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Applied Acoustics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apacoust
An experimental study of interior vehicle roughness noise from disc brake systems
Eskil Lindberg , Nils-Erik Hrlin 1, Peter Gransson 2
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering, MWL The Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Research,
10044 Stockholm, Sweden
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 16 February 2012
Received in revised form 2 July 2012
Accepted 20 July 2012
Available online 24 October 2012
Keywords:
Acoustic emission
Disc brake
Surface topography
Wire brush
Roughness noise
Rubbing noise
a b s t r a c t
An experimental study of the friction-induced noise generated by the disc brake system of a passenger
car is presented. In particular, the brake noise usually referred to as wire brush or roughness noise is
studied. This is, in terms of frequency spectral content a broadband phenomenon, resulting from the
interaction of multiple asperities in the tribological contact. A new experimental method for measurements of disc brake roughness noise is proposed, and is used in a lab environment where the vehicle
speed and the brake pressure are accurately controlled. The aim is to study the inuence of vehicle speed
and brake pressure on the roughness noise inside the vehicle. It is shown for the specic test case that the
transmission from the source to the interior is a vibro-acoustic structure-borne phenomenon. Measurements show that there is a, as expected, strong correlation between increased interior noise and both
increased vehicle speed and brake pressure.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The eld of friction-induced vibrations is a wide topic. The subject spans from the pleasant sound of the violin bow dynamics to
the disasters of earthquakes created by tectonic plate interaction
[1,2]. A friction force is a non-conservative entity and is governed
by the tangential stresses created by the relative motion of two
bodies [3]. Friction forces may, in terms of a micro-structural view
point, be explained as adhesive junctions formed by asperities in
contact, and the shear force needed to cause breakaway [2]. When
asperities break loose, they release stored elastic energy, resulting
in a vibro-acoustic response. In addition, the ploughing effects of
abrasion wear [4] can also be a mechanism in the vibro-acoustic
source. The exact type of excitation is highly dependent on the
properties of the contact, such as the surface roughness, the sliding
speed, and the contact pressure [5].
Various types of noise phenomena with different spectral frequency contents are associated with braking, such as tonal and
broadband noise, either due to feedback of structural resonances
or surfaces roughness. This paper presents results from an experimental study performed on a passenger car, on a broadband disc
brake noise problem; typically referred to as wire brush, rubbing
or roughness noise, here the expression roughness noise will be
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 87907610.
E-mail addresses: eskill@kth.se (E. Lindberg), nisseh@kth.se (N.-E. Hrlin),
pege@kth.se (P. Gransson).
1
Tel.: +46 87907940.
2
Tel.: +46 87907963.
0003-682X/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2012.07.011
397
the occurrence of, e.g. squeal [17,18], has been shown to be correlated with the surface roughness. Furthermore, no extensive study
has ever been presented, to the knowledge of the authors, on the
effects of the contact pressure to the interior noise.
In this paper a vehicle brake system roughness noise source,
sometimes referred to as wire brush, is experimentally
evaluated. The brake noise investigated is a broadband scratch
noise where sometimes more or less tonal components can be
involved. The focus is here on the broadband characteristics,
whereas possible tonal components are regarded as a different
phenomenon.
In the experimental study the focus has been on: (i) correlations
between increasing sliding speed and interior noise levels, (ii)
correlation between increased brake pressure and interior noise
levels, (iii) that roughness noise is a structural-borne noise phenomenon, (iv) system changing effects of the static part of the
brake force, and (v) a simple measurement procedure to characterise the brake roughness phenomenon.
The outline of the paper is as follows. Section 2 provides the
background and theory of roughness noise put into a context.
Section 3 describes the measurement setup. Section 4 presents
the results and its implications.
2. Roughness noise theory
The surface roughness and the sliding speed are two very
important parameters when characterising roughness noise. How
the surface roughness of the interacting bodies affects noise generation has been studied for quite some time. For instance, Yokoi and
Nakai [10] used a so called pin-on-rim setup where they pressed a
steel rod onto an unlubricated rotating disc. The surface roughness
of the disc was varied between measurements, and they concluded
that there is a correlation between increasing surface roughness
and an increase in sound pressure and vibration levels in the system. They found that the noise could be predicted with the simple
formula, Eq. (1):
DLp dB 20log10
H
Href
m
;
DLp dB 20log10
V
V ref
DLp dB 20log10
V
V ref
n
m
H
:
Href
In addition, Othman et al. [12] have stated that The magnitude SPL
is sensitive to variation in contact load; increasing the contact load
tends to increase the SPL and vice versa. In that paper a spring stylus was run over a rough surface and the roughness was estimated
from the sound generated.
3. Experimental setup
The experiments in this paper were performed under laboratory
conditions where a small passenger car was put on rollers (see
Fig. 1). The test object was selected for its size and weight, based
on the hypothesis that roughness noise is more prominent for a
lightweight vehicle. The main part of this study consisted of several
noise and vibration recordings, for different vehicle speeds and
brake forces. In each measurement the brake force and vehicle
speed was kept constant through the recording, and all noise and
vibration signals were acquired simultaneously. The sound pressure was recorded inside the passenger cabin and close to the
brake system. The acceleration was recorded in the brake system.
For the sake of conciseness the results in this paper are from measurements conducted while driving only the left front wheel of
vehicle. Due to the complexity of the measurement object, the
repeatability between measurements was not always satisfactory
as will be discussed later on. To minimise the measurement errors
due to disturbance of random character, a 90 s time recording was
used. In this paper all results are postprocessed to a 5 Hz resolution, which resulted in 456 numbers of averages (no overlap). To
minimise effects of heating and oxidation on the disc, a run-in
and cooling-down procedure was used for all measurements. The
measurements in this paper are of the comparative type, where
the absolute levels are of little importance. The main investigation
when varying speed and brake pressure was repeated several times
during several months to ensure good measurements, and even
though the repeatability was monitored the results of the main
investigation presented in this paper are all from measurements
performed during the same week, in order to minimise the inuence of environmental conditions such as temperature and
humidity.
3.1. External roller and brake pump
The vehicle tyre was driven by an external roller and the front
left wheel was positioned such that the tyre was captured in
n
;
where V is the sliding speed and n is a value that can range between
0.6 and 1.1.
The correlation between surface roughness and noise has also
been conrmed Othman and Elkholy [11], Ben Abdelounis et al.
[14]. Furthermore, Othman and Elkholy [11] also stated that the
correlation is independent of the contact sample size and material.
As a matter of fact, also the correlation between speed and noise
stated by Yokoi and Nakai [10] has been conrmed by [14,19].
Moreover, Smyth and Rice [19] showed that the sliding speed
had no effect on the frequency content of the roughness noise,
and Ben Abdelounis et al. [14] showed that the noise dependency
on the surface roughness and the sliding speed may be separated.
They found that the problem can be modelled using the same variables as Yokoi and Nakai [10], using 0.8 6 m 6 1.16 and
0.7 6 n 6 0.96, as
398
oil lter, (iv) a power supply, (v) a adjustable spring value, and
(vi) a oil container. In these measurements, the brake line pressure
was varied from 0 to 7.25 bar. In this interval, the background
noise was low enough for the measurement of sound pressure to
be meaningful.
Increased air-borne background noise from tyre/roller interaction was a problem when a high torque of the rollers was necessary, that is high speed and brake pressure. This noise may arise
from two nearly related forces. That is, the friction force (tangent
direction of tyre) and the adhesion force (radial direction of tyre).
With an increased friction force, the strain in the tyre grows and
hence more vibro-acoustic energy is released in the slip phase. It
has also been shown that adhesion forces in the tyre/road (roller)
separation is a noise generating mechanism [20]. However, Persson
[5] has argued that adhesion forces is not signicant for lubricated
contact. The problem with tyre noise in these measurements was
thus minimised by spraying a small quantity of water on the tyre.
Hence, by reducing the friction coefcient and the adhesion
bounds, the background noise was greatly reduced.
3.2. Instruments
Fig. 3. Photograph of the external brake pump system. (i) Electric engine, (ii) digital
manometer, (iii) oil lter, (iv) power supply, (v) adjustable spring value, and (vi) oil
container.
Interior noise was recorded in the vehicle cabin with a 1/2 in.
microphone (MK 224 current type), hung from the roof in a position in between the two front seats. As the focus here was on the
development of the method and the setup, only a representation
of the interior noise level was necessary for the comparative study.
Another microphone of the same type was placed close to the
brake system and hence close to the roller. This was done in order
to examine if the brake noise in the cabin is structural-borne or airborne. In addition, the brake system was equipped with accelerometers. The calliper was tted with three accelerometers, one in each
spatial coordinate direction. The outer brake pad was also tted
with one accelerometer in the disc rotational axis direction. The
accelerometers were of Brel & Kjr type 4507. In Figs. 2 and 5
the accelerometers used can be seen. Three can be seen on the calliper and one on the brake pad.
3.3. Shaker measurement
To further investigate the vibro-acoustic behaviour of the suspension system, measurements with a shaker excitation of the
brake system were conducted. Excitation of the brake calliper in
all three coordinate directions is not straightforward to conduct
in operational condition. In order to avoid obstruction by the
wheel, an adaptor was built, as depicted in Fig. 4. Hence, the wheel
Fig. 4. Photograph of the adaptor, the stand used for the measurements without
tyre and one of the three shaker mountings (vertical direction, Z-direction).
399
60
Without tyre
With tyre
55
Fig. 5. Photograph of the external load mounting device, one of the three shaker
mountings (disc rotational axis, Y-direction), accelerometer mountings (three on
the calliper and on the brake pad, mounted in the disc rotational axis, Y).
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 6. Magnitude FRF, interior sound pressure over excitation force, root mean
square value of three excitation directions XYZ of the calliper. All directions are
treated as they were uncorrelated.
15
5.0 [bar]
3.3 [bar]
1.8 [bar]
10
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
5.0 [bar]
3.3 [bar]
1.8 [bar]
10
0
300
400
500
600
[dB]
25
20
15
10
15
200
1000
Frequency [Hz]
100
30
0.11kHz
Normalised SPL
400
700
800
900
1000
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 7. Normalised SPL 1/3-octave bands, crosses 1.8 bar, diamonds 3.3 bar and
triangles 5 bar, vehicle speed 1.3 km/h, normalised to SPL for same speed and no
external brake pressure.
In Fig. 9, the interior noise and pad vibration levels are plotted
for different brake pressures, at a corresponding vehicle speed of
1.3 km/h. The thick grey line corresponds to the case when no
external brake pressure was applied to the brake liquid by the
pump, the thin dashed, thin solid and thick solid black line corresponds to the cases when 1.8, 3.3 and 5 bar pressure were applied
to the brake liquid respectively. All narrow band spectra in this paper are double sided auto-spectra using a frequency resolution of
5 Hz giving root mean square amplitudes.
It is evident from Fig. 9a, that the roughness noise inside the
vehicle compartment is broadband, where a clear increase in SPL
with brake pressure can be observed in almost the whole frequency range plotted. It can also be noted that certain frequency
bands seem to be more affected by the brake pressure than others
(for instance between 500 and 700 Hz). Although, Fig. 9b, there is
always some contact between the pad and the disc, even if there
is no brake pressure, it seems that the response of the brake pad
change character when applying initial brake pressure. However,
when comparing with the non-zero brake-pressure responses it
appears as if the shape of the frequency response curve does not
differ signicantly, except that the levels are increased with brake
pressure and there are small shifts in frequency of some peaks, i.e.
four peaks above 400 Hz are shifted upwards. Possible reasons for
these frequency shifts are discussed in Section 4.2.1.
401
15
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
2.9 [km/h]
1.9 [km/h]
1.3 [km/h]
5.0 [bar]
3.3 [bar]
1.8 [bar]
0.0 [bar]
10
30
25
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
5.0 [bar]
3.3 [bar]
1.8 [bar]
0.0 [bar]
85
25
Calliperx
Callipery
[dB]
80
0.11kHz
75
70
Normalised Level
65
60
Calliperz
20
Pady
15
10
55
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 10a shows the total SPL in the frequency band between 0.1
and 1 kHz as a function of the brake pressure, for speeds of 1.3, 1.9
and 2.9 km/h. All curves are normalised to the total SPL (0.11 kHz)
of 1.3 km/h and zero brake pressure. Fig. 10b shows the total acceleration level for the frequency band of 0.11 kHz as a function of
brake pressure, for a corresponding vehicle speed of 2.9 km/h. All
the levels are normalised to the level of the pad vibrations for
the case of zero brake pressure and 2.9 km/h.
Firstly what can be noted in Fig. 10a is that the SPLs increases
with brake pressure and is similar for all the three different speeds,
secondly, it also appears that the SPL inside the vehicle almost increases linearly in the dB scale. It may be seen in Fig. 10b that
acceleration levels are highest for the calliper in the vertical direction (Z-direction). The acceleration levels of the calliper in X- and
Y-directions and for the brake pad (Y) are considerably lower but
they are all in the same order of magnitude. It may also be noted
that the brake pad vibration curve is less smooth than the others,
it oscillates slightly for varied brake pressure. The explanations
for this can be many, but one possible explanation might be that
non-linear contact effects is more visible closer to the contact zone,
Fig. 10. Total normalised levels between 0.1 and 1 kHz, function of brake pressure
Normalised Level
0.11kHz
[dB]
25
20
Visualisation line P
Visualisation line P
Interior SPL
Calliper
2/3
Calliper
15
Calliperz
10
0
0.5
10
scale) [bar]
Fig. 11. Total normalised levels between 0.1 and 1 kHz, function of brake pressure.
Interior SPL, calliper acceleration levels, circles interior SPL, calliper acceleration in
Z-, Y-, X-directions, crosses, stars and triangles respectively, with the corresponding
vehicle speed of 2.9 km/h, normalised with the acceleration level of the calliper Ydirection for a brake pressure of 1/2 bar and speed of 2.9 km/h, two visualisation
line are added, the dashed line shows a 3 dB per doubling of brake pressure slope,
i.e. linearly proportional to the brake pressure (P), the dashdotted line slope is
proportional to the brake pressure as / P2/3.
the interior noise in the vehicle and the vibrations of the brake system (see Figs. 9 and 10).
Based on the assumption that the vibro-acoustic frictional
source is proportional to the stored elastic energy released in the
breakaway when the asperities break loose, it could be argued that
the source level should be linearly proportional to the contact
pressure and hence increased by 3 dB per doubling of the contact
pressure. indeed, as may be seen in Fig. 11 that the total
(0.11 kHz) acceleration level of the calliper in the vertical Zdirection follows this quite well. On the other hand, the slopes of
the interior SPL the calliper acceleration in the X- and Y-directions
appear to have slopes that are proportional to the brake pressure
as / P2/3. Keep in mind that the contact plane of disc and pad is
the XZ-plane and the sliding direction is in the Z-direction. In an
attempt to describe the vibro-acoustic source, one could argue that
the vibrations levels generated in the contact zone should be
proportional to the stiffness (or resistance to motion). The broadband character of this source may be explained as local stiffness
variations in the contact zone, where the overall level is considered
to be proportional to the DC component of the stiffness. Assuming
that the DC component of the stiffness in the normal direction
could be represented by Hertz contact theory and the tangential
resistance to motion by an elasto-plastic analogy of the Coulombs
friction law, then, for Hertz contact theory the normal elastic contact stiffness is proportional to the contact force [21] as K n / F 2=3
n ,
where Kn is the normal contact stiffness and Fn is the normal force.
From the elasto-plastic analogy of the Coulombs friction law one
could then argue that the friction force can be viewed as a plastic
stiffness as K t plastic / F n l where l is the friction coefcient. From
this the following vibration level relation could then be formed,
DLa dB 10log10
Pa
;
a
Pref
see that there seems to be a link between the normal contact stiffness (Hertz theory) and the interior SPL. It should also be noted
that the interior SPL has a slope very similar to both the calliper
accelerations in X- and Y-direction. Possible explanations for these
behaviours, see Fig. 11, might be: (i) most of the vibro-acoustic energy is realised in the asperity break loose in the sliding direction
in the frictional contact, and due to the orientation (sliding direction coincide fairly well with the vertical direction see Figs. 4 and
5) of the brake system the vertical direction is mostly excited, (ii)
the vibration levels of X- and Y-directions are not uniquely dependent on the normal contact stiffness, instead they might be dependent on the plastic frictional contact stiffness, and (iii) the interior
SPL is more related to calliper vibrations levels in the X- and Ydirections than in the Z-direction. Possibly the suspension with
shock absorber isolates and absorbs, these vibrations more efciently. Due to the the type of brake disc pad assembly and the suspension system (transfer path) and the hypothesis from Eq. (4) a
relation for the interior SPL may be written as,
P2=3 cP
DLp dB 10log10
P2=3
ref cP ref
v
u R 1000
u
jHt f j2 df
;
c tR 100
1000
jHn f j2 df
100
2.5
402
Visualisation line P
Interior SPL
2/3
Visualisation line P +P 0.1
Visualisation line P
2/3
1.5
0.5
0
2.5
3.5
4.5
403
78
5.0 [bar]
3.3 [bar]
1.8 [bar]
76
80
74
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
550
600
650
700
750
Frequency [Hz]
90
Shaker, 0 [kg]
Shaker, 110 [kg]
Roller, 0 [kg]
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
550
600
650
700
750
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 13. Graph comparing the frequency shifts, effect of an external force and the
brake force, for the pad acceleration in normal direction to disc.
404
70
Measurement
Estimation without load
Estimation with load
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
500
550
600
650
700
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 14. Measured and estimated SPL for 5 bar brake pressure and 1.3 km/h using
the adaptor. Thick line, direct measurement. Thin line, estimation using unload
transfer function. Dashed line, estimation using load transfer function.
multi-correlation function [23]. The relative contribution of multiple dynamic excitations is estimated by the coherence function
[24]. Another commonly used method is experimental Transfer
Path Analysis (TPA). Experimental TPA is considered as one of the
most important tools when analysing transfer paths in complex
structures such as the suspension system of a vehicle [25]. However, the process of implementing TPA is complex and demands
both expert knowledge and a substantial amount of measurements
[25]. There are several limitations of the TPA method, where the
need of accurate Noise Transfer Functions (NTFs) is often the
underlying fundamental problem. The NTF should be measured
with point sources, to make high quality measurements of this
type of complex system is hard, and the NTF will most probably
be incorrect. The latter is partially due to the fact that it is not possible to have the right static preloads in the suspension system
during these measurements. In other words, the NTF matrix will
not give a good representation of the operational system, especially not for a case where the transfer path may change for different operational conditions, i.e. brake force loading as has been
demonstrated in the presented work. The observed system changing effect of the static brake force suggests that the problem of
brake disc roughness may not be properly solved unless these
effects are somehow included in the prediction models.
4.4. Vehicle speed
Fig. 15 shows the sound pressure, inside the vehicle (a), and
acceleration levels, of the brake pad (b) and the calliper (c), respectively when 5 bar pressure is applied to the brake liquid for the
three speeds 1.3, 1.9 and 2.9 km/h. The pad vibration plotted was
measured in the Y-direction (inward disc rotational axis direction),
and the calliper vibration was measured in the X-direction (rear
direction of the vehicle). What can be noted in Fig. 15b is that
changing the vehicle speed essentially corresponds to a broadband
increase of the overall SPL inside the plotted frequency rage. Consequently, no frequency band seems to be affected more than another, as was the case in Fig. 9a for different brake pressures. It is
clear from Fig. 15b that the peaks in the frequency response do
not shift with increasing speed. It can also be noted that there is
no linear broadband effect of increasing the speed as could be seen
in Fig. 9a. But, from Fig. 15c almost the same linear broadband result can be seen for increased vehicle speed. Hence, the link between vibrations in the brake system and interior SPL seems to
be more complex and possibly non-linear for the pad vibrations
than observed for vibrations of the calliper. Moreover, it can also
be noted that over 500 Hz there is a clear resemblance between
the vibrations of the calliper and the interior SPL.
Roughness noise is probably present in all vehicles with most
kinds of solid material friction brakes. However, it is mostly
masked by other noises sources. To the knowledge of the authors
most of the cases where wire brush (roughness) noise is reported
as a problem are for low vehicle speed when background levels
are lower, so the effects of tyre road and other sources are of course
important in how the noise event is perceived. In this investigation
the masking effects were minimised to be able to better exhibit the
generation of the excitation itself.
One of the goals of the present work, was to see how the interior
roughness brake noise in the vehicle correlates to the sliding speed.
Furthermore, how results from experimental studies of simplied
setups such as the pin-on-rim setup by Yokoi and Nakai [10], can
be related to the problem of an entire brake system including the
vibro-acoustic transfer path problem. In the collected literature it
can be found that statistical values describing the surface roughness are important parameters that govern the frictional noise
source mechanism, but, measurement results in literature have
also suggested that surface roughness parameters and sliding
405
18
70
2.9 [km/h]
1.9 [km/h]
1.3 [km/h]
60
55
50
45
40
35
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
30
25
100
16
65
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
2.9 [km/h]
1.9 [km/h]
1.3 [km/h]
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
200
300
400
500
90
68
100
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
2.9 [km/h]
1.9 [km/h]
1.3 [km/h]
90
Fig. 16. Total normalised SPL between 0.1 and 1 kHz as a function of roller speed.
Crosses, interior noise for a brake pressure of 1.3 bar. Circles, interior noise for a
brake pressure of 5 bar. Dashed line, limits from Eq. (3). Dotted line, limits from Eq.
(2). Normalisation total SPL of individual signal and 1.3 km/h.
studied without having parameters describing the surface roughness. In addition, the size of the contact pairs should not affect
the behaviour. It can be seen in Fig. 15 that there is indeed a broadband increase of both interior noise levels and brake system vibrations. As stated by [19] the noise dependency on sliding speed
should not effect the frequency content, but only increasing the
overall level of the noise, which can clearly be seen to be the case
for the current problem see Fig. 15. It can also be argued that sliding speed dependency of the noise problem is simpler to model
than the brake pressure effect, as there seems to be little system
altering effect due to change of the speed. In Fig. 16 the interior total (0.11 kHz) normalised SPL is plotted as a function of vehicle
speed for brake pressure of 1.3 and 5 bar, the normalisation chosen
as the total SPL from the lowest speed using the same brake individual brake pressure. The limits from the two equations Eqs. (2)
and (3) are plotted in the graph. In fact, it can be seen that even
though these formulas were derived from simplied measurements and the results from this study is for a much more complex
setup, the results correlate quite well.
80
75
5.1. Findings
70
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 15. Levels for different speeds. thick black line 1.3 km/h, dashed line 1.9 km/h
and thick grey line 2.9 km/h. Brake pressure all cases 5 bar.
The vibro-acoustic excitation of the roughness noise may be divided into two components. That is, (i) excitation in the sliding
direction, in these measurements a linear proportionality to the
brake-pressure was found, and (ii) the vibro-acoustic excitation
in normal direction of the contact plane, in these measurements
a non-linear proportionality to the brake-pressure was found (proportional to the brake pressure to the power of 2/3). The proportionally in both cases can be argued to be due to the stiffness of
the problem, where the resisting force (stiffness) in the sliding
direction is directly proportional to the brake pressure which
consistent with Coulombs friction law. The contact stiffness in
the normal direction is proportional to the contact pressure to
406
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