G. 77
Modaraei, A.H. 785
Mokal, M. 131
802
Targan, S. 325
Tawil, A. 137
Taylor, S.E. 705
Telesca, A. 389
Tittarelli, F. 35
Tokyay, M. 279
Tolman, T.S. 717
Torri, K. 319
Torkaman, J. 741
Tyrer, M. 763
Valenti, G.L. 389
Van Balen, K. 611
Van Gemert, D. 611
Vandeperre, L.J. 397
Vandivort, T.F. 171
Vardy, S. 789
Venables, R.K. 705
Verstraete, W. 411
Vlasopoulos, N. 287
Vordoagu, J.J. 319
Vruno, D.M. 243
Williams, A. 593
Yilmaz, K. 325
Yoo, J. 255
Yoshida, H. 333
Yoshida, T. 665
Youjun, X. 115
Yunhua, L. 115
Yuno, K. 147
Yurdusev, M.A. 325, 589
Zeybek, M.S. 589
Zhou, X. 381
Ziemkiewicz, P.F. 171
Ziliukas, A. 503
Chun
Claisse
Naik
Ganjian
Editors
an informa business
Chun
Claisse
Naik
Ganjian
Editors