AWS Welding Journal April 2013

April 2013
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
CONTENTS
34
44
April 2013 Volume 92 Number 4
AWS Web site www.aws.org
Features
Departments
34
Selecting the Right Gun for GMAW

Personal preferences and the total cost over the life of a
welding gun are just some of the considerations to be taken
into account when making a selection
B. Thayer
38
Alabama Trains Workers at World-Class Robotics Center

A modern training center brings together multiple brands of
robots, vision systems, and controllers to develop a highly
skilled workforce
M. R. Johnsen
44
How to Maintain Your GMA Gun

Following a maintenance schedule for your welding gun
extends its life and avoids unplanned downtime
R. Fleischmann
48
A Perspective on Welding Engineering Education

Confessions of a PhD Who Can Actually Weld
This Plummer Lecture presents an interesting perspective on
welding training vs. welding education, accreditation vs.
certification, and engineering vs. engineering technology
Y. Adonyi
51
Fume Extraction Guns: Understanding the Basics

Knowing the basic operation of a fume extraction gun will help
in deciding whether it is right for your application
D. Weimer
Editorial ............................4
Washington Watchword ..........6
Press Time News ..................8
News of the Industry ............10
Book Review ......................14
Aluminum Q&A ..................20
Brazing Q&A ......................24
Letters to the Editor ............26
Product & Print Spotlight ......28
Coming Events....................58
Certification Schedule ..........62
Welding Workbook ..............64
Welding School Profiles ........70
Society News ....................85
Tech Topics ......................86
Erratum A5.36:2012............87
Guide to AWS Services ......105
Personnel........................106
Classifieds ......................112
Advertiser Index ................113
54
Should You Add Thermal Spray to Your Welding Course?

Thermal spray technology as part of a welding curriculum is
not as far off the mark as one might think
R. S. Brunhouse et al.
Welding Research Supplement

89-s
51
Evaluation of Susceptibility of Alloy IN740 to HAZ

Stress-Relaxation Cracking
Three different alloys were evaluated at three different
temperatures to establish modeling predictions
J. E. Ramirez
101-s Reducing the Porosity in Die-Cast Magnesium Alloys

during Laser Welding
The factors that cause porosity in magnesium alloys were evaluated
to develop a control strategy
J. Zhang et al.
110-s The Weld Heat-Affected Zone Liquation Cracking
Susceptibility of Naval Steels
Four high-strength steels developed for naval applications were
assessed for their susceptibility to heat-affected zone liquation
cracking
J. L. Caron et al.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.
130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,
Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box
25542,London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
124-s Magnetically Assisted Resistance Spot Welding of

Dual-Phase Steel
Two modes of external magnetic fields were studied to evaluate
which improved resistance spot welding
Y. B. Li et al.
On the cover: Jeremy Jurkiewicz, a 22-year-old Racine, Wis., native who served
in Afghanistan with the Army Reserves, participates in the Welding/Fabrication
Boot Camp at Gateway Technical College.
WELDING JOURNAL
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Aiming High
Many of us have heard the quote that is attributed to motivational speaker Zig Ziglar,
If you aim at nothing, you will hit it every time. In business, as well as associations and
professional societies, this axiom rings true unless the leadership of the organization
focuses the effort toward a strategic plan. At AWS, this strategic planning begins with a
healthy dialog between AWS staff leadership and volunteer leadership. Input comes
from key areas including Marketing, Finance, Technical, Education, Certification,
Membership, Publications, Foundation, Expositions, and the Board of Directors. In
doing so, potential areas of growth are identified and ideas are generated. It is not only
a process of refining vision, but it is also a process of self-evaluation through understanding ones strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Through a series of filters and evaluation tools, the large number of ideas is narrowed down to a manageable
few that eventually form the strategic plan. This plan provides a direction for AWS to
focus its efforts in support of the mission to Advance the Science, Technology, and
Application of Welding and Allied Joining and Cutting Processes Worldwide, including
Brazing, Soldering, and Thermal Spraying.
The first part of the AWS strategic plan focuses on its flagship products including
standards, certifications, expositions, and publications. To continue our leadership
worldwide in these areas, two of the strategic objectives in the plan are to amplify these
flagship products with focused marketing and sales enhancements in our core markets as
well as emerging markets. In response to these objectives, AWS has recently introduced
two key, senior-level staff members, Bill Fudale, vice president of Sales and Marketing,
and Dr. Dennis Harwig, vice president of Technology and Business Development. We
are fortunate to have the experience and leadership that these two bring to the AWS staff
as they lead our efforts in growing both domestically and internationally.
Additionally, AWS is now translating several of our core products into Spanish and
other languages to address the needs of our international partners. These products
include standards, certifications, membership materials, Web sites, and the awardwinning Welding Journal.
Over the past two years, AWS has invested heavily in developing the infrastructure of
a new product offering called American Welding Online (AWO). American Welding
Online is your portal to welding education. The American Welding Society believes that
welding education must be available to everyone, everywhere, at any time. Whether you
are a student considering a career in welding, a welder looking to take the next step, or
a seasoned professional who desires continued education, AWO provides the tools and
resources to help you succeed.
Through American Welding Online, AWS provides an anyone, anywhere, anytime
resource that supports welding education, such as Welding Safety and Health,
Understanding Welding Symbols, and Math for Welders Part 1; advanced training
for certification programs, such as Welding Fundamentals or the complete Certified
Welding Sales Representative certification program; access to professional conferences
through on-demand recordings of key venues such as the International Brazing and
Soldering Conference; and downloadable videos and audio podcasts of scientific presentations from the AWS Professional Program of the FABTECH exposition. The educational courses of AWO continue to grow not only in English but in other languages as
well to ensure AWS welding education is available to more people.
The leadership of AWS understands that true
growth does not occur without a well thought-out plan,
cultivation, and hard work. Through the efforts of
AWS staff and volunteers, we are positioning our society to advance welding and allied processes and fabrication technologies for a better standard of living for
all nations and a greater well-being of their citizens.
If Zig Ziggler were to ask me where is AWS aiming? I would have to tell him, we are aiming high!
David J. Landon
AWS Vice President
APRIL 2013
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1)
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altech Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Product Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
WASHINGTON
WATCHWORD
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
White House and Congress Push for Free

Access to Taxpayer-Funded Research
methods for employees to submit all kinds of whistleblower complaints, including electronic submission.
The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy

has issued a new policy memorandum increasing public access to
federally funded scientific research, including peer-reviewed publications and digital data. Under the policy, federal agencies must
develop a plan to support increased public access to the results
of research funded by the federal government. This includes any
results published in peer-reviewed scholarly publications that are
based on research that directly arises from federal funds. These
plans are to be completed by August 1.
In a related development, the Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act has been introduced in both the House and
Senate. This legislation would require federal departments and
agencies with an annual extramural research budget of $100 million or more, whether funded totally or partially by a government
department or agency, to make publicly available a copy of any
final manuscript based on such research that has been accepted
for publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Such manuscripts must
be made available to the public online and without cost, no later
than six months after the article has been published in the peerreviewed journal.
R&D Tax Credit Extended
Labor to Conduct Survey on Independent

Contractor Misclassification
The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is planning to collect
information about employment experiences and workers knowledge of basic employment laws and rules in order to better understand employees experience with worker misclassification.
In particular, it is exploring the misclassification of workers as
independent contractors. According to DOL, employers who misclassify workers may achieve significant administrative and labor
cost reductions, giving them a profound advantage over employers who properly classify their workers as employees. Some states
report losing between 5 and 20 million dollars annually on unemployment insurance payments due to misclassification, and
the Government Accountability Office (GAO) estimates that unpaid taxes total more than $2.7 billion per year in unpaid Social
Security, unemployment insurance, and income tax due to misclassification. The department ultimately may impose new recordkeeping requirements to require employers to create a written
justification for classifying workers as independent contractors.
As part of the so-called fiscal deal reached by Congress and

the president earlier this year, the research and development tax
credit was extended for 2012 and 2013. It had expired at the end
of 2011. The R&D tax credit rate is either 14% or 20% depending on which credit calculation a taxpayer selects. This tax credit,
first enacted in 1981, has now been extended 14 times. There
have been bipartisan efforts over the years to make the tax credit
permanent, but to date those efforts have been unsuccessful.
Highly Skilled Workers Immigration

Bill Introduced
Legislation to significantly increase the number of H-1B visas
available to skilled foreign-born workers, including engineers,
has been introduced. The Immigration Innovation Act of 2013
would set the cap for H-1B visas to as many as 300,000, rather
than the current 65,000. The number of immigrant visas (green
cards) would be greatly increased as well. In addition, fees generated from the H-1B and other immigration programs would
be used to fund a grant program to promote science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and worker
retraining to be administered by the states.
PTO Publishes Final Rules and Guidelines

Governing First Inventor to File
The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) recently
published final rules of practice implementing the first-inventorto-file provision of the America Invents Act (AIA). The provision is a major step toward harmonization of the U.S. patent system with those of most other countries. The first-inventor-to-file
provision became effective in March. Prior to the passage of the
AIA, the USPTO was the only national patent office using a firstto-invent system. First-inventor-to-file complements PTOs existing efforts toward greater harmonization with foreign counterparts. It is also expected to bring greater transparency, objectivity, predictability, and simplicity to patentability
determinations.
OSHA Issues Interim Final Rule on

Whistleblowing
NIST Establishes Two New Manufacturing

Extension Partnership Centers
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) has published an interim final rule that governs whistleblower complaints under the Affordable Care Act (ACA). Under
the ACA, employers are prohibited from retaliating against the
employees who report violations. If an employee is retaliated
against in violation of the whistleblower provision, he or she may
file a complaint with, and ultimately receive relief from OSHA
or the courts. OSHAs interim final rule establishes the procedures and time frames for the filing and handling of such complaints, including investigations by OSHA, appeals of OSHA determinations to an administrative law judge for a hearing, review
of such decisions by the Administrative Review Board and judicial review of the secretarys final decision.
In a related development, OSHA is proposing additional
The National Institute of Standards and Technologys (NIST)

Hollings Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) program
has provided funding for two new MEP centers, one in Kentucky
and another in South Dakota. These centers are public-private
partnerships that receive a portion of their annual budgets from
NIST MEP, and the rest from other nonfederal agencies or organizations. The MEP centers provide a variety of services, from
innovation strategies, to process improvements, to advice on
green manufacturing. The MEP includes more than 400 centers
and field offices nationwide.
APRIL 2013
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at

1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
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PRESS TIME
NEWS
Honda Develops New Technology for Joining
Steel and Aluminum
Honda Motor Co., Ltd., Tokyo,
Japan, recently developed a technology to join steel and aluminum.
It has been applied to enable using
an aluminum outer door panel,
which has conventionally been
steel. The company will apply this
technology first to the North American version of the new Acura RLX
and expand application to other
models.
The following three technoloCompared are the conventional method showing spot
welding and 1-fold hemming vs. the new technology gies enable adapting aluminum for
featuring a 3D lock seam with 2-fold hemming. the outer door panel: to join dissimilar materials, a 3D lock seam
Image courtesy of Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
structure where steel and aluminum panels are layered and
hemmed together twice; to prevent electrical corrosion, a highly anticorrosive steel for
the inner panel and a new form that assures the complete gap filling with an adhesive
agent; and to control thermal deformation, an adhesive agent with a low elastic modulus and optimized position of the 3D lock seam.
Advantages include eliminating a spot welding process required to join conventional
steel door panels. Also, these technologies do not require a dedicated process, so existing production lines can accommodate them.
The enhancement contributes to improving fuel economy and the vehicles performance by reducing door panel weight by approximately 17% compared to the conventional all-steel door panel. In addition, weight reduction at the vehicle bodys outer side
enables concentrating the point of gravity toward its center.
GAWDA to Implement Self-Management Plan

The Gases and Welding Distributors Association (GAWDA) and the American Welding Society (AWS), Doral, Fla., jointly announced a plan for GAWDA to become selfmanaged by the end of 2014.
GAWDA is excited and pleased to be working through this transition of independence following 68 years of assisted management, said 2013 GAWDA President Craig
Wood, of O. E. Meyer Co.
AWS has helped manage GAWDA business affairs since 2010 and will assist the association until the self-management objective is achieved.
Also, GAWDA will lease office space at the AWS World Headquarters and plans to
retain its current executive director along with support staff.
We are extremely pleased to see GAWDA move toward independent management,
said Ray Shook, AWS executive director.
Entries Sought for AWS Image of Welding Awards

The American Welding Society (AWS), Doral, Fla., has issued a call for entries for
the 11th Annual Image of Welding Awards. The deadline is July 31.
Open to all welding industry professionals, they are presented by AWS and WEMCO,
an association of welding manufacturers, which is also an AWS standing committee.
The program recognizes achievement in the following categories: individual; educator; educational facility; small business (less than 200 employees); large business (200 or
more employees); distributor; AWS Section; and media.
Winners will be presented their awards at a ceremony held during FABTECH this
November 1821 at McCormick Place in Chicago, Ill.
To submit an online nomination, or download the PDF nomination form, visit
www.aws.org/awards/image.html. For your application to be considered, complete the
form and submit electronically, return via e-mail to image@aws.org, fax to (305) 4431552, or send via postal mail to AWS Image of Welding Awards, 8669 Doral Blvd., Suite
130, Doral, FL 33166.
Publisher Andrew Cullison

Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 Doral Blvd., Doral, FL 33166
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
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APRIL 2013
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Welding Education and Career Opportunities Abound

Workshops for Warriors Provides
Free Welding Training to Military Veterans
Workshops for Warriors trains, certifies, and places veterans free of

charge into manufacturing careers across the United States. Its
founder, Hernn Luis y Prado, is pictured third from left.
For Hernn Luis y Prado, giving back to returning, wounded,
and disabled veterans of the U.S. Armed Services means a great
deal. Today, the former Naval officer and White House Champion of Change recipient is living out a dream with his nonprofit
organization, Workshops for Warriors, Inc., San Diego, Calif.
We want to be a major driver for retraining the worlds greatest fighting force into the worlds most modern manufacturing
force, Luis y Prado said.
Established in 2011, the program provides veterans with free
vocational training for civilian careers as welders, machinists,
or computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing
(CAD/CAM) technicians.
Initial funding for the organization came from Luis y Prado
and his wife, Rachel. Over time, connections with manufacturing industry companies and foundations recognized the need for
a training pipeline to replace retiring workforces.
To date, millions of dollars have been donated. A bulk of the
funding comes from UTC Aerospace Systems; The Gene Haas
Foundation; Flow International Corp.; C&H Machine; Betenbender Manufacturing; Scotchman Industries; the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers Education Foundation; The Harriet
E. Pfleger Foundation; and CNC Software.
Since Workshops for Warriors opened its first 4500-sq-ft facility, it has expanded to a 28,000-sq-ft facility across from the
32nd Street Naval Base.
The operation now offers eight courses, including shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW); gas metal arc welding (GMAW); gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW); manual machining; computer numerical control (CNC) machining; CAD; CAM; and National
Institute for Metalworking Skills (NIMS).
Classes are in eight-week modules held during the day and
night with an average of ten students each. Combined, the four
certified instructors have decades of academic experience.
We desperately need more funding to hire additional teachers as we have almost five-hundred veterans on our waiting list
and almost fifteen-hundred jobs available to our graduates, Luis
y Prado said.
The welding classroom offers a projector screen for safety,
blueprint reading, metallurgy, and PowerPoint presentations.
10
APRIL 2013
A CAD/CAM classroom has ten workstations with MasterCam

and SolidWorks software.
The welding lab features 16 welding booths. There are 15 machines, including multiprocess, suitcase, and inverter-/transformer-based models for SMAW, GMAW, and GTAW; a CNC
plasma/oxyacetylene table; a CNC waterjet; 70- and 300-ton press
brakes; shears; saws; and ironworking equipment.
Still needed are ten GTAW alternating/direct current inverterbased machines, two multiprocess welding machines, and a comprehensive ventilation system.
On January 25, more than 200 people attended the organizations open house. At the event it was announced The Gene Haas
Foundation and Society of Manufacturing Engineers Education
Foundation will match all cash donations to Workshops for Warriors this year, dollar for dollar, up to $200,000. This will help
offset the almost $7000 cost per student per month.
Earning American Welding Society (AWS) certifications will
be offered once SENSE and Accredited Test Facility approvals
are achieved. Gary Wheeler, a cornerstone of the San Diego and
Navy welding community, is guiding the workshop through this
process. Sam Lindsey, the AWS San Diego Section chairman,
also supports the program.
Additionally, the organization is working toward NIMS accreditation. When complete, it can accept the G.I. Bill.
In the meantime, students test to welding procedure specifications by companies that want to hire them. Weld coupons are
inspected by Inspec Testing, Inc., San Diego, Calif., which donates all services. For CAD/CAM, they test using online modules for MasterCam University and SolidWorks, and also test
online for NIMS credentials.
When veterans are ready to graduate, the program connects
them with employers throughout the United States.
Workshops for Warriors has a 100% placement rate, Luis y
Prado said.
The organization is reaching out to the White House about
supporting its expansion across the United States to offer these
services to every veteran who needs them. For more information,
including volunteer opportunities, visit www.workshopsfor
warriors.org.
In the Workshops for Warriors lab, a veteran perfects his gas metal
arc welding skills during the extensive hands-on training.
Lee College to Offer Welding Inspection

Welders and inspectors will soon be able to gain experience
in ultrasonic welding inspection using acoustical vibrations,
similar to sound waves, but of higher frequency, to detect subsurface flaws in welds at Lee College, Baytown, Tex.
This fall, the college will add a new credit-bearing class on
ultrasonic testing to the welding inspection curriculum, said
welding faculty member John Elliott. He added it will help Lee
students fill additional requirements for welding inspection certification and also be open to industry professionals.
This is especially important to the many petrochemical facilities in our area, where any interruption to workflow can create
a significant financial impact, he continued.
In addition, students will learn how to interpret and evaluate
results using industry-accepted codes and standards. Classes will
be held from 4 to 6 p.m. MondayFriday.
Contact John Elliott at jelliott@lee.edu for more details.
Gateway Technical College Opens

Expanded iMET Center
Gateway Technical College recently celebrated the grand
opening of its expanded SC Johnson integrated Manufacturing
and Engineering Technology (iMET) Center in Sturtevant, Wis.
The regions first flexible manufacturing training center,
Tarnowski Hall, includes welding, computer numerical control
(CNC) machining, metal fabrication, automated manufacturing
systems, and industrial robotics training.
Over the past ten months, SC Johnson has contributed $1.7
million to support Gateway programming. Fisk Johnson, chairFor info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
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WELDING JOURNAL
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Jeremy Jurkiewicz, a 22-year-old Racine, Wis., native who served in

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APRIL 2013
2013 Hobart Institute of Welding

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WELDING JOURNAL
13
BOOK
REVIEW
BY WALTER J. SPERKO
Publication Provides
Insight on Welding Street
Rods and Race Cars
Advanced Automotive Welding by Jerry
Uttrachi starts with his goal: to discuss advanced welding of street rods and race cars
not just for the advanced welder but also
for the beginner who wants his welds to
look and perform like those of professionals. I think he was successful.
The rest of the book is described below.
Focusing on Safety, Tool Use

The topics begin with a few paragraphs
on health and safety. He mentions that
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting,
and Allied Processes, is available free from
the American Welding Society (AWS), but
he does not give the URL, www.aws.org,
to make it easy to find (a suggestion for
the next edition). Anyone who supervises
welding should download a copy and commit it to memory...or just follow it.
The next chapter gives a brief history
helping readers to understand where the
tools they work with originated and that
welding is a relatively new technology. The
chapter on joint design is short and informative, but more details on how big fillet welds need to be and how to measure
them should be provided.
Both Uttrachi and I have seen welders
make gorgeous fillet welds between tubes
using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
but the throat of those welds was too
skinny for the thickness of the tubes being
joined. Maybe thats something to cover
in more detail for the next edition.
Detailing Various
Welding Processes
The following chapter was a surprise:
16 pages of how to do oxyacetylene welding. It was well done with good illustrations on how to make welds using the
process, but oxyfuel welding is not advanced welding as the title promises it
should be later in the book.
The chapter on GTAW is well written
and informative. His discussion of filler
metal selection when welding AISI 4130
tubing is perfect and easy to understand.
His discussion of stiffness (column buckling) using the beer can illustration is also
easy to understand and relate to. While
the application projects at the end of the
chapter are great illustrations of GTAW
at work, the flow of the book text scattered
among the figures on pages 57 through 61
was hard to follow and left a cluttered
look; on the other hand, the photos in
14
APRIL 2013
Advanced Automotive Welding was written by Jerry Uttrachi, a past AWS president
and current president of WA Technology,
LLC, Florence, S.C. ISBN 978-1-93470996-2. Published by CarTech, Inc., North
Branch, MN (www.cartechbooks.com).
176 pages. Paperback $29.95; eBooks
PDF format $24.95.
Figs. 4.16 through 4.32, showing the control panel of a microprocessor-controlled

power source, are useless.
The section on weld repairing aluminum heads recommended preheating
using a practical item your gas grill! For
optimum performance of heads that have
been weld repaired around valve seats, they
should be solution heat treated and aged
after welding to eliminate local soft spots.
The welding industry has its own jargon that readers are likely to be familiar
with, and the insert Metallurgy of
Chrome Moly 4130 is no exception. The
term chrome is used throughout this insert, and while most recognize chrome as
jargon for the element chromium, the correct word, chromium, should be used (at
least here in the metallurgy section). Also,
the percentage of chromium and molybdenum in 4130, nominally 0.98% and
0.18%, respectively, should be stated in
percentage, not without units.
In addition, its customary to use a
leading zero when a number is less than
one to ensure that readers do not miss the
location of the decimal point (i.e., 0.33%
carbon, not .33% carbon). Finally, this
section uses the civil engineering jargon,
ksi. While ksi is defined in the glossary (a
good feature in any book like this one),
since readers of this book can relate to psi,
Id suggest using psi and showing all the
necessary zeros (i.e., 60,000 psi instead of

60 ksi).
The chapter on shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) is short and sweet, and
contains a couple of gems. Uttrachis explanation of arc stiffness, as it relates to
current density when discussing arc blow,
is right on; weld using the smallest electrode you can at the highest amperage it
will take to get a stiff arc, or go to gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) or flux cored arc
welding where the arc density far exceeds
that of SMAW. His suggestion to use alternating current when arc blow is an issue
is also on the money; Ive suggested that
on pipeline work with good success.
The GMAW chapter starts with the basics featuring uphill; downhill; techniques
for pushing, pulling, and gun manipulation (weaving); power sources; and a selection of shielding gas and flow rate.
The best and most interesting part,
however, was this: What melts a MIG
wire? This section thoroughly explains
the importance of holding constant electrode extension (i.e., contact tube-to-work
distance), especially if the reader is able
to understand some simple math. He explains why changing electrode extension
from 38 to in. will drop the amperage
from 175 to 143 A. Since amperage is the
primary force that controls penetration,
he shows that changing from 175 to 143 A
reduces the depth of penetration by 24%,
all other conditions and settings being unchanged. That much change in penetration can mean the difference between a
weld that is properly fused and one that
contains incomplete fusion, where the
welder allowed the electrode extension to
get too long.
Selecting Carbon Steel Wires

Another interesting section was carbon steel wire composition and selection;
while ER70S-6 wire is commonly used for
GMAW, Uttrachi points out that ER70S7 has an optimum balance in the Mn/Si
ratio, which leads to better wetting and
tie-in along the weld bead toes and less
likelihood of undercutting. Unfortunately, ER70S-7 was only available from
a limited number of suppliers when
www.fnumbers.com was checked.
On the down side, this chapter also has
photographs of text on power source control panels on pages 103 and 104 that cannot be read and photographs of wire feeders where the number of drive rolls mentioned in the captions is not obvious (Figs.
6.51 and 6.52). As noted in the GTAW
chapter, the text of the book is scattered
among various figures starting on page
122 to the end of the chapter, giving the

pages a cluttered look and making the text
hard to follow.
want to land a job

after graduation?
A
Employers want commercial divers that are internationally certified.

TE
CH
NICAL INS
T
IT
UT
E
The chapter on thermal cutting is thorough and detailed enough to use as a guide
for training on how to use a fuel gas cutting torch. Well done. Plasma cutting and
gouging, as well as laser and waterjet cutting, get enough discussion to make the
reader aware that they exist and what the
benefits of each are.
The discussion of tailored blanks in the
Advanced Materials and Metallurgical
Processes chapter provides enough discussion for readers to realize the properties on one end of a modern car part can
be so different than those of the other end,
that different welding techniques and
processes might be needed at each end.
The description of the experiment using
glycerin to watch hydrogen evolving from
a weld is a classic every welder should see
just to drive home the fact that hydrogen
can dissolve in steel and lead to cracking.
The review of tests that are used to measure the properties of metal are good, but
I doubt that impact testing will ever
be done on tubular or other steels used in
autosports.
On the other hand, this section would
benefit from discussing simple tests that
welders can do, such as sectioning and
etching, followed by visual examination
for soundness, penetration, and fusion to
verify their own skills. The sketches of
weld defects are good, but the undercut
and porosity sketches also show incomplete penetration without identifying it;
these should be corrected for the next
edition.
Also, Fig. 8.3 identifies one of the
metal alloying mechanisms incorrectly as
replacement atoms; these atoms, typical
of carbon and nitrogen in steel, reside in
the interstitial positions (i.e., between the
larger atoms, not replacing them) and the
alloying mechanism is correctly identified
as interstitial alloying.
CD
Exploring Cutting Techniques,

Tailored Blanks
CDA Technical
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Conclusion
In my experience, welding skills and
insights are picked up one aha! moment
at a time, and this book is full of them. In
my opinion, this book would be a worthwhile addition to the library of any amateur or professional craftsman in the automotive hobby or racing business.
WALTER J. SPERKO (wsperko@

bellsouth.net) is president of Sperko Engineering Services, Inc., Greensboro, N.C.
WELDING JOURNAL
15
Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2013. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2014 consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Nomination of AWS Counselor

I.
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.

Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED

Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130
Doral, FL 33166
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013
CLASS OF 2014
(please type or print in black ink)
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All information and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the candidate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2013
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ALUMINUM
Q&A
BY TONY ANDERSON
This is a question I am asked fairly frequently. Over the years, I have identified
what I consider to be the most significant
differences between welding these two
materials. I have pointed out some differences in this column that I believe to be
quite interesting.
with the inert-gas [gas metal arc welding

(GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW)] processes, which break down
and remove the thin oxide during welding. Prior to the introduction of the inertgas welding processes (in the 1940s), welding options for aluminum were very limited and often made use of problematic
fluxes in order to overcome the aluminum
oxide problem.
Aluminums Surface Oxide
Thermal Conductivity
I believe it is appropriate to start with

one of the most obvious differences between aluminum and steel: aluminum
oxide. Aluminum has a surface oxide that
has a melting point in excess of 3600F
(1982C), which is 2400F (1316C) above
the melting point of a pure aluminum base
material. Because of this large difference
in melting temperature, the aluminum
oxide film can prevent fusion between the
filler alloy and base alloy, and/or flakes of
oxide can become entrapped during the
welding process as inclusions within the
completed weld.
Aluminum, with an uncontaminated
thin oxide layer, can often be easily welded
Apart from being one third the weight

of steel, aluminum has a thermal conductivity around five times that of steel. Aluminums substantially higher thermal conductivity is certainly a difference between
these two materials that can influence
welding. As we apply heat to aluminum,
particularly when starting a weld, the heat
is obviously conducted away much faster
than steel, providing the potential for incomplete fusion and/or incomplete penetration at the beginning of a weld. The use
of run-on plates is common, where practical, to help avoid this problem.
It is also becoming common to find
designated GMAW equipment today with
Q: What are the primary differences

between welding aluminum and steel?
a hot start feature, which provides additional heat input for a short period at the
beginning of a weld.
Arc Welding Processes

More than 90% of aluminum structural
welds are made with GMAW and GTAW.
Conversely, shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW),
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), and metal
cored arc welding (MCAW) processes,
which are extensively used for welding
steel, are not considered suitable for aluminum welding and are not recognized
processes in aluminum structural codes.
The reason for this is primarily associated
with aluminum oxide, as mentioned previously, and the ability of the GMAW and
GTAW inert-gas welding processes to
break down this oxide during the welding
process without the aid of flux.
Variation to the Arc

Welding Processes Used
For GMAW, the most significant difference in this equipment, when used for
Fig. 1 Mechanical properties of aluminum alloys increase as the temperature decreases. This is very different than steel. (The data in the
above table was acquired from the Aluminum Associations Aluminum Alloys for Cryogenic Applications.)
20
APRIL 2013
aluminum welding and not steel, is directly

related to feeding the solid aluminum wire
electrode. Because of the physical differences between steel and aluminum, the
feeding system on GMAW equipment
used for welding aluminum is comprised
of components that will not damage the
aluminum wire. Components such as liners and inlet as well as outlet guides are
made from nonmetallic material such as
nylon, plastic, or Teflon when used in an
aluminum GMAW system. Also, drive
rolls used for aluminum wire need to be
U shaped with smooth contours to help
prevent deformation and shaving of the
comparatively soft aluminum wire.
When we consider the GTAW process,
we find that AC power is predominantly
used when welding aluminum as opposed
to DC when welding steel. This again is
associated with aluminums oxide coating
which, in most practical instances, must
be removed during the welding process to
assist with consistent weld fusion and help
minimize weld discontinuities. The
GTAW (AC) process provides a conveniently balanced electrical cycle that performs excellent oxide removal every electrode positive half cycle, complemented
with good heat input to assist fusion on
every electrode negative half cycle.
Filler Metal Selection

Because of the variety of principal alloying elements used in the many series
of aluminum alloys, and the fact that it is
sometimes necessary to use a filler metal
that has a different chemical composition
than that of the base alloy welded, the selection of the most appropriate filler metal
for welding aluminum is more complex
than that for steel.
An entirely different collection of
questions need to be asked when choosing the most appropriate filler metal for
a particular aluminum alloy base material. These questions are associated not
only with the base alloy chemical composition, which may be critical, but also the
performance characteristics of the completed weld in service, which may be
equally as critical. Such questions include
the following: How will the chemistry of
the filler metal and base metal, when combined in the weld metal, influence such
characteristics as hot crack sensitivity,
ductility, strength, toughness, color match
after anodizing, elevated temperature
service, corrosion resistance, and postweld heat treatment, if used?
Filler metal selection charts have been
developed for aluminum that often proFor info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
WELDING JOURNAL
21
WORK
W
ORK
SSMART
MART
RT
Model 200 Positioner
vide ratings for various filler metals based

on these weld characteristics.
Low Temperature
(Cryogenic) Service
Many materials, when subjected to
very low temperatures, undergo changes
in their physical structure that severely
limit their usefulness in cryogenic applications. Many steels become extremely
brittle at very low temperatures. Aluminum alloys, however, have been
demonstrated to have an unusual ability
to maintain their ductility and resistance
to shock loading at extremely low temperatures approaching absolute zero 459F
(273C), see Fig. 1.
As temperature decreases, aluminums
tensile and yield strengths actually increase, and the ductility and toughness of
most alloys increase as well. Even at the
lowest test temperatures available, in liquid helium at 452F (273C), strength
remains high and ductility and toughness
remain well above values at room temperature for most alloys. Because aluminum,
unlike steel, has no ductile-to-brittle transition, welding standards do not require
low-temperature Charpy or Izod impact
testing for aluminum filler metals.
Cracking
Model 1200 Pipemate
22
APRIL 2013
One of the predominant cracking types

in steel, particularly high-strength, lowalloy steel, is hydrogen cracking. Aluminum is not susceptible to this type of
cracking; consequently, controlled cooling rates are of little importance. In fact,
fast cooling many aluminum alloys can improve mechanical properties, just the opposite effect of fast cooling of many steels.
The principal cracking type in aluminum is hot cracking. Hot cracking is a
high-temperature cracking mechanism
and mainly a function of how metal alloy
systems solidify.
The addition of alloying elements to a
pure metal can result in a number of different phases being formed during solidification. One particular phase is the lowest melting point composition of an alloy
known as the eutectic composition, which
freezes at one specific temperature; it is
this eutectic phase that can promote hot
cracking. In most metals, this effect is
caused by unwanted impurities. Sulphur
in steel is a good example where low melting point sulphide eutectics are formed.
In aluminum, it is the deliberately added
alloying elements that form a range of eutectics with freezing points substantially
lower than the bulk metal.
If the difference in the melting point

between the low melting point eutectic
and bulk of the metal is sufficiently great,
then the liquid film along the grain boundaries may part as the metal cools and contracts the result of this is hot cracking.
For aluminum welding, filler metal selection and welding procedure development are largely controlled by the continual avoidance of hot cracking. In aluminum welding, hot cracking is not caused
by unwanted impurity that is seldom seen,
as in steel, but a reality of the alloys
welded, and something that needs to be
dealt with on a continual basis.
Guided Bend Testing

The testing methods used for guided
bend testing aluminum are quite different than those for steel. The wraparound
guided bend jig is the preferred method
of testing aluminum weldments and not
the plunger type as with steel. Also, there
are special bending conditions stipulated
for some aluminum base metals and filler
metals. These special bending conditions
can involve reducing sample thickness,
heat treatment of sample before bending,
changes in bending diameters, and/or time
limitations before bending of the welded
sample.
It is wise to carefully examine the code
requirements for this type of testing before conducting the tests on aluminum, as
the requirements are very different than
those for steel.
Summary
There are many differences between
welding steel and aluminum, some more
obvious than others. I think the items I
have identified here are interesting and a
few may have the potential to cause problems if not understood.
TONY ANDERSON is director of

aluminum technology, ITW Welding North
America. He is a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI), a Registered Chartered
Engineer with the British Engineering Council, and holds numerous positions on AWS
technical committees. He is chairman of the
Aluminum Association Technical Advisory
Committee for Welding and author of the
book Welding Aluminum Questions and
Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o
Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd., #130,
Doral, FL 33166, or via e-mail at
tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.
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BRAZING
Q&A
BY DAN KAY
Q: Our brazing shop has been doing

nickel brazing in our vacuum furnaces
for a number of years. I heard recently
that I can use isothermal solidification
in some high-temperature brazing
processes in order to significantly raise
the remelt temperature of a nickel brazement in subsequent service. How is this
accomplished?
A: Yes, isothermal solidification can be a
very useful brazing process for some
brazing filler metals (BFMs), and can result in a significant increase in the re-melt
temperature of the BFM in that brazed
joint.
To better understand the process, first
examine the component parts of the term
isothermal solidification. The prefix
iso means equal, or the same, and
thermal, of course, refers to temperature. So, were looking at a BFM solidification process in which solidification
takes place while the furnace is being
held at the same, steady temperature. Although that may sound strange, theres
some real logic to it. Isothermal solidification depends a lot on the diffusion capabilities of various components of the
BFM while that BFM is being held at the
brazing temperature.
You mentioned nickel (Ni) brazing in
your question above, and it is an excellent
example of how this process can be very
useful for brazed components subjected
to high temperatures in end-use service.
AWS A5.8, Class BNi-2, also known in
the industry as AMS 4777, is an example
of a nickel-based BFM whose remelt
temperature can be significantly increased by isothermal solidification. This
BFM has almost 3.5% of boron (B)
added to its chemistry as a temperature
depressant, i.e., an element added to the
BFM to significantly lower its initial
melting temperature during brazing.
Boron does this by forming low-melting
eutectic compositions with the nickel into
which it is alloyed. Boron is a very small
atom compared to the much larger atoms
of nickel, chromium, iron, and silicon
that make up the rest of the BNi-2 chemistry. Thus, the boron atom does not fit as
a so-called substitutional atom in the matrix of the BNi-2 alloy, but is, instead,
known as an interstitial atom, i.e., one
that fits into the small spaces between the
much larger atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.
Interstitial atoms are not as strongly
bonded into the matrix of atoms as substitutional atoms, which means that interstitials can enter or leave the matrix
of atoms much more easily than substitutional atoms can. As you know, as a metal
24
APRIL 2013
Fig. 1 Note that small, interstitial atoms cannot substitute for the larger atoms in the
matrix of atoms shown above, but must fit into the small interstices (spaces) between those
larger atoms, as shown in this idealized conceptual diagram of atoms lining up with each
other.
gets hotter and hotter, it will expand. It
does this because atoms vibrate in place
more and more when heated, occupying
more and more space to do so. Thus, the
overall dimensions of the metal get larger
and larger as the metal gets hotter and
hotter, since the spacing between each of
the atoms in the alloy is increasing.
Heres where the tiny size of the boron
atom comes into play. Because it is so
small, and only weakly bonded into the
BFM alloy structure (because it is an interstitial atom), the boron atom is able to
escape, i.e., diffuse away, from the BFM
when the brazing temperature has increased to the point where the spacing
between the larger substitutional atoms is
great enough for the small boron atoms
to get through.
Remember, the boron was added into
the BFM to lower its melting point.
Therefore, does it not seem logical that
when the boron leaves, i.e., diffuses away
from the BFM, the melting point of the
BFM should go back up? In fact, that
does actually happen.
To understand this a little better, lets
get into some of the metallurgy of brazed
joints. Lets look briefly at a so-called
phase diagram of the nickel-boron alloy
system as shown in Fig. 2.
The varying amount of boron in the
alloy is shown along the bottom of the
graph, and temperature is shown on the
vertical axis. It can be seen that as the
amount of boron that is added to the alloy
increases from zero up to 3.5%, the
curved line labeled liquidus drops significantly, from about 2650F (1455C)
down to only 2000F (1093C), whereas
the line labeled solidus remains pretty

steady from left to right at 2000F. Lets
now look at the same diagram in Fig. 3,
with the vertical lines A (2% boron), and
B (3.5% boron) added to it, as well as a
horizontal line representing a theoretical
brazing temperature.
At 2% boron content, you can see that
as you increase the temperature of that
specific alloy composition from room
temperature up to 2000F, you cross the
solidus-temperature line. The solidus
temperature is the temperature below
which the alloy remains completely solid
(hence the word solid-us). Thus, as
soon as you cross the solidus temperature
line during heating, the BFM will start to
melt. It will continue to melt further and
further until you reach the curved line labeled liquidus, which, as you may have
guessed, is the line representing the temperature above which that alloy chemistry is supposed to be fully liquid (hence
the word liquid-us). Notice I said, supposed to be. Please see my article about
liquation published in the September
2010 Welding Journal for a lengthy discussion about this. Technically speaking,
the liquidus temperatures are usually determined by cooling a liquid BFM and determining the temperature at which a
particular composition begins to solidify.
Now, back to my discussion of
isothermal solidification. Notice the difference between vertical lines A and B in
Fig. 3. On vertical line B, the liquidus and
solidus temperatures are the same. Such
a junction is called a eutectic point.
This represents the lowest melting point
for a given BFM alloy system, i.e., it is the
composition at which the lowest melting

temperature BFM-liquid can exist.
Notice now the horizontal line in Fig.
3 that is labeled Brazing Temp. The
brazing temperature used in any brazing
operation should be at least 100F (or
50C) higher than the melting point
(liquidus temperatures) of the BFM
being used. Well assume thats how
youre brazing in your shop.
Now, remember that at brazing temperature, the boron begins to diffuse
away from the joint into the base metals
of the part being brazed (as the boron
atoms move, i.e., diffuse away, to achieve
an equilibrium balance of boron throughout the entire structure). As you can see,
the liquidus line of the BFM in Fig. 3 begins to rise as you begin to move left from
3.5% boron in the joint down to 2%
boron or less, i.e., as the boron continues
to diffuse away from the braze-joint area.
The boron concentration in the brazed
joint wont go to zero, since the boron
atoms are merely trying to achieve an
equilibrium balance throughout the
structure.
Notice in Fig. 3 that the brazing temperature crosses the liquidus line at
about 2.5% boron (vertical line C). When
the brazing cycle is held at brazing temp
long enough until the boron in the BNi-2
BFM has diffused away to below 2.5%,
there is then not enough boron left in the
joint to keep the BFM liquid at that specific brazing temperature. Notice that
when the boron is less than 2.5% the
brazing-temp line is no longer in the liquid section of the chart, but is now situated in the slush zone between the liquidus and solidus lines. When this happens, the BFM will begin to solidify, even
though the brazing temperature is being
held constant. Isothermal solidification
has begun.
Please note that isothermal solidification will not occur by merely holding the
BFM at brazing temperature for a few
minutes. Instead, it requires much longer
times at temperature, typically 30 min
minimum, and sometimes as long as an
hour or two (depending on the load size
in the furnace, it might require an even
longer hold time). Experience will indicate the time required, depending on the
mass of the parts, how much BFM is present, and thus, what clearance is being
used in the joint.
Note: Wide joint clearances are not
effective for trying to implement isothermal solidification. For good isothermal
solidification results, the joint clearances
should be tight at brazing temperature,
typically 0.0000.003 in. (0.0000.075
mm), and the quantity of BFM applied
should be just enough to fill the volume
between the faying surfaces of the joint.
Not only can thick braze joints be a deterrent to effective isothermal solidifica-
Fig. 2 Simplified metallurgical phase

diagram of the nickel-boron system.
Fig. 3 Ni-B phase diagram with a hypothetical brazing temperature shown.
tion, but excessively large amounts of

applied BFM can result in large, heavy
braze fillets that can behave in a manner
identical to joint clearances that are too
large.
In summary, if the joint clearances are
large, or if too much BFM is applied,
there will typically be too much BFM
present in the joint area to be able to effectively diffuse away enough of the
boron temperature depressant, and
isothermal solidification will not occur,
even for lengthy holds at brazing
temperature.
Note, too, that because of the much
larger size of silicon and phosphorus
atoms used as the temperature depressant in many other nickel-based BFMs,
isothermal solidification will be very difficult, if not impossible, with those BFMs
using silicon or phosphorus as the temperature-depressant additives instead of
boron.
This column is written sequentially by

TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
Shapiro are members of and Kay is an advisor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and
Soldering. All three have contributed to the
5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titaniumbrazing.com) is brazing products manager
at Titanium Brazing, Inc.,
Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40
years of experience in the industry, operates
his own brazing training and
consulting business.
Readers are requested to post their
questions for use in this column on the
Brazing Forum section of the BSMC Web
site www.brazingandsoldering.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
25
LETTERS TO THE
EDITOR
Clearing up Welding Fume
Exposure Limits
This letter from a reader and the authors
reply are in reference to Selecting Fume
Collectors for Welding Applications published in the December 2012 Welding
Journal, pages 7376.
While reading your article, I came to
the statement on page 74 that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit
(PEL) for welding fume is 5 mg/m3, which
is three times stricter than the PEL for
nuisance dust.
I believe this is incorrect. To my
knowledge, OSHA does not regulate
total welding fume in 29 CFR 1910 Subpart Z; while there is a sampling method
for total particulate, there is no applicable PEL for comparison.
At www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/weldingfumes/recognition.html, it is
stated that OSHA does not currently
regulate welding fumes.

Perhaps a reference to the following
would be relevant: 1910.252(c)(1)(iii)
Maximum allowable concentration.
Local exhaust or general ventilating systems shall be provided and arranged to
keep the amount of toxic fumes, gases,
or dusts below the maximum allowable
concentration as specified in 1910.1000
of this part. Or even AWS F3.2, Ventilation Guide for Weld Fume, could suffice.
It should be noted that individual
welding fume components (iron, copper,
cadmium, chromium, etc.) are regulated
in Subpart Z (1910.1000 Z-1 through Z3 tables, plus several substance-specific
standards), many to levels well below 5
mg/m 3. Adding to the confusion is the
former ACGIH-TLV for total welding
fumes, NOC, which was 5 mg/m3 (withdrawn several years ago).
Jeff Hutchins
Industrial hygiene technical advisor
Ohio Bureau of Workers Compensation
Thank you for your response to our article. You are correct. We recognize that
welding rod and wire are manufactured in
thousands of different formulas containing many materials, and 5 mg/m 3, which
was a benchmark measurement, is not currently applicable.
When dealing with a specific application, we explain that individual welding
fume components are regulated, and refer
our customers to OSHA 1910.1000 and
1910.252.
We advocate the Right to Know laws
when speaking with customers. We encourage manufacturers to study their environment, employing air sampling and dust
analysis practices, to ensure proper management of exposures in their facility.
To illustrate our point, a Camfil Air Pollution Control brochure features the case
study of a Gold Series dust and fume collector, size GS48, where four welders were
tested using sampling devices in their
breathing zones, as well as the weld shop
ambient air quality. The following table
shows the testing results for cadmium,
chromium, copper, and iron oxide:
Material
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Iron Oxide
OSHA PEL
mg/m3
0.005
0.005
1.0
10.0
Average 8 h
TWA Breathing
Zone Measurement
of 4 Welders mg/m3
0.00014
0.0028
0.014
0.88
Thank you for your interest and

feedback.
Greg Schreier
Metalworking market manager
Camfil Air Pollution Control
Jonesboro, Ark.
Dear Readers:
The Welding Journal encourages
an exchange of ideas through
letters to the editor. Please send
your letters to the Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130,
Doral, FL 33166. You can also reach
us by FAX at (305) 443-7404 or by
sending an e-mail to Kristin Campbell at kcampbell@aws.org.
26
APRIL 2013
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Combination Torch Welds and Cuts Thick Material
The Purox Elite line includes welding handles, cutting attachments, hand cutting torches, regulators, and four complete outfits. Each outfit includes its combination torch that
welds material up to 1 in. thick and cuts up to 8 in. thick. The
WH-4200 welding handle features a tubeless extruded handle. The CA-4200 cutting attachment features the companys
Swirl Injector that swirls oxygen to create a homogenous
mixture of gas in the entrainment zone. The swirling highpressure oxygen mixes with the fuel gas to create a pumping
action that pulls a vacuum on the torch to improve performance with long hoses and low-pressure operations. Also included is the R-720 regulator. The Metal Master Select outfit is designed for cutting applications up to 1.5 in. Three
versions are available for use with acetylene or alternate fuel
gases. The Metal Master Champion outfit cuts up to 1.5 in. and heats up to 44,000 Btu/h using 30 ft3/h acetylene. The
Purox Elite Series Metal Master II outfit cuts up to 1.5 in. and welds up to 18 in. using 9 ft3/h acetylene. The Purox
Elite Series Metal Master III outfit is a do-it-all kit that cuts up to 1.5 in., heats up to 44,000 Btu/h using 30 ft3/h acetylene, and welds up to 18 in. using 9 ft3/h acetylene.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
www.esabna.com/gasapparatus
(800) 372-2123
AWS Publishes
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Welding Gun Designed for

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www.aws.org/standards
(888) 935-3464
Cutting Machine Offers

Stable Speed Regulation
The AWS A9.5:2013, Guide for Verification and Validation in Computation Weld
Mechanics, is the first standard publication by the AWS A9 Committee on computerization of welding information. The
guide provides the computational weld
mechanics (CWM) community with a
common language and conceptual framework. It covers a wide range of verification and validation activities, including
simplistic and complex model development, verification of numerical solutions,
attributes of validation experiments, accuracy requirements, and quantification
28
APRIL 2013
The Torch Runner features advanced

speed control with electronic closed-loop
feedback for stable speed regulation and a
LED display with readout of actual and
preset speeds. The product, a digitally controlled track torch, produces high-quality
cuts and bevels with oxyfuel or plasma. The
machine can be used on any standard 6-in.,
V-grooved track. Optional gas manifolds
for two or three hose torches as well as a
circle-cutting attachment are available.
The XR Pistol Pro is a push-pull gun

designed for use with aluminum wire and
other soft alloys where wire feeding consistency is critical. Built for aluminum
GMAW and pulsed GMAW in heavy industrial applications, such as truck and
trailer manufacturing, shipbuilding, emergency and recreational vehicle manufacturing, and general fabrication, the gun
features an improved motor and drive design for better feedability and arc consistency over longer distances. Available are
more than 20 head tube options (sold separately) in different lengths and bend configurations. The gun, which features tension settings for 4000 and 5000 series aluminum wires, provides easy access to the
drive assembly and a removable toolless
head tube for service and maintenance
without having to disassemble.
Steelmax Tools
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
www.steelmax.com
(877) 833-5629
www.millerwelds.com
(800) 426-4553
Equipment Brochure
Available on Smartphones
welding gear products. Also featured is a

bound-in, removable copy of the companys Welding Gear catalog, including
Red Line apparel, VIKINGautodarkening helmets, and Radius tools. New
this year, catalogs can be viewed on
Apple iOS and Android smartphones
and devices by downloading the appropriate app.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
The companys new 2013 equipment

catalog details GMAW, GTAW, and multiprocess equipment, as well as plasma
cutting systems, welding automation,
fume control systems, training products,
orbital welding systems, accessories, and
ual plasma cutting systems from 12 to 40

A and eliminates the need for plungers,
microswitches, or start cartridges.
Thermacut, Inc.
www.thermacut.com
(800) 932-8312
Plasma Torches Cover

Wide Amperage Range
Nozzle Cleaning System

Works with All GMAW Guns
The RTS line of replacement plasma

torches covers 12- to 120-A ranges and operates on manual plasma cutting systems
utilizing contact start, high frequency, and
capacitive discharge starting methods.
The RTS 25C and RTS 45 direct replacements for the Trafimet S25K and
S45, Nu-Tec NPT40, Weldmart Alpha
3A, and Cebora P30 plasma torches
utilize a maximum flow technology that
enhances consumable parts life and employs a parts in place and safety lock trigger system. The design also allows using
one style of consumable parts for all man-
The Sentry Nozzle Pro-2, an air-powered weld nozzle cleaning system designed
for use in production welding shops, removes weld spatter from the gas shield
nozzle and contact tip of hand-held
GMAW guns. The system may be bench
mounted or is available with an optional
floor stand, and it is compatible with all
brands of GMAW guns as well as all
nozzle and contact tip combinations.
Arndt Enterprise, Ltd.
www.ae-welding-industrial.com
(847) 234-5736
WELDING JOURNAL
29
Welding Frames Feature

Snap-Fit Design
hinge allows multiple panel configurations as well as enables the frame to fold
flat for simple storage.
The QuickFrame standard, a round

tube welding frame constructed from
lighter-weight materials, offers more convenient mobility than its predecessor. The
snap-fit design allows quicker assembly as
the tubes lock together without the use of
tools. A hinge clip facilitates multiple
panel configurations. The original square
tube frame, QuickFrame heavy duty,
maintains the square tube snap-fit design
for quick assembly. Its double-action
Revco Industries
www.revcoindustries.com
(800) 527-3826
Plate Edge Beveling Tool

Provides Quick Operation
Positive Material Identication

Fast alloy ID and chemistry
Completely non-destructive
Prevents material mix-up
Lightweight only 1.44kg / 3.17 lbs,
including battery
The KBM self-propelled bevelers can

operate at up to 10 ft/min. They produce
clean machined bevel angles of 2212
through 55 deg with no thermal distortion
on steel and aluminum. All new hydraulic
undercarriages are available and allow for
uniform bevel and consistent root face.
Further efficiency and increased production is achieved when both models of the
topside and underside bevelers are used
simultaneously.
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Device Improves Brazed

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30
APRIL 2013
Handheld XRF
The Automated Brazing Dimpler converts standard copper solder joint fittings
to the shorter socket depth found in ASME
B16.50, Braze Joint Fittings, in seconds. The
use of shortened sockets improves brazed
joint quality and consistency, while reducing the time it takes to make a joint and the
amount of filler metal needed. Using such
modified fittings is now permitted by the
NFPA-99:2012, Health Care Facilities, for
medical gas piping.
Brazing Dimpler Corp.
www.brazingdimpler.com
(336) 674-0600
Online Library Highlights

Product Information
flat bar/plate shear, coper, notcher, and

angle shear with an optional round and
square shear available. The twocylinder/two-person operation enables the
punch and shear ends to operate separately,
independently, or simultaneously. Featured
is an adjustable stroke length of up to 9 in.,
a ram size of up to 3 in., and adaptability to
accept oversized and special tooling. Special capacity optional features are available
to increase machine capability.
The online literature library, located

at www.eriez.com/Resources/literaturelibrary, is a comprehensive collection of all
the companys product information, available in electronic format. The online library is part of Eriez Orange University, through which the company offers
all its educational resources. Registered
users have access to more than 150 materials, available for immediate download
in PDF format, including corporate literature, product brochures, flow charts,
resource guides, and parts lists.
www.kalamazoometalmuncher.com
(269) 492-0268
Eriez
www.eriez.com
(888) 300-3743
Weld Blanket Made of Soft

Carbon-Fiber Material
The companys lightweight and flexible weld blankets provide protection from
welding and grinding sparks, molten and
hot metal debris, and torch cutting spatter. Constructed with a tear-resistant, soft
carbon-fiber material, the blankets can
withstand heats up to 1800F, and are useful on surfaces that cannot have an abrasive material cover, such as automobile
surfaces, glass, upholstery, plastics, electronic components, and leather. The
product is stock sized at 80 72 in. and
packaged in a reusable container.
Goffs Enterprises, Inc.
www.goffscurtainwalls.com
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WELDING JOURNAL
31
Paper Supports Analytics

for Workplace Safety
their workplace program. The paper reveals results realized by companies employing the practice within their safety
functions, and summarizes research conducted in the development of powerful
safety analytics and prediction models. A
free download of the white paper is available at www.predictivesolutions.com/
making-the-case-for-predictive-analyticsin-workplace-safety.
Predictive Solutions Corp.
www.predictivesolutions.com
(800) 991-3262
Two Speed Control Options

Available for Overhead Lifts
The company has released a new white

paper, Nate Silver, Billy Beane, and Alex
Trebek: Making the Case for Predictive
Analytics in Workplace Safety. It is a resource for those who want to learn how
leading safety professionals are making
the case to employ predictive models in
Extended Speed Range has been developed for high-duty applications in the
steel industry where near capacity loads
are routinely lifted. It uses inverter technology to allow increased hoist speed for
light loads. This allows users to return
empty hooks to position or move smaller
loads with more speed and efficiency.
Adaptive Speed Range automatically
varies the hoist speed according to the
load. For full-capacity loads, it forces a
slower, more deliberate speed. Moderate
loads can be moved with additional speed,
while light loads are afforded more speed.

Designed for applications where highcapacity lifts are performed less frequently, it uses a compact motor.
Konecranes, Inc.
www.konecranesamericas.com
(877) 363-1895
Symex Star-TracIII
Digital Gouging System
C.H. Symington & Co., Inc. is proud to introduce

the Symex Star-Trac III. The Star-Trac III brings
a number of new innovations to the powerful
Symex line of gouging torches.
A new automatic air-valve is now available.

So now you have a choice, either a manual
air-valve or the automatic air-valve.
A new aluminum clevis is lighter, with increased
clamping power.
A Hand-Held 3-switch remote with your choice

of cable lengths is also available.
Both the Star-Trac II & III are available in
operational voltages of either 110 or 220v.
Both units are CE approved and ROHS compliant.
Total weight of system is: 28 lbs. 3oz.

(less travel system).
You can view a video of the torch
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Website: www.CHSYMINGTON.com
32
APRIL 2013
Collection System Provides

High-Volume Dust Control
Two Manufacturers Launch

New Web Sites
vide tabs at the top of every page to allow

visitors to navigate easily between the two
sites, and include product information,
technical support sections, and pressrooms featuring technical articles and case
studies. The Web sites feature online
GMAW gun configurators to customize
semiautomatic or robotic guns to exact applications. Additional features include
tradeshow and event information, downloadable product literature and manuals,
how-to guides, and spec sheets.
Following the recent announcement of

branding migration, Bernard and Tregaskiss launched new Web sites. Both pro-
www.bernardwelds.com, www.tregaskiss.com
(800) 946-2281, (877) 737-3111
quency drive blower modulates fan speeds

and reduces total in-use power consumption while maintaining the required static
pressure. Units offer air flow levels from
600 to 6800 ft/min.
Airflow Systems, Inc.
www.airflowsystems.com
(800) 818-6185
Bernard, Tregaskiss
The DC Series provides high-volume

collection and filtration of airborne dusts
generated during bulk material processing and packaging operations. Constructed with seam-welded panels, it eliminates filter bypass and the escape of dirty
air back into the facility that may occur
with bolt-on panel construction. The direct-drive motor/blower design eliminates
drive belt replacement. The variable fre-
WELDING JOURNAL
33
Selecting the
Right Gun
for GMAW
Choosing the right welding gun for

the job results in reduced operating
costs, higher-quality welds, and
enhanced welder satisfaction.
C onsidering these options can

help you select the right gun,
contact tip, and diffuser for
each operation
hether the setting is shipbuilding,

construction, or heavy fabrication, selecting the proper gun for
the welding application is critical to the fabricating process. Not only should welders
keep in mind the upfront cost of the gun,
they also need to consider its associated
costs over time. Welders need to consider
their personal preferences, as well as the
guns total cost of ownership, including replacement parts, and expected service lifespan. Selecting the right gun may save the
user significant time and money in the long
run.
Current and Duty Cycle

When selecting a welding gun, first consider the type of metal that will be welded
and its thickness. These factors affect the
amperage necessary to make the weld.
Choose a gun with an amperage rating that

matches the needs of the application and is
compatible with the power source that will
be used.
Theres no advantage to using a gun
rated at a higher amperage than is needed
to make the weld. For example, dont purchase a 500-A gun to perform a 350-A application Fig. 1. If the gun amperage rating is higher than required, the welder
likely will end up with a heavier gun that
leads to additional operator fatigue, or one
that is too bulky for the workspace, complicating the task at hand.
Once the proper amperage is determined, a welder can determine the guns
necessary duty cycle, i.e., how long it can
run continuously in a 10-min cycle.
If the gun will be used in semiautomatic
applications, a 60% duty cycle is most commonly used and should be sufficient; how-
BY BOB THAYER
BOB THAYER is product
manager, industrial equipment
and welding guns, at
The Lincoln Electric Co.
(www.lincolnelectric.com),
Cleveland, Ohio.
Fig. 1 By selecting the appropriate amperage gun for the application, you can avoid unnecessary bulk, weight, and welder fatigue. A high-amperage gun is shown.
WELDING JOURNAL
35
Fig. 2 Tip threads with a flattened profile increase the minimum cross-sectional
area where heat concentrates and tips
tend to fail.
ever, for robotic welding, it is preferred
to select guns rated up to 100% duty
cycle.
Another factor affecting the guns
duty cycle is the type of shielding gas
used. As indicated, many semiautomatic
guns are commonly rated at 60% duty
cycle when used with CO2 shielding gas.
Some high-capacity designs are rated at
100% duty cycle with CO 2. However,
when mixed gases containing argon are
used in the application, the same guns
amperage rating is decreased at a given
duty cycle.
Also, more common in automated applications, the question of air-cooled vs.
water-cooled guns or torches must be addressed. In short, water-cooled torches
have the capacity to run cooler and be
lighter in weight, but their cost can be
more than double that of an equivalent
air-cooled gun with the same duty cycle.
Expendable Parts Options

After considering amperage and duty
cycle, examine the guns replaceable
parts. These components degrade over
time from the heat, spatter, and wear during normal welding operations, so their
lifespans will affect the cost of gun ownership over time. Parts that last longer
tend to keep costs down.
When battling elements like heat and
wear, attention to detail in design can
make a lot of difference. First, you might
start by closely examining the thread design of the contact tips and diffusers. For
better performance, select guns with tips
that have threads with a flattened profile
(Fig. 2), increasing the cross-section
where heat typically concentrates and
36
APRIL 2013
Fig. 4 Consider using a bottleneck nozzle (shown above) for welding in close
quarters.
Fig. 3 Contact tips with more mass improve heat dissipation and extend part
service life.
tips tend to fail. This construction leads

to reduced melting, fusion, and seizing,
and extends contact tip service life. Examples are the Anti-Seize tips and diffusers in the Lincoln Electric Magnum
PRO line. This characteristic helps to reduce both replaceable part and labor
costs, while increasing a welders time
with a usable arc.
Next, consider the mass of the replaceable parts. Remember, within reason, the larger the contact tip, the more
heat it can withstand for longer periods of
time, giving it longer service life. Try to
choose contact tips with a larger mass
Fig. 3.
Third, the type of alloy used in the
contact tip affects both the heat and wear
resistance. For example, when welding
wire is fed through the tip, the hole can
become elongated or misshapen over
time if the material doesnt withstand
heat or wear well, resulting in improper
electrical contact and welding issues

caused by a wandering arc, discontinuities caused by dropouts, and other issues. While many contact tips are made
from various types of copper, some manufacturers have begun to market designs
containing harder materials. These
harder materials can withstand greater
heat, last longer, and resist elongation
and wear at the contact tip.
Welders should also consider their application when selecting the proper nozzle. Since there are many different nozzle
types, shapes, and sizes, choosing the best
match for the application can make a big
difference in performance. For instance,
for welding in tight spaces, use a nozzle
that is longer and more tapered Fig. 4.
The conical shape permits easier accessibility into tight places. In addition, some
manufacturers offer expendables that position the contact tips slightly outside of
the nozzle to allow even greater access to
tight areas.
Expendable parts with higher amperages ratings are larger in size and mass to
allow them to withstand more heat and
have a longer life. However, the larger
size makes them more difficult to use in
tight spaces. So dont choose expendable
parts with higher amperage ratings than
is necessary for your application.
Flexibility of the expendable parts is
also important. Some gun manufacturers
use different front-end expendable parts
Manufacturin
Manufacturing
uring
Fig. 5 Some welders prefer to use a gun with a barrel- or broomstick-style handle.
Personal Preferences
Fig. 6 Diffusers are commonly available in thread-on or slip-on models. A

thread-on model is shown.
for each gun model or group, requiring

the welder to maintain a larger inventory
of parts. For ease of use, its better to select a gun design that requires fewer sets
of expendable parts that can be used
across all gun models. This single-source
approach makes it simpler to manage
shop inventory, and there are fewer contact tips, nozzles, and diffuser parts to
track, understand, stock, and order. Also,
handling fewer parts also helps prevent
operator error, as using the wrong expendable parts for a gun could result in
poorer welding results and increased
costs from rework.
Finally, while many welding consumers focus on the initial cost of the
gun, its also critical to consider the cost
of the guns front end expendable or consumable parts, as they will comprise the
bulk of the gun cost on an annual basis.
Since most manufacturers have variability within the product range, select a
product line that provides expendables
with long life and compatibility with all
gun models in the line for the greatest
cost savings.
Since welders must handle the welding guns for long periods of time during
the work day, its important to consider
their comfort levels and preferences
when selecting a welding gun, as these
factors can affect the workers weld quality and efficiency.
For instance, some welders prefer a
curved, more ergonomically designed
handle that aligns with the shape of the
hand. Sometimes, these handles are
lighter weight to reduce fatigue.
Other welders prefer the barrel- or
broomstick-style handles Fig. 5. This
shape offers more grip positions and has
a smaller diameter that some welders
find more comfortable than the curved
style.
Welding gun consumers should also
consider which type of construction is
best for their application: thread-on, in
which nozzles are screwed into the gun;
or slip-on (Fig. 6), in which the expendable parts are pressed on and held in
place with an O-ring.
Simplifying Maintenance
Maintaining a welding gun also affects
the cost of ownership. The guns are routinely subjected to significant damage
from the effects of high heat and physical
impacts incurred during normal use.
Choosing a gun family with a simplified
design will help make maintenance
easier.
When choosing a welding gun, it is important to do your research. In order to
obtain all of the elements necessary to
weld, and ensure that they work well together, you typically have to select one
manufacturer. Take time to study your
options, then select the manufacturer
that offers high-quality products and
a wide array of options to meet your application, performance, and operator
preference needs.
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WELDING JOURNAL
37
Alabama Trains Workers at

WorldClass Robotics Center
Fig. 1 The Phase I building at the Robot

ics Technology Park. The facilities are all
goldrated LEEDcertified buildings.
The Robotics Technology Park is a unique

collaboration between government,
education, and robotics/automation
equipment manufacturers
here can you find a manufacturing line where all of the worlds
major robot and automation
brands communicate with one another
and work together on the same line? At
the state of Alabamas Robotics Technology Park (RTP) in Tanner, a small town
in north Alabama close to Huntsville
Fig. 1.
That manufacturing line includes
seven different brands of robots, three
brands of vision systems, and three
brands of programmable logic controllers (PLCs).The robotics and automation facility is part of the states ef38
APRIL 2013
forts to provide highly skilled workers

that will help attract new industry to Alabama as well as retain the businesses already there.
The RTPs mission is to provide a
highly trained, highly skilled, and educated workforce for automation and robotics, to assist public and private entities in developing new robotics systems
and technologies, and to promote the
creation, growth, or expansion of companies through innovative technology
solutions.
Former Alabama Governor Bob
Riley, a major proponent of the RTP,
BY MARY RUTH JOHNSEN

MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
(mjohnsen@ aws.org) is editor
of the Welding Journal.
chose the 93-acre site in Tanner, Ala.,

across the street from Calhoun Community College. The RTP is a collaboration
between the state of Alabama, Calhoun
Community College, AIDT (a division of
the Alabama Dept. of Commerce that
aids economic development through jobspecific training), and robotics industry
leaders across the United States.
Were here to satisfy the needs of industry, explained Ronnie Smith, AIDT
assistant director North Alabama. I
cant stress that enough.
The training comes at no cost to Alabama students and businesses.
The RTP facility and its partnerships

are all components of what is being called
Accelerate Alabama. Key aspects of
Accelerate Alabama, Smith said, are as
follows:
Recruitment: Attract new business and
industry to the state.
Retention: Keep and expand existing
business and industry.
Renewal: Focus on job creation through
innovation, entrepreneurship, research
and development, and commercialization.
Three Phases
The process for building the Robotics
Technology Park began in 2007. Project
Manager Rick Maroney came on board
in late 2008, and the grand opening of
the Phase I building was held in November 2010. The RTPs first class occurred
in January 2011. Since that time,
Maroney said, more than 600 students

have attended classes and more than
2600 people have toured the building.
Governor Rileys vision was that 400
students a day would go through here on
tours, Smith said. The hope is that tours
will encourage middle- and high-school
students to aspire to careers involving robotics and automation, and also educate
parents on the benefits of their children
becoming involved with manufacturing.
The design of the RTP calls for three
training facilities each targeted at specific needs. So far, two buildings have
been completed. Once Phase III is constructed, the state will have invested approximately $73 million in the site, including the robotics equipment. The attractive facilities are all Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) certified with a gold rating.
LEED buildings are designed to do the
following:
Lower operating costs and increase

asset value
Reduce waste sent to landfills
Conserve energy and water
Be healthier and safer for occupants
Reduce harmful greenhouse gas
emissions
Qualify for tax rebates, zoning
allowances, and other incentives.
Phase I
The Robotic Maintenance Training
Center, which was the sites first phase,
offers 60,000 sq ft under roof. It includes
a high bay that features the 80-ft-long
manufacturing line and workcells containing robots from a variety of manufacturers Fig. 2. The building also includes office space, conference rooms,
and general classrooms as well as space
dedicated to robot and PLC training, and
a well-equipped welding lab in which stu-
Fig. 2 The 80ftlong

manufacturing line in the
Robotic Maintenance
Training Center features
robots from seven different
manufacturers.
WELDING JOURNAL
39
dents can practice both manual and robotic welding Fig. 3. A mezzanine allows visitors to view the workcells and
manufacturing line above the high bay.
A flat-screen television located in the
mezzanine shows a program that introduces each robot and gives each ones attributes Fig. 4. During tours, the automated carts that carry items around the
line play Sweet Home Alabama Fig. 5.
We try to keep products here that are
used by industries in the state of Alabama, explained Maroney.
The sites robotic partners include the
following:
ABB
Cloos
Fanuc
Kawasaki
Kuka
Mitsubishi Automation
Motoman
OTC Daihen
Staubli.
The following PLC vendors have
products at the site:
Mitsubishi Automation
Omron Electronics, LLC
Rockwell Automation.
In addition, the RTP is partnered with
nearly 30 other companies, including
Fronius USA, Lincoln Electric, Airgas,
Miller Electric, Tregaskiss, Smith Equipment, Kay Safety, and RoboVent.
We encourage our vendors to use the
facility, Maroney said. The vendors say
there is no other facility like it in the
world, and we believe that is true.
Both general and vendor-specific
training is offered. Classes are offered
weekly and occur Monday through Friday for eight hours each day.
General classes are offered in the following categories:
Robot maintenance training
Programmable logic controller training
Fig. 6
Robot training, including robotic welding, basic robot operations, basic programming, assembly/disassembly
Fig. 7
Safety
Manual welding.
Smith said no more than two students
at a time from one company can sign up
for a general class. This is to prevent a
particular industry or company from
dominating a class. However, companies
can request special classes in order to
train larger numbers of their employees.
Vendors can also schedule groups to train
on their particular products.
The RTP has a nine-member staff of
six instructors, including Maroney, and
40
APRIL 2013
Fig. 3 Students at work in

the facilitys weld lab. Students can
learn both manual and robotic welding
in the lab.
Fig. 4 As each element of the manu
facturing line is activated during tours,
a flatscreen television shows a
program that introduces the robots and
gives information about what they do.
Fig. 5 During tours, these

automated carts move to the strains of
Sweet Home Alabama.
Fig. 6 A PLC class. These courses are held in classrooms

dedicated to a particular manufacturer.
Fig. 7 Students learn to program a small Motoman robot with

a teach pendant.
Fig. 8 The Advanced Technology Research and Development

Center contains four suites Alabama companies can use. Rollup
doors open to the outside test area.
Fig. 9 Companies can test products on this milearound circular

track.
three support personnel. Everyone here

has to multitask tremendously, Maroney
said. Each instructor is responsible for
two different brands of robots.
Basic, intermediate, and advanced
classes are offered. The RTP staff teaches
basic classes, and the vendors provide the
more advanced training.
Phase II
The Advanced Technology Research
and Development Center, the sites second phase, features 43,000 sq ft of space.
It is designed as a test facility for companies currently using robots for manufacturing. It contains four self-contained
suites companies can use for research,

development, and testing of products
being built with automation and robotics Fig. 8. Thus far, it has housed both
industrial and military projects. Space
outside the building, including a nearly
mile-around circular track (Fig. 9), is
available for testing products.
The only cost for a company to use the
Research and Development Center is to
pay one-fourth of the buildings utility
costs.
Phase III
Not yet built, but well in the development phase, is the Integration and En-
trepreneurial Center. As described in the

RTP brochure, the Phase III center will
be a collaborative consolidation of technology involving higher education and
industry. This facility will allow companies to build and adapt robots for new industries. Start-up plants will be able to
set up manufacturing lines to integrate
software and equipment, test systems,
and train maintenance and production
staff.
In other words, once this building is
constructed, companies will be able to
set up manufacturing lines and work out
all the bugs before installing them in their
plant. In additon, they will be able to train
their employees ahead of time and have
WELDING JOURNAL
41
them ready to work as soon as those same

manufacturing lines are installed.
Beyond Phase III
A fourth phase, which was not in the

original plans, related to dispensing
paints and coatings, is under discussion,
Maroney said. I dont know when or if
this will happen, but customers are asking for it.
In addition, a mobile unit is under
contruction that will contain both robots
and PLCs. The mobile unit can be used
in both education and industry settings
either to provide on-site training or as a
recruiting tool. Potential students who
dont have the opportunity to visit the
Robotics Technology Park could still be
exposed to what it has to offer through
the mobile unit.
Smith said another push is to connect
with educational entities throughout the
state of Alabama. He believes the RTP
could collaborate with high schools, community colleges, and universities on a variety of programs. Students could take
the academic portion of a program at
their home school and travel to the RTP
just for the robotic/automation training.
This would allow the other educational
institutions to offer a wider variety of
programs without having to incur the cost
of the specialized equipment and instructional personnel. In addition, students
from north Alabama wanting to enroll in
programs at the AIDT Maritime Training Center in Mobile could, for instance,
do some of their welding training at the
RTPs weld lab, then travel to Mobile
just for the more specialized maritime
training.
Recently, an AWS Certified Robotic
Arc Welding (CRAW) cell built by OTC
Daihen was installed in the Phase I building. Maroney said he plans for the facility to eventually offer CRAW training
and testing and for the weld lab to become an AWS Accredited Test Facility.
Both Maroney and Smith are pleased
with what has taken place at the RTP thus
far, and are excited about what the center still in its infancy can offer in
the future.
Change of Address?
Moving?
42
APRIL 2013
Make sure delivery of your Welding

Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address information (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
How to Maintain
Your GMA Gun
To achieve long-lasting performance out of
your gas metal arc gun, inspect its liners,
tips, and other essential components
hen the gas metal arc welding

(GMAW) arc becomes erratic,
should the operator adjust the
power source? Not necessarily.
If the voltage and wire feed speed values currently used previously worked
well, and if the correct shielding gas and
flow rates have been selected, worn
components are likely at the root of the
problem.
Liners, tips, and other gun components need routine inspection to ensure
consistent GMAW performance. Good
maintenance also prevents rework, eliminates unplanned downtime, and maximizes gun life.
The following maintenance practices
apply to most brands of guns. However,
before working on a gun, review the operators manual and follow appropriate
safety precautions to prevent burns or
electric shock.
Cleaning Liners
Erratic GMA performance occurs
when excessive friction causes the electrode to stick or slip. When wire feed
speed slows, yet voltage remains constant, the electrode will melt back from
the weld pool more quickly and produce
an erratic arc. One of the most common
culprits is a gun liner that has become
clogged with wire shavings and other particulates
Operators everywhere should get in
the habit of blowing out the liner with
compressed air when installing a new
spool of wire Fig. 1. For GMAW systems with a high arc-on time, operators
44
APRIL 2013
might consider blowing out the liner

more frequently (experience will dictate
the need).
How rapidly a liner clogs varies
greatly. Overtensioning the drive rolls on
flux cored electrodes can clog a liner
quickly. Electrodes exposed to the elements, especially humidity and salt air,
can quickly clog a liner, as can a poor
quality electrode. Different electrode
manufacturers use different drawing
compounds and substances to coat and
finish the electrode. As a result, some
clog liners faster than others sometimes in half a spool or less.
To keep liners cleaner longer, consider installing cleaning pads during the
next scheduled maintenance. Use good
cleaning pads and secure them properly,
otherwise bits of the pad may clog the
liner.
For a clearer indication of particulate
volume inside the gun liner, place a sheet
of paper or cardboard under the gun to
provide better contrast. If the arc is erratic and blowing out the liner reveals
only small amounts of particulate, the
liner is worn and should be replaced. For
example, in the Tweco test lab, using a
brand of 116-in.-diameter ER70 S-6 electrode, applying these guidelines, we most
frequently replace the liner after two 60lb spools.
Replacing Liners
To replace a liner, remove the old
liner, lay the new liner next to it on the
floor, and cut the new liner to the exact
same length Fig. 2. A liner that is too
BY ROSS FLEISCHMANN
ROSS FLEISCHMANN is a senior brand
manager at Victor Technologies
(www.victortechnologies.com),
St. Louis, Mo.
short can interfere with feeding performance and lead to an erratic arc. Further,
if a void exists between the liner and diffuser, it could create a spot that traps the
wire and leads to a birds nest.
When trimming the new liner, use a
sharp, premium quality side cutting tool
Fig. 3. To produce a clean cut, place
the cup side of the cutting tool against
the liner and orient the device so that it
cuts against the curl of the liner. Cutting
with the curl tends to produce a burr on
the inside edge of the liner, where it could
drag against the wire.
Never use dull cutting tools to trim a
liner. Rather than cleanly cut through the
tough piano wire used for liners, they will
most likely deform the liner and/or
spread out the coils. Never use a cutting
disc as it can leave a sharp edge that drags
against the electrode and creates shavings. Should the cut liner have a burr, use
a hand file to remove it. Otherwise, discard it and try again.
As with any mechanical system, dont
use excessive force when installing a new
liner. If the liner hangs up, twist it in a
counterclockwise direction so as not to
uncoil the liner. If the liner doesnt fit,
the liner could be too long (in which case,
trim it) or it could be bent. If the liner is
bent, discard it, as a bent liner can promote erratic feeding.
Some gun models use small screws to
keep the liner from twisting. Do not remove or discard those screws. First, if the
liner twists independently from the gun
cable, it can increase or decrease the
length of liner relative to the length of
the gun cable. Second, an absent screw
Fig. 1 Blow out liners when installing

a new spool of wire.
Fig. 2 To simplify liner stocking,
companies running several models of
guns can use a universal conduit
liner. These two-piece liners feature
a liner crimped with a threaded wire
guide and adapters to make it
compatible with most guns.
Fig. 3 Trim liners using a sharp side
cutting tool. To avoid creating a burr,
cut against the curl of the liner using
the cup side of the device.
may permit shielding gas to escape

through the hole instead of the diffuser,
which may lead to insufficient gas coverage or excessive gas flow to compensate
for lost gas.
Spatter and Tips,

Nozzles and Diffusers
The GMA process, especially short
circuiting transfer, inherently produces
spatter.
A percentage of operators feel compelled to knock spatter off by banging the
gun on the welding table or workpiece.
Banging the gun doesnt do much to remove spatter, but its a great way to
loosen component connections at the
front of the gun. Dont bang the gun.
Use whelpers, a nozzle reamer, or
even an old pocketknife to remove spatter from the nozzle and contact tip. If
spatter has adhered to the contact tip to
the point where it cant be easily removed, discard the tip rather than deform
the orifice trying to remove spatter.
Note that the spatter from a welltuned arc is finer and easier to remove
(and antispatter dip or spray will also
help) Fig. 4. Large spatter balls may
indicate the need to further fine tune parameters, or perhaps your base metal has
excessive mill scale or oil.
Spatter also finds its way into gas diffuser ports. Inspect the diffuser for spatter, remove the spatter, or replace the diffuser if necessary. Caution: Do not remove the nozzle and lay a live gun on the
welding table. The gas diffuser is electrically hot. If the trigger is accidentally activated, electricity will take the path of
least resistance through the diffuser,
WELDING JOURNAL
45
Fig. 4 Antispatter compound can

minimize the effects of spatter and
extend consumable life.
Fig. 5 When storing contact tips,
keep them in a plastic bag or plastic
bin. Storing them in anything metal
can quickly lead to galvanic corrosion
and ruin them.
causing damage. In addition, note that

the diffuser threads are prone to damage
if a gun is left sitting around with the diffuser threads exposed.
Contact Tips
Contact tips should be replaced when
the operator can observe wear inside
them. Drop-in style contact tips can be
rotated 90 deg to extend service life.
Threaded contact tips should be wrenchtight to ensure good conductivity.
When welding at higher amperages
and holding a tight arc, the electrode becomes preheated almost to the contact
tip. There, the tip acts like a kiln; the electrode drawing compound, shavings, and
particulates fuse into a sludge. As sludge
builds, the tip narrows inside, eventually
causing the electrode to bind, creating
an erratic arc or even a meltback. In such
situations, change the tip more frequently.
Note that the elemental composition
and grain structure of a metal directly affects its electrical and thermal conductivity, as will a parts design and machining tolerances. As such, use premium
quality contact tips to help ensure consistent GMA performance Fig. 5.
lem). Worn insulators should be replaced, as loose connections may lead to

gas leaks, poor conductivity, or excessive
electrical resistance, all of which will
manifest themselves as arc instability or
porosity.
Some diffusers and conductor tubes
have O-rings, which should be inspected
and replaced if worn. Inspect all threaded
connections for wear or damage and replace if worn.
Insulator, Diffuser, and

Conductor Tube
Gun Handle and Trigger
As insulators repeatedly heat and cool

over time, they can lose their volume, and
the connection between them and the gas
diffuser and/or conductor tube becomes
wobbly (and using the gun as a chipping
hammer greatly exacerbates the prob-
These components can take an incredible amount of use and abuse and
rarely need maintenance, other than
checking to ensure the screws in the gun
handle are secure Fig. 6. Triggers do
sometimes become magnetized, attract
46
APRIL 2013
metallic dust, and cause contactors to

close prematurely or the trigger to stick.
In this case, replace the trigger.
There is a contingent of old-school
welders who bend the contactors inside
the trigger to reduce the distance the trigger travels before it engages the welding
machine. They prefer this hair trigger
to reduce hand fatigue. Gun manufacturers cannot endorse such unauthorized
modifications. A better solution, and one
which doesnt involve altering the gun,
would be to use a wire feeder with trigger hold control or a power source with
4T capabilities for GMAW.
Cables
Inspect the gun and work clamp cables daily to ensure the cable jacket is
Fig. 6 Periodically check the

screws on gun handles to ensure that
they remain tight.
Fig. 7 Never tape a cut cable, as
that is insufficient protection against
shock. Always replace damaged
cables with new ones.
power source, or in a position where it

places excessive stress on the area just
past the gun handle. In shops that get
cold overnight, the once warm gun cable
may have cooled in a kinked position
that, at a minimum, can be a pain to use
until it warms up again.
Also, while guns can weld with the
cable tied into a knot, why place excessive stress on the system or risk binding
the wire and/or a birds nest? Keep the
gun cable relatively straight when welding, and coil and hang it properly at the
end of the day.
Feeder Connection
free from cuts that could expose copper

wiring and lead to electrical accidents.
As displayed in Fig. 7, replace never
tape or otherwise repair any cut cable.
Otherwise, the risk from shock is too

high.
When done welding, dont drape the
gun over the edge of the welding table,
Periodically inspect the O-rings on the

feeder connection; replace worn O-rings
to prevent shielding gas leaks. Avoid
dropping the back end of the gun, as the
power pin on some models is especially
susceptible to deformations that hinder
wire feed performance.
When reconnecting the gun to the
wire feed system, push it all the way in
and lock it in place with the set screw.
Check this connection every week or so,
as loose connections lead to a voltage
drop that especially impacts advanced
processes, such as modified/enhanced
short circuiting transfer and pulsed
GMAW.
Gun maintenance procedures follow
common sense guidelines to ensure consistent GMAW performance and maximum uptime. Maintaining components
that cost just a few dollars and a couple
of minutes to replace is a much better
choice than grinding out a bad arc start
or unplanned downtime in the middle of
a shift.
WELDING JOURNAL
47
A Perspective on Welding Engineering

EducationConfessions of a PhD
Who Can Actually Weld
A researcher and educator offers
his opinions on the challenges of
welding education today
Prof. Adonyi started as a welder in Romania where he earned his BS in Welding Engineering at the Timioara Polytechnic University. He emmigrated to Israel and
restarted his career as a welder. He studied
for his MS in Material Science at the Technion in Haifa. After moving to the United
States, he received his doctorate from The
Ohio State University.
his personal opinion paper deals

with some perceived, as well as
real, contradictions between education vs. training in teaching, accreditation vs. certification, engineering vs. engineering technology, and teaching vs.
research. These thoughts come from 17
years of experience as the Welding/Materials Joining program coordinator at
the School of Engineering, LeTourneau
University, and are intended for welding
educators, instructors, and the public.
Introduction
As more manufacturing jobs return to
the United States and the American
Welding Society tries to address the
welder shortage by improving the image
of welding, it appears that there is a need
to change the essence of welding first.
This can mostly be done by better teaching at every training and educational
level and creating scientific breakthroughs by well-taught and educated engineers and scientists.
However, because teaching (instruction) often involves vocational training,
48
APRIL 2013
education is sometimes confused with

training. Similar misunderstandings persist in the welding community between
accreditation and certification, practical
training vs. theoretical teaching, and so
forth. This paper attempts to clarify some
of these contradictions and propose a
harmonious approach to improving the
quality and essence of welding, not only
its image.
This is a very personal perspective on
the topics discussed, and the hope is that
these thoughts will not hurt anybodys
ego, but instead will spark a healthy debate in the welding engineering community, and new solutions will be found to
these long-lasting contradictions.
Education vs. Training

In teaching and improving professional competence, I believe that education should not be confused with training, as they address different aspects in
developing the welding professionals our
country needs. The etymology of the
word education clarifies the difference.
According to Websters Dictionary (Ref.
BY YONI ADONYI
YONI ADONYI, PhD, P. E., Prof., Omer
Blodgett Chair of Welding and Materials
Joining Engineering, LeTourneau
University, Longview, Tex.
Based on the Plummer Lecture,

delivered Nov. 13, 2012, Las Vegas, Nev.
The Plummer Lecture was dedicated
to the memory of my wife and best
friend for 41 years, Anne Marie
Adonyi, who was an accomplished
artist. Several of her sketches
and paintings inspired by weld
microstructures illustrate the text.
1), the word comes to us from the Latin

educare, meaning to rear, to lead
forth, to draw out something of potential
or latent talent. It can also mean to persuade or condition to feel, believe or act
in a desired way. The implication is that
education can be practiced at home, and
in primary, secondary, and postsecondary
schools. Education shapes the mind and
character of students and might also involve training.
On the other hand, the etymology of
training is rooted in the vulgar Latin
word traginare (Ref. 1) and means to
undergo instruction, discipline or drill.
Websters also defines training as the
act, process or method to impart knowledge or experience to acquire or to teach
as to make fit, qualified, or proficient.
This teaching type refers to a particular
set of skills.
All this does not mean that one is better than the other, it just means that education is more comprehensive than
training in teaching a subject. For example, if applied to the culinary arts, training means to teach someone to cook by
following recipes, while education is
Anne Marie Adonyi, Chatting Women,

copyright BeauxArtsbyAni@. This is how
a heat-affected zone seen in an orientation imaging microscope became a work
of art.
equivalent to cultivating in someone the
talent to create new recipes and write
cookbooks, even when not all ingredients
are available. It is clear that the cooking
industry could not work without good
chefs and line-cooks working well
together.
Applied to the welding industry, this
differentiation shows that well-educated
welding engineers and scientists need
well-trained technicians and operators to
do their jobs. On the other hand, confusing the roles can potentially cause serious problems in our industry. Imagine a
world where welders are trying to design
new products without knowing calculus
and differential equations, and welding
engineers trying to make good welds on
production lines after having only welded
3040 hours in their entire lives. In reality, we need each other, but will have to
better understand our roles. As someone
who has experienced both training and
education, I will continue to be part of
the solution and bring harmony between
the educated and the trained.
Accreditation vs. Certification

In the same way education differs
from training, accreditation is different
from certification, yet the two terms are
often used in the wrong context.
The word accreditation comes from
the Latin word for Accredere, meaning to give credence to (to believe, a set
of fundamental beliefs), or to give official authorization, to provide with credentials (Ref. 1). This process is applied
to educational institutions in order to
recognize maintaining standards that
qualify graduates for admission to higher
institutions of professional practice. In
the United States, the Accreditation
Board of Engineering and Technology
(ABET) is the recognized body that pe-
riodically reviews compliance at universities. The maximum length of ABET accreditation is six years to ensure that the
programs maintain high quality educational standards.
The word certification comes from the
Latin word Certus, or certain and
means to attest authoritatively as, to attest as being true or as meeting a standard. Websters also adds the meaning
to testify to the truth or genuineness of
something applies to a written statement, carrying signature and seal. In our
field, the Certified Welding Inspector
(CWI) program comes to mind, as certified by a professional organization,
the AWS.
As an example, LeTourneau University is accredited by SACS (Southern Association of Colleges and Schools) and
the engineering program is accredited by
ABET, hence we do not issue certificates,
but diplomas. On the other hand, the
AWS, Sysco, Linux, etc., issue certificates, but not diplomas. It should be obvious that university programs cannot be
certified and training programs cannot
be accredited. Yet, terms such as Caterpillar University or ESAB University
are being used, making the above distinction difficult to the public. At the same
time, terms such as Certified Welding Engineers become questionable, as they
imply a mix between education and training at the national level.
Currently, the only legal way an educated engineer can become certified on
a state-by-state basis is the Professional
Engineer (PE) registration. This requires
passing the Fundamentals of Engineering comprehensive exam and completion
of five years minimum work experience
as an Engineer in Training under the supervision of an experienced PE.
Engineering vs. Engineering

Technology
Another concept that needs explanation is the four-year Engineering Technology Bachelor of Science degree, which
is often misunderstood, and its graduates
considered technicians by some employers. Note that this degree can also be accredited by the Engineering Technology
Accreditation Committee (ETAC), administered by ABET.
An excellent review paper on the subject (Ref. 2) showed that more than 75%
of engineering technologists perform engineering job functions. Nevertheless,
some companies have a ban on hiring engineering technologists because they consider engineering technologists glori-
fied technicians, a fact that cannot be

further from the truth. In the case of LeTourneau University, the Engineering
Technology program had been an excellent safety net for those engineering students who could not master advanced
math and science classes, but learn well
by application of scientific principles.
A special recognition note is needed
here on the recently ABET/TAC accredited Engineering Technology program at
Ferris State University. Although this
program is mostly focused on the automotive industry needs, its growth and delivery of high-quality education during
the past decade has been spectacular.
Theory vs. Practice in

Education and Training
The above description of Engineering
Technology (learn by doing teaching paradigm) and Engineering (learn by applying fundamental scientific principles paradigm) brings up a basic question: how
important is it to have practical knowledge (training) in order to practice engineering (education)?
The obvious answer is very much
so. Being comfortable with using
dangerous and difficult manufacturing
processes such as thermal cutting, brazing, and welding is very important for engineers to understand process capabilities and limitations. Moreover, they become appreciative of the skilled welders
performance, and attempt to make their
work safer and easier by introducing automation and robotics, as well as by designing for easier use of the equipment.
However, overemphasizing the role of
practical experience can be detrimental
to the career of a welding engineer. Repeating the same welding exercise many
times may improve skill, but will not further scientific knowledge.
Accordingly, only two of those who
went through ten-plus years of welding
practice were able to graduate from Le-
Anne Marie Adonyi, Volcano. Inspired by

epitaxial growth macro in a titanium
bead-on-plate weld.
WELDING JOURNAL
49
Anne Marie Adonyi, Angel Coming, copyright BeauxArtsbyAni@. Inspiration provided by a two-sided, partially penetrated
butt joint weld macrostructure.
Tourneaus Engineering Technology program in the past 17 years. In my experience, those who dropped out after one semester or two were put off by the difficulty of science and math classes, and by
not seeing the relevance in their understanding basic principles of welding
(which they mistakenly thought they already understood at a phenomenological
level).
Therefore, I believe that the level of
academic rigor should be strengthened
at the two-year community college level,
mostly by sending instructors back to
school or by providing them with highquality training material, instead of commercial propaganda received from their
donors. One such nationally accepted
program exists already, the National Excellence in Materials Joining Engineering and Technology (NEMJET) program
developed in the late 1990s under an NSF
grant by Ohio State, Edison Welding Institute, and AWS.
Teaching vs. Research

A different, but difficult contradiction
faced by academics and practicing engineers alike is how to handle teaching and
research at the same time. These activities require a different set of talents and
have different customers. Yet, I believe
50
APRIL 2013
the two activities are complementary, and

an effort should be made by each individual to balance them in their lives.
The reality of academic life in search
of tenure is that raising external funding
and publishing peer-reviewed papers remain the basic criteria for evaluating faculty in tenure reviews. The so-called publish-or-perish expression reflects this reality, when teaching is often neglected by
young faculty in order to remain employed
and receive tenure, whereby consequently
more and more, sometimes repetitive and
irrelevant papers are published.
On the other hand, welding practitioners do not typically understand this
reality academics face and treat papers
from the Research Supplement of the
Welding Journal with mild disgust. Accordingly, the chasm between the scientific elite in our industry and the majority of welding professionals tends to
deepen, with many practitioners being
even unaware of the existence of Technical Paper Sessions during the annual
welding exhibition at FABTECH.
With so many contradictions and misunderstandings facing welding engineering education and training, a few suggested solutions to these problems follow.
Proposed Solutions
With less than 30% of welding engineers being graduates of specialized programs at four universities as of 2012 (The
Ohio State University, LeTourneau University, Ferris State University, and
Weber State University) (Ref. 3), there
is a need for training engineers going into
welding from different areas such as mechanical, electrical, materials, and industrial engineering. This training is already
being successfully performed at EWI, at
AWS conferences, etc., but is fragmented
by different industry groups such as nuclear, shipbuilding, etc.
It seems that a more standardized
training should be made available for engineers through the AWS using distance
learning. Free copies of the NEMJET
teaching modules developed in the 1990s
by AWS/EWI/OSU should be made
available to qualified instructors. However, The Ohio State University still
holds the copyright on these NEMJET
modules and a purchasing license is
costly. Therefore, very few people use
these excellent teaching materials. If
these modules would be made available
for free, they could greatly aid in teaching correct concepts. Waiving licensing
fees on these modules for community college instructors would improve their re-
sources and reduce the knowledge gap

between two- and four-year programs.
Finally, more face-to-face exchanges
between the above communities are encouraged during the welding exhibition
at FABTECH. Perhaps the AWS Foundation would sponsor a formal dinner on
Sunday or Monday night of the show,
with a well thought out program that
would initiate collegial conversations between instructors of all levels of education and training.
Conclusions
This paper attempts to clarify terms
and apparent contradictions relevant to
welding engineering from a national as
well as an international perspective and
35 years of professional experience in the
field. These clarifications are intended
to harmonize different groups involved
in teaching welding and open a candid
conversation about future cooperation.
As long as instructors do training and
leave education to professors, there will
be less misrepresentations detrimental
to the welding industry overall. It would
also be beneficial to have training seminars for educators to help improve thier
self-confidence when facing practical
problems.
At the same time, the current chasm
between welding practitioners and scientists should be bridged through intentional efforts such as seminars, meetings,
visits, tours, etc., perhaps under the sponsorship of the AWS Foundation. Finally,
free use of the NEMJET modules by all
levels of college and universities would
greatly improve teaching at two- and
four-year colleges.
Acknowledgments
There are too many mentors and inspiring professionals whom I would like
to thank here. However, one stands out
as a pillar of intellect, mental strength,
and encouragement for me, Dr. W. A.
(Bud) Baeslack III, my PhD advisor at
The Ohio State University, now Provost
at Case Western Reserve University.
References
1. www.merriam-webster.com
2. Land, Ronald. 2012. Engineering
technologists are engineers. Journal of
Engineering Technology, pp. 3239.
3. AWS Internal Survey, 2003.
4. www.annemarieadonyi.com
Fume Extraction Guns:

Understanding the Basics
Presented is an overview of
how fume extraction guns
operate, including their
applications, and various
maintenance tips
Along with various variables in welding operations,

fume extraction guns can help companies maintain
compliance with safety regulations and create a
cleaner, more comfortable welding environment.
ew industry standards from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and other
safety regulatory bodies have been developed in recent years with one specific objective in mind: to help protect employees against potential health hazards in the
workplace.
These regulations, which dictate allowable exposure limits of welding fumes and
other particulates (including hexavalent
chromium), have led many companies to
invest in fume extraction equipment. An
increased desire to maintain optimal

welding operator safety and to attract new
skilled welding operators to the field is
also a consideration in investing in this
equipment companies want to create
the most comfortable and healthy work
environment possible.
Some companies may opt for centralized fume extraction systems, which are
designed to protect the entire shop area.
These systems involve installing new ductwork and fans to remove fumes and are
highly effective, but they are also more ex-
pensive than other systems and may not

be the right choice for every company.
For those companies with applications
in particularly confined spaces, other options may be more appealing in particular, the use of a fume extraction gun in
conjunction with a localized filtration
system.
Fume extraction guns are available in
a variety of amperages, cable styles, and
handle designs. As with any welding
equipment, they have their advantages
and limitations, best applications, and
BY DAN WEIMER DAN WEIMER is an engineering lab technician at Bernard (www.bernardwelds.com), Beecher, Ill.
WELDING JOURNAL
51
Fig. 1 A fume extraction gun, as shown

here, operates by capturing the fume
generated by the welding process right at
the source, over and around the weld pool.
maintenance requirements.
In combination with many other variables in welding operations welding
wire selection, specific transfer methods
and welding processes, welding operator
behavior, and base material selection
fume extraction guns can help companies
maintain compliance with safety regulations and create a cleaner, more comfortable welding environment.
The Basics of Fume

Extraction Guns
Fume extraction guns operate by capturing the fume generated by the welding
process right at the source, over and
around the weld pool Fig. 1.
Various manufacturers have proprietary means of constructing guns to conduct this action, but at a basic level, they
all operate similarly: by mass flow, or the
movement of material. This movement
occurs by way of a vacuum chamber that
suctions the fumes through the handle of
the gun, into the guns hose through to a
port on the filtration system (sometimes
informally referred to as a vacuum box)
Fig. 2. The welding fumes that these
guns remove are composed of a combination of the filler metal and base material.
Some fume extraction guns feature adjustable extraction control regulators at
the front of the gun handle, which allow
welding operators to increase suction as
needed (without affecting shielding gas
coverage), while others provide this function internally. Regardless of the manner,
the ability to balance between the downward flow of shielding gas and the upward
flow of the suctioned air is critical. The
fume extraction gun needs to provide the
appropriate amount of shielding gas to
protect the weld from discontinuities such
as porosity, without sacrificing the ability
to suction fumes efficiently enough to protect the welding operator. The balance allows the weld pool time to react and solidify, and gives the fume particles time to
decelerate so they are easier to extract.
Typically, fume extraction guns are
52
APRIL 2013
larger than regular welding guns and tend

to be bulky due to the vacuum and hose
necessary to extract the fumes. For that
reason, some manufacturers create fume
extraction guns with a vacuum hose swivel
on the rear of the handle to make them
easier to maneuver. Manufacturers have
also, since fume extraction guns were first
introduced (in the late 1960s and early
1970s), found ways to engineer internal
components to minimize the handle
weight in order to reduce operator fatigue.
Applications, Advantages,
and Limitations
Fume extraction guns are well-suited
for applications using solid welding wire
and those in confined spaces. These include, but are not limited to, applications
in the shipbuilding and heavy equipment
manufacturing industries, as well as general manufacturing and fabrication. They
are also ideal for welding on stainless steel
applications, as this material generates
greater levels of hexavalent chromium,
and on mild and carbon steel applications.
The guns also work well on high amperage and high deposition rate applications
and are available, typically, in 300 to 600
A ranges.
For the best results, fume extraction
guns should be used for in-position welding, such as on flat butt joint welds. In this
position, they can most effectively capture
fume particles as they rise from the weld
pool. In out-of-position welds, the energy
of the fume particles causes them to rise
at a high rate, making it more difficult for
the fume extraction gun to draw them
downward and through the vacuum hose.
One distinct advantage to fume extraction guns is that they remove the fumes at
the source, minimizing the amount that
enters the welding operators immediate
breathing zone. However, because welding operators typically move the gun away
from the weld pool after completing a
pass, the fume extraction gun is not as able
to control residual fume as well as a fume
extraction hood can.
Maintenance Tips
As with any piece of welding equipment, fume extraction guns benefit from
preventive maintenance. Caring for them
is similar to caring for a standard gas metal
arc welding gun.
Regularly check for tight connections
throughout the length of the fume extraction gun to ensure good electrical flow.
Minimizing electrical resistance helps
ensure consistent weld quality and prevent premature failure of the front-end
consumables contact tip, nozzle, and
diffuser.
Frequently inspect the nozzle and contact tip for signs of spatter buildup, as such
buildup can obstruct shielding gas flow
and cause weld defects that ultimately will
need to be reworked. Spatter buildup can
also cause consumables to fail prematurely. Replace the consumables if spatter buildup appears or clean them according to the manufacturers recommendation. In some cases, the shroud that surrounds the nozzle may also have to be replaced or cleaned free of spatter.
To ensure optimal fume extraction capabilities, inspect the vacuum hose regu-
Fig. 2 Fume extraction guns attach to a localized filtration

system, as shown here. Fume removal occurs by way of a vacuum
chamber in the fume extraction gun that suctions the fumes
through the handle of the gun, into the guns hose through to a port
on the filtration system.
larly for damage, including cuts or kinks that could lead to loss of
suction. Replace a damaged vacuum hose as necessary and dispose of it according to the manufacturers and/or an industrial
hygienists directions.
Visually inspect the handle for cracks or missing screws, and
also check that the guns trigger is not sticking or otherwise malfunctioning. Replace or repair these components as necessary.
Finally, maintenance on the liner is also important. Use compressed air to clear out any potential blockages during welding
wire changeovers or when removing the wire from the gun. Spending an extra few minutes clearing out any debris from the liner
can save considerably more time than troubleshooting the weld
defects and equipment problems that can result from blockages.
Also, track the amount of time that it takes for a liner to wear
during the course of the welding operation. In the future, replace
the liner prior to that to prevent downtime for replacement during shifts or problems with wire feeding or quality.
When in doubt about maintenance or any other aspect of using
a fume extraction gun, consider working with a trusted welding
distributor, certified industrial hygienist, and/or the fume extraction gun manufacturer to address any questions or concerns.
Proper use of this equipment can help provide optimal results,
and improve the safety and comfort of the welding environment.
C315/350
Manual
Cold Saw
Simple
hinge-type
construction
Ideal for
prototype and
low volume work
Two-speed spindle
(30 & 60 rpm)
Heavy-duty drive
3.5 hp TEFC motor
Sliding double vise assembly for precision,
burr-free cutting
Totally enclosed transmission
6700 Quality Way
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269-321-8860
Fax: 269-321-8890
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WELDING JOURNAL
53
Should You Add

Thermal Spray to Your
Welding Course?
BY RICHARD S. BRUNHOUSE,
PETER FOY, AND DALE MOODY
RICHARD S. BRUNHOUSE,
PETER FOY, and
DALE MOODY (dalermoody@aol.com)
are with Plasma Powders and
Systems, Inc., Marlboro, N.J.
54
APRIL 2013
Because of their many

commonalities, it makes
sense to add an introduction
to thermal spray segment to
introductory welding classes
Thermal spray in a welding curriculum? Youve got to be kidding. What

does a coating technology have to do
with a joining technology?
While its true there are differences,
the terms used with regard to thermal
spray are the same as in gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) where a gun is used
and a continuous electrode (wire) is
employed, and there are many commonalities between welding and thermal spray. In fact, the American Welding Societys mission statement reads:
The Mission of the American Welding Society is to advance the science,
technology, and application of welding
and allied joining and cutting processes
worldwide, including brazing, soldering, and thermal spraying. To solidify
and strengthen that mission, the 65year-old International Thermal Spray
Association (ITSA) became a Standing
Committee of AWS January 1, 2012.
Thermal spray and welding share
identical OSHA issues: personal protection from fumes, acoustics, heat,
light, etc. They also use the same energy sources: acetylene, propane, hydrogen, and electricity. Both use heat
to melt or soften and combine materials. Part manipulators can range from
a simple lathe to an eight-axis
robot/turntable system. Also, welding
and thermal spray require similar
chemistry skills along with similar math
skills for calculating deposit rates, efficiencies, etc.
Thermal spray is an essential partner to welding technology. Think about
the welding of galvanized piping for a
highway overpass or schoolyard fencing. Anytime you see rust stains on the
adjacent concrete, it could mean the
welding did not provide the corrosion
barrier needed and that the welded
area should have been oversprayed
with zinc to protect it from the
environment.
Think about the purpose of an Introduction to Welding course. Isnt it

to give the student some idea as to the
various types of welding or the different fields that welding can be successfully used in, or to give architects/engineers some idea as to the different
techniques available to enhance their
designs? Certainly, thermal spray
should be included in the joining and
surfacing technology the student is exposed to and will consider using.
History and Background

During the past 30 or so years, thermal spray has undergone many technological advances, including thermal
barrier coatings for high-performance
jet engines and gas turbines, porous ceramics for prosthesis bonding, and specialty stealth coatings for military applications to name just a few. As with
any new technology that has competing processes, choosing the right one
is dependent on what worked in the
past and whether or not there is time
to look for a new alternative.
While thermal spray should be promoted as a technology career move, it
is often overlooked. An Internet search
for Job Corps welding locates a detailed U.S. Job Corps document that
promotes welding as an advanced
manufacturing career pathway and
details the various subject areas covered, stating the eligibility requirements and an explanation of the credential offered. On the other hand, an
Internet search for Job Corps thermal
spray pulls up the U.S. governments
Careeronestop page describing a
certified thermal spray operator program that is no longer active.
The Thermal Spray Society has
been the leading source for thermal
spray technical information for many
years. Most of the information weighs
An equipment training class at Plasma Powders in New Jersey. Adding a thermal spray segment to introductory welding classes could require as little as an hour of class time.
toward the technical reasons a coating

will perform in a given way based on a
given set of circumstances. Many times
it is still necessary for a thermal spray
shop to develop its own methods for applying this knowledge to its business segments. Contrast this omission to the AWS
mission where the application of technology is emphasized. Accentuating this
point, the AWS C2 Subcommittee on
Thermal Spray is more geared toward the
application of the technology.
Present Situation
An Internet search for welding training results in listings for many local
schools offering various welding programs. Contrast that to the results of a
search on thermal spray training. That
search yields listings of training programs
in India, China, England, and Switzerland; few are in the United States. It is
obvious that much more is needed to help
individuals discover that thermal spray
can be a wise career move.
In preparation for this article, Plasma

Powders and Systems, Inc., conducted a
survey of its customer base. The intent
of the survey was to characterize the thermal spray training presently available and
to identify where needs existed. The results were interesting. For example,
More than 90% of the companies responding to the survey rely on their
own, in-house training. In other words,
everyone is doing their own thing.
Thermal spray training obviously lacks
uniformity.
More than 80% of the companies use
multiple forms of thermal spray, usually including wire arc, along with
plasma, followed by combustion wire,
combustion powder, and high-velocity
oxyfuel (HVOF). Therefore, any training needs to cover multiple thermal
spray processes.
Most companies indicated a critical
need for operation and maintenance
training with some need for laboratory
and shop management. A smaller number indicated a need for specialized
training for military or medical thermal spray operations.

One shop representative expressed
frustration regarding seeking out trained
individuals. Very difficult to find employees with skills needed to become
spray operators. We understand that
there are very limited numbers of experienced operators available, but its difficult to even find workers with basic
skills in the trades. Another noted there
is a need for training on the basics regarding surface preparation, handling,
grit blasting techniques, and masking
techniques. These are issues similar to
those found in welding operations.
Future
As a start, thermal spray needs to be
included in Introduction to Welding
classes. A section on thermal spray during the introduction to welding would introduce the student to thermal spray terminology, the equipment involved in the
process, and aspects concerning quality
control, certification, and the cost of the
WELDING JOURNAL
55
various alternatives. If nothing else, welders need to understand

the principles of thermal spray since they could be working right
next to a thermal spray operator, or they may be one and the
same at some point in their careers.
As mentioned previously, there are many common areas between these two technologies. There should not be a need for
separate courses on safety, OSHA standards, basic math, etc.
Therefore, the curriculum for Introduction to Thermal Spray
can be limited to a definition of unique terminology and an
overview of areas where thermal spray is being used, followed
by a discussion of the various thermal spray systems and associated equipment, ancillary equipment, and conclude with a summary of inspection and quality control techniques. The following outline presents a curriculum that might be adopted as part
of an introduction to welding class.
1. Thermal Spray Overview (what it is)

2. Terminology
3. Applications
Around the Home
Automotive
Medical
Aerospace
Energy
Industry
Agriculture
Mining
Military
4. Processes (with comments on the gun, material feed, and power control, along with relative
startup and operating costs)
Combustion Powder
Combustion Wire
Electric Arc
Plasma
HVOF
High-Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF)
5. Ancillary Equipment
Manipulators
Turntables
X-Y Units
Robots
Hoods and Rooms
Dust Collectors
Safety Systems
6. Quality Control
Porosity
Bond
7. Process Specification
8. Operator Qualifications
The last point, Operator Qualifications, is an important issue

for most thermal spray shops. Having a program format that allows for uniform training and qualification of their knowledge
and skill is important. AWS C2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray Operator Qualification, has been in existence for a long time and is
56
APRIL 2013
currently being updated to include the latest thermal spray

processes and techniques. It is, in a way, similar to the certification program for welders. This is just a start.
Consider the following standards related to the certification
programs for welding:
QC1, Standard for AWS Certification of

Welding Inspectors
QC4, Standard for Accreditation of Test
Facilities for AWS Certified Welder Program
QC5, AWS Standard for Certification of
Welding Educators
QC6, AWS Standard for Certification of
Welding Technicians
QC7, Standard for AWS Certified Welders
QC13, Specification for the Certification
of Welding Supervisors
of Welding Sales Representatives
of Radiographic Interpreters
QC17, Specification for AWS Accreditation of Certified Welding Fabricators
QC19, Specification for AWS Certification
of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel
Eventually, equivalent certifications could be available for

thermal spray operators if industry demanded such programs.
It is possible that some of these existing specifications could be
adapted to thermal spray by replacing welding with thermal
spray and making a few other, minor changes. Both industry
and the training institutions would support this effort if there
was an obvious demand for certification, and it met the economic model for such a program to be instituted.
For now, it is recommended that an Introduction to Thermal Spray segment be added to all Introduction to Welding
classes. This can be completed with fewer than 60 Power Point
slides, and require less than one hour of class time. There are a
number of thermal spray suppliers that already have material
available. For example, Plasma Powders and Systems has a
generic presentation that it has made available to trade schools.
It can be requested at info@plasmapowders.com.
What you can do as an educator or a student is request that
thermal spray be included in the welding curriculum of your
trade school.
For more information, What Is Thermal Spray? is a free
publication from the International Thermal Spray Association.
To obtain copies, just send an e-mail with the quantity required
and mailing information to itsa@thermalspray.org.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Kathy Dusa, Joe Stricker,
and Gerald Uttrachi for their contributions to this article.
COMING
EVENTS
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
[MC]2 2013 MTConnect: Connecting Manufacturing Conf. April

10, 11. Hyatt Regency, Cincinnati, Ohio. MTConnect Institute.
www.mtconnectconference.org.
GAWDA 2013 Spring Management Conf. April 1517. Grand
Hyatt Hotel and Convention Center, River Walk, San Antonio,
Tex. Gases and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.
North American Steel Construction Conf. April 1719. St. Louis,
Mo. www.aisc.org/content.aspx?id=31134.
Society of Vacuum Coaters SVC TechCon 2013. April 2025.
Rhode Island Convention Center, Providence, R.I. www.svc.org.
AISTech 2013, Iron and Steel Technology Conf. and Expo. May
69, Pittsburgh, Pa. www.aist.org/aistech/.
INTERTECH 2013, Superabrasive Materials, Principles, and
Applications for the Aerospace and Defense Industries. May 68.
Hyatt Regency Baltimore Harbor Hotel, Baltimore, Md. Industrial Diamond Assn. www.intertechconference.com.
POWER-GEN India & Central Asia, Renewable Energy World
Conf. & Expo, and HydroVision India. May 68. Bombay Exhibition Centre, Goregaon, Mumbai, India. www.power-genindia.
com/index.html.
AWS Weldmex Show, FABTECH Mexico, METALFORM Mex-
12th Annual Great Designs in Steel Seminar. May 1. Laurel

Manor Conf. Center, Livonia, Mich. Sponsored by The Steel Market Development Institute. www.sasft.org/en/sitecore/content/Autosteel_org/Web%20Root/Great%20Designs%20in%20Steel.aspx.
ico. May 79. Cintermex, Monterrey, Mexico. Sponsors: American Welding Society, Fabricators and Manufacturers Assn, Intl,
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and Precision Metalforming
Assn. www.aws.org/show/weldmex2013.html.
JOM-17, Intl Conf. on Joining Materials. May 58. Konventum
Intl Thermal Spray Conf. and Expo. May 1315. Busan, Republic of Korea. Sponsored by ASM International. www.asminternational.org/content/Events/itsc/.
Lo Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. Institute for the Joining of Materials (JOM) in association with the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
TWI, Danish Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of
Australia, University of Liverpool, Cranfield University, Force
Technology, Brazilian Welding Assn. www.jominstitute.com/
side6.html.
Intl Conf. on Materials for Renewable Energy & Environment.

May 15, 16. Nanjing, China. www.mree-conf.org.
58
APRIL 2013
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awo.aws.org
Understanding
Understanding
Welding
Welding Symbols
Knowledge of weld joint terminology is essential for all levels of the welding design and production process. Use
of proper terms makes it much easier for welding personnel to communicate about various fit-up and welding
problems encountered during the fabrication process. A welding inspector
inspectors
inspecto
s ability to read and interpret welding
plans correctly is essential to properly inspecting a piece or part.
AWS
WS 2.4:2012, starting with a module on orthographic views, joint
This in-depth course walks the user through A
types, and weld types. Then the course dives into the various types of welds and clarifies the rules and usage of
welding symbols.
geometry,, groove welds, fillet welds, plug and slot welds, spot and
This self-paced course covers basic joint geometry
projection welds, and stud, seam, surfacing, and edge welds. Rounding out the seminar is a module on brazing
terms and symbols and non-destructive testing symbols. Interactive practice problems include an explanation of
each solution, and chapter quizzes will solidify the knowledge and prepare you for the proficiency exam.
The seminar is approximately 12 hours long and concludes with a final test.
Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/symbols
continued from page 58
IIE Annual Conf. and Expo. May 1822. Caribe Hilton, San Juan,
Puerto Rico. www.iienet2.org/annual2.
44th Steelmaking Seminar Intl. May 1922. Tau Grande
Hotel Termas & Convention Arax, Estncia Parque do Barreiro,
s/n Arax - Minas Gerais, Brazil. Held by Brazilian Metallurgical, Materials, and Mining Assn. www.abmbrasil.com.br.
LPPDE-Europe. June 35. Park Plaza Hotel, Amsterdam Airport,
Amsterdam, Netherlands. Lean Product & Process Development
Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to lppde@leanfront.com.
Pipeline Conf. June 4, 5. Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the American Welding Society
www.aws.org/conferences.
(800/305)
443-9353,
ext.
264;
Manufacturing Surabaya 2013. June 1215. Surabaya, Indonesia.

www.pamerindo.com/events/11.
18th Beijing-Essen Welding & Cutting Fair. June 1821. New International Expo Center, Shanghai, China. www.beijing-essenwelding.com/en/index.htm.
Codes and Standards Conf. July 16, 17. Orlando, Fla. To include
AWS D1, Structural Welding Code Steel, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, API pipeline codes, MIL specs and ISO standards. Sponsored by the American Welding Society (800/305) 4439353, ext. 264; www.aws.org/conferences.
Educational Opportunities
Brazing School Fundamentals to Advanced Concepts. April

1618 (Los Angeles, Calif.); May 1416 (Hartford, Conn.); Oct.
2224 (Greenville, S.C.); Nov. 1921 (Simsbury, Conn.).
www.kaybrazing.com/seminars.htm; dan@kaybrazing.com; (860)
651-5595.
CWI Preparation Courses: June 37, Aug. 1923, Nov. 1115.
D1.1 Endorsement: June 7, Aug. 23, Nov. 15; D1.5 Endorsement:
May 31, Aug. 16; API Endorsement: May 30, Nov. 8. All courses
and endorsements held at Welder Training & Testing Institute,
1144 N. Graham St., Allentown, Pa. www.wtti.com; (610) 8209551, ext. 204.
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. April 18, 19,
Hartford, Conn.; June 13, 14, Salt Lake City, Utah; Aug. 15, 16,
Chantilly, Va.; Oct. 17, 18, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Lyncole XIT
Grounding, www.lyncole.com/courses; education@lyncole.com.
Laser Vision Seminars. April 24, 25; May 22, 23; June 19, 20;
Aug. 28, 29; Oct. 2, 3; Nov. 6, 7; Dec. 4, 5. Servo-Robot, Inc.
www.servorobot.com.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. April 2325. Wall Colmonoy
Brazing
Engineering
Center,
Cincinnati,
Ohio.
wallcolmonoy.com; wcc@wallcolmonoy.com.
Robot Safety Training Seminars. April 9 (Apex, N.C.). Discusses
R15.06, Robot Safety Standard, and Robot Risk Assessment.
Robotic Industries Assoc. www.robotics.org.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. April 2325, Aerobraze
Engineered Technologies Brazing Engineering Center, Madison
Heights, Mich. Wall Colmonoy Corp., www.wallcolmonoy.com;
wcc@wallcolmonoy.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
61
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Fresno, CA
May 510
Miami, FL
May 510
Albuquerque, NM
May 510
Oklahoma City, OK
May 510
Corpus Christi, TX
May 510
Knoxville, TN
Exam only
Birmingham, AL
June 27
Hutchinson, KS
June 27
Spokane, WA
June 27
Miami, FL
Exam only
Bakersfield, CA
June 914
Pittsburgh, PA
June 914
Beaumont, TX
June 914
Corpus Christi
Exam only
Hartford, CT
June 2328
Orlando, FL
June 2328
Memphis, TN
June 2328
Jacksonville, FL
July 712
Omaha, NE
July 712
Cleveland, OH
July 712
Miami, FL
Exam only
Phoenix, AZ
July 1419
Los Angeles, CA
July 1419
Louisville, KY
July 1419
Waco, TX
July 1419
Milwaukee, WI
July 1419
Corpus Christi
Exam only
Sacramento, CA
July 2126
Kansas City, MO
July 2126
Denver, CO
July 28Aug. 2
Miami, FL
July 28Aug. 2
Philadelphia, PA
July 28Aug. 2
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

EXAM DATE
May 11
May 11
May 11
May 11
May 11
May 18
June 8
June 8
June 8
June 13
June 15
June 15
June 15
June 29
June 29
June 29
June 29
July 13
July 13
July 13
July 18
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 27
July 27
July 27
Aug. 3
Aug. 3
Aug. 3
Weld Smarter With

Total Welding Management
Order yours today: 888-WELDING (935-3464).

Outside North America: 305-824-1177.
Online: www.aws.org/standards
Order code: AWS TWM, $49.50
APRIL 2013
EXAM DATE
July 20
Sept. 28
Oct. 19
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)

SEMINAR DATES
EXAM DATE
LOCATION
Las Vegas, NV
May 610
May 11
Miami, FL
June 37
June 8
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The course dates are followed by the location and phone number
June 1721, Dec. 913 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
May 2024, Aug. 1923, Dec. 26 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
April 2226, July 1519, Oct. 2125 at

OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Drawing on more than 50 years

of welding experience, author Jack
R. Barckhoff, P.E., gives you a solid
step-by-step plan to manage your
welding operations for maximum
productivity and cost efficiency.
Specific recommendations and
real-life production examples
illustrate how your welding team
can realize productivity gains of 20 percent to 50 percent.
Total Welding Management explains the management
principles, structure, and details you need to transform your
welding operations from a cost center into a profit center. A
must-read for supervisors, managers, and executives who
seek to make their welding operations more efficient and
more productive. 185 pages, 35 figure, 20 tables, hardbound.
62
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)

SEMINAR DATES
LOCATION
Minneapolis, MN
July 1519
Miami, FL
Sept. 2327
Norfolk, VA
Oct. 1418
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Oct. 14 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Implementing the principles and

concepts in this book could save
you $15,000 to $25,000 annually
per welder.
American Welding Society 2006
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

(No exams given.) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to
meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam
can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Sacramento, CA
April 28May 3
Charlotte, NC
May 510
Pittsburgh, PA
June 27
San Diego, CA
July 712
Miami, FL
July 2126
WJS1235
May 20, July 22, Sept. 23, Nov. 18 at

Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer; Senior Certified Welding
Inspector Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules
Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be
assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates
by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html.
Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your
course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS
seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit
www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to avoid paying the
$250 Fast Track fee.
WELDING
WORKBOOK
Datasheet 256
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Torches

Water-Cooled Torches
A continuous flow of water through passageways in the holder cools a watercooled torch. Cooling water enters the
torch through the inlet hose, circulates
through the torch, and exits through an outlet hose Fig. 1. The power cable from
the power source to the torch is typically
enclosed within the cooling water outlet
hose to ensure that cool water reaches the
torch prior to cooling the power cable.
Water-cooled torches can be used at higher
welding currents on a continuous duty cycle
than similar sizes of gas-cooled torches. Typical welding currents of 300 to 500 A can be
used, although some torches are designed
to handle welding currents up to 1000 A.
Most mechanized or automatic welding applications use water-cooled torches.
Collets
Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of a typical water-cooled torch for manual GTAW.
The gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) torch holds the tungsten electrode, which conducts welding current to the arc, and
provides the means for conveying shielding gas to the arc zone.
Most torches can accommodate a range of electrode sizes and
various types and sizes of gas nozzles.
Torches are rated in accordance with the maximum welding
current that can be used without overheating. Most torches for
manual applications are designed with a head angle (the angle
between the electrode and handle) of approximately 120 deg.
Torches are also available with adjustable-angle heads, 90-deg
heads, or straight-line (pencil-type) heads. Manual GTAW
torches are often equipped with auxiliary switches and valves attached to the torch handles or a foot-controlled rheostat for controlling current and gas flow.
Torches for mechanized or automatic GTAW are typically
mounted on a weld head or carriage that centers the torch over
the joint. During welding, the joint can rotate under the arc or
the torch can move along the joint, and can automatically change
or maintain the arc length (torch-to-workpiece distance). Electrodes for gas tungsten arc orbital fusion welding are installed in
a rotor in the weld head that rotates around the joint circumference, maintaining a fixed arc length while the tube remains in
place.
Gas-Cooled Torches
The heat generated in the torch during welding is removed
either by gas cooling or water cooling. Gas-cooled torches (sometimes called air cooled) are cooled by the flow of the relatively
cool shielding gas through the torch. Gas-cooled torches are limited to a maximum welding current of about 200 A.
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, Part 1, ninth edition.

64
APRIL 2013
Collets are clamping devices that hold the

electrode in the torch. Appropriately sized
collets, also called chucks, hold electrodes
of various diameters in position. The collet body centers the tungsten in the torch and allows gas to flow around the collet and through
holes in the collet body and out the nozzle. Usually, collets and collet bodies are made of a copper alloy. Good contact between the
electrode and the inside of the collet and collet body is essential
for proper current transfer and electrode cooling.
Nozzles
Gas nozzles that fit onto the head of the torch direct shielding
gas to the weld zone. Also incorporated in the torch body are diffusers or carefully patterned jets that feed the shielding gas to the
nozzle. The diffusers assist in producing a laminar flow of the existing gas shield. Gas nozzles are made of various heatresistant materials in different shapes, diameters, and lengths. Nozzles may be made of ceramic materials, high-strength alumina,
metal, metal-jacketed ceramic, fused quartz, or other materials.
Ceramic nozzles are the least expensive and most popular, but are
brittle and must be replaced if cracked or broken.
Gas Lenses
An attachment called a gas lens ensures a laminar flow of shielding gas. Gas lenses contain a porous barrier diffuser and are designed to fit around the electrode or collet. Gas lenses produce a
longer, undisturbed flow of shielding gas and enable operators to
weld with the nozzle 25.4 mm (1 in.) or more from the workpiece.
This allows greater tungsten electrode extension beyond the nozzle. This improves the welders view of the weld pool and allows
the welder to reach places with limited access. Gas lenses maintain more effective shielding than standard gas nozzles.
BRAZIL WELDING SHOW

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Karen Vogelsang
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ESSEN
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SHANGHAI
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OCT. 2830, 2014

MUMBAI
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JUNE 2528, 2013

MOSCOW
ARABIA
JAN. 1013, 2015

DUBAI
Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2013. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2014
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS

Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
Nominations will remain valid for three years
All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifications, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they contributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
Inventions and patents.
Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
Contributions to handbooks and standards.
Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130
Doral, FL 33166
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013
CLASS OF 2014
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2013
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SCHOOL PROFILES APRIL 2013

Advanced Welding Institute
Founded 2003
Employers
Are you in need of
good welders?
Students
Are you searching for a
way to hone your skills?
Welders
Is it time to expand your
talents and knowledge?
Below are welding schools across the
country that have taken this advertising
opportunity to promote their resources
both to industry in need of welders and to
those searching for a solid career path to
employment. Contact them and take
advantage of the services they can provide.
We appreciate any ideas you might have for
making this welding school guide more
useful to you. Please send comments or
requests to be on our mailing list to
Rob Saltzstein at salty@aws.org. or Lea
Paneca at lea@aws.org. We will be sure
your school is on our mailing list and
e-mail list to receive advance information on
future Welding School Profile edition of
Welding Journal. Thank you.
Advanced Technology
Institute
ATI provides diploma and AOS degree
programs in the practical aspects of
construction and repair of equipment
and structures built with steel and
aluminum. Our staff is AWS, CWI,
CWE certified. We instruct all-position
welding in the four most common
processes: SMAW, GMAW, GTAW and
FCAW. Students will train in the use of
modern welding equipment and tools,
and learn basic metallurgy and blueprint reading. Students may test in
6G pipe certification in accordance
with AWS D1.1. ATI offers financial
assistance for those who qualify and
graduate employment services. Certified to operate by SCHEV in Virginia.
Advanced Technology Institute (ATI)

5700 Southern Blvd.
Va. Beach, VA 23462
(757) 490-1241
www.auto.edu
70
APRIL 2013
Advanced Welding Institute has been

training high school graduates and upgrading employees since 2003. We offer
a structural welding program (600 hrs)
and combination structural and pipe
welding program (960 hrs). Students
primarily focus on developing skills in
SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, and GTAW
with class sizes no larger then 20
students. Classes start in March and
September every year. In addition, we
perform specialized training to meet
individual and company needs. Financial
aid is available for those who qualify.
2 Green Tree Drive, Suite 3

South Burlington, VT 05403
(802) 660-0600
Fax: (802) 660-0689
www.awi.edu
AIDT
Maritime Training Center
The AIDT Maritime Training Center
(MTC) offers NCCER certified courses
in SMAW, FCAW, and GMAW
processes; pipe fitting; pipe welding; and
scaffolding. NCCER is an industry-wide
standard of training and recognition that
provides trainees with portable nationally
recognized credentials. Students who
complete these courses will receive a
NCCER official transcript and wallet
card, as well as an AIDT certificate.
MTC also offers courses in a variety of
crafts including nondestructive testing
(VT, MT, PT, UT), autoCAD, marine design, and ship constructor.
Albany Weld Trade School

Albany Weld Trade School was founded
in the last century by a Pilebuck, Millwright, diver, welding foreman who was
unhappy with the quality of welders he
was being supplied. Our state licensed
curriculum (Oregon #1712) trains
the students in AWS D1.1 structural
welding on both plate and pipe. We
train in SMAW and FCAW. Employers
want versatile welders so our graduates
are introduced to material handling,
OSHA forklift and sling inspections,
laser leveling and first-aid.
912 Old Salem Rd. NE

Albany, OR 97321
(541) 928-9353
Toll Free: (866) 928-9353
Tony McNeal, School Director
tony@weldschool.com
www.weldschool.com
Alfred State College

SUNY College of Technology
Founded 1908
Alfred State College offers welding

training on its Wellsville, N.Y. campus.
Earn an associate in occupational
studies
degree.
Employer-driven
curriculum teaches the skills needed in
todays workforce: oxyfuel, SMAW,
GTAW, GMAW, and pipe welding.
Program includes key support courses
such as metallurgy, blueprint reading,
and quality control. Benefit from AWS
Level I and II certification. Enjoy
small classes, tutoring and personal
attention. Customized courses available
for employers.
Hit the ground running!
360 Addsco Road

Mobile, AL 36602
(251) 405-8698
Fax: (251) 405-8699
maritimeinfo@aidt.edu
www.maritime.aidt.edu
www.aidt.edu/jobs
10 Upper College Drive

Alfred, NY 14802
(800) 4-ALFRED
admissions@alfredstate.edu
www.alfredstate.edu

American River College
Founded 1955
The Welding Technology degree provides

skills and knowledge in manual and semiautomatic welding processes used in the
metal fabrication and construction
industries. Instruction covers materials,
equipment, testing procedures, safety,
mathematics, and blueprint reading.
Competencies include techniques of
joining ferrous and nonferrous metals
by the use of shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW),
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and welding procedures. The American Welding
Society (AWS) nationally accredits American River Colleges welding program.
ARC has met all the requirements of the
AWS QC4 Standards for Accreditation of
Test Facilities for their Certified Welder
program. American River College is a
level II SENSE program.
4700 College Oak Drive

Sacramento, CA 95841
(916) 484-8354
ramos@arc.losrios.edu
www.arc.losrios.edu
Bellingham Technical College

Welding Rodeo
BTC's 11th annual team welded
sculpture competition and auction will
be held Friday and Saturday, May 17th
and 18th, 2013. The theme for 2013 is
"Small Works." This years event will
have 8 professional teams for the
sculpture competition that will be both
days, and it is by invitation only. The
amateurs will be able to compete in a
welding and cutting skills competition.
This competition is open to all students
and is free. Contact us for more
information or visit our website.
3028 Lindbergh Ave.

Bellingham, WA 98225-1599
(360) 752-8301
www.btc.ctc.edu or www.weldingrodeo.com
danderson@btc.ctc.edu
mkuebelbeck@btc.ctc.edu
Atlantic Technical Center
Brevard Community College
Founded 1973
Founded 1960
Atlantic Technical Center provides a

review for persons currently employed
in welding occupations who wish to take
an AWS test to become a Certified
Welder, or first time students who are
interested in learning advanced and
basic welding skills techniques. Shop
activities are an integral part of this
course and provide instruction to
develop skills in Industrial, Structural,
Aircraft, Marine, Petroleum and
Nuclear Welding. At the successful
completion of laboratory activities,
an AWS Welding Certification test
is available. Accredited by the
Commission of the Council on
Occupational Education.
4700 Coconut Creek Parkway

Coconut Creek, FL 33063
(754) 321-5100
Fax: (754) 321-5380
Contact: Frank Rose,
Welding Instructor, Ext. 3108
www.atlantictechcenter.com
Bellingham Technical College

Welding Technology Program
Brevard Community College, located

in the heart of the nations space coast,
offers a one and one-half year Welding
Technology certificate program. The
program provides the theoretical and
practical experience necessary to
develop a basic foundation in the skills
of welding, and is designed to train
students to become certified welders in
pipe and structural steel. AWS, ASME,
API and ANSI welding codes apply.
Graduates of the program will be
prepared for entry-level positions as
welders and are eligible to take the
AWS weld certification exam. As
always, OSHA industry standards will
be reinforced.
Mr. Kenneth Cox, Assistant Professor,

CWE/CWI
1519 Clearlake Road
Cocoa, FL 32922
(321) 433-7499
coxke@brevardcc.edu
www.brevardcc.edu
Founded in 1956
Bellingham Technical Colleges Welding

Technology Program offers AAS and
AAS-T degrees in certified welding and
fabrication for a vibrant community
of pipelines and Northwest Washington
refineries, ship building and repair,
transportation, and shops and fabricators. Our award-winning program is in an
80,000 sq. ft. state-of-the-art facility that
houses our 200 plus enrollment in
pipe welding, aluminum welding and
fabrication, steel fabrication, and
creative welding. Our Annual Welding
Rodeo Sculpture Contest is a one-of-akind experience for Amateurs and
professional artists throughout the
Pacific Northwest.
3028 Lindbergh Ave.

Bellingham, WA 98225-1599
(360) 752-8301
www.btc.ctc.edu or www.weldingrodeo.com
rjones @btc.ctc.edu
mhancock@btc.ctc.edu
Cal-Trade Welding School

of Modesto
Founded 1975
Cal-Trade Welding School of Modesto

has been operating since 1975. Using
the industry employers as a guide, we
teach SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, FCAW
and pipeline welding. Welding technique training is primary and students
are given one-on-one instruction. In the
20 week Combination Welding Course
students have the opportunity to earn
multiple certifications. Welding theory,
mathematics for welders, and blue print
reading are also offered. Lifetime job
placement assistance is available to
students after graduation.
424 Kansas Ave.

Modesto, CA 95351
(209) 523-0753
Fax: (209) 523-8826
WELDING JOURNAL
71

Central Piedmont
Community College
James Turner Institute of
Welding Technology
Butte-Glenn Comm. College
The Welding Technology program is
designed to produce qualified personnel
for certified welding jobs. Butte has modern and well-equipped welding facilities.
Program standards are in accordance with
the AWS Sense Program and follows
NCCER curriculum, ASME, and API
codes. Produces entry-level welding technicians qualified in the 6-G pipe position.
Large emphasis on SMAW, FCAW,
GMAW, GTAW, OAW, OFC, PAC and
AAC processes, in all positions using
various metals and alloys. Qualifications
earned in AWS, ASME, and API according to personal skill. PG&E Power
Pathway Gas Pipeline Welding
Capstone Program: The Pathway
specifically trains welders for potetial
careers within the petrochemical/natural
gas pipeline industry.
Founded 1963
CPCC offers welding training at its

Charlotte, N.C., Harper Campus. Earn
a certificate or Associate in Applied
Science Degree in Welding Technology.
Gain the skills needed for todays workforce: Oxyfuel, SMAW, GTAW, GMAW,
FCAW and more. We also offer support
courses in Metallurgy, Blueprint Reading, Quality Control, Non-destructive
Examination, Robotics and Automated
Welding at our AWS and NCCER
Accredited Testing Facility. We have a
student chapter of the AWS and an
active blacksmithing club.
PO Box 35009
Charlotte, NC 28235
(704) 330-2722
www.cpcc.edu/welding
CDA Technical Institute
Central Wyoming College

Central Wyoming College, located
in the beautiful Wind River Valley,
offers an employer-driven welding
curriculum designed to provide graduates with entry-level backgrounds in the
different aspects of welding. Central
Wyoming College welding students
receive rigorous hands-on training
in various welding and cutting processes
including oxyfuel, SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, GTAW, and pipe welding.
Students have a choice of earning a
credential, certificate or an associate of
applied sciences degree. Check out our
program at www.cwc.edu.
2660 Peck Avenue

Riverton, WY 82501
(307) 855-2119
www.cwc.edu
Darryl Steeds, (307) 855-2138
Admissions (800) 865-0193
Founded in 1995
3536 Butte Campus Drive

Oroville, CA 95965
Don Robinson, robinsondo@butte.edu
(530) 895-2469 Fax: (530) 895-2302
Chris Armitage, armitagech@butte.edu
(530) 895-2911 Fax: (530) 895-2302
Miles Peacock, peacockmi@butte.edu
(530) 879-6162 Fax: (530) 895-2302
Trevor Robinson, robinsontr@butte.edu
(530) 895-2360 Fax: (530) 895-2302
Calumet Welding Center

Calumet Welding Center provides
welder education and certification for
Northwest Indiana and the Chicagoland
area. Welding classes offered include
SMAW, GMAW, and GMAW-Spray
Arc, GTAW, FCAW, and blueprint reading. Our customized training programs
can focus on a companys specific needs
and accommodate diverse skill levels.
Instruction space is available for
corporate rental. In partnership with
an AWS accredited testing facility,
we offer certifications and procedure
qualification.
1947 N Griffith Blvd

Griffith IN, 46319
(219) 923-9353
info@calumetwelding.com
www.calumetwelding.com
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APRIL 2013
CDA Technical Institute is the only fully

accredited diver training program with
IMCA-recognized training, on-campus
housing, and a full meal plan. CDA offers
the most comprehensive and rigorous (20
weeks) program of all the accredited
commercial diver training schools. CDAs
graduates may earn certifications from
the Association of Commercial Diving
Educators, Association of Diving Contractors International, Diver Certification
Board of Canada (a truly internationally
recognized certification), National
Center for Construction Education and
Research, American Petroleum Institute,
American Welding Society, HazWoper
Environmental Training, National Board
of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical
Technicians, National Academy of
Scuba Educators, and National Registry
Emergency Medical Technicians. Call for
more details.
Allen G. Garber
Chief Administrative Officer
8137 North Main Street
Jacksonville, FL 32208
(888) 974-2232 toll free
(904) 766-7736
Fax: (904) 766-7764
www.cda.edu
CDA Technical Institute

Maritime Welding Program
CDA Technical Institutes maritime
welding program prepares graduates for
the exciting career of welding. This is a
program designed to provide graduates
with the skills they need to go to work
immediately. Our graduates are working
in all types of welding environments,
including in the shipyard, fabrication, industrial construction, and manufacturing
industries. We developed the curriculum
by working closely with the leading
companies in these industries. Unlike
traditional welding schools that teach
students how to weld in a booth, CDA
simulates the environment of a real
maritime welder with ship fitting, crane
operations, rigging, and offshore survival.
Our curriculum is associated with
NCCER, supports the AWS SENSE
guidelines, and is accredited by API to
ensure our students exceed employers
expectations. Call for more details.
Drew Duffy
Admission CDA Welding Program
Jacksonville, FL 32208
(888) 974-2232 toll free, (904) 766-7736
Fax: (904) 766-7764
www.cdawelding.com

Cosumnes River College
College of the Canyons

College of the Canyons, a Weld-Ed
regional partner offers training aligned
with AWS SENSE and certification
testing as an AWS Accredited Testing
Facility. Courses offered range from
metal fabrication to many of todays
most popular welding processes,
including robotic welding automation
and laser welding. Associate of Science
Degree and Certificates of Achievement awards are offered. Day and night
courses are offered with program
completion obtainable in less than
one year.
26455 Rockwell Canyon Road

Santa Clarita, CA 91355
(661) 259-7800
Email: tim.baber@canyons.edu
www.canyons.edu
Columbus State
Community College
Columbus State Community College,
located in Columbus, Ohio, offers individuals an opportunity to learn welding
and complete an Intermediate Welder
Certificate. This certificate provides
necessary credentials for entering the
workforce as an intermediate level
welder. Our Skilled Trades program
proudly participates as a Level II
S.E.N.S.E school, teaching SMAW,
GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, PAC, and oxyfuel processes. Certificate studies can
be completed in one year. Financial aid
and veterans benefits are available.
550 E. Spring St.

Columbus, OH 43215
Scott Laslo,
Program Coordinator
(614) 287-2653
slaslo1@cscc.edu
www.cscc.edu
Cosumnes River College offers a

hands on style welding certificate
program. Students can become certified
in SMAW, GMAW, FCAW and GTAW
processes. The advanced welding
courses offer AWS certifications in
ASME and AWS D1.1 code standards.
Graduating students can become a
certified welding operator, welding
inspector and shop supervisor for
construction
and
manufacturing
companies. The lead instructor, Jason
Roberts is an AWS CWE/CWI and
Federal OSHA Trainer.
For more information please contact:

Jason Roberts
(916) 691-7386
8401 Center Parkway
Sacramento, CA 95823
robertj@crc.losrios.edu
Cuesta College Welding

Technology
Founded 1965
Located on the central coast of California, the Cuesta College Welding Technology program has a strong history of
preparing students for work in industry.
Students are afforded the opportunity to
obtain Certificates of Specialization,
Certificates of Achievement and an
Associative Science Degree in welding
technology. Our curriculum is well
rounded with courses ranging from basic
welding through certification, as well as
courses in metallurgy, blueprint reading
and welding power. The shop facility
includes twenty multiprocess welding
stations with current power supply technology. There are a total of six part-time
instructors and one full-time instructor.
Two of our instructors are CWI's. Welder
qualifications are offered in structural
steel and pipe welding to AWS D1.1,
ASME Sec IX, and API 1104.
P.O. Box 8106

San Luis Obispo, CA 93403-8106
(805)546-3100 ext 2737
Rob Thoresen, rthorese@cuesta.edu
Dabney S. Lancaster
Community College
Founded 1967
Dabney S. Lancaster Community

College offers welding training on its
western Virginia campus. Employerdriven curriculum teaches the skills
needed in todays workforce: oxyfuel,
SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, and pipe
welding. Key support courses such as
metallurgy, blueprint reading, and
quality control. Benefit from free
qualification testing. Enjoy small
classes, free tutoring, and personal
attention. Customized courses available
for employers. Offering quality, affordable education, and training since 1967.
1000 Dabney Drive,

Interstate 64, exit 24
Clifton Forge, VA 24422-1000
(540) 863-2895
Email: mbryant@dslcc.edu
www.dslcc.edu
Divers Academy
International
Founded 1977
Divers Academy International offers

diving and welding training in a 5-month
program that provides the real-world
experience employers are looking for.
We use the latest equipment including
the Lincoln VRTEX 360, a virtual welding simulation training device. Students
train in our open water dive quarry,
developing expertise and confidence.
Our professional, comprehensive and
rigorous program includes complete
certification, career placement assistance, financial aid for those who qualify
and a student housing program.
Lakeside Business Park

1500 Liberty Place
Erial, NJ 08081-1139
(800) 238-3483
admissions@diversacademy.com
www.diversacademy.com
WELDING JOURNAL
73

Bill J Priest Institute
for Economic Development
El Centro College
Earlbeck Gases
& Technologies
Earlbeck Gases & Technologies as a
training partner with local community
colleges offers welding training in the
Baltimore/DC area. The fundamentals
course instructs in the basics of oxyfuel,
GTAW, GMAW and SMAW. Students
may then progress through intermediate and advance classes in SMAW,
GMAW or GTAW. Intermediate classes
offer certification testing in plate.
Advanced classes offer certification
testing in pipe. Customized and mobile
training is also available for employers.
Don Hodges
8204 Pulaski Highway
Baltimore, MD 21237
(410) 687-8400
Dhodges@earlbeck.com
www.earlbeck.com
Eastern Maine
Community College
Founded 1966
EMCC offers a comprehensive welding

program in Bangor, Maine. Students
may earn a diploma or associate degree
in welding or pipefitting technology
including metallurgy and QA/QC to
prepare them to successfully enter the
workplace. SMAW, FCAW, GMAW,
GTAW and cutting processes in both
structural and piping applications are
studied in a spacious training facility
equipped with modern welding
equipment. AWS testing facility offers
weld testing, welder certification,
and customized training to the public
and industry.
354 Hogan Road,

Bangor, ME 04849
(207) 974-4643
cmaseychik@emcc.edu
www.emcc.edu
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APRIL 2013
We prepare students for sustainable

careers in welding, machining, and
industrial maintenance through relevant
skills training that emphasizes versatility,
adaptability, and standards of excellence.
We offer the comprehensive resources
of a large, urban community college
coupled with the flexibility that you need.
Our open-entry, open-exit programming
allows you to start when you want and
choose the length and schedule of
your training plan. Our curriculum is
individually tailored so that advancement is based on demonstrated welding
proficiency through increasing levels
of competency at a pace that you
determine.
1402 Corinth Street

Dallas, TX 75215
Byron Zarrabi
(214) 860-5880
BZarrabi@dcccd.edu
Ferris State University

Ferris State University's nationally
recognized TAC-ABET Welding Engineering Technology program is the
largest of its kind in the United States.
Since its inception in 1984, the
program is designed to produce plantlevel welding engineering technology
graduates who are involved in the
concept, design and engineering of
weldments and implementation of
welding processes.
Welding Engineering Technology

915 Campus Drive, Swan 108
Big Rapids, MI 49307
(231) 591-3496
Jeff Hardesty, Associate Professor/
Program Coordinator
hardesj@ferris.edu
www.ferris.edu/welding
Harper College
Harper College offers an AAS degree in
Welding Technology and an AAS in
Advanced Manufacturing with emphasis
in metal fabrication. The College also
offers certificates in Basic and Advanced
Welding, Basic Pipe Welding, and
Welding Fabrication. Harper's program
prepares students to pass American
Welding Society Level I (Entry Welder)
and Level II (Advanced Welder) testing.
The College also provides custom
training in welding and fabrication for
employees of area businesses.
Kurt J. Billsten
Coordinator of Manufacturing
Technology
1200 West Algonquin Rd.
Palatine, IL 60067
(847) 925-6149
Fax: (847)925-6049
kbillste@harpercollege.edu
www.harpercollege.edu
Hill College
Founded 1923
Hill College offers comprehensive welder

training at its Hillsboro, Cleburne, and
Meridian locations. Students can choose
from several program options ranging
from Marketable Skills' awards to an
Associate of Applied Science degree.
Employer-driven curriculum covers
SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, pipe
welding, and blueprint reading. State-ofthe-art technology combined with handson curriculum give Hill College students
the experience to jump start their careers.
Hill College also offers continuing
education credits and customized courses
for employers.
Welding Department
2112 Mayfield Parkway
Cleburne, TX 76033
(817) 556-2809 ext. 201
Email: bbennett@hillcollege.edu
www.hillcollege.edu

Idaho State University
Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology
Founded 1930
Hobart Institute of Welding Technologys course catalog explains in detail

the wide range of welding classes and
certifications offered by Hobart Institute of Welding Technology. More than
25 separate welding courses are
described by course objective, content,
and testing requirements. Also inside
the catalog are course schedules,
training rates, and enrollment forms.
Training may be done at our
facility or yours. Also offered are
complete training programs including
DVDs, Instructor Guides, and
Student Workbooks.
400 Trade Square East

Troy, OH 45373
(800) 332-9448
FAX: (937) 332-5200
www.welding.org
Hutchinson Community
College/AVS
HCC offers Certificate, Associate in
Applied Science degrees and industry
training in welding technology. The program includes all welding processes, as
well as experience in fabrication and
manufacturing methods. The welding
and employability skills taught result in
excellent graduate placement, as well as
job opportunities while students pursue
their education. Morning, afternoon
and evening classes are available, with
multiple entry opportunities. Our locations include Hutchinson and Newton,
Kansas. Both locations feature newly
remodeled and expanded welding and
fabrication labs and classrooms.
1300 N. Plum
Hutchinson, KS 67501
(620) 665-3502
www.hutchcc.edu/weldit
fitzgeraldsd@hutchcc.edu in Hutchinson
(316) 273-7000
jensenl@hutchcc.edu in Newton
Idaho State University College of

Technology features a wide spectrum of
welding instruction. The focus of the
program is structural steel and full
penetration pipe welding with AWS and
ASME codes as the criteria. Processes
include GMAW, FCAW, SMAW uphill
and downhill applications, GTAW
carbon and stainless pipe; as well as
computerized orbital pipe welding. Our
approach to training is hands on over
the shoulder to prepare the students for
maximum opportunities in industry.
Related subjects include metallurgy,
trade math, pipefitting, blueprint
reading, mechanical drawing, and metal
layout. ISU offers a one-year structural
welding certificate, a two-year pipe
welder/pipe fitter certificate and
associates of applied technology.
Randy Humpherys
humprand@isu.edu, (208) 282-4473
Lucas Bloxham
bloxluca@isu.edu, (208) 282-3500
David Erickson
ericdav2@isu.edu, (208) 282-3500
Illinois Valley
Community College
Founded 1924
Illinois Valley Community College offers welding training and fabrication

classes. Over 200 students are trained
each semester in all the major welding
processes: SMAW, GMAW, GTAW,
FCAW, and oxyacetylene. Welding blueprint reading and metallurgy are also
taught. Two-year degrees are also offered in Production Welding and
Advanced Construction. IVCC is an
AWS accredited test facility and has 20
welding stations in a very modern lab
and a fully equipped fabrication lab.
The training helps prepare students to
pass nationally recognized plate and
pipe tests. Customized training is also
available to area employers.
Paul Leadingham
Welding Program Coordinator
815 N. Orlando Smith Road
Oglesby, IL 61348
(815) 224-0319
paul_leadingham@ivcc.edu
www.ivcc.edu
John Lopez Welding School

John Lopez Welding School trains
students who are seeking to excel in the
welding profession. Our objective is to
teach actual job practices used in
todays welding industry. All courses
include booth instruction, lecture, practice, and final exam. Training at John
Lopez Welding School may be
completed in approximately eleven
weeks (420 hours) covering welding and
fabrication. Welding certificates are
awarded to all successful graduates.
Approved to operate by the California
Bureau for Private Postsecondary
Education.
2925 Mosasco St #B
Bakersfield, CA 93312
(661) 588-3525
www.jlweldingschool.com
John Wood
Community College
Students at John Wood Community
College receive specialized training and
complete a welding certification in 16
weeks. JWCC graduates are ready to hit
the ground running, trained in the
latest welding techniques and soft
skills needed to be good employees
from day one. Courses include reading
and interpreting welding symbols
and blueprints, basic MIG and TIG
welding, commercial welding practices,
principles of welding safety, and basic
welding shop math.
John Wood Community College

1301 South 48th Street
Quincy, IL 62305
(217) 224-6500
mschenk@jwcc.edu
jwcc.edu
WELDING JOURNAL
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Kiamichi Technology
Centers
multicampus facility located in the
Southeast corner of Oklahoma
Secondary and post-secondary students

are trained in the process of SMAW,
FCAW, OFC, GTAW and GMAW
(carbon and nonferrous) in respect to
the AWS D 1.1, ASME Section IX, and
API 1104 codes. Our students receive
instruction in all areas with an emphasis
on structural, piping, oil and natural gas
pipe welding. Students are offered the
opportunity to take the State of Oklahoma welders test at the conclusion of
their training. Campuses are located at
Atoka, Durant, Idabel, McAlester,
Poteau, Spiro and Stigler.
www.ktc.edu
click on the link to the
respective campus
Lansing Community College

Founded 1957
Lansing Community College offers

an Associates Degree in Welding
Technology as well as a Certificate of
Achievement one year Degree in Welding. Our nine Welding Classes consist of
Basic Oxyacetylene, Brazing, Torch Cutting / Plasma Cutting and SMAW in our
1st course and the other courses advance
into the Advanced SMAW, Pipe Welding,
GMAW, GTAW, Structural Fabrication,
blueprint Reading, Rigging, and Metallurgy. We do customized training with
Industries. We have over 500 students
per year. Instructors are CWIs and instructors with many years of experience.
P.O. BOX 40010

Lansing, MI 48901-7210
(517) 483-1359
Fax: (517) 483-1320
Catherine Lindquist,,
Email: clindquist@lcc.edu
www.lcc.edu
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APRIL 2013
Lincoln Electric
Welding School
Mid-Plains
Community College
Founded 1917
Mid-Plains Community Colleges Welding and Machine Shop Technology is

offered at North Platte and McCook
campuses. The program is an openentry, open-exit program that leads to a
diploma or associate of applied science
degree and employment in the welding/machine shop field. Students will
progress according to his/her abilities
and efforts. Upon completion of a set
of prescribed technical competencies,
students will be able to perform skills
necessary to be successfully employed at
the entry level.
Learn to weld at the Lincoln Electric

Welding School. We have trained over
150,000 welders in many different
trades (Ironworkers, Boilermakers,
Pipefitters, and sheet metal). Learn to
weld with the latest technology in equipment and consumables, on different
base metals (carbon steel, stainless, aluminum and cr/mo) and all arc welding
processes (SMAW, GMAW, GTAW,
FCAW, SAW). Our instructors, have
real world experience in factory and
motorsports welding, including trackside welding at NASCAR, IRL and
NHRA events. We also offer jobsite
training.
22801 St. Clair Ave.

Cleveland, OH 44117
(216) 383-2259
www.lincolnelectric.com
Lynnes
Welding Training, Inc.
The School That Sparks
Your Future!
Founded 2006
LWT is a welding career school known

for its highly focused training approach.
They center on having over 85% of a
students training time directly in the
welding booth learning hands-on welding. The school also has an excellent
student to teacher ratio of 10:1 or less.
Courses are offered in GMAW, GTAW,
SMAW and pipe welding. LWT is for
students who wish to learn welding and
get ready for their future in welding in
12 weeks or less.
2717 3rd Avenue N

Fargo, ND 58102
(701)373-0658
4329 Centurion Dr. 9
Bismarck, ND 58504
(701)751-4257
www.LEARNTOWELD.com
1101 Halligan Dr.

North Platte, NE 69101
(800) 658-4308
info@mpcc.edu
www.mpcc.edu
Midwest Technical Institute

Midwest Technical Institute is an accredited, full time, year-round technical
school offering training in mechanical
trades and allied health programs. MTI
was founded in 1995 and started off as a
pipe welding school. Entering our 18th
year of operation, MTI now has six
campuses across Illinois, Mississippi, and
Missouri. All of MTIs programs are
less than one year and are certificate
programs. MTIs welding program
focuses on carbon and stainless steel pipe
welding. Financial aid assistance and job
placement assistance are available to
those who qualify. Visit MTI on the web
at www.midwesttech.edu.
2731 Farmers Market Road

Springfield, IL 62707
(217) 527-8324
egleason@midwesttech.edu

Monroe County
Community College
Moultrie Technical College

Founded 1964
Founded 1964
Missouri Welding Institute

Founded 1994
Become an AWS and ASME certified

welder in 18 weeks. Established in 1994
MWI teaches pipe and structural
welding and fitting. Each day you will
spend 7 hours performing hands-on
welding and fitting with the remaining
hour of your day spent in the classroom
or the countrys largest state of the art
pipe fitting laboratory. MWI offers day,
evening and graveyard shifts to
accommodate everyones schedule.
Monroe County Community College

located in Monroe, Michigan offers a
welding technology program which
includes training in SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, and GTAW, plate and pipe in all
positions, using mild steel, stainless steel
and aluminum. Courses may be applied
towards an associate degree in applied
science, welding certificate or transferrable to a four-year bachelor degree.
American Welding Society SENSE
program conforming to QC-10 (Entrylevel) and QC-11 (Advanced level) classes
are available.
Missouri Welding Institute

3300 N. Industrial Parkway
PO Box 445
Nevada, MO 64772
(800) 667-5885
Fax: (417) 667-5885
www.mwi.ws
Roop Chandel
(734) 384-4165
rchandel@monroeccc.edu
Cameron Albring
(734) 384-4112
calbring@monroeccc.edu
www.monroeccc.edu
Modern Welding School
Moraine Park
Technical College
Founded 1936
Modern Welding School offers handson training in OAW, SMAW, pipe,

GTAW, FCAW and GMAW. The
schools full-time program is 900 hours
and takes 30 weeks to complete. A parttime evening program is 665 hours and
takes 45 weeks to complete. The school
was founded in 1936 and has trained
thousands of welders. Training is also
available to companies looking for
specialized welding training, welding
certification testing or consulting for
their personnel.
Schenectady, NY 12304
Jeffrey Daubert, Vice President
1-800-396-6810 or
(518) 374-1216
welding@capital.net
www.modernwelding.com
Moraine Park Technical College offers a

one-year welding diploma program focusing on GMAW, FCAW, SMAW and
GTAW in all positions. Instruction includes AWS and ASME welding codes,
print reading and fabrication courses.
Moraine Park also offers a one-year
Metal Fabrication Diploma and a twoyear Fabrication Technologies AAS Degree. These programs emphasize the
manufacturing process from conception
to final product using lasers, plasma and
flame tables, rollers, press brakes, and
welding equipment.
700 Gould Street,

Beaver Dam, WI 53916
235 N. National Avenue,
Fond du Lac, WI 54935
Marcia Arndt
1-800-472-4554, ext. 5725
marndt@morainepark.edu
www.morainepark.edu
Moultrie Technical College began job

training with just 40 students in
Moultrie, Georgia, in 1964. For almost
50 years MTC has expanded instruction
to offer over 130 degree, diploma, and
certificate programs. Serving Colquitt,
Tift, Turner and Worth counties, MTC
now enrolls over 2,200 students and
boasts a 99% job placement rate.
MTCs Welding Technology program
offers a diploma program and two
technical certificates in Basic Shielded
Metal Arc Welder and Gas Metal
Arc Welder.
800 Veterans Parkway North

Moultrie, GA 31788
(229) 891-7000
Bill Giles, Welding instructor
bgiles@moultrietech.edu
www.moultrietech.edu
New River Community and

Technical College
Located in southeastern West Virginia,
New River offers skills set certificates
in GTAW and GMAW welding, pipe
fitting and pipe welding, and an
associates degree in welding technology. Classes include SMAW, GMAW,
GTAW and structural welding. The
program is offered at the Greenbrier
Valley Campus in Lewisburg, an American Welding Society accredited testing
site, and at the Advanced Technology
Center in Ghent. Customized training
and testing is available for employers.
Day and evening classes offered. We
have now added welding at our Nicholas
County Campus in Summersville.
101 Church Street

Lewisburg, WV 24901
(304) 647-6560
Fax: (304) 647-6561
Donovan Rhodes
drhodes@newriver.edu
www.newriver.edu
WELDING JOURNAL
77

Northwestern
Michigan College
Founded in 1951
Northwestern Michigan College offers

a one year, hands-on welding program
which prepares students to take American Welding Society welder qualification tests to become Certified Welders.
The program prepares students with no
experience to take up to four welder
qualification (certification) tests in two
semesters. Small class size provides
personal attention from instructors.
Courses are designed, structured, and
sequenced by welding process for
flexibility. Program facility, equipment,
lab, and ventilation system are state of
the art.
Chuck Hunt
1701 E Front Street
Traverse City, MI 49686
Phone: (231) 995-1300
Fax: (231) 995-2022
E-mail: chunt@nmc.edu
Northeast Wisconsin
Technical College
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
offers training in welding at our
Green Bay, Marinette and Sturgeon Bay,
Wisconsin campuses, and by contract at
worksites nationwide. NWTC welding
graduates attain knowledge in print reading, layout, fabrication, and metallurgy to
apply to building and repairing metal
components using the major welding
processes. Our students can weld to
AWS and ASME codes and function as
maintenance welders, qualified welders,
structural welders, welder/fabricators,
and pipe welders. NWTC also offers
the Weld Inspection fundamentals and
practical courses to prepare a student for
the Certified Welding Inspection exam.
2740 West Mason Street

P.O. Box 19042
Green Bay, WI 54307-9042
(800) 422-NWTC, ext. 5444
www.nwtc.edu
78
APRIL 2013
North Dakota State College

of Science
Orangeburg-Calhoun
Technical College
North Dakota State College of

Science is a two-year college located in
Wahpeton, N.D. with an additional
commuter location in Fargo, N.D. The
NDSCS Welding Technology curriculum
provides students with experience in
assembly, manufacturing, energy, and
construction, plus training in robotics,
inspection, fabrication, and more.
NDSCS offers a one-year certificate, a
two-year diploma and an A.A.S. degree.
All facilities are American Welding
Society SENSE. certified, and NDSCS is
an educational partner with the National
Center for Welding Education and
Training (Weld-Ed).
At Orangeburg-Calhoun Technical College, students are trained according to

the national welding codes and receive
additional national welding certifications through the National Center for
Construction Education and Research,
with a transcript of national credentials
maintained by Florida State University.
Students have the opportunity to earn
an Associate in Applied Science in
General Technology degree with a
major in industrial maintenance/welding. Students can also earn certificates
in intermediate welding, advanced
welding and welding fundamentals.
NDSCS-Wahpeton
800 Sixth St. North
Wahpeton, N.D. 58076
(800) 342-4325
NDSCS-Fargo
1305 19th Avenue North
Fargo, N.D. 58102
(701) 231-6900
Email: joel.johnson@ndscs.edu
www.ndscs.edu/welding
Odessa College
The welding technology department at
Odessa College in Odessa, Texas, offers a
full range of certificate and associate degree
options. The lab areas are equipped with 45
modern welding stations for training in
SMAW, GMAW, FCAW and GTAW
processes as well as 15 OFW stations.
Currently, classes are offered in the morning
and evening to accommodate an average of
100 students each semester. Odessa College
received a U.S. Department of Labor grant
for $1.75 million in January 2007 for the
Welding Training Center. This new
30-station training facility opened in January
2008 and offers 8-week Introduction to
Welding Fundamentals courses through
the continuing education division. The
Welding Training Center received the
AWS Image of Welding Award in
October 2008.
201 W. University
Odessa, TX 79764
(432) 335-6474
James Mosman Coordinator
Email: jmosman@odessa.edu
Jimmie F. Johnson
AWS CWI/CWE
(803) 535-1299
Fax: 803-535-1365
johnsonjf@octech.edu
www.octech.edu
Owens Community College

Owens Community College has served
Northwest Ohio since 1965. Owens is
committed to providing small classes,
personal attention, and affordability
with four locations to serve students.
Owens offers an associate degree in
welding, a welding precertification
certificate, a GMAW welding certificate, a GTAW welding certificate and a
SMAW welding certificate. Individual
welding courses cover all aspects of
welding, including stick, gas, MIG, and
TIG welding.
For more information:

(567) 661-7729
www.owens.edu

Ozarks Technical
Community College
Founded 1990
Ozarks Technical Community College

offers multiple welding programs,
providing opportunities for full- or parttime students, as well as customized
training for employers. The Welding
Technology program includes courses in
several types of welding and welding
inspection, leading to either a certificate
or an A.A.S. The College also offers an
accelerated 20-week Master Welder
certificate program. The Center for
Workforce Development offers shortterm, non-credit welder training for
local businesses. OTC is a fully
equipped, fully accredited AWS
certified test facility.
1001 E. Chestnut Expwy

Springfield, MO 65802
(417) 447-7500
www.otc.edu
ask@otc.edu
Pennsylvania College of
Technology
Penn State affiliate since 1989
Penn College offers the complete

package for those who wish to pursue
a welding career: recently renovated
facilities, industry-standard equipment,
comprehensive curriculum, and full
campus experience (on-campus housing,
athletics, and more). In addition to
associate degree and certificate programs,
Penn College offers a B.S. degree in
welding and engineering technology that
prepares graduates for supervisory, sales,
and research positions. A public television
series featuring the program is available for
viewing at www.degreesthatwork.tv.
Polaris Career Center
Pulaski Technical College
Polaris Career Center offers welding

training in Middleburg Heights, Ohio.
Earn AWS certification in SMAW and
GTAW welding. Welding certification
through NCCER is also available. The
600-hour course is designed to give
the students theory and practical
application related to oxyfuel welding
and brazing, GTAW, GMAW, and
FCAW. Course topics include open Vgroove welds, pipe welds, and vertical
welding. The adult education program
is offered in the evening allowing
students to work during the day.
The welding program at Pulaski

Technical College in North Little Rock,
Arkansas focuses on structural
welding and offers AWS Level I
and II certification. The two-semester
technical certificate program includes
instruction in welding processes, joint
design and metallurgy. The certificate
of proficiency will allow an individual
to complete certification requirements
in 3 G (vertical) position.
7285 Old Oak Blvd.

Middleburg Hts., OH 44130
www.polaris.edu
(440) 891-7600
Johnny Napier,
jnapier@polaris.edu
Portland Arts and

Technology High School
Portland Arts and Technology High
School in Portland, Maine offers excellent welder training. AWS certifications
in SMAW/FCAW, structural D1.1.,
GTAW, GMAW on carbon, aluminum,
stainless plate, and pipe are also taught.
The 2- or 3-year course (800 -1000 hr)
is designed to give students plenty of
practical application and theory in oxyfuel, plasma cutting and SMAW. Blueprint reading and black smithing are
also practiced. Adult education welding is offered four times a year.
William Presby
Welding Instructor
presbb@portlandschools.org
(207) 874-8165
Fax: (207) 874-8170
Technical and Industrial Programs

3000 West Scenic Drive
North Little Rock, AR 72118
(501) 812-2200
www.pulaskitech.edu
swilliams@pulaskitech.edu
Shasta College
Welding Program
At Shasta College, located in Redding,
California, we offer an AS degree
in Welding Technology and a one-year
certification program, as well as,
individual certifications. We have an
average of 200 students and multiple
coarse listings, which include SMAW,
GMAW, GTAW, pipe welding, FCAW,
blue print reading and metal fabrication. We also offer an AWS Student
Chapter weld club, which provides
oportunities for work site experience
through supporting community projects.
Main Redding Campus

11555 Old Oregon Trail
Redding, CA 96003
Mailing Address: P.O. Box 496006
Redding, CA 96049-6006
(530) 242-7500
info@shastacollege.edu
One College Avenue

Williamsport, PA 17701
1-800-367-9222
PCTinfo@pct.edu
www.pct.edu/aws
WELDING JOURNAL
79

Southeast Community College
Welding Technology Program
SouthWest Collegiate
Institute for the Deaf
of Howard College
Founded in 1980
The Welding Technology Program is

unique in that we specialize in educating only deaf and hard of hearing
students. The program offers a Level I
Certificate. Some of the courses offered
are: Blueprint reading, SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, GTAW and pipe welding. In
addition, the welding program follows
the AWS SENSE Entry Level guidelines for welder training.
Southeast Community College offers

associate degree, diploma and certificate programs using a comprehensive
curriculum and modern equipment.
Students enjoy extensive hands-on
training from experienced and knowledgeable instructors in all major
welding processes. Students also will
gain valuable experiences with CNC
plasma, fabrication, blueprints, and
related equipment. The program also
is an American Welding Societyaccredited test facility and offers welder
qualification/certification and training
services to business and industry.
Contact us for more information.
Tulsa Welding School

Oklahoma/Florida
Founded 1949
Tulsa Welding School (TWS) has been

training qualified welders for more than
60 years. TWS has 2 campuses; one in
Tulsa, Oklahoma and the other in Jacksonville, Florida. Both Campuses offer a
7-month diploma program in Welding
Technology. At the Tulsa campus, students can also advance into the Associate
of Occupational Studies in Welding Technology program upon completion of the
7-month diploma Welding Technology
program. Students gain practical skills
from hands-on training in various
welding competences such as structural,
pipe, pipeline, and thin alloy welding.
Accredited school, ACCSC.
Two Campus Locations

Randy Key
3200 Ave. C
Big Spring, Texas 79720
(432) 264-3753
(432) 264-3700
(866) 954-5729 VP
Fax: (432) 264-3774
rkey@howardcollege.edu
www.howardcollege.edu
Mark Hawkins, Program Co-Chair-Lincoln

(402) 437-2694
mhawkins@southeast.edu
Dan Zabel, Program Co-Chair-Lincoln
(402) 437-2692
dzabel@southeast.edu
Shannon Hansen, Program Chair-Milford
(402) 761-8226
shansen@southeast.edu
or the College Admissions Office
Lincoln (402) 437-2600
Milford (402) 761-8243
Jacksonville, Florida
(877) 935-3529, ext. 260
JaxCareerServices@twsweld.com
www.weldingschool.com/job-order-request.html
Suffolk County
Community College
Tri-County Technical College
Tyler Junior College
Founded 1965
Tyler Junior College is a comprehensive

community college in Tyler, Texas that
enrolls approximately 12,000 credit
students annually. Its one-year certificate and two-year associate degree
pathways in welding technology prepare
students for entry-level code welding for
industry. Training is provided in SMAW,
GMAW, FCAW, GTAW and pipe
welding. In addition, the welding
program follows the AWS SENSE
entry level guidelines for welder
training. Many TJC welding graduates
secure a great job before graduation.
Let us help you prepare for a rewarding
career in a high-demand field. Call
1-800-687-5680 or visit our website. All
of our full-time instructors are AWS
Certified Welding Educators.
Co-ed two-year public community college

Founded: 1959
SCCC Advanced Manufacturing Training Centers welding program is aligned

to AWS D1.1 standards with AWS
certification testing offered to the
students. Courses are designed to
provide a better understanding of what
is required of those working in the manufacturing environment through a
combination of classroom, lab, and
online learning.
Certified by the Welding Training and

Test Institute (WTTI)
as a Remote Testing Facility
1001 Crooked Hill Road
Brentwood, NY 11717
(631) 851-6200
advmfg@sunysuffolk.edu
www.sunysuffolk.edu/CTC
80
APRIL 2013
The Welding program at Tri-County

Technical College has trained welders
for industry since 1965. Training is provided in structural, pipe, and fabrication
welding using SMAW, GMAW and
GTAW processes. Students have the
option of an associate degree program,
or a certificate program that contains all
of the weld training without the general
education and elective requirements.
Three certified welding inspectors/educators are on staff to provide welder
certification testing and customized
company training.
7900 Highway 76
P.O. Box 587
Pendleton, SC 29670
(864) 646-1405
pphelps@tctc.edu
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Graduate Employment Services
(800) 331-3924, ext. 260
TulsaCareerServices@twsweld.com
P.O. Box 9020

Tyler, TX 75711
(903) 510-2390
or (800) 687-5680
www.tjc.edu

Dalus, S.A. De C.V.
Welder Training &
AWS Certification Center
In Mexico
Akron Testing Lab.

& Welding School Ltd.
Founded 1953
Akron Testing Lab and Welding School

Ltd., has been training and qualifying
welders for over 50 years. Founded in
1953 and located in Northeast Ohio,
offers certificate classes or a dipolma
program in Welding Technology.
Classes offered include SMAW, pipe
welding, GMAW steel and aluminum,
GTAW, FCAW, oxyfuel, and blue print
reading. Customized training is offered
to employers. Ohio Registration 79-010631T.
Akron Testing Laboratory

and Welding School
1171 Wooster Road N.
Barberton, OH 44203
atweldsch@att.net
(888) 859-0664
Fax: (330) 753-2268
www.akronweldingschool.com
Bridgerland Applied
Technology College
Welding Technology
Logan, Utah
Our Program is approximately 6 months.
with approximate tuition and fees of
$1,800. Books and supplies are not included. The global boom in industrial
manufacturing has caused skilled welders
to be in greater demand than ever. The
welding industry continues to offer excellent wages and benefits. BATC offers
training in over a dozen processes, with
electives in blacksmithing, pipe welding,
and robotics. Open entry start any time,
all welding training is modules, work at
your own pace. M - F, 8:00 a.m. - 3:00 p.m.,
MTWT evenings 6:00 p.m. - 9:00 p.m.
Contact Randee or Richard

(435) 753-6780
Fax: (435) 752-2016
rmunns@batc.edu
www.batc.edu/programs
DALUS was founded in 2000 for the

purpose of training and testing people
in certifiable skills and knowledge that
will help to integrate them into a world
class workforce. DALUS is an AWS
Accredited Test Facility (ATF) and a
member of the S.E.N.S.E. (Schools
Excelling through National Skills
Education) program and administers
SCWI, CWI and CWE prep course and
exams three times a year. DALUS also
offers courses designed to meet
employers specific needs.
Parque Industrial Kalos

Monterrey, NL - MEXICO
+52 (81) 8386-1717
info@dalus.com
www.dalus.com
Georgia Trade School
George T. Baker
Aviation School
Founded 1965
George T. Baker Aviation School is a public, tax-supported institution authorized

by the Florida Department of Education
and operated by the Miami-Dade County
Public School System. Baker Aviation is
currently preparing approximately 1,000
high school and adult students for careers
in aviation. For high school students, we
offer instruction in aerospace technology,
electronics, avionics, and aircraft
maintenance (airframe and powerplant).
For adult students we offer instruction
in electronics, avionics, and aircraft
maintenance (airframe and powerplant).
Both high school and adult students, upon
completion of their respective course of
study, may receive certificates issued from
the NCATT, FCC, and FAA.
Miami-Dade County Public Schools

(305) 871-3143
Fax: (305) 871-5840
3275 N.W. 42 Ave.
Miami, FL 33142
www.BakerAviation.edu
Founded 2012
Kenai Peninsula College
Georgia Trade School is designed to be

radically different from traditional welding schools. Georgia Trade Schools
facility previously housed a digital media
studio and contains track lighting,
exposed ceilings, contemporary furniture
and satellite radio. But the strength of
Georgia Trade School is not just stylistic,
it is also substantial. Georgia Trade
School has a staff with over 40 years
experience in welding education, an onsite CWI, machines that reflect latest
technology, and programs that are 80%
hands on. Georgia Trade School features
a partnership with the Navys largest
shipbuilder, Huntington Ingalls. Through
this partnership, Georgia Trade School
graduates have the opportunity to build
and maintain ships for the Navy, Coast
Guard, and Marines.
Kenai Peninsula College is a branch of

the University of Alaska located 150
miles south of Anchorage on the Kenai
Peninsula. KPC offers certification on
AWS D1.1, .375 steel plate 3G and 4G
SMAW, ASME Section IX pipe certification on steel 6-in. schedule 80 6G SMAW.
Our welding certificate program includes
math, blueprint reading, oral communications and English (students must
certify on pipe to complete certificate).
KPC students are provided with 3M
powered air purifying respirator welding
hoods. Early bird registration for the Fall
2013 semester is available on our website.This site has information on financial
aid available and academic courses.
Nonresident tuition is waived for
students taking classes at KPC for the
Fall 2013 and Spring 2014 semesters. This
waiver does not apply to students taking
distance delivered courses while residing
outside the state of Alaska.
Ryan Blythe, Executive Director

2260 Moon Station Court Suite 110
Kennesaw, GA 30144
(770) 590-9353
rblythe@georgiatradeschool.com
www.georgiatradeschool.com
(907) 262-0300, Fax: (907) 262-0395

Fritz Miller, Welding Instructor
(907) 262-0356
fwmiller@kpc.alaska.edu
www.kpc.alaska.edu
WELDING JOURNAL
81

University of
Alaska Anchorage Welding
and NDT Technology
Founded 1970
IMENDE
Founded 1986
The welding/NDT program at UAA

offers a choice of certificates and an
Associate of Applied Science degree
that centers on welding skills, welding
inspection and nondestructive testing.
Program courses include skill development in major welding processes, pipe
fitting and basic metallurgy, as well as
hands-on NDT training in the RT, UT,
MT and PT processes. Our program
serves about 175 students each year.
Instituto Mexicano De Ensayos No

Destructivos A.C. (IMENDE A.C.
[Mexican Institute of Non-Destructive
Testing]). The objective of the institute is
training, qualification and certification of
personnel in nondestructive testing and
inspection. Its courses meet ISO 9712
requirements and are standardized yearlong for in-person and online classes in
the VT, PT, MT, UT RT methods,
and welding inspection. Assistance is
available for an average of 960 students
3211 Providence Drive GHH 111
per year and the size of the groups are
Anchorage, AK 99508
limited to 15 students. All in-person
(907) 786-6475
courses are theoretical and practical. The
Fax: (907) 786-6474
certification exams for ISO 9712 and www.uaa.alaska.edu/ctc/programs/cdt/welding
END have an attendance of approximately 120 applicants per year.
Washtenaw
Community College
Founded 1965
Washtenaw Community College has

been a leader of welding technology for
decades. The program grants a
welding certificate, advanced welding
mechanics certificate and an associates
in applied science. It is the most
popular site for the AWS accredited
testing facility in Michigan. Training
areas include GMAW, FCAW, GTAW,
ISTUC
SMAW, OAW, OFC, PAC on plate
Founded 2001
and pipe. WCC has more welding
ISTUC, S.C. was founded in 2001 with Skills USA gold medal winners than any
the objective of helping Mexico become other school.
more competitive and create reliability
in the industry. The institute is an AWS
acredited facility and a IIW/EWF
authorized training body. ISTUC
offers training, qualification and certifi4800 E. Huron River Dr.
cation of international programs
Ann Arbor, MI 48105
(welder, inspector, practitioner, special(734) 973-3443
ist, technologist and engineer) and
Coley McLean
AWS programs (entry, expert, entry
camclean@wccnet.edu
welder, inspector, and supervisor).
www.wccnet.edu
Felix Guzman No. 16, 5 Piso
Naucalpan de Juarez, Estado de Mexico
C.P.53398 Mexico
Phone: 011 52 555 579 0831
mramirez@imende.com
Calle Begonias N 112

Col. Insurgentes
76117 Quertaro, Qro.
Tel: 442-2201486
Fax: 442-2201699
www.istuc.com
Attention: Welding School Administrators

We would like to thank all the welding schools
that participated in Welding School Profile
section of the Welding Journal. If for some reason
you could not participate this year and would like
for us to send you information on how your school
can be included in the 2014 edition, just e-mail
your request to Ms. Lea Paneca at lea@aws.org,
Rob Saltzstein at salty@aws.org or Sandra
Jorgensens at jorgensen@aws.org. You can also
send us a fax at 1-305-443-7559. Please include
the name of your welding school, mailing
address, contact person, phone, fax and

e-mail information.
82
APRIL 2013
Welder Training and

Testing Institute
Founded in 1968
WTTI offers training and certification

testing that can lead to employment in
the welding field. Located in Pennsylvania, the school is equipped with 65 work
stations. Training is provided in all
major welding processes. Classes
include theory, blueprint reading, and
fitting. WTTI offers welder certification
through our ISO 17025 accredited test
lab and AWS Accredited Test Facility.
CWI and NDT training and examination, materials testing, weld coupons,
technical seminars, and more are
available for industry.
729 E. Highland Street

Allentown, PA 18109
(800)223-WTTI
info@wtti.edu
Bring
Brand Awareness
to Your
Your Company
By Placing YYour
our Product
Product Video
Video
on the AWS
AWS
W Website
Website
For more information visit our website at

http://videos.aws.org
http://
/videos.aws.org
v
or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 254
AWS Conferences & Exhibitions:
Pipelines Conference
June 4th 5th / Houston, TX
Join us in Houston for the debut of the AWS Pipeline Welding Conference! Our featured
speakers will cover a multitude of topics including the welding of high strength X80 pipe
steels, orbital processes used in pipeline construction throughout the world, the new FRIEX
system from Belgium and many other exciting topics.
Highlights
Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments
in pipeline welding.
Network with industry peers to find the best solutions for
business growth.
AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional
Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.

These PDH's can be applied toward AWS recertifications
and renewals.
For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224.
An Association of Welding Manufacturers
Know an individual, company, educator, or educational facility that

exemplifies what welding is all about?
Nominate them!
The Image of Welding
Weld
ding Awards
Aw
wards Program recognizes
recogn
nizes outstanding
achievement in the following categories:
Individual
Section
Large Business
(you or other individual)

(welding products)
(AWS local chapter)

(AWS
Small Business
(less than 200 employees)
Educator
(welding teacher at an institution, facility

facility,, etc.)
(200 or more employees)

Distributor
Educational Facility
(any or
organization
ganization that conducts welding
education or training)
Media
(open to industry and business publications)
Entry deadline is July
31, 2013
For more
more informatio
information
on and to submit a nomination
nomin
nation form online,
visit www
www.aws.org/awards/image.html
.aws.org/awards/image.html
/awards/image.html or call
ca 800-443-9353.
SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
AWS President Cole Highlights

Welding Careers for Women
AWS President Nancy Cole receives the presidents ring from Bill Rice, 2012 president.
Vivian Perez, the Michael A. Rowland Employee of the Year, is shown with AWS Executive Director Ray Shook (left) and outgoing President Bill Rice.
BY KRISTIN CAMPBELL
guest Dr. Chon-Liang Tsai, the AWS agent

based in Taiwan. He is an AWS Fellow and
chairman of the Ship and Ocean Industries
R&D Center in New Taipei City, Taiwan.
Other special guests and their wives in
attendance at the event were AWS Foundation Chair and past President Jerry Uttrachi and Christine; Foundation Chair,
Trustee Emeritus, and past President Ron
Pierce and Joyce; District 2 Director Harland Thompson; District 3 Director Mike
Wiswesser and Kennia; Director-at-Large
Tom Siewert and Betsy; District 18 Director and Vice President nominee John Bray
and Luanne; past President John Mendoza
and Nora; Treasurer Bob Pali and Annette;
Vice Presidents Dave McQuaid and Dolly,
Dave Landon and Kay, and Dean Wilson
and Debi. Also attending were Executive
Director Ray Shook and Sandy; Leon Cole,
Nancys husband; and AWS headquarters
staff.
Throughout her year as AWS president,

Nancy C. Cole said she will aim to convince
the rest of the world that women can be a
vital part of the welding business. She
voiced her strong support during the transition ceremony held Feb. 15 at AWS World
Headquarters in Doral, Fla. In the Societys 94-year history, Cole is the second
woman to serve as president.
Women can be the ones who help us
with the dire shortage of welding professionals, Cole said. The vocation does not
have to be dangerous, dirty, or drab; it can
be light, clean, and a lot of fun.
And if you dont paticularly care for
arcs and sparks, then theres lots of other
things you can do in the welding business
as well, she added.
Outgoing President Bill Rice reflected
on the time he served as AWS executive director for part of 2002. He finds it satisfying that AWS is now housed in a larger,
world headquarters building and is proud
to be here. He and his wife, Cherry, donated the bronze welder sculpture that
graces the first-floor lobby.
AWS Corporate Director, International
Sales, Jeff Kamentz introduced special
Employee of the Year

Vivian Perez, a senior coordinator in the
Technical Services Division, received the
2012 Michael A. Rowland Exemplary Employee of the Year Award. This peer-nominated and selected honor recognizes an
AWS employee who has provided outstanding service and made notable contributions above the scope of normal duties,
plus displayed an attitude and behavior
contributing to teamwork and positive
treatment of others in ways that exceeded
job expectations.
As stated in one nomination form,
Vivian effortlessly demonstrates the ability to meet the needs of the engineers and
standards program managers to whom she
supports (and by extent the 14 technical
committees that they administer), all while
exuding a positive energy now synonymous
with her persona.
She is responsible for planning, negotiating, and finalizing every hotel contract
drafted for the Technical Department. This
past year, she saved AWS thousands of dollars. Also, because of her assistance with
the stages involved in publishing
D1.1/D1.1M, Structural Welding Code
Steel, the code continues to move forward.
Again, as stated on a nomination form,
I believe that she embodies the effervescent spirit of what an AWS employee
should aspire to be; her tenacity, moral
character, and insatiable appetite for ac Cole continued on next page
KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org) is associate editor of the Welding Journal.

WELDING JOURNAL
85
Cole continued from previous page
complishment are inspiring.

Another recommendation noted her
obvious aptitude for negotiating technical meeting contracts and intuitive knowledge of various needs has benefited AWS
to the tune of thousands of dollars with
the D1 hotel contract for Seattle, Wash.,
later this year. Her willingness to help innovate practices in Technical Services was
evident with volunteering to work on the
ANSI Audit and MS PowerPoint task
groups. She also expanded her role by implementing AWS intellectual property
digital rights management software.
She is the buoyant voice of Technical
Services to the many who call daily in need
of assistance, and her strong desire to help

and add value are evident to those on staff
as well as our volunteers and the public
who use our services and rely on our support . . . Vivian is an integral part of any
success her department can claim.
Perez received $1000, an engraved
clock, gift certificate for dinner, and a reserved parking space for one year.
Special Needs Boy Scouts Earn Their Welding Merit Badges
The experience of wearing a welding hood for the first time presented an exciting moment for
these Boy Scouts preparing to earn their welding merit badges.
On Feb. 2, General Air Service and Supply, Denver, Colo., hosted a class to train
and test 12 special needs Boy Scouts from
Troop 5280 to earn their welding merit
badges. Conducted by Steve Bruce, special
needs commissioner, BSA Denver Area
Council, the event was timed to celebrate
the merit badges first anniversary. The
class was a joyous event. Each time a scout
successfully completed his required three

welds and the freehand bead on the back
of the weld plates the entire group celebrated the achievement.
Sam Gentry, executive director, AWS
Foundation, Inc., encouraged the scouts,
described the American Welding Societys
promotion of the merit badge program,
and discussed careers in welding.
About a month before the class, Steve

Bruce visited the troop to demonstrate the
welding safety equipment the scouts would
be required to wear at the class. Since some
of the boys have sensory issues that make
it uncomfortable for them to put on a welding hood or wear a heavy jacket, he wanted
the scouts to get used to wearing these
items. Bruce said they especially liked the
NexGen welding helmets with the graphics of Godzilla, and the black Miller ProHobby autodarkening hoods.
Bruce has a lot of experience training
scouts for the welding merit badge. He conducted the program held during the recent
IIW General Assembly, and presented the
welding merit badge to about 200 scouts
in the Colorado area during 2012.
Most inspiring, Bruce said, is the generous community support for the welding
merit badge program in the Colorado area,
especially from General Air Service employees Steve Flynn, Greg Liley, and Bob
Page. He also thanked Ryerson Metals for
donating the weld coupons, and its employees and David Rossen operations manager
who have generously volunteered their
services to this cause.
Tech Topics
ISAC and TAC Meet in Doral
Members of the AWS International Activities Committee (ISAC) and Technical Activities Committee (TAC) met Feb. 6 and 7 for the first time
in the new AWS World Headquarters building in Doral, Fla. The committees are tasked with overseeing the activities of the U.S. Technical Advisory Groups (TAGs) for ISO/TC 44 Committee on Welding and Allied Processes and their subcommittees, and all of the AWS Technical Committees, respectively. The ISAC meeting was conducted by outgoing Chair Walter Sperko. The ISAC recently elected Damian Kotecki, an AWS
past president, as chair, and Kendall Ymker, from RoMan Mfg. Co., as vice chair. The TAC met immediately after ISAC, chaired by Richard Holdren from Arc Specialties. Allen Sindel from Alstom Power and Walter Sperko from Sperko Engineering Services serve as vice chairs on TAC.
86
APRIL 2013
Sixth Technical Lecture Series Held in India
Fred A. Schweighardt
ERRATUM: A5.36/A5.36M:2012
Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steel Flux Cored Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding and Metal Cored Electrodes or Gas Metal Arc Welding
The following erratum has been
identified and will be incorporated into
the next reprinting of this document.
Page 18, Figure 2, Test Assembly for
Mechanical Properties and Soundness
of Weld Metal for Welds Made with
Multiple-Pass Electrodes
Note 3: Change Table 10 to Table
11.
Revised Standard Approved by ANSI

C7.1M/C7.1:2013, Recommended Practices for Electron Beam Welding and Allied
Processes. Approved 2/5/13.
Standards for Public Review
B2.1/B2.1M:20XX, Specification for
Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification. $212. 4/8/13.
D1.2/D1.2M:20XX, Structural Welding
Code Aluminum. $126. 4/25/13.
D8.1M:20XX, Specification for Automotive Weld Quality Resistance Spot Welding of Steel. $25. 4/22/13.
The above revised documents are submitted for public review, with expiration
dates shown. Draft copies may be ordered
from R. ONeill, roneill@aws.org. AWS
was approved as an accredited standardspreparing organization by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) in
1979. AWS rules, as approved by ANSI,
require that all standards be open to public review for comment during the approval
process.
The Indian Institute of Welding Foundation, in collaboration with AWS, organized the sixth Technical Lecture Series,
presented Jan. 1523 in seven cities in
India. More than 460 delegates attended
the events. The presenter, Fred A.
Schweighardt, is with Air Liquide, U.S.A.
His four-hour-long lecture was titled,
Welding of Stainless Steels Emphasis
on Metallurgical Aspects of Duplex Stainless Steels and the Role of Shielding
Gases. The lecture detailed the categorization of stainless steels, general metallurgy, numbering systems, uses, service
considerations, welding considerations,
shielding gas selection, and their properties and impact on welds. At each city, the
lecture concluded with a question and an-
swer session.
C. C. Girotra, chairman, IIW-India
Foundation, is the initiator of the entire
AWS lecture series project. Other key persons involved with organizing the lecture
series were S. Bhattacharya, N. K. Sarkar,
P. K. Das, P. Biswas, and V. S. Agwan, all
of whom are affiliated with the IIW-India.
Girotra said these popular technical
lectures have been very successful for disseminating welding technology to Indian
welding engineers. Previous presenters
in this lecture series included Damian J.
Kotecki, an AWS past president and author of the Stainless Q&A column in the
Welding Journal; J. F. (Jeff) Henry; David
Landon, an AWS vice president; and Walter J. Sperko, an AWS Counselor.
ISO Standard for Public Review

ISO/DIS 23277, Non-destructive testing
of welds Penetrant testing of welds Acceptance levels
Review copies of the above document
are available from your national standards
body, which in the United States is ANSI,
25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl., New York, NY,
10036; (212) 642-4900. Send comments
regarding ISO documents to your national
standards body. In the United States, if
you wish to participate in the development
of International Standards for welding,
contact A. Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Abrams, ext. 307.

C2.26:20XX (ISO 14232:2000 MOD),
Specification for Thermal Spraying and
Welding Powder Consumables.
The majority of commercially available
thermal spray powders are classified on
the basis of their composition and degree
of purity. They may be specified and characterized according to the information
contained in this International Standard,
which it is hoped will lead to a greater understanding of the variety and the wide
choice of thermal spray powders now
available to the manufacturer and the
user. The properties of sprayed coatings
are not discussed and may differ greatly
from the properties of the original material due to specific thermal spraying conditions, such as gas composition, deposition efficiency, material flow rate, and
stand-off distance. Stakeholders: Thermal
spray community. ISO Adoption Standard. E. Abrams, ext. 307.
C3.4M/C3.4:20XX, Specification for
Torch Brazing. This standard lists the necessary steps to ensure the suitability of
brazed components for critical applications. Although such applications vary
widely, they have certain common considerations with respect to materials, design,
manufacture, and inspection. This document intends to identify and explain these
common considerations and the best techniques for dealing with them. It is beyond
the scope of this document to provide specific details on these techniques, which the
user must adapt to fit each particular application. Stakeholders: Engineers, torch
brazers, quality controllers. Revised. S.
Borrero, ext. 334.
C3.5M/C3.5:20XX, Specification for Induction Brazing
This specification provides the minimum fabrication, equipment, and process
procedure requirements, and inspection
New Standards Projects

Development work has begun on the
following documents. Affected individuals are invited to contribute to the development of these standards. Contact the
Staff Secretary listed with the document.
Participation on AWS Technical Committees is open to all persons.
B4.0:20XX, Standard Methods for Mechanically Testing of Welds.
Stakeholders: Welding industry, test
labs, consumables manufacturers. All
need one common standard test method.
Revised. B. McGrath, ext. 311.
C1.5:20XX, Specification for the Qualification of Resistance Welding Technicians.
This specification establishes the requirements for qualification of Resistance
Welding Technicians (RWT) employed in
the welding industry. The minimum experience, examination, application, qualification, and requalification requirements
and methods are defined herein. This
specification is a method for technicians
to establish a record of their qualification
and abilities in welding industry work such
as development of machine troubleshooting, process controls, quality standards,
problem solving, etc. Stakeholders: Resistance welding community. Revised. E.
WELDING JOURNAL
87
requirements for the induction brazing of

steels, copper, copper alloys, and heatand corrosion-resistant alloys and other
materials that can be adequately induction brazed. It provides criteria for classifying induction brazed joints based on
loading and the consequences of failure
and quality assurance criteria defining the
limits of acceptability in each class, as well
as defines acceptable induction brazing
equipment, materials, and procedures, as
well as the required inspection for each
class of joint. Stakeholders: Engineers, induction brazers, quality controllers. Revised. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
C3.6M/C3.6:20XX, Specification for
Furnace Brazing.
This specification provides the minimum fabrication, equipment, material,
process procedure requirements, and inspection requirements for the furnace
brazing of steels, copper, copper alloys,
and heat- and corrosion-resistant alloys
and other materials that can be adequately
furnace brazed. It provides criteria for
classifying furnace brazed joints based on
loading and the consequences of failure
and quality assurance criteria defining the
limits of acceptability in each class. This
specification defines acceptable furnace
brazing equipment, materials, and procedures, as well as the required inspection
for each class of joint. Stakeholders: Engineers, furnace brazers, quality controllers. Revised. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
D17.2/D17.2M:20XX, Specification for

Resistance Welding for Aerospace Applications.
This specification provides the general
resistance welding requirements for aerospace hardware. It includes, but is not limited to, resistance spot and resistance
seam welding of aluminum, magnesium,
iron, nickel, cobalt, and titanium-based
alloys. There are requirements for machine and procedure qualification, production witness samples, and inspection
and acceptance criteria for aerospace
hardware. Stakeholders: Aerospace fabrication and manufacturing companies.
Revised. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
committees on Definitions and Symbols.

Nashville, Tenn. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
April 24, B2B Subcommittee on Welding Qualifications. Kansas City, Mo. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 24, B2C Subcommittee on Materials. Kansas City, Mo. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 24, SH4 Subcommittee on Labeling and Safe Practices. Pittsburgh, Pa. S.
Hedrick, ext. 305.
April 2426, A2 Committee and Subcommittees on Definitions and Symbols.
Nashville, Tenn. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
April 25, B2 Committee on Procedure
and Performance Qualification. Kansas
City, Mo. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, B2A Subcommittee on Brazing Qualifications. Kansas City, Mo. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 29, C1 Committee on Resistance
Welding. Livonia, Mich. E. Abrams, ext.
307.
April 29, J1 Committee on Resistance
Welding Equipment. Livonia, Mich. E.
Abrams, ext. 307.
May 1, D8 Committee on Automotive
Welding. Livonia, Mich. E. Abrams, ext.
307.
May 79, D17 Committee on Welding
in the Aircraft and Aerospace Industries.
Los Angeles, Calif. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
May 2830, D14 Committee on Machinery and Equipment. Dallas, Tex. E.
Abrams, ext. 30.
Technical Committee Meetings

All AWS technical committee meetings are open to the public. Persons wishing to attend a meeting should contact the
committee secretary listed.
April 911, D15 Committee and Subcommittees on Railroad Welding. St.
Louis, Mo. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
April 17, SH1 Subcommittee on Fumes
and Gases. Columbus, Ohio. S. Hedrick,
ext. 305.
April 23, B2D Subcommittee on Standard Welding Procedure Specification.
Kansas City, Mo. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 23, B2E Subcommittee on Soldering Qualifications. Kansas City, Mo.
A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 2426, A2 Committee and Sub-
Share Your Technical Expertise

Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees
Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html
AWS Safety and Health Committee
seeks educators, users, general interest,
and consultants to help develop standards
on welding safety. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
B4 Committee on Mechanical Testing
of Welds seeks professionals in the area of
standard methods for tension, shear,
bend, fracture toughness, hardness, weldability, and other mechanical testing of
welds. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
B2B Subcommittee on Welding Qualifications, seeks members to update B2.1,
Specification for Welding Procedure and
Performance Qualification. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
D17J Subcommittee seeks professionals to update specification for friction stir
welding of aluminum alloys for aerospace
applications. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying,
C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding
88
APRIL 2013
and Cutting, and D8 Committee on Automotive Welding seek educators, general

interest, and end users to update its documents. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium Alloy
Filler Metals seeks professionals to revised its filler metal document. R. Gupta,
gupta@aws.org.
D10P Subcommittee for Local Heat
Treating of Pipe seeks heat treating professionals to help update its documents.
B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
D14 Committee on Machinery and
Equipment and D14H Subcommittee on
Surfacing and Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls seeks professionals in design, production, engineering, testing, and
safe operation of machinery to prepare
recommended practices for surfacing and
reconditioning of industrial mill rolls. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic

Welding seeks members in the general interest and educational fields to help revise its documents. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys
seeks volunteers to update guides for the
fusion welding of titanium and titanium
alloys, and fusion welding of zirconium
and zirconium alloys. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
J1 Committee on Resistance Welding
Equipment seeks educators, general interest, and users to develop standards on
controls, installation and maintenance,
calibration, and resistance welding fact
sheets. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
A5K Subcommittee on Titanium and
Zirconium Filler Metals. Seeks professionals in the field to update specifications
for welding electrodes and rods of titanium, zirconium, and their alloys. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
New AWS Supporters

New Sustaining Members
Advanced Welding Institute
2 Green Tree Dr., Ste. 3
South Burlington, VT 05403
Representative: Richard F. Irick
www.advancedweldinginstitute.com
CWS Industries (Mfg.) Corp.
19490 92nd Ave.
Surrey, BC V4N4G7, Canada
Representative: Derek Ritchie
www.cwsindustries.com
Dometic Group
2000 N. Andrews Ave.
Pompano Beach, FL 33069
Representative: Jay L. Brown
www.dometicusa.com
Kalas Mfg., Inc.
167 Greenfield Rd., Lancaster, PA 17601
Representative: Brian Slingluff
www.kalaswire.com
Kalas Mfg. is a vertically integrated supplier of a wide range of in-stock copper welding cables and custom assemblies. In business for more than 50 years, the privately
owned company draws its own copper and
offers custom printed packaging options.
KUKA Robotics Corp.
51870 Shelby Pkwy.
Shelby Twp., MI 48315
Representative: Rebecca Markel
www.kuka-robotics.com
LORS Machinery
1090 Lousons Rd., Union, NJ 07083
Representative: Gregory Labelle
www.lors.com
Lors Machinery is a manufacturer, distributor, and service provider for its line of
resistance welding machines, automation
equipment, and supplies.
Plasticos y Alambres, S.A.
Humberto Lobo #8026
Parque Industrial Mitras
Garcia, Nuevo Leon 66000, Mexico
Representative: Ricardo Cantu
www.pyasa.mx
Affiliate Companies
ALNC, Inc.
2152 W. FM 2105
San Angelo, TX 76901
Ace Welding
1325 S. Coast Hwy.
Oceanside, CA 92054
Air Products & Chemicals, Inc.
1205 Johnson Ferry Rd.
Ste. 136, #439
Marietta, GA 30068
Arends Inspection dba Arends Services
8930 Lawndale Ste. H
Houston, TX 77012
Bee Welding, Inc.
2145 Indian Rd.
West Palm Beach, FL 33409
Bevill State C. C.-Hamilton

1481 Military St. S.
Hamilton, AL 35570
Clark Welding, Inc.

1290 Lynwyn Ln. SE, Atlanta, GA 30316
Bevill State C. C.-Sumiton

101 State St.
Sumiton, AL 35148
Custom Tank Innovations, LLC

8803 Hwy. 225
La Porte, TX 77571
Northwest Pacific Marine
966 SW 6th St., Dept. 11
Grants Pass, OR 97526
Panel Built, Inc.
302 Beasley St.
Blairsville, GA 30512
Scottco Distributors, Inc.
2970 W. Hayden Ave.
Hayden, ID 83835
LISD Tech Center

1372 N. Main St.
Adrian, MI 49221
Santa Fe C. C.
6401 Richards Ave.
Santa Fe, NM 87508
United Welding Institute
480 Mount Base Rd.
Pottsville, AR 72858
Whitehouse High School
901 E. Main St.
Whitehouse, TX 75791
Up Time Maintenance, LLC

PO Box 401, Glen Arm, MD 21057
Wabtec Global Services
4800 Deramus Ave.
Kansas City, MO 64120
Witt Enterprises
2024 Aetna Rd.
Ashtabula, OH 44004
Science & Engineering Services, LLC

248 Dunlop Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35824
Representative: Brenda Ruehlman
www.sesi-md.com
Supporting Companies
Certified Testing Laboratories
2623 Roberts Ave.
Bronx, NY 10461
Stickle Steam Specialties Co., Inc.

2215 Valley Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46218
Representative: Clay R. Conkle
www.sticklesteam.com
Stickle Steam Specialties, in business
since 1907, builds and installs deaerators,
high-pressure receivers, boiler blowdown
vessels, and trap and cascade systems as well
as provides steam system surveys and steam
audits for a variety of industries.
Globe Metal, Inc.

1545 1st Ave., PO Box 89
St. Catherine, QC J5C1C5, Canada
WesLor Enterprises, Inc.

924 Sohn Alloway Rd.
Lyons, NY 14489
Representative: Scott D. Lord
www.weslor.com
AWS Member Counts

March 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................565
Supporting .....................................317
Educational ...................................606
Affiliate..........................................497
Welding Distributor........................50
Total Corporate ..........................2,035
Individual .................................58,852
Student + Transitional .................9,292
Total Members .........................68,144
District 5 Director Award

Presented
Carl Matricardi, District 5 director,
has nominated Larry T. Dowd Sr., Columbia Section, for this award.
The District Director Award provides a means for District directors to
recognize individuals and corporations
who have contributed their time and
effort to the affairs of their local Section and/or District.
Impulse Mfg., Inc.

55 Impulse Industrial Dr.
Dawsonville, GA 30534
Educational Institutions
Bergen University College,
Library Faculty of Engineering
Nygards GT. 112, Bergen 5008, Norway
Bevill State C. C.-Fayette
2631 Temple Ave. N.
Fayette, AL 35555
WELDING JOURNAL
89
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed are the members participating in
the 20122013 campaign. Standings as of
Feb. 16, 2013. See page 101 of this Welding
Journal for campaign rules and prize list or
visit www.aws.org/mgm. For information,
call the Membership Department
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
Winners Circle
Sponsored 20 or more new Individual Members per year since June 1, 1999. The superscript denotes the number of times the member achieved Winners Circle status if more
than once.
E. Ezell, Mobile10
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7
J. Merzthal, Peru2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula2
B. Chin, Auburn
S. Esders, Detroit
M. Haggard, Inland Empire
M. Karagoulis, Detroit
S. McGill, NE Tennessee
B. Mikeska, Houston
W. Shreve, Fox Valley
T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona
G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona
R. Wray, Nebraska
Presidents Guild
Sponsored 20+ new Individual Members
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 25
Presidents Roundtable
Sponsored 919 new Individual Members
E. Ezell, Mobile 12
R. Fulmer, Twin Tiers 10
W. Blamire, Atlanta 9
A. Tous, Costa Rica 9
P. Strother, New Orleans 9
Presidents Club
Sponsored 38 new Individual Members
D. Galigher, Detroit 7
W. Komlos, Utah 7
J. Smith, San Antonio 6
C. Becker, Northwest 5
L. Webb, Lexington 4
D. Wright, Kansas City 4
T. Baber, San Fernando Valley 3
J. Bain, Mobile 3
A. Bernard, Sabine 3
J. Blubaugh, Detroit 3
P. Brown, New Orleans 3
D. Buster, Eastern Iowa 3
C. Daon, Israel Section 3
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 3
D. Jessop, Mahoning Valley 3
J. Turcott, Rochester 3
A. Winkle, Kansas City 3
R. Wright, San Antonio 3
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska 3
Presidents Honor Roll
Sponsored 2 Individual Members
G. Cornell, St. Louis
M. Depuy, Portland
P. Host, Chicago
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley
J. Kline Northern New York
L. Kvidahl, Pascagoula
W. Larry, Southern Colorado
G. Lawrence, N. Central Florida
J. Mansfield, Philadelphia
E. Norman, Ozark
A. Sam, Trinidad
D. Saunders, Lakeshore
C. Shepherd, Houston
G. Solomon, Central Pennsylvania
A. Sumal, British Columbia
C. Villarreal Houston
J. Vincent, Kansas City
A. Vogt, New Jersey
J. Vorstenbosch, International
M. Wheeler, Cleveland
L. William, Western Carolina
W. Wilson, New Orleans
J. Winston St. Louis
Student Member Sponsors
Sponsored 3+ new Student Members
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 74
B. Scherer, Cincinnati 39
W. England, Western Michigan 33
R. Bulthouse, Western Michigan 31
R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville 28
S. Siviski, Maine 24
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska 24
B. Cheatham, Columbia 23
T. Geisler, Pittsburgh 23
C. Kochersperger, Philadelphia 23
M. Arand, Louisville 22
D. Bastian, NW Pennsylvania 21
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 21
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh 20
J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit 19
V. Facchiano, Lehigh Valley 18
J. Falgout, Baton Rouge 18
R. Munns, Utah 18
S. Lindsey, San Diego 17
M. Anderson, Indiana 16
E. Norman, Ozark 16
M. Anderson, Indiana 16
C. Donnell, NW Ohio 14
R. Hutchinson, Long Bch./Or. Cty. 14
J. Kline, Northern New York 13
D. Pickering, Central Arkansas 13
J. Daugherty, Louisville 12
C. Morris, Sacramento 12
R. Richwine, Indiana 12
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 12
A. Duron, Cumberland Valley 11
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 11
A. Theriot, New Orleans 10
J. Boyer, Lancaster Section 9
C. Schiner, Wyoming 9
G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona 9
C. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana 8
C. Gilbertson, Northern Plains 8
J. Dawson, Pittsburgh 7
R. Udy, Utah 7
R. Vann, South Carolina 7
T. Buckler, Columbus 6
R. Fuller, Green & White Mountains 6
T. Shirk, Tidewater 6
A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. 6
P. Host, Chicago 5
R. Ledford, Birmingham 5
K. Temme, Philadelphia 5
W. Wilson, New Orleans 5
C. Chifici, New Orleans 4
L. Clark, Milwaukee 4
J. Ginther, International 4
C. Griffin, Tulsa 4
J. Johnson, Northern Plains 4
J. Reed, Ozark 4
E. Shreve, Pittsburgh 4
G. Siepert, Kansas 4
R. Zadroga, Philadelphia 4
R. Hilty, Pittsburgh 3
S. Liu, Colorado 3
G. Lunen, Kansas City 3
R. Wilsdorf, Tulsa 3
Candidates Sought for Annual Masubuchi Award

November 1, 2013, is the deadline for submitting nominations for the 2014 Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This award includes a $5000 honorarium. It is presented each year to one person, 40 years old or younger, who has made significant contributions to the advancement of materials joining through research
and development. Nominations should include a description of
90
APRIL 2013
the candidates experience, list of publications, honors, and

awards, and at least three letters of recommendation from fellow researchers. The award is sponsored by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineering. E-mail your
nomination package to Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor, The
Pennsylvania State University, tap103@psu.edu.
SECTIONNEWS
SkillsUSA welding contender Andrew
Cardin (left) and his instructor Dan Rivera
are shown at Blackstone Valley Regional Vocational School.
Shown at the January Philadelphia Section program are (from left) presenter Andrew Thorton, Tammy Brown, Robert Thorton, and Ken Temme, Section chairman.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director

(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
District 1
FEBRUARY 2
Activity: Tom Ferri, District 1 director, met
with SkillsUSA finalist Andrew Cardin and
Dan Rivera, his metal fabrication and
welding instructor, at Blackstone Valley
Regional Vocational School in Upton,
Mass. Cardin, who took second place at
the U.S. Invitational Trials held during
FABTECH last November, will compete
at the welding trials to select the final
member of the world welding team. That
competition will be held at the Daytona
International Speedway.
Al Fleury (left) is shown with Bob Petrone

at the New Jersey Section program.
New Jersey Section Chair Herb Browne (left)

receives an award from Harland Thompson,
District 2 director.
Speaker Seann Bradley (left) is shown with

Paul Lenox at the New Jersey Section event.
Jaquan Dorsey demonstrated his welding

skills at Parkside High School for the
Philadelphia Section members in February.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director

(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
NEW JERSEY
FEBRUARY 19
Speaker: Seann Bradley
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Automation in welding
Activity: Vendor appreciation awards were
presented to Brian Plantz from Inweld
Corp. and Gerry Cotter from G. Cotter
Enterprises. Al Fleury received the District Meritorious Award and the District 2
Directors Award. Chairman Herb Browne
received the District 2 Directors Award.
Paul Lenox from DCM was presented the
District CWI of the Year Award, Thomas

Mann received the Private Sector Instructor District Award, and David Griep received the District Educator Award.
PHILADELPHIA
JANUARY 9
Speaker: Andrew Thorton, vice president
Affiliation: South Jersey Welding Supply

Topic: New Lincoln welding equipment
Activity: South Jersey Welding Supply
hosted the dinner and program at its
Vineland, N.J., location. The familyowned business recently celebrated its 50year anniversary. Thortons presentation
included demonstrations of the latest
welding machines and their applications.
WELDING JOURNAL
91
Shown during the Philadelphia Sections tour of CTE Parkside High School are from left (front row) Ty Hagel, Nathaniel Pierre, Jaquan
Dorsey, Malik Downing, Tim diFrancisco, Devon Williams, Daniel Churchill, Jacob Mullinex, and Shawn Fearin; (back row) Ryan Bell,
Howard Miller, Daniel Filippelli, Caleb Hunsucker, Trevor Klaverweiden, John Gray, Ken Temme, Bill Giordano, Manuel Hernandez, Brandon West, and Trace Say.
Jenord Alston (left), Tidewater Section

chairman, receives the CWI of the Year
Award from Bill Rice, AWS president, during FABTECH.
FEBRUARY 13
Activity: The Philadelphia Section held
this meeting at CTE Parkside High School
in Salisbury, Md., where they toured the
welding facilities and saw the fine work the
students have done under the guidance of
welding instructor Bill Giordano. The
group is in the process of applying to become an AWS Student Chapter.
Justin Hammett took first place in the Columbia Section weld-off contest.
Columbia Section Chair Robyn Westphal

demonstrates the VRTEX360 system.
CHARLOTTE
COLUMBIA
CALENDAR NOTICE
May 3, 2013
13th Annual Welding Competition
Central Piedmont Community College
Harper Campus, Charlotte, N.C.
www.cpcc.edu/welding
Call Ray Sosko (704) 330-4487.
TIDEWATER
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director

(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director

(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
92
APRIL 2013
NOVEMBER 12
Activity: Section Chair Jenord Alston received the Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial
CWI of the Year Award from AWS President Bill Rice at the FABTECH awardspresentation ceremony in Las Vegas, Nev.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
JANUARY 24
Activity: The Section hosted its second annual weld-off contest at Lexington Technology Center in Lexington, S.C. Chair
Robyn Westphal demonstrated the
VRTEX360 virtual arc welding trainer
system. Justin Hammett took first place
in the contest earning him an autodarkening welding helmet. Members of the Aiken
South Carolina Student Chapter participated in the event.
FLORIDA WEST COAST

FEBRUARY 13
Activity: Forty Section members and
guests toured the GMF Industries, Inc.,
structural steel fabrication facility in Lakeland, Fla. The presenters and tour guides
included Vice President Adam Norman,
Robyn Hyde, Julie Kaelin, Jake Doty,
Tommy Newberry, Greg Brakefield, Eddie
Hyde, Clay Hines, Nate Turner, Eric
Castleberry, Reid Ratajeskie, Don McKinney, and B. J. Patterson.
Attendees are shown at the Florida West Coast Section tour of GMF Industries.
South Florida Section members are shown at the aluminum welding seminar.
NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA

OCTOBER 9
Activity: The Section members toured A
& N Corp. in Williston, Fla., a manufacturer of high-vacuum flanges and chambers. Steve Blazicek led the tour of the
manual and automated gas tungsten arc
welding and precision machining operations.
NORTH FLORIDA
JANUARY 24
Speaker: Steven Mattson, representative
Affiliation: AWS Workforce Development
Initiatives
Topic: AWS Scholarship workshop
Activity: Mattson detailed the requirements on how to obtain a welding scholarship for students at Orange Park High
School in Orange Park, Fla. Participating
were Chair Doug Yates and Sherman
Smith, education chairman.
Shown at the North Florida Section student

workshop are Chair Doug Yates (left) and
Sherman Smith, education chair.
Shown at the Florida West Coast Section

tour are (front row, from left) Adam Norman, Robyn Hyde, and Chair Charles
Crumpton.
SOUTH FLORIDA
JANUARY 30
Speaker: Brent Williams
Affiliation: Hersey River Consulting
Topic: Gas metal arc welding of aluminum
Activity: About 50 Section members and
guests attended the seminar, held at McFatter Technical Center in Davie, Fla.
Shown at the Niagara Frontier Section weld-off event are (from left) Mike Robins, Sean
Burke, Evan King, Chair Fred Schmidt, Devon Hollman, Alex Wall, and Josh Buss.
NIAGARA FRONTIER
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
FEBRUARY 9
Activity: The Section hosted its student
weld-off competition at Orleans/Niagara
BOCES in Sanborn, N.Y., for 16 juniorand 12 senior-level contestants. Assisting
were Principal Anedda Trautman and the
welding staff. Merri Johnson, from Realityworks, demonstrated a virtual reality

welder training system for the 60 attendees. The winners in the senior class were
Mike Robins, Sean Burke, and Evan King.
The junior-class winners were Devon Hollman, Alex Wall, and Josh Buss.
WELDING JOURNAL
93
Competitors in the Niagara Frontier Section weld-off receive instructions on how their work will be judged.
Shown at the Cincinnati Section program are (from left) speaker Jim Hannahs, District 7 Director Uwe Aschemeier, Instructor Leamon
Wilson, and prize winners Spencer Horton, Steve Corbett, and Ryan Collins.
Holding the Holston Valley Section banner are presenter Dale Hicks on the left and Danny OQuinn on the right.
NORTHERN NEW YORK

FEBRUARY 19
Speaker: Tom Capobianco, engineer
Affiliation: Knolls Atomic Power Lab.,
Bechtel Marine Propulsion Corp.
Topic: Paper titled, Effects of Microstructure and Texture on Ultrasonic Inspection of
Austenitic Weld Metals
Activity: The paper was coauthored by
George Young Jr., Joseph Pyle, and Fateh
Khan. Attending were embers of the local
chapters of ASM Intl and ASNT.
District 7
Shown at the Great Oaks Student Chapter event are (from left) Andy Brown, Leamon Wilson, District 7 Director Uwe Aschemeier, Bruce Scherer, and Justin Lobenstein.
94
APRIL 2013
Uwe Aschemeier, director

(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
CCCTC Student Chapter welding students pose for a group shot Feb. 12.
CINCINNATI
FEBRUARY 12
Speaker: Jim Hannahs, P.E., welding consultant
Topic: Building NASCAR race cars
Activity: At this Cincinnati Section program, Hannahs presented details on building race cars to meet strict safety and technical requirements, then he presented a
video taken with an in-car camera while
he drove a NASCAR race car at Talladega
Superspeedway. The winners in the recent
welding contest were announced: Steve
Corbett for GTAW of aluminum; Spencer
Horton for GTAW of stainless steel; and
Ryan Collins for SMA/GMA/GTA welding of mild steel. Attending was Welding
Instructor Leamon Wilson.
COLUMBUS
JANUARY 16
Speaker: Bill Harper, professor of mathematical sciences
Affiliation: Otterbein University and Det
Norske Veritas (DNV) Columbus
Topic: Uncertainty-Statistically (or predicting unpredictable events)
Activity: Attending were members of local
chapters of other technical societies.
FEBRUARY 6
Activity: The Columbus Section joined
members of other technical societies to
tour the Anheuser-Busch Co. facilities in
Columbus Ohio. The tour guides were
Chris Wood, lead engineer in brewing, and
Jeff Oberlander, brewing engineer.
Bruce Hallila (white shirt) led CWIs on a tour of Pellerin Milnor as part of their recertification seminar taught by Ed Bohnart (black jacket and white shirt). The event was hosted by
the New Orleans Section.
and District 7 Director Uwe Aschemeier,
Student Chapter Advisor Bruce Scherer,
and Welding Instructor Leamon Wilson.
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
GREATER HUNTSVILLE
JANUARY 25
Activity: The Section held a welding contest for 44 students representing schools
in Blount, Marshall, Cullman, Lawrence,
and Dekalb counties. Andy Aguirre, a Cullman County Technical School student, won
first place in the advanced level. He received a fully paid scholarship to Tulsa
Welding School. The contest, held at
Blount County Center of Technology in
Cleveland, Ala., attracted 137 attendees.
Great Oaks Career

Campuses Student Chapter
HOLSTON VALLEY
JANUARY 8
Speaker: Jerry Back
Affiliation: Plumbers, Pipe Fitters, and
Mechanical Equipment Service Local 392
Activity: The Student Chapter held its
meeting at the Scarlet Oaks Career Campus in Cincinnati, Ohio, for 52 members.
The welding trivia contest winners were
Andy Brown and Justin Lobenstein. Participating were Cincinnati Section chair
JANUARY 15
Activity: The Section members visited Tennessee Technology Center in Elizabethton,
Tenn., for a catered dinner followed by a
talk by Welding Instructor Dale Hicks detailing the centers plans for expansion of
its welding facilities. Hicks concluded the
program by conducting a tour of the welding lab. Danny OQuinn, TTC assistant director, assisted with the event.
Instructor Huck Hughes (center) poses with

Katie Bell and Justin Perkins, who earned
top scores at the CCCTC Student Chapter
welding competition Feb. 1114.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director

(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
NEW ORLEANS
JANUARY 9
Activity: Ed Bohnart, an AWS past president and president of Welding Education
& Consulting, Inc., conducted a week-long
9-Year Recertification Course for AWS
Certified Welding Inspectors. The event
was held at the DoubleTree Airport Hotel
WELDING JOURNAL
95
in New Orleans, La. Included was a tour

of the sheet metal, welding and assembly
departments at Pellerin Milnor Corp. in
Kenner, La., led by Bruce A. Hallila, welding manager. The facility manufactures
laundry systems ranging from small coinoperated units to large cruise ship systems.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director

(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
CCCTC Student Chapter welding contest finalists pose for a group shot.
Columbiana County CTC

Student Chapter
FEBRUARY 12
Activity: Fifty Student Chapter members
began their Level 1 welding and materials
joining program at the Columbiana
County Career and Technology Center in
Lisbon, Ohio. Huck Hughes teaches the
course and is the Chapter advisor.
Shown at the Drake Well Section meeting are (from left) Robert Fugate, Tom Kostreba, Ward
Kiser, Jennifer Munoz, Dan Bubenhiem, Dave Cook, Rolf Laemmer, and Travis Crate.
FEBRUARY 1114
Activity: The CCCTC Student Chapter
held a four-day weld competition at
Columbiana County Career & Technical
Center in Lisbon, Ohio, for 75 participants.
Top honors went to Katie Bell and Justin
Perkins, and to their welding instructor,
Huck Hughes. This qualified Bell and
Perkins to compete at the regional contest
held Feb. 23 at Mahoning County Career
and Technical Center in Cranfield, Ohio.
DRAKE WELL
FEBRUARY 12
Activity: The Section held a social meeting at The Commons at Franklin, Pa. Attending were Robert Fugate, Tom
Kostreba, Ward Kiser, Jennifer Munoz,
Dan Bubenhiem, Dave Cook, Rolf Laemmer, and Travis Crate.
Saginaw Valley Section members are shown at their January program.
MAHONING VALLEY
FEBRUARY 7
Speaker: Brian Thompson
Affiliation: EWI, applications engineer
Topic: Friction stir welding
Activity: The meeting was held at 422 Caf
in Boardman, Ohio, for 45 attendees.
Members of the local chapter of ASM Intl
participated in the program.
Brian Thompson (right) speaker at the Mahoning Valley Section program is shown with
Rich Polenick, ASM Chapter secretary.
96
APRIL 2013
Speaker Eric Yearta (left) is shown with

Bruce Faccio, a professor at Delta College,
at the November 8 Saginaw Valley Section
program.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
Attendees are shown at the Madison-Beloit Section program. Speaker Tony Anderson is standing fifth from the right.
NORTHWEST OHIO
CALENDAR NOTICE
April 4, 2013
17th Annual Lincoln Motorsports
Welding Night
Owens Community College
Oregon Rd., Toledo, Ohio
Call Chair Dick West (419) 862-2933.
SAGINAW VALLEY
NOVEMBER 8
Speaker: Eric Yearta, owner
Affiliation: 6dB Inspection
Topic: Nondestructive inspection methods
Activity: Yearta demonstrated the dye penetrant, magnetic particle, and ultrasonic
testing methods.
JANUARY 17
Activity: Mid-Michigan C. C. hosted this
meeting for the Saginaw Valley Section,
headed by Mark Jewell, welding instructor, and Chair Keith Steelman. The presenters included Tom Moran, owner of
Moran Iron Works, Eric Yearta, owner of
6dB Inspection, and Bruce Faccio, associate professor at Delta College, who discussed ultrasonic inspection techniques.
Shown during the Racine-Kenosha Section tour are (from left) Chair Dan Crifase, Vice
Chair Ken Karwowski, Steve Shite, Dan Barry, Will Ringstmeyer, and Joe Haddican.
Attendees are shown at the Chicago Section planning meeting in January.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director

(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
MADISON-BELOIT
JANUARY 11
Speaker: Tony Anderson, director of aluminum technology
Affiliation: ITW Welding North America
Topic: Welding aluminum
Activity: The program was held at Cardinal Ale House and Bowl in Columbus, Wis.
RACINE-KENOSHA
FEBRUARY 7
Activity: The Section members visited The
Metal Shop in Pleasant Prairie, Wis., to
study its methods for fabricating and welding aluminum products. The tour included
its laser cutting, waterjet cutting, CNC machining, 3D modeling, and sheet-bending
capabilities. The tour was conducted by
owner Dan Barry and Will Ringstmeyer,
shop supervisor.
Shown at the St. Louis Section December program are from left (front row) Tim Schaaf,
Larry Wesemann, Joe Candela, and Chair Tully Parker; (back row) Larry Strader Sr., Mike
Kamp, Don Hamilton, and Dave Beers.
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
JANUARY 23
Activity: The Section held a planning
meeting at Krapils Steak House in Worth,
Ill. Attending were Laura Denton, Jeff
Stanczak, Marty and Rita Vondra, Kim
and Craig Tichelar, Eric Krauss, Pete
Host, Barb Oimet, Vicky and Jeff Darnell,
Angelina and Cliff Iftimie, and Bob and
Dolores Zimny.
Shown at the January 17 Saginaw Valley Section program are (from left) Mark Jewell,
Chair Keith Steelman, and Tom Moran.
WELDING JOURNAL
97
St. Louis Section members are shown during their tour of Jerry Haas Race Cars in January.
Kansas Section members and guests are shown having fun at the bowling event to raise funds for the scholarship fund.
Kansas Section members are shown during their November tour.
Boy Scouts are shown with Kansas Section members during their training to earn their welding merit badges in December.
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director

(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
ST. LOUIS
DECEMBER 7
Activity: The Section held its annual holi98
APRIL 2013
day and awards-presentation program at

Royal Orleans Banquet Center in St.
Louis, Mo. Chair Tully Parker presented
awards to Tim Schaaf (District Private Sector Educator), Larry Wesemann (District
CWI), Joe Candela (Section Educator),
Larry Strader Sr. (Section Private Sector
Educator), Mike Kamp (Section Meritorious), Don Hamilton (Section CWI), and
Dave Beers (District Director).
Shown at the St. Louis Section January event

are (from left) Jerry Simpson, Chair Tully
Parker, and tour guide John DeFlorian.
JANUARY 16
Activity: The St. Louis Section members
toured Jerry Haas Race Cars, Inc., in Fenton, Mo. John DeFlorian, shop foreman,
led the tour of the drag race stock car chassis manufacturing facility.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
KANSAS
NOVEMBER 29
Activity: The Section members toured
Great Plains Manufacturing, Salina, Kan.,
to study the fabrication of agricultural
equipment.
DECEMBER 3
Activity: The Kansas Section volunteers
coached 12 Boy Scouts from Troop 301 to
earn their welding merit badges. The event
was held at Hutchinson Community College in Hutchinson, Kan.
Nebraska Section officers are (from left) Treasurer Rick Hanny, Monty Rodgers, Chris
Ellinwood, Chair Chris Beaty, Secretary Karl Fogleman, and Paul Hannen.
JANUARY 19
Activity: The Kansas Section hosted its 4th
annual bowling tournament with 28 teams
to raise funds for the scholarship fund. The
event was held at North Rock Lanes in Wichita, Kan.
NEBRASKA
JANUARY 19
Activity: The Section held its annual bowling event at Maplewood Lanes in Omaha,
Neb. The event raised about $2000 for its
scholarship fund and school donations.
Shown at the North Texas Section program are Betsy and speaker Tom Siewert, Chair Donnie Williams, and Vice Chair Ernest Levert, an AWS past president.
District 17
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
EAST TEXAS
JANUARY 24
Activity: The Section members visited
Motor Trike, Inc., in Troup, Tex. The subject was converting a two-wheel motorcycle into a three-wheel trike and the creation of the Thoroughbred Motorsports
Stallion. The 108,000-sq-ft plant houses
three robotic welding machines and 15
downdraft paint and prep booths.
NORTH TEXAS
FEBRUARY 19
Speaker: Tom Siewert, AWS director-atlarge, NIST (ret.)
Topic: The World Trade Center collapse
Activity: Attending the program were
AWS past President Ernest Levert and
noted welding textbook author Larry Jeffus. The event was held in Arlington, Tex.
TULSA
JANUARY 22
Speaker: John Courtney, sales manager
Affiliation: AMET
John Bray (back), District 18 director, is shown with Houston Section awardees (from left)
Terry Wells, Dan Jones, Barney Burks, Mike Young, Robert Collins, and Alvarez Alejando.
Topic: Equipment for automating welding
Activity: The program was held for 29 attendees at Golden Corral in Tulsa, Okla.
District 18
John Bray, director

(281) 997-7273
sales@affiliatedmachinery.com
HOUSTON
JANUARY 23
Activity: The Section members met at Veterans of Foreign Wars in Cypress, Tex., for
a Flags of Our Fathers program presented
by local Boy Scout Troops 361 and 658.
Shown at the Tulsa Section program are Vice

Chair Paul Wittenbach (left) and speaker
John Courtney.
WELDING JOURNAL
99
Houston Section past chairs are from left (front) Asif Latiff, John Husfeld, Larry Smith, Robert
Hunt, and John Bray; (back) Ron Theiss, Jim Appledorn, Dennis Eck, and Roy Morton.
Speaker Michael Blakely (left) is shown with

Houston Section Chair Justin Gordy (center) and Vice Chair Derek Stelly at the February students night program.
Boy Scouts proudly pose at the Houston Sections Flags of Our Fathers event in January.
Joe Kephart earned his Boy Scout welding
merit badge at the Everett C. C. workshop.
Shown at the Rio Grande Valley Section program are (from left) District 18 Director John
Bray, Chair Rey Rivera, speaker Dennis Crockett, Robert Quintero, and Israel Garza.
Volunteers cited for their contributions to

the Houston Sections activities included
Terry Wells, Dan Jones, Barney Burks,
Mike Young, Robert Collins, and Alvarez
Alejando. Also recognized were nine past
chairmen including Asif Latiff, John Husfeld, Larry Smith, Robert Hunt, John Bray,
Ron Theiss, Jim Appledorn, Dennis Eck,
and Roy Morton.
FEBRUARY 20
Speaker: Michael Blakely, director of sales
Affiliation: Dynamic Materials Corp.
Topic: Explosion welding
Activity: The Houston Section hosted 296
members and guests at this students night
event held at Bradys Landing in Houston,
Tex. Barney Burks and Mike Young served
at the sign-in desk.
RIO GRANDE VALLEY

Alaska Section members and guests are shown during their tour of Arctic Fires Bronze.
Boy Scouts and Everett C. C. Student Chapter members are shown at the welding merit
badge workshop in January.
100 APRIL 2013
JANUARY 9
Speaker: Dennis Crockett, A5 Committee
on Filler Metals and Allied Materials
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Changes in A5.36, Specification for
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and
Metal Cored Electrodes for Metal Arc
Welding
Activity: Chair Rey Rivera received the
District 18 Director Certificate Award,
Robert Quintero earned the Section CWI
of the Year Award, and Israel Garza was
presented the Section Educator Award.
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Engineering & architectural services (incl.
assns.)
Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
R q Government (federal, state, local)
S q Other
Job Classification (Check ONE only)
01 q President, owner, partner, officer
02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or
assistant)
03 q Sales
04 q Purchasing
05 q Engineer welding
20 q Engineer design
21 q Engineer manufacturing
06 q Engineer other
10 q Architect designer
12 q Metallurgist
13 q Research & development
22 q Quality control
07 q Inspector, tester
08 q Supervisor, foreman
14 q Technician
09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator
11 q Consultant
15 q Educator
17 q Librarian
16 q Student
18 q Customer Service
19 q Other
Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
NOTE: Dues include $18.70 for Welding Journal

subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation.
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card.
q
q
Learn more about each publication at www.awspubs.com
q New
Type of Business (Check ONE only)
r Yes r No
If yes, Members name:_________________________________ Members # (if known): ______________
ADDRESS
Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only)

Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding
Welding Metallurgy
Welding Handbook (9th Ed., Vol. 4)
For more book choices visit
www.aws.org/membership
Account #
Date
Amount
Two-year Individual Membership Special Offer: applies only to new AWS Individual Members. Discount Publication
Offer: applies only to new AWS Individual Members. Select one of the seven listed publications for an additional $35; NOTE: a
$50 shipping charge applies to members outside of the U.S., add $85 ($35 for book selection and $50 for international shipping);
Multi-Year Discount: First year is $82, each additional year is $77. No limit on years (not available to Student Members).
Student Member: Any individual who attends a recognized college, university, technical, vocational school or high school is
eligible. This membership includes digital Welding Journal magazine. Student Memberships do not include a discounted
publication. International hard copy Welding Journal option: applies only to International AWS Welder Members
(excludes Canada and Mexico). Digitized delivery of WJ is standard
A
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K
L
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N
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R
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U
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Ferrous metals
Aluminum
Nonferrous metals except aluminum
Advanced materials/Intermetallics
Ceramics
High energy beam processes
Arcwelding
Brazing and soldering
Resistance welding
Thermal spray
Cutting
NDT
Safety and health
Bending and shearing
Roll forming
Stamping and punching
Aerospace
Automotive
Machinery
Marine
Piping and tubing
Pressure vessels and tanks
Sheet metal
Structures
Other
Automation
Robotics
Computerization of Welding
Speaker Elaine Thomas and Ken Johnson,

District 19 director, are shown at the Puget
Sound Section February 7 program.
Speaker Sjon Delmore (left) is shown with

Ron Silver, Inland Empire Section chair.
John Buttles receives the Section Meritorious Award from Paul Tremblay, Idaho/Montana Section chair.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director

(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
ALASKA
JANUARY 23
Activity: The Section members visited Arctic Fires Bronze in Palmer, Alaska, to study
its blacksmithing, casting, and welding
techniques used to make works of art in
various mediums. Pat Garley, artist, conducted the tour. Included was a demonstration of the lost-wax process and an opportunity to do a hands-on bronze pour.
Everett Community College

Student Chapter
JANUARY 19
Activity: The Student Chapter members
conducted a Boy Scout welding merit
badge workshop for members of Troop 29
based in Snohomish County.
INLAND EMPIRE
JANUARY 23
Speakers: Olympic Section Chair Sjon Delmore, CWI, vice president of sales, CK
Worldwide; and Shawn McDaniel, CWI,
welding instructor, Big Bend C. C.
Topic: Seminar on welding aluminum alloys
Activity: Following the talks and a PowerPoint presentation, the attendees held an
open forum and participated in a handson demonstration of gas tungsten arc welding. The seminar was held at Oxarc Welding School in Pasco, Wash.
PORTLAND
JANUARY 24
Speaker: Neil Shannon, CWI
Affiliation: Carlson Testing
Central New Mexico C. C. Student Chapter SkillsUSA welding competition participants are
(from left) Kay Hamby, Ryan Jim, Adam Avenetti, Jimmy Chavez, Dominic Gonsalas,
Justin Quintana, Kolby McMinn, and Robert Ulibarri.
Topic: Anatomy of a Welding Procedure
Activity: The program was held in Beaverton, Ore., for 35 attendees.
PUGET SOUND
FEBRUARY 7
Speaker: Elaine Thomas, director of
metallurgy
Affiliation: Bradken, Inc.
Topic: Producing thick C12A castings
Activity: This Puget Sound Section meeting was held at Rock Salt Steak House in
Seattle, Wash.
FEBRUARY 9
Activity: The Puget Sound Section hosted
a CWI seminar and exam at the DoubleTree Hotel in Seattle, proctored by Jennifer Bernard. The Section hosted two tables at an exhibition held at the Boeing
Museum of Flight manned by members
Grant Goldsmith and Robert White, and
Joshua Anderson and Art Schnitzer from
the Everett C. C. Student Chapter.
District 20
William A. Komlos, director

(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
Central New Mexico C. C.

Student Chapter
JANUARY 17
Activity: The Student Chapter hosted its
annual in-house SkillsUSA welding fabrication competition. This years project was
to fabricate a pipe welding stand. The activity was supervised by welding instructors Kay Hamby and Robert Ulibarri.
IDAHO/MONTANA
DECEMBER 6
Activity: The Eastern Idaho Engineering
Councils Christmas social was held at
Shilo Inn, in Idaho Falls, Idaho. John Buttles received the Section Meritorious
Award for his assistance with AWS functions throughout 2011 and 2012.
JANUARY 18
Speakers: Nancy Carlson, Paul Tremblay
Topic: Highlights of our careers in research
and how we became involved in welding
Activity: The meeting was held at Brigham
Young University (BYU) in Rexburg,
Idaho, for welding students planning to reactivate the Student Chapter at the university. The students elected to serve are
Tevan Boersma, chair; Aaron Harker, vice
chair; Ben Hubbard, secretary, and Cort
WELDING JOURNAL 103
Idaho/Montana Section members pose for a group shot.

Johnson, treasurer; Austin Hudman, historian; and instructor Dale Mortensen,
BYU Student Chapter Advisor.
NEW MEXICO
Shown at the Idaho/Montana Section program are BYU students Ben Hubbard, Aaron
Harker, Tevan Boersma, Austin Hudman, and Cort Johnson.
JANUARY 18
Speaker: Nancy C. Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Careers for women in welding
Activity: Donald Susan received the Section meritorious Award and Alvin Allen
received the Section Educator Award. The
meeting was held at Central New Mexico
Community College in Albuquerque,
N.Mex.
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director

(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
Donald Susan receives his award from

Nancy Cole, AWS president, at the New Mexico Section program.
District 22
AWS President Nancy Cole is shown with
Alvin Allen at the New Mexico Section event.
Kerry E. Shatell, director

(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
Name Your Candidates for These AWS Awards

The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations.
Contact Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribuWilliam Irrgang Memorial Award
tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.
This award is given to the individual who has done the most
George E. Willis Award
over the past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advancThis award is given to an individual who promoted the ading the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500
vancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperahonorarium and a certificate.
tive participation in technology transfer, standards rationaliHonorary Membership Award
zation, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,
$2500 honorarium.
or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the
International Meritorious Certificate Award
development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full
This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to
rights of membership.
the welding industry for service to the international welding comNat. Meritorious Certificate Award
munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate
This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and
and a one-year AWS membership.
dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela104 APRIL 2013
Guide to AWS Services

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166
(800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
INTERNATIONAL SALES
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing Director
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
VP Sales and Marketing
Bill Fudale..bfudale@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(211)
VP Technology and Business Development
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Corporate Director, International Sales

Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)

Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Section Web Editor

Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
International Institute of Welding
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS

Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal

Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding

Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering

Manufacturers Committee
Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)
GAWDA Gases and Welding

Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
Senior Staff Engineer

Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director, Human Resources

Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Managing Engineer, Standards

Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing
Standards Program Managers

Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Thermal Spray, Automotive, Resistance Welding,
Machinery and Equipment
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com

Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors federal issues of importance to the industry.
Manager, Safety and Health

Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Personnel and Facilities Qualification
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
Director, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
Director, National Standards Activities

Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all international certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Alex Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)

Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Senior Manager, Technical Publications
Rosalinda ONeill.. roneill@aws.org . . . . . . .(451)
AWS publishes about 200 documents widely used
throughout the welding industry
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards

may be obtained only by sending a request in writing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services, adavis@aws.org.
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral opinions do not constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of
AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and
should not be used as a substitute for an official
interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development

Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
Director, Education Development

David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation established to provide support for the educational and scientific endeavors of the American Welding Society.
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS

Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nominees.
Promote the Foundations work with your financial

support. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 212, for complete
information.
WELDING JOURNAL 105
PERSONNEL
Pazkowski to Represent
U.S. at WorldSkills in July
Alex Pazkowski, 21,
a junior at Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor,
Mich., won the U.S.
finals welding competition. The achievement earned him a
$40,000 college scholarship toward a weldAlex Pazkowski ing engineering degree and the honor to
represent the United States at the WorldSkills welding trials to be held in Germany
in July. Hosted by Larsen Motorsports of
Daytona Beach, the American Welding
Society/SkillsUSA Team USA finals took
place over several days at Daytona International Speedway in February.
Airgas Names Northern

Pacific President
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has named
William Bill Sanborn president of the
Airgas Northern Pacific (Nor Pac) region. He replaces Edward Richards who
has taken another
position within the
company. Sanborn,
with the company
since 2004, previously served the AirWilliam Sanborn gas North Central region as area vice
president for Wisconsin and the Upper
Peninsula area of Michigan.
Four Key Personnel

Promoted at Fronius USA
Fronius USA, LLC, Portage, Ind., a
subsidiary of Fronius International
GmbH, a manufacturer of welding equipment, has promoted David Grant and
Chris Bliven, previously area sales managers, to regional sales managers. Shaun
Relyea, senior application engineer, was
promoted to tech support manager at the
company headquarters in Indiana. Wes
Doneth, formerly tech support manager,
was promoted to area sales manager for
Michigan and Indiana. He is also the AWS

Detroit Sections scholarship chair. Mark
Stone continues his role as regional sales
manager at the VSP South East office.
Charter Mfg. Reassigns

Top Leadership Roles
Charter Mfg. Co., Mequon, Wis., a privately held provider of steel and steel components, has announced John A. Mellowes
has left the posts of chairman and CEO to
become chairman emeritus. As part of a
planned succession, his son, John W. Mellowes, previously VP and general manager
of the Charter Steel division, has been
named company CEO. Another son,
Charles A. Mellowes, was named board
chairman and continues his responsibilities as VP of strategic planning and business development.
Weiler Announces
Marketing VP
Weiler Corp., Cresco, Pa., a manufacturer of power and abrasive nylon brushes,
abrasives, and maintenance products, has
named Bill Dwyre VP
strategic marketing.
Dwyre, with more
than 25 years of experience in international sales and marketing, most recently
served as VP, tool
products, at Ingersoll
Rand.
Bill Dwyre
TRUMPF Laser Center

Makes Staff Changes
Pat Grace
Rick Davis
TRUMPF, Inc., Laser Technology

Center in Plymouth, Mich., has promoted
Pat Grace to North American sales manager, lasers and systems. Rick Davis has
106 APRIL 2013
awo.aws.org
METALLURGY
ME
TA
ALL
LURGY
G
for the Non-Metallurgist:

Non-Metallurgist: Fundamentals
Metallurgy is the science that deals with the iinternal
nternal structure of
metals, the relationship between metals, and the properties of metals.
In welding, a basic understanding of metallurgy provides insight into
the positive and negative changes that occur in metals when joined
by welding.
behaviors
From the properties of an atom to the behavi
ors of metals during
the welding process, you are introduced to the properties of metals
and will gain an understanding of why metals behave the way they do.
atoms,
Concepts covered include the anatomy of ato
ms, the periodic table,
chemical bonding, including ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and
metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals. This seminar
contains interactive exercises to reinforce key points and includes
summaries and quizzes to help prepare you for the completion exam.
The seminar is approximately five hours long and concludes with a
proficiency test.
Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/metallurgy
PERSONNEL
joined the company

as key account manager, and Dan Willson was promoted to
technical
service
manager for lasers
and laser systems in
North America. With
the company for
nearly ten years,
Dan Willson
Grace
previously
served as regional sales manager for accounts on the West Coast. Davis has extensive sales and management experience
in laser technology including micro and
diode lasers. Willson previously served the
company as supervisor, CO2/5-Axis Service Group, where he directed the efforts
of the field service engineers and provided
technical consultation for lasers and laser
systems.
Envirosight Hires Western

Sales Manager
Envirosight, Randolph, N.J., a pipe-inspection equipment manufacturer, has
hired Christopher Helliwell as western regional sales manager, servicing California

to Vancouver, B.C., and eastward to
Idaho, Colorado, and Texas. Before joining the company, Helliwell served 13 years
as a regional manager and account manager at Orenco Systems, Inc.
Bishop-Wisecarver
Appoints VP Marketing
Bishop-Wisecarver Group, Pittsburg,
Calif., has appointed Michael McVeigh
vice president of marketing. McVeigh,
who joined the company in 2006, previously served as vice president of sales.
This group of companies works with manufacturers to engineer, manufacture, and
build linear and rotary-motion solutions,
custom subassemblies, and embedded intelligence systems.
Metabo Promotes Four to

Fill Key Posts
Metabo Corp., West Chester, Pa., a
supplier of portable electric power tools
and abrasives for industrial, construction,
and welding applications, has promoted
Jens Knudsen to VP finance and opera-
PURGE
E STAR
STA
STA
AR
3 Purge 6" pipe in less than 3 minutes
to less than 1% oxygen content
3 Reduce argon usage
3 Increase weld production rate
3 Improve weld quality
NEW &
IMPROVED
tions at the West Chester facility, Mark

Linn to director of national accounts,
Larry Pecht to the newly created position
of national key account manager (end
user program), and Darren White to regional manager South/Central, overseeing sales efforts in Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, and southern Illinois. Previously, Linn served as national accounts
manager, Pecht was regional manager
South/Central, and White was sales representative in north Texas.
Noble Gas Names

Operations Director
Noble Gas Solutions,
Albany, N.Y., a distributor of welding
equipment
and
gases, has promoted
Colleen Laverty to
director of operations, to oversee all
production and distribution at the comColleen Laverty pany. She previously
served as a specialty
gas territory manager, and as a national
account manager for an online digital
print company.
INFLATABLE PURGE DAMS

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MANUFACTURING
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Y,, INC.
INC
SUMNER MANUFACTURING
108 APRIL 2013
Conference on
Welding Codes
and Standards
July 16-17, 2013

Disneys Coronado Springs Resort, Orlando, Florida
standar
ds ar
aluable documents av
ailable
Technical
T
echnical
e
standa
standards
aree among the most vvaluable
available
to manufactur
ers and fabricators of w
elded pr
oducts. This A
W
WS
manufacturers
welded
products.
AWS
confer
ence will take a deep div
WS
W D1
D str
uctural codes
conference
divee into A
AWS
structural
codes,, the
ASME B
oiler and P
ressure V
eessel Code,
Code, AP
Boiler
Pressure
Vessel
APII pipeline codes
codes,, and
militar
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esigners, inspectors, and QC specialists
militaryy and ISO standar
standards.
Designers,
will gain ne
w insights and car
eer-enhancing kno
wledge.
new
career-enhancing
knowledge.
A
AWS
WS
W Confer
Conference
aree awar
awarded
(Professional
Development
evelopment H
Hour)
our)
ence attendees ar
ded 1 PDH (P
rofessional D
conference
ence attendance. These PDHs can be applied to
toward
ward A
AWS
W
WS rrecertications
enewals.
for each hour of confer
ecertications and rrenewals.
For
conference
web
F
or the latest confer
ence information and rregistration
egistration visit our w
eb site at
www.aws.org/conferences
224..
www
w..aws.orrgg/con
nferreences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

three graduate scholarships worth $2000 each to be awarded each

calendar year. Applications are now accepted annually April 15
through June 30. For more details and a printable application
form, visit the scholarship section of www.thermalspray.org.
Victor Technologies Reveals Results

of Student Contest
to the Marine Department at Broward College, Ft. Lauderdale,

Fla. Included are gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc welding machines; Filtair fume extractors; and welding tables.
Gilly Burrion, an American Welding Society (AWS) Certified
Welding Sales Representative and chair of the AWS South Florida
Section, consulted with the college through this process. A basic
welding course has recently been added to its Marine Technology Technical Certificate.
If we can help students develop with good equipment, this
will only make our industry stronger, Burrion said.
In addition, Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., and
Florida Gas Welding Supply, Hollywood, Fla., donated eight
welding helmets and 12 pairs of welding gloves to the colleges
Marine Engineering Management Program.
For course offerings, visit www.broward.edu/marine.
Climax Portable Machining Arranges

Welder Training Courses
The team from Highland High School, Gilbert, Ariz. (students Brett
Eschliman, Matt Focht, Jack Daniel, Zach Benn, and instructor
Curtis Willems) poses with their 6-ft-long metal alligator.
Victor Technologies, St. Louis, Mo., recently announced
the six winners of its Innovation to Shape the World contest.
The individual winners are Mikayla Bradford, Assabet Valley
Regional Technical High School, Marlborough, Mass. (instructor Neil Mansfield); Rudy Gonsalez, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College, Lucedale, Miss. (instructor Joshua Pierce); and
Justin Clay, WEMOCO Career and Technology Center, Spencerport, N.Y. (instructor Filippe Rocha).
The winning essay themes centered on the influence of oxyfuel cutting at sites like Ground Zero; innovations and human
creativity observations; and inspiration from your instructor.
The team winners hail from Assabet Valley Regional Technical High School (Mitchell Miller and Jesse Lemanski, instructors George Aziz/Chris Wittmier); Santa Fe College, Gainesville,
Fla. (Zachary Adams, James Moore, Matt Taylor, Matt Parrot,
and Syson OBrien Hall, instructor Joseph Mahoney); and Highland High School, Gilbert, Ariz. (Brett Eschliman, Matt Focht,
Jack Daniel, and Zach Benn, instructor Curtis Willems).
Among the winning projects were a two tank patriotic salute,
honoring the cutting and welding used to build/repair military
equipment; the mighty D.U.C., an ancient utility vehicle converted into a mobile welding cart; and a 6-ft-long metal alligator.
Individual winners won $250 for their winning essay. Members of the winning team each won a $500 cash prize for their
welding project. All schools associated with the winners also won
a cutting, welding, and gas control package valued at $4000 each.
Broward College Upgrades Welding

Equipment and Gets Apparel Donations
More than $75,000 in new welding equipment has been added
Climax Portable Machining & Welding Systems, Newberg,

Ore., has developed a schedule of courses and programs to train
new and experienced welders on automated welding tools and
techniques. They are available at the Climax Global Learning
Center in Oregon or can take place at a customers location.
Classes from basic operations to advanced techniques are
available. Welding training focuses on tool setup, mounting, operation, and safety, with the majority of every program devoted
to hands-on activities and skills development. Also, customized
courses and training on portable machining tools are offered.
The instruction team includes specialists who have conducted
on-site training worldwide for major industries. Interested individuals may e-mail GlobalLearningCenter@cpmt.com.
Waukesha County Technical College

Completes Welding Lab Expansion
Waukesha County Technical College (WCTC), Pewaukee, Wis., has completed significantly increasing its welding lab.
This expansion was
necessary because we did
not have the ability to do
heavy-plate welding in our
current lab, and there has
been a considerable demand for welders from employers in our area, said
Mike Shiels, dean of
WCTCs School of Applied
Technologies.
The project began last
October and finished in
late January. Lab space Sparks fly as a Waukesha County
doubled to 10,000 sq ft and Technical College metal fabrica19 new Lincoln Electric tion/welding student practices in the
welding stations are in- colleges welding lab.
cluded. A jib crane will also
be installed.
Currently, there are 200 students in the colleges welding programs. Those interested in heavy-plate welding need to be trained
in other processes first, with full-scale, heavy-plate training to
begin in summer, Shiels added. He also mentioned the expansion allows doubling the number of students it trains every year.
WELDING JOURNAL 111
CLASSIFIEDS
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT

JOE FULLER LLC
2013
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3-ton through 120-ton rolls
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email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
Pascagoula, MS Apr. 4 12
40 HOUR COURSE
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Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:

(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
The worlds very

best portable end
prep tools and
abrasive saws
For sale or rent
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
800-343-6926
www.escotool.com
Also offering: 9Year CWI Recertification,

RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT Thickness,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
CWS, SCWI, Advanced Inspection Courses
SERVICES
Tank Turning Rolls

Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
112 APRIL 2013
ADVERTISER
INDEX
Abicor Binzel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
www.binzel-abicor.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 542-4867
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110
American Torch Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

www.americantorchtip.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 342-8477
Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333
Arc Machines, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

www.arcmachines.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(818) 896-9556
Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043
ArcOne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
www.Arc1Weldsafe.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 223-4685
Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC

www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Hypertherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
www.hypertherm.com/morepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 643-0030
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
Image of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

www.aws.org/awards/image.html . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800-443-9353
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60, 83, 107, 110

www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

www.intercononline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 665-6655
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63, 109

www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
KMT Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

www.kmtsaw.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 321-8860
AWS Publications Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
Bluco Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

www.bluco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 367-6024
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
Bruker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
www.bruker.com/s1titan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(978) 439-9899
National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
C.H. Symington & Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

www.chsymington.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(614) 766-2602
Revco Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

www.bsxgear.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 527-3826
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267
CM Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
www.cmindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 550-0033
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC

www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Sellstrom Manufacturing Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

www.sellstrom.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 323-7402
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Sumner Manufacturing Co, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

www.sumner.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 999-6910
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
TEC Welding Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

www.tectorch.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(760) 747-3700
Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

www.diversacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483
Victor Technologies International, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

www.victortechnologies.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

www.electronbeam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 935-2211
Weld Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243
ESAB Welding and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

www.esabna.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 372-2123
Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.weldengineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224
ESSEN Welding Show/Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

www.schweissen-schneiden.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . .001-914-962-1310
Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

www.weldhugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 935-3447
FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487
IFC = Inside Front Cover

IBC = Inside Back Cover
OBC = Outside Back Cover
Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index
WELDING JOURNAL 113
SCHOOL
PROFILES
Advanced Technology Institute (ATI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
IMENDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Advanced Welding Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
ISTUC, Instituto de Soldadura y Tecnologias de Union . . . . .82
AIDT Maritime Training Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
John Lopez Welding School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Akron Testing Lab. & Welding School Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
John Wood Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Albany Weld Trade School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Kenai Peninsula College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Alfred State College/SUNY College of Technology . . . . . . . . . .70
Kiamichi Technology Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
American River College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Lansing Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Atlantic Technical Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Lincoln Electric Welding School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Bellingham Technical College Welding Rodeo . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Lynnes Welding Training, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Bellingham Technical College Welding Technology Program .71
Mid-Plains Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Bill J. Priest Institute/El Centro College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Midwest Technical Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Brevard Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Missouri Welding Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Bridgerland Applied Tech. College Wldg. Tech., Logan, Utah .81
Modern Welding School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Butte-Glenn Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Monroe County Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Cal-Trade Welding School of Modesto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Moraine Park Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Calumet Welding Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Moultrie Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Central Piedmont Comm. College/James Turner Inst. . . . . . .72
New River Community and Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Central Wyoming College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
North Dakota State College of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
College of the Canyons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Columbus State Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Northwestern Michigan College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Commercial Diving Academy Maritime Welding Program . . .72
Odessa College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Commercial Diving Academy Technical Institute . . . . . . . . . . .72
Orangeburg-Calhoun Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Cosumnes River College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Owens Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Cuesta College Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Ozarks Technical Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Dabney S. Lancaster Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Pennsylvania College of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Dalus, S.A. De C.V. Welder Training & AWS Cert. Center . . .81
Polaris Career Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Portland Arts and Technology High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Earlbeck Gases & Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Pulaski Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Eastern Maine Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Shasta College Welding Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Ferris State University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Southeast Community College Welding Tech. Program . . . . . .80
George T. Baker Aviation School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
SouthWest Collegiate Inst. for the Deaf of Howard College . .80
Georgia Trade School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Suffolk County Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Harper College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Tri-County Technical College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Hill College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Tulsa Welding School Oklahoma/Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Tyler Junior College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Hutchinson Community College/AVS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
University of Alaska Anchorage Wldg. and NDT Technology .82
Idaho State University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Washtenaw Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Illinois Valley Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Welder Training and Testing Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
114 APRIL 2013
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, APRIL 2013

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Evaluation of Susceptibility of Alloy IN740 to

HAZ Stress-Relaxation Cracking
The susceptibility of Ni-Cr-Co Alloy IN740 to heat-affected zone stress-relaxation
cracking was evaluated and compared to precipitation strengthening
Alloys IN718 and Waspaloy
ABSTRACT
The susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking of Alloy IN740 was evaluated
using high-temperature tensile testing and Gleeble stress-relaxation testing in the
temperature range from 600900C and compared to Alloys IN718 and Waspaloy. The test results indicate that the susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking of IN740 is lower than that of Waspaloy, and it is similar to that of Alloy IN718.
A ductility dip was observed in the alloys tested. IN740, IN718, and Waspalloy
showed a ductility (reduction of area) minimum of 11.3% at 850C, 8.5% at 750C,
and 4.0% at 900C, respectively. The three alloys showed an increase of effective
stress or negative-creep behavior during stress relaxation at most testing temperatures, increasing the driving force for stress-relaxation cracking. Waspaloy presented a normal stress relaxation behavior at 850, 900, and 950C. Phase
computational modeling predictions indicate that IN740 and Waspaloy are
strengthened mainly by precipitates while IN718 is hardened by the precipitation of both gamma prime and gamma double prime. The modeling predictions
show that alloys strengthened only by gamma prime (IN740 and Waspaloy) present faster precipitation reaction kinetics and experience formation of eta phase
during the stress relaxation tests. The synergistic effect of stress relaxation behavior, characteristics and kinetics of precipitation reactions, and high-temperature or creep ductility may control the relative susceptibility to stress relaxation
cracking of these three alloys.
Introduction
In the 21st century, the world faces the
critical challenge of providing abundant,
cheap electricity to meet the needs of a
growing global population while at the
same time preserving the environment.
Worldwide research and development efforts have been conducted in recent
decades to develop and qualify high-temperature materials technology for ultrasupercritical boiler (USCB) for power
generation. The goal of the USCB programs is to increase boiler efficiencies and
achieve lower emission levels. In the
United States, a program funded by The
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and
the Ohio Coal Development Office
(OCDO) has the goal to develop material
J. E. RAMIREZ (jramirez@ewi.org) is principal
engineer, EWI, Columbus, Ohio.
technology capable of operating with

steam temperatures of up to 732C
(1350F), and pressures as high as 35 MPa
(5000 lb/in.2) (Ref. 1). These service conditions translate into higher hot gas path
temperatures and the need for materials
possessing the required strength, heat, and
corrosion resistance for long-term, reliable
service at higher temperatures. Additionally, the weldability of these base materials
or ability to produce crack-free joints with
KEYWORDS
Alloys IN740 and IN718
Waspaloy
Stress-Relaxation Cracking
Ductility Dip
acceptable mechanical properties is

equally important as it has implications on
original fabrication and repair.
A nickel-based alloy, Inconel Alloy
740 (IN740) (Ref. 2), has been identified in
the U.S. as a potential candidate for the severe operating conditions of USC boilers
based on its resistance to fireside corrosion
resistance, steamside oxidation, and good
stress-rupture properties (Refs. 35). Alloy
IN740 was developed as part of a similar
program in Europe known as the THERMIE Program. Alloy IN740 is a precipitation-hardenable nickel-chromium-cobalt
alloy with niobium, titanium, and aluminum
additions. It is primarily strengthened
through precipitation of gamma-prime
phase ( ) and secondarily through the precipitation of carbides. Alloy IN740 is a new
alloy with no fabrication history that was derived from NIMONIC Alloy 263. Therefore, the weldability of this new
precipitation-hardenable alloy needed to be
evaluated as part of the material selection
criteria for application in USC boilers for
power generation.
In general, nickel-based precipitationhardenable alloys are susceptible to liquation cracking during welding and to
stress-relaxation cracking, also known as
postweld heat treatment (PWHT) cracking, reheat cracking, or strain-age cracking, in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Additionally, application of IN740 in the
USC boilers requires wall thicknesses of
up to three inches. The high level of restraint in thick joints not only increases the
susceptibility to liquation cracking and
stress-relaxation cracking, but also makes
the HAZ susceptible to ductility-dip cracking (DDC) during welding. Finally, the
mechanical properties of Alloy IN740
welded joints are expected to depend on
the as-received condition of the base
metal, welding procedures, and pre- and
postweld heat treatments.
The conducted evaluation of the weldability of Alloy IN740 included: 1) HAZ li-
WELDING JOURNAL 89-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY J. E. RAMIREZ
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 General microstructure of the evaluated IN740 heat.
Fig. 2 Samples with reduced gauge diameter for high-temperature tensile testing and stress-relaxation testing.
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of thermomechanical cycles during

Gleeble stress-relaxation testing.
Fig. 4 Ultimate strength of Alloy IN740 as a function of gauge geometry and testing temperature.
quation cracking susceptibility and HAZ

DDC susceptibility (Ref. 6); and 2) stressrelaxation cracking susceptibility of Alloy
IN740 and comparison with other common
nickel-based precipitation-hardenable alloys such as IN718 and Waspaloy as reported in this paper.
Stress-relaxation or PWHT cracking is
intergranular and typically occurs during the
heating or holding portion of the PWHT
cycle, or during service. Precipitation of second phases results in strengthening of the
base metal that hinders complete relaxation
of the residual stresses induced during welding. Additionally, the precipitation reaction
may increase the stresses due to volumetric
shrinkage. As a result, the stress level in the
HAZ is controlled by the competition be-
tween the kinetics of stress relaxation and

the kinetics of precipitation hardening. In
general, stress-relaxation cracking is a result
of stresses developed during welding and
PWHT, and relaxed preferentially along the
grain boundaries of the HAZ at a time
when this zone is being, or has been, embrittled by metallurgical reactions. If the
creep or high-temperature ductility of the
material is exceeded, cracking may result
during PWHT or during service.
Materials and Experimental

Procedures
Base Materials
The Alloy IN740 bar stock used for the
weldability evaluation was initially melted

using vacuum induction and subsequently
electroslag remelted. The cylindrical cast
(about 21 in. in diameter) was then forged
to 11.65 in. in diameter at 1180C. The resulting 11.65-in.-diameter billet stock was
then extruded at 1180C to 3- 6-in. bar.
Finally, the bar was annealed at 1121C
(2050F) and water quenched. A reannealing treatment of the bar at 1121C for
3 h prior to water quenching was necessary
due to high hardness in the as-produced
bar. The provided material was identified
as Heat BLT2819. The chemical composition of this heat of material is listed in
Table 1. Figure 1 shows the general microstructure of the evaluated IN740 heat.
In order to compare the stress relax-
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Alloy IN740 (Heat BLT2819) Used in This Testing Program
90-s
Element
Ni
wt-%
Element
wt-%
Element
wt-%
0.029
Si
0.53
Cu
0.02
Balance
Mn
0.26
Fe
0.45
APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
Cr
24.4
P
<0.005
Mo
0.50
Co
20.0
S
<0.001
Pb
0.6 ppm
Nb
2.0
Ag
<0.1
V
<0.01
Ti
1.8
B
0.0045
Zn
1 ppm
Al
1.0
Bi
<0.1
Zr
0.225
Fig. 5 High-temperature tensile properties of the HAZ of Alloy IN740 and base metal as a function of temperature and holding time. A UTS; B reduction of area.
Fig. 6 General characteristics of the fracture surface of HAZ of IN740

tested at 850C (ductility minimum) after 2 h holding time. A Intergranular (1000); B intergranular (2000); C transgranular (1000).
ation cracking susceptibility of Alloy

IN740 to that of more common nickelbased alloys, stress-relaxation testing of
commercially available IN718 and Waspaloy alloys was conducted as well. Both
IN718 and Waspaloy materials were in the
annealed condition.
Evaluation of Stress-Relaxation Cracking
Susceptibility
The susceptibility to stress-relaxation

cracking was evaluated using Gleeble
high-temperature tensile testing and Gleeble stress-relaxation testing. These testing
methods have been used to evaluate the
susceptibility of stress-relaxation cracking
(strain age cracking, PWHT cracking, reheat cracking) of low-alloy steels, stainless
steels, and nickel-based alloys by many researchers (Refs. 729). The high-temperature tensile test serves as a screening test
based on the characteristic (temperature
range and minimum ductility) of potential
ductility-dip experience by materials. The
WELDING RESEARCH
lower the ductility or

ability to accommodate
plastic deformation at
the high-temperature
of a material, the
higher the susceptibility of a material to
stress-relaxation cracking. The stress-relaxation test reproduces
more closely the conditions experienced by
welded joints during
PWHT or service including the presence of
residual stresses, stress
relaxation, precipitation reactions, temperature, and time. The temperature experienced by the samples during testing
was measured using fine-wire K-type thermocouples. These thermocouples were
percussion welded to the samples. The applied load and displacement was monitored using a load cell and a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT), respec-
tively, embedded in the Gleeble machine

system. The data were acquired at a rate
of about 1000 Hz.
Gleeble High-Temperature Tensile Testing
Since stress-relaxation cracking is most

prevalent in the coarse-grained HAZ
(CGHAZ), the microstructure of this region was reproduced using a simulated
Fig. 7 General characteristics of the fracture surface of IN740 base

material tested at 850C (ductility minimum). A 350; B 1000;
C 3000.
WELDING RESEARCH
welding thermal cycle. The conditions for

the welding thermal cycle simulation are
listed in Table 2. The nil-strength temperatures (NST) obtained for Alloy IN740,
IN718, and Waspaloy are shown in Table 3.
The NST of these alloys were determined
using the Gleeble hot-ductility testing described elsewhere (Ref. 6). After reproducing the CGHAZ, the high-temperature
tensile samples were heated to the test tem-
perature and held for 30 s

to allow for thermal stabilization without any applied stresses. The IN740
samples were then pulled
to rupture after an additional holding time of 0 s,
1 h, and 2 h at test temperature. The IN718 and
Waspaloy samples were
not held for additional
time at the testing temperature before the stress was
applied during the hightemperature tensile testing. The conditions for tensile testing are
summarized in Table 4. Additionally, a set
of samples from the IN740 alloy was tested
in the as-received condition.
The ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) of
the materials were determined at different
temperatures and holding times to establish a reference or baseline for the stress
levels to be applied during stress-relax-
Table 2 Condition for HAZ Simulation in IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy Alloys
Parameter
Peak temperature (C)
Heating rate to peak temperature

Holding time at peak temperature
Cooling rate to room temperature
Atmosphere
Gleeble Stress Relaxation Testing
Description
IN740: 1250 [NST (0 to 50C)]
IN718: 1260 [NST (0 to 50C)]
Waspaloy: 1270 [NST (0 to 50C)]
111C/s (200F/s)
0.03 s
40C/s (72F/s)
argon
Table 3 Nil-Strength Temperature (NST) Obtained from Different IN740, IN718, and
Waspaloy Specimens
Specimen
IN740
NST (C)
IN718
Waspaloy
1
2
3
4
Average
1281
1282
1271
1284
1279.5
1261
1254
1273
1262.6
1301
1312
1313
1308.7
92-s
APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
ation testing. The UTS values were determined by dividing the maximum load obtained with each tensile test condition
(temperature and holding time) by the initial area of the gauge section. Additionally,
the material ductility, in terms of reduction in area, was subsequently measured
to determine the effect of holding time
and test temperature.
Standard specimens 6.35-mm diameter
and 100-mm in length (0.25 4 in.) with
-in. 20 UNC 0.600-in.-long threads in
both ends were used. However, at some
test temperatures, IN740 specimens with
a reduced gauge diameter of 4.6 mm
(0.180 in.) machined with a 6.35-mm transition radius, as shown in Fig. 2, were used
instead because standard samples broke at
the threaded ends. Reduced-gauge specimens were used with all Waspaloy samples
to avoid the specimen breaking at the
threaded ends. The same specimen geometry was used for high-temperature tensile
testing and stress relaxation testing at a
given temperature.
Stress relaxation tests of IN740 were

run at seven different testing temperatures
within the range of 600900C. For IN718
and Waspaloy, stress-relaxation tests were
run at five different testing temperatures
within the 700950C range. The stressrelaxation tests were run at the same temperatures used for high-temperature
tensile tests.
For stress-relaxation testing, after the
CGHAZ welding thermal cycle simulation,
the samples were heated to test temperature and held for 30 s to allow for thermal
stabilization without any applied stresses.
Displacement was then applied to induce
tensile stresses simulating the residual welding stresses in actual welded components.
One level of residual stresses corresponding
to about 70% of the ultimate tensile stress
of each alloy at the testing temperatures was

imposed on the specimens. The corresponding displacement to achieve the targeted
stress level at a given temperature was determined from the load-displacement data
obtained from the high-temperature tensile
test at the same testing temperature.
The predetermined displacement was
then included in the computer program running the stress-relaxation test under displacement control mode in the Gleeble
machine. Sometimes, minor manual adjustment of the displacement in the Gleeble
machine was necessary at the end of the
loading cycle to achieve the targeted load or
stress level. After the required load or stress
level was achieved, the stress-relaxation
samples were held at constant displacement
at test temperature to allow both stress relaxation and precipitation hardening to take
place. The stress relaxation test was terminated if cracking did not occur after 3 h of
holding time. Figure 3 shows a schematic
representation of the thermal and stress cycles imposed in the sample during the
Gleele stress relaxation testing. The conditions for stress relaxation testing are summarized in Table 5.
Most of the IN740 specimens for testing

were obtained from the mid-thickness region of the available bar. However, to account for the nonuniform properties
expected in thick plates, a set of stress re-
Table 4 Conditions for High-Temperature Tensile Testing of Alloy IN740, IN718,

and Waspaloy
Parameter
Description
Test Temperature (C)
IN740
IN718
Waspaloy
Heating rate to test temperature
Time allowed for thermal stabilization
Holding time at testing temperature
Applied load
Stroke rate
Sample free span (jaw spacing)
Atmosphere
600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900

700, 750, 800, 850, 900
750, 800, 850, 900, 950
50C/s (90F/s)
30 s
0 s (duplicate)
1 h, 2 h (1 sample) IN740 only
To fracture
0.00127 cm/s (0.0005 in./s)
19 mm (0.75 in.)
argon
Table 5 Condition for Stress-Relaxation Cracking Testing of IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy Alloys
Parameter
Test Temperature (C)
Description
IN740
600, 650,
700, 750,
800, 850,
900
(a) Samples from a random location

in the stock bar, duplicates
(b) Samples from near the surface of
the stock bar, duplicates
Waspaloy
750, 800,
850, 900,
950

IN718
700, 750,
800, 850,
900

Heating rate to test temperature

Time allowed for thermal stabilization
Holding time at testing temperature
Applied load
Strain rate to imposed amount of displacement
Sample free span (jaw spacing)
Atmosphere
50C/s (90F/s)
30 s
0
About 70% of fracture stress at test temperature
0.00127 cm/s (0.0005 in./s)
19 mm (0.5 in.)
argon
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 High-temperature tensile properties of the HAZ of Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy as a function of temperature (alloys tested in the annealed condition).
A UTS; B reduction of area.
Fig. 9 Stress-relaxation behavior of Alloys IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy.
Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of C-curve as an index of stress-relaxation

cracking susceptibility. Material A is more susceptible to stress-relaxation
cracking than material B.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 6 Results of High Temperature Tensile Testing of Alloy IN740 as Function of Holding Time and Test Temperature
Test Temperature
(C)
(a)
897
900(a)
852(a)
853(a)
850
803(a)
800(a)
802(a)
800
750(a)
751
754
702
702
652
651
601
601
900(a)
849
801
751
702
651
602
900(a)
850
800
752
701
652
600
900(a)
852(a)
803(a)
754(a)
(a) Full-size specimen
94-s
APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
t=0
UTS [ksi]
1h
2h
43.8
49.1
63.4
65.9
78.1
74.6
76.0
74.1
92.7
76.0
101.8
101.4
92.3
102.2
94.2
94.4
93.8
98.9
0s
2h
54.1
42.6
11.1
13.6
9.1
19.7
18.1
18.0
23.6
20.0
37.4
45.1
57.5
56.3
50.6
58.9
60.5
59.4
46.6
96.3
99.6
93.8
99.6
92.7
98.2
59.4
12.0
18.1
15.9
50.5
54.7
59.2
46.3
94.4
107.5
98.0
99.9
96.7
90.8
IN740 Base Metal
61.7
69.1
78.7
101.7
Reduction of Area (%)

1h
60.6
17.1
18.1
18.0
50.3
54.5
59.2
36.6
13.7
19.1
44.8
Fig. 12 Evolution of effective load as function of temperature and time

during stress-relaxation testing.

Fig. 14 Predicted evolution of precipitation reactions in Alloy IN740

at 850C.
laxation tests was run at a residual stress

level corresponding to 70% of the ultimate
fracture stress of the material at the testing
temperature using samples obtained from
near the surface of the IN740 bar. Standard
specimens 6.35 mm in diameter or specimens with a reduced-gauge diameter and
100 mm long were used. Normally, two to
three samples were tested per temperature
to confirm repeatability.
Phase Computational Modeling of
Precipitation Reactions
Insight of the characteristics and kinetics of precipitation reactions in IN740,

IN718, and Waspaloy, as predicted by phase
computational modeling, was obtained by
using JMatPro 5.1 Material Property Simulation package. For the simulation of isothermal phase transformation kinetics, this
simulation package assumes that each phase
precipitates independently from the supersaturated solid solution. As such, precipitation competition of different phases is not
considered.
Experimental Results
High-Temperature Tensile Behavior of
Alloy IN740
The results of the high-temperature

tensile tests of Alloy IN740 are listed in
Table 6 and shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Figure
4 shows that the UTS of the samples with
a reduced-gauge section is higher than the
UTS obtained from samples with the fullor standard-gauge section. This indicates
that the reduced-gauge specimens have a
notch-strength ratio (strength of notched
specimen divided by strength of smooth
specimen) larger than unity. Therefore,
Alloy IN740 is not notch sensitive, or the
notch effect induced by the reduced-gauge
configuration is not so severe as to affect
the inherent ductility of the alloy at the
testing temperatures.
Figure 5A shows the UTS of the HAZ
induced in Alloy IN740 as a function of temperature and holding time. There is no evident hardening effect in the alloy specimens
exposed for up to 2 h at temperatures equal
or lower than 750C. Some strengthening

effect was observed in the HAZ after being
held at 800 and 850C for 1 to 2 h. The reduction of area as a function of temperature
and holding time is shown in Fig. 5B. There
is no significant effect from the holding time
on the ductility of the HAZ of IN740 at the
temperature range from 600 to 900C. A
ductility-dip is observed in the HAZ of
Alloy IN740 at temperatures around 850C.
The average minimum reduction of area
observed at 850C is about 11.3%. Figure 6
shows general characteristics of the fracture
surface of the HAZ tested at 850C (ductility minimum) after 2 h holding time.
Results of high-temperature testing of
IN740 base metal in the as-received (annealed) condition listed in Table 6 and included in Fig. 5A and B indicate that Alloy
IN740 in the annealed condition shows
similar behavior to that of the HAZ. This
ductility dip may indicate a low ductility
creep behavior of this material at 850C.
Figure 7 shows general characteristics of
the fracture surface of the IN740 base material tested at 850C (ductility minimum).
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 15 Predicted evolution of precipitation reactions in Alloy IN718 at

750C.
Stress-Relaxation Behavior of Alloy IN740
WELDING RESEARCH
The results of the stress relaxation testing are listed in Table 7. None of the samples broke during the 3-h test. These
results indicate that Alloy IN740 has a very
low susceptibility to stress-relaxation or
PWHT cracking.
High-Temperature Tensile Behavior of
Alloys IN718 and Waspaloy
The results of the high-temperature ten-
Fig. 16 Predicted evolution of precipitation reactions in Waspaloy at

850C.
sile testing of Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy are

listed in Table 8 and shown in Fig. 8. The reduction of area as a function of temperature
is shown in Fig. 8B. Both Alloy IN718 and
Waspalloy show the presence of a ductility
dip around 750 and 900C, respectively.
The average minimum reduction of area
observed in Alloy IN718 is 8.5% and in
Waspaloy is 4.0%. This ductility dip may indicate a susceptibility to cracking of the
HAZ of Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy during
reheating induced by subsequent and adjacent welding thermal cycles.
Stress-Relaxation Behavior of Alloy

IN718 and Waspaloy
The results of the stress relaxation tests of

Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy are listed in
Table 9 and shown in Fig. 6. The results
obtained from stress-relaxation testing of
Alloy IN740 are also included in Fig. 9 for
comparison.
Discussion
The time at which cracking occurs dur-
Table 7 Results of Stress-Relaxation Testing Alloy IN740

Temperature
(C)
Peak
Test
Sample
Location
Gauge
Diameter (in.)
Applied
Stress (ksi)
% of UTS
Time to
Failure (s)(a)
1250
1250
1251
1255
1251
1251
1251
1252
1249
1252
1252
1250
1254
1252
1251
1250
1251
1252
1251
1251
1252
1252
Random
Random
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
Random
Random
Surface
0.172
0.180
0.185
0.182
0.181
0.183
0.183
0.182
0.183
0.179
0.183
0.183
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
70.1
70.1
70.7
65.3
66.6
67.2
72.6
72.4
72.6
72.6
72.6
72.6
54.0
54.3
47.8
53.6
55.2
46.4
47.0
35.7
35.2
35.2
71.1
71.1
71.7
69.4
70.8
71.4
71.2
71.1
71.2
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.1
71.5
63.0
70.6
83.7
70.4
71.2
72.6
71.7
71.5
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
600
602
601
653
651
651
699
702
698
751
753
750
802
802
803
802
851
851
851
898
900
900
(a) Test was stopped after 3 h (10,800 s).
96-s
APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
schematically in Fig. 10. As the C-curve is

displaced to the left, a shorter time exposure of the material in that temperature
range during welding or PWHT is required to induce cracking. Therefore, ma-
Table 8 Results of High-Temperature Tensile Testing of Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy

Specimen ID
Temperature (C)
Peak
Test
Reduction of Area (%)
UTS (ksi)
T700-1
T700-2
1255
1257
Alloy IN718
698
16.9
698
0.7
77.4
82.9
T750-1
T750-2
1261
1260
751
751
8.2
8.8
83.5
92.7
T800-1
T800-2
1257
1262
799
800
21.3
22.2
64.8
74.2
T850-1
T850-2
1262
1263
851
852
39.8
36.6
50.1
48.3
T900-1
T900-2
1259
1260
900
900
34.5
41.5
31.5
34.5
WT750-2
WT750-3
1276
1274
754
753
21.5
21.7
112.4
103.1
WT800-1
WT800-2
1273
1273
800
800
19.5
20.4
95.2
97.8
WT850-1
WT850-2
1272
1272
849
849
13.2
9.7
82.8
97.2
WT900-1
WT900-2
1271
1271
899
900
2.7
5.3
90.1
84.5
WT950-1
WT950-2
1271
1267
950
950
6.5
9.2
69.9
70.5
Waspaloy
terial B would less susceptible to stress-relaxation cracking than material A.

The results presented in Fig. 9 indicate
that the susceptibility to stress relaxation
cracking of IN740 is lower than that of
Waspaloy, and it is similar to that of Alloy
IN718. These observations are in agreement with previous reports indicating that
IN718 has a lower susceptibility to stressrelaxation cracking than Waspaloy (Ref.
30). However, based on the experimental
results, it is impossible to conclude if the
susceptibility of Alloy IN740 to stress-relaxation cracking is lower or higher as
compared to that of IN718 because the
stress-relation tests were run for only 3 h.
As indicated in the introduction section, stress-relaxation cracking is considered to be a result of stresses developed
during welding and PWHT or service, and
relaxed preferentially along the grain
boundaries of the HAZ at a time when
this zone is being, or has been, embrittled
by metallurgical reactions. If the creep or
high-temperature ductility of the material
is exceeded, cracking may result during
PWHT or during service. Therefore, in
order to gain a better understanding of the
observed stress-relaxation cracking susceptibility of IN740 as compared to that of
Alloys IN718 and Waspaloy, the potential
effect of the evolution of effective stresses
or stresses experienced by the samples
during stress-relaxation testing, the characteristic and kinetics of precipitation reactions
as
predicted
by
phase
computational modeling, and the characteristics of the ductility dip present in
these three alloys were considered.
Table 9 Results of Stress-Relaxation Testing of Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy

Temperature (C)
Peak
Test
Sample
Location
Gauge Diameter (in.)
1261
1261
1263
1260
1261
1257
1262
1262
1260
1262
702
701
753
750
802
801
853
853
902
903
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
1274
1274
1273
1274
1276
1276
1276
1273
1272
1273
752
752
802
801
853
851
900
900
950
950
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
Random
0.177
0.179
0.178
0.178
0.180
0.180
0.180
0.182
0.185
0.186
% UTS
Time to Failure (s)(a)
58.7
58.3
65.4
65.5
52.6
52.6
36.1
36.4
25.0
25.2
70.8
70.3
70.5
70.6
70.9
71.9
72.1
72.5
79.2
79.9
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
No fracture
83.4
80.0
78.3
69.5
69.2
73.4
64.2
63.4
50.1
49.7
74.1
71.1
80.0
71.0
71.3
78.6
71.3
70.0
71.0
70.4
4869
No fracture
569
4756
1482
273
3198
3464
No fracture
No fracture
Applied Strength (ksi)
Alloy IN718
Waspaloy
(a) Test was stopped after 3 h (10,800 s).
WELDING RESEARCH
ing the stress-relaxation test is used to plot

a C-curve on a temperature-time diagram.
The C-curve developed is used as a weldability index to evaluate the susceptibility
to stress-relaxation cracking as shown
Table 10 Summary of Stress-Relaxation Behavior of alloys IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy at Different Testing Temperatures
Sample
Diameter (in.)
Test Temperature
(C)
Initial Applied Stress

(ksi)
0.180
0.181
0.183
0.183
0.249
0.249
0.249
602
651
698
750
802
851
900
70.1
66.6
72.6
72.6
54.3
55.2
35.2
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
702
753
802
853
903
58.7
65.4
52.6
36.4
25.2
0.177
0.178
0.180
0.180
0.186
752
801
853
900
950
83.4
69.5
69.2
64.2
49.7
Final Stress
(ksi)
Stress Relaxation
(ksi)
Time to Failure
or Test End (s)
Alloy IN740
72.0
76.9
80.6
82.1
49.3
40.8
28.7
+ 1.9
+10.3
+8.0
+9.5
5.0
14.4
6.5
10800
10800
10800
10800
10800
10800
10800
64.7
69.9
55.5
17.4
12.9
+8.0
+4.5
+2.9
19.0
12.3
10800
10800
10800
10800
10800
80.0
71.8
55.9
36.8
25.5
3.4
+2.3
13.3
27.4
24.2
4869
4756
1478
3198
10800
Alloy IN718
Waspaloy
WELDING RESEARCH
The stress-relaxation behaviors of

IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy during testing at different temperatures are shown in
Figs. 11, 12, and 13, respectively. It is evident from Figs. 1113 that Alloys IN740,
IN718, and Waspaloy do not follow an expected stress relaxation behavior under
constant strain in the testing temperature
range used. In general, normal stress relaxation behavior is characterized by a
continuous decay of the effective stress on
the material. The stress relaxation results
as the elastic strain in the material is transformed into a time-dependent plastic deformation by a creep process. The stress
relaxation rate is dependent, among other
things, on the initial stress, temperature,
and material properties. However, as
shown in Figs. 1113, in most of the cases,
the effective load or stresses on the IN740,
IN718, and Waspaloy specimens during
the stress-relaxation testing increases or
presents only a minor decrease. Table 10
shows a summary of the initial applied
stress and the remaining stress at the time
of failure or at the end of the test at different temperatures for each of the three
alloys tested.
During stress-relaxation testing of alloy
IN740, the effective load or stresses on the
material decreased during the early part of
the test, up to about 1000 s, at all testing
temperatures, as shown in Fig. 11. After this
initial period, the effective stresses increases
as a function of time at testing temperatures
of 600, 650, 700, and 750C. At the higher
testing temperatures (800, 850, and
900C), the effective stress remains mainly
constant or shows a very moderate decrease. As shown in Fig. 12, Alloy IN718 has
a very similar stress-relaxation behavior to
98-s
APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
that of Alloy IN740. After the initial stress

relaxation during the early stage of the testing, the effective stresses increase as a function of time at the lower testing temperature
range (700, 750, and 800C), and remain
mainly constant or experience a moderate
stress decrease until the end of the test at
850 and 900C. Waspaloy shows a similar
stress-relaxation behavior in the lower test
temperature range (750 and 800C) as that
of Alloys IN740 and IN718, experiencing a
stress increase as a function of time, as
shown in Fig. 13. However, in the higher
temperature range (850, 900, and 950C),
Waspaloy experienced a continuous stress
relaxation behavior, which is different from
the behavior observed in both Alloys IN740
and IN718 in the high-temperature range.
The unusual stress-relaxation behavior
observed in these three alloys may result
from the contribution of two opposing
mechanisms to the effective stresses or
stresses experienced by the samples during testing. One is the stress relaxation due
to gradual conversion of elastic strains into
plastic strain by a creep mechanism. The
other is the contraction of the specimen,
which induces a stress increase due to the
constrained or constant-strain condition of
the test. If the specimen contraction is the
dominant mechanism, then an increase in
stress will result, as was observed in most
of the stress-relaxation tests of Alloys
IN740, IN718, and Waspaloy. However, if
the stress-relaxation component is larger
in magnitude than the stress increase due
to material contraction, the net effect will
be a normal relaxation curve as was observed with Waspaloy tested at 850, 900,
and 950C.
The contraction or negative creep be-
havior under constant-displacement stressrelaxation in nickel-based, metallic glasses,

and Ti-Al alloys has been associated with
contraction of the lattice parameter resulting from precipitation, short-range ordering, or long-range ordering reactions in the
material (Refs. 3137). Similar phenomena
in Alloy IN740 in the temperature range
used for the stress-relaxation testing has not
been reported in the open literature or studied. However, an increase of tensile stresses
in Alloy IN718 and Waspaloy due to precipitation during PWHT has been previously observed and reported (Refs. 24, 26).
As the effective load or stresses acting on
the material represents the driving force for
stress-relaxation cracking, the stress-relaxation behavior observed during testing of
the three alloys may indicate a similar or
slightly higher tendency to induce cracking
in Alloys IN740 and IN718 as compared to
that of Waspaloy. Therefore, the evolution
of effective stresses as a function of time
during testing alone does not explain the
lower susceptibility to stress-relaxation
cracking observed in Alloys IN740 and
IN718 as compared to Waspaloy.
Figures 1416 show the evolution of precipitation reactions, as predicted by phase
computational modeling, in Alloys IN740 at
850C, IN718 at 750C, and Waspaloy at
850C, respectively. The selected temperatures correspond to the ductility dip minimum observed in Alloys IN740 and IN718
as shown in Figs. 5B and 8B, and to the temperature of the nose of the stress-relaxation
C-curve observed in Waspaloy, as shown in
Fig. 9. The condition of low ductility or
short time to crack observed at these temperatures represents a condition of high susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking as
of the material at that temperature, cracking may occur. Therefore, the presence of
a ductility dip and its characteristics (temperature range and ductility dip minimum) greatly increase the susceptibility to
stress-relaxation cracking. Some researchers have used the ductility dip minimum observed at high-temperature
tensile testing of an alloy as a criterion to
determine its susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking. Testing stainless steels has
shown that a material is susceptible to
stress-relaxation cracking if the reduction
in area is below 20%, and highly susceptible if the reduction in area is below 10%
at a particular test temperature (Ref. 42).
Therefore, the observed stress-relaxation cracking susceptibility behavior observed in Alloys IN740, IN718, and
Waspaloy may result from the synergistic effect of the evolution of effective stresses as
function of time, the characteristics and kinetics of precipitation reactions, and presence and characteristics of a ductility dip at
a given temperature.
The high susceptibility of Waspaloy to
stress-relaxation cracking may result from
the fast kinetic precipitation reactions that
strengthen the austenitic matrix and forces
the strain needed to relax the effective
stresses acting on the material to be concentrated in the grain boundary areas. Additionally, the precipitation of eta phase
may further decrease the inherent low ductility of this material (average low ductility
dip minimum of 4% reduction in area). The
lower susceptibility of Alloy IN718 to stressrelaxation cracking as compared to Waspaloy may result from a more sluggish
precipitation reaction, which allows a better
distribution of strain in the material, the absence of embrittlement phases like eta
phase, and a ductility dip minimum that is
higher than 4% reduction in area (about
8.5%). The better resistance of Alloy IN740
to stress-relaxation cracking as compared to
Waspaloy seems to be mainly due to a better high-temperature or creep ductility of
the material. The ductility dip minimum observed in the IN740 alloy was about 11.3%
reduction in area, which is much higher than
the ductility minimum of 4.0% observed for
Waspaloy nickel-based alloys.
Conclusions
High-temperature tensile testing and
Gleeble stress-relaxation testing indicated
that Alloy IN740 does not show a high susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking. The
susceptibility of Alloy IN740 to stress-relaxation cracking is lower than that of Waspaloy and similar to that of Alloy IN718.
During high-temperature tensile testing, the high-temperature HAZ of Alloy
IN740 did not show evidence of strengthening after exposure for up to 2 h at temperatures equal or lower than 750C. Some
strengthening of the high-temperature

HAZ resulted from exposure to temperatures of 800 and 850C for 1 and 2 h.
Results of high-temperature tensile
testing indicated a ductility-dip in the HAZ
of Alloy IN740 with an average minimum of
11.3% reduction of area at 850C. The base
material showed a similar trend of the ductility as function of test temperature to that
observed in the HAZ, with a minimum of
13.7% reduction of area at 850C. Exposure
of the high-temperature HAZ for up to 2 h
in the temperature range from 600 to
900C did not affect the ductility of the
IN740 HAZ. The HAZ of Alloy IN718 and
Waspaloy also showed ductility dips with a
minimum of 8.5% reduction in area at
700C, and 4.0% at 900C, respectively.
The IN740, IN718, and Waspalloy alloys tested showed an increase of the effective stress or negative-creep behavior during
stress-relaxation testing at most of the test
temperatures. Waspalloy presented a normal stress-relaxation behavior at 850, 900,
and 950C. Increase in the effective stresses
is expected to increase the driving force for
stress-relaxation cracking.
Predictions based on phase computational modeling indicated that IN740 and
Waspaloy are strengthened mainly by
precipitates while IN718 is hardened by the
precipitation of both gamma prime and
gamma double prime. The precipitation reaction kinetics are faster in alloys strengthened only by gamma prime (IN740 and
Waspaloy). Additionally, the predictions indicated that Alloy IN740 and Waspaloy experience formation of eta phase within the
three hours used for the stress-relaxation
tests.
The high susceptibility of Waspaloy to
stress-relaxation cracking may result from
the synergy of fast kinetic precipitation reactions, the precipitation of eta phase, and
the inherent low ductility of the material
(ductility dip minimum of 4% reduction in
area). The lower susceptibility of Alloy
IN718 to stress-relaxation cracking as compared to Waspaloy may result from a more
sluggish precipitation reaction, the absence
of embrittlement phases like eta phase, and
a higher ductility dip minimum (about 8.5%
reduction in area). The resistance of Alloy
IN740 to stress-relaxation cracking seems to
be mainly due to a higher creep-ductility
(ductility dip minimum of about 11.3% reduction in area).
Acknowledgments
This paper was prepared with support of
the U.S. Department of Energy, under
Award No. DE-FG26-01NT41175 and the
Ohio Coal Development Office of the Ohio
Department of Development under Grant
Agreement Number CDO/D-0020. However, any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed herein are
WELDING RESEARCH
welded structures are heated to annealing

or stress-relaxation temperatures.
As indicated in Figs. 1416, at the temperature of interest, Alloy IN740 and Waspaloy primarily derive their strength from
the precipitation of a high-volume fraction
of precipitates. IN718 is hardened by the
gamma double prime in the austenitic matrix. The precipitation reaction kinetics is
faster in alloys strengthened by gamma
prime (IN740 and Waspaloy) as compared
to Alloy IN718 that is strengthened by the
gamma double prime. The good weldability
or low susceptibility to stress-relaxation
cracking of Alloy IN718 has been associated
with the slower precipitation kinetics of
gamma double prime in this alloy system
(Ref. 38).
Additionally, Alloy IN740 and Waspaloy
show the formation of eta phase resulting
from the decomposition of gamma prime,
which may affect the strength and ductility
of nickel-based alloys (Refs. 3941). The
predictions from the phase computational
modeling do not show a decrease of gamma
prime with the start of formation of eta
phase through decomposition of gamma
prime, as expected. This observation may be
the result of the rate of formation of new
gamma prime being equal to the rate of its
decomposition and, therefore, formation of
eta phase, which would result in a plateau
in the amount of gamma prime as function
of time starting at the onset of the precipitation of eta phase, as shown in Figs. 1416.
Another potential explanation of this observation could be that the simulation package used assumes that each phase
precipitates independently from the supersaturated solid solution. However, either explanation regarding these predictions from
the phase computational modeling is expeculative in nature.
As shown in Figs. 14 and 16, formation
of eta phase starts around 1000 s or about
15 min at temperature. Therefore, eta phase
may precipitate during the duration of the
stress-relaxation testing of Alloy IN740 and
Waspaloy. The slower precipitation kinetics
and absence of formation of eta phase in
Alloy IN718 can help explain its lower susceptibility to stress-relaxation cracking as
compared to Waspaloy. However, the characteristics and kinetics of the precipitation
reactions, as predicted by phase computational modeling, of Alloy IN740 and Waspaloy are similar and cannot explain the
observed difference of stress-relaxation behavior between these two alloys.
If the strain required to accommodate
the relaxation of residual stresses from
welding plus the strain required to accommodate the stresses induced by contraction of the material (inverse creep) during
the precipitation reaction at a given temperature is larger than the creep ductility
those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the DOE and/or the
Ohio Coal Development Office of the Ohio
Air Quality Development Authority.
Legal Notice/Disclaimer
WELDING RESEARCH
No warranty or representation, express

or implied, is made with respect to the accuracy, completeness, and/or usefulness of
information contained in this report. Further, no warranty or representation, express
or implied, is made that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process
disclosed in this report will not infringe
upon privately owned rights. Finally, no liability is assumed with respect to the use of,
or for damages resulting from the use of,
any information, apparatus, method, or
process disclosed in this report.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade
name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or
imply its endorsement, recommendation, or
favoring by the Department of Energy
and/or the State of Ohio; nor do the views
and opinions of authors expressed herein
necessarily state or reflect those of said governmental entities.
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Reducing the Porosity in Die-Cast

Magnesium Alloys during Laser Welding
Nearly pore-free and completely penetrated laser beam welds in die-cast
magnesium alloys are obtained by selecting laser power density and
careful control of heat input
ABSTRACT
Weld porosity is a severe problem during laser beam welding of magnesium alloys.
In this paper, gas content in the base metal of high-pressure die-cast AM50 magnesium alloy is measured by inert gas fusion analysis, and the high gas content, 63.4
mL/100 g (mostly hydrogen), is found to attribute to the high weld porosity during
laser welding. Furthermore, effects of welding parameters on weld porosity are investigated, and a porosity prevention technique is realized by appropriately selecting laser
power density and careful control of heat input. The control strategy of this technique
is that the selected laser power density should be greater than 1.8 106 W/cm2 such
that the variation of weld porosity with heat input minimizes at a moderate heat input
value where complete joint penetration is also ensured; however, the power density
should be less than 4.1 106 W/cm2 to avoid poor weld surface quality. Sound welds
with low porosity (<5%), complete joint penetration, and good surface quality are obtained through this prevention technique, and the tensile strengths and elongations of
these welded joints are also comparable to the base metal.
Introduction
Applications for magnesium alloys
have increased in a variety of fields, such
as the aerospace industry, automobile
manufacturers, and electron apparatus.
These increases are attributed to the alloys low density, high strength-to-weight
ratio, and high damping capacity. Among
these magnesium products, die-cast magnesium alloys occupy ~80% of the applications (Refs. 1, 2). Despite their good
casting qualities, die casting of large and
complex components is not always practical or economically favorable. Therefore,
welding, as a main joining method, plays
an important role in applications of diecast magnesium alloys, such as manufacturing of parts and repair of casting defects. Conventional gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) methods can cause several
severe welding problems, such as weld
J. ZHANG, J. G. SHAN (zhang-jing06@
mails.tsinghua.edu.cn), J. L. REN, and P. WEN
are with Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. J. G. SHAN
is also with Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials Processing Technology, Ministry of Education,
Beijing, China.
pool collapse, liquation cracks, residual

stresses, and distortion, whereas laser
beam welding, being a high-energydensity welding method, can greatly relieve these problems (Refs. 15) and
therefore is considered to be very efficient
and promising.
For magnesium alloys (Refs. 5, 6), especially for die-cast alloys (Refs. 69),
weld porosity was found to be a major concern during fusion welding, which greatly
limits its practical application in industry.
There are several factors that were considered to contribute to the high tendency
of porosity in magnesium alloy welds: a)
entrapment of gas (air) in the base metal
due to surface turbulent flow during the
manufacturing process (Refs. 2, 10, 11); b)
rejection of dissolved hydrogen from solid
phase to liquid phase during solidification
KEYWORDS
Pore Formation
Laser Welding
Die-Cast Magnesium Alloys
Prevention Technique
Hydrogen
(Refs. 2, 12, 13); and c) collapse of unstable keyholes (Refs. 14, 15) and entrapment of shielding gas (Refs. 11, 14). Keyhole instability in magnesium alloys was
considered not to be a major factor (Ref.
6), yet the effects of entrapped gas in the
die-cast base metal during the manufacturing process could be very profound, as
demonstrated by the fact that die-cast
magnesium alloys, which have higher gas
content (Ref. 16) due to entrapment of gas
during the high-pressure die-casting
process, have a much higher porosity tendency (Refs. 2, 46, 10) compared to vacuum die-cast magnesium alloys (Refs. 17,
18) and their wrought counterparts (Refs.
7, 8, 16). The effects of gas entrapment include two aspects. First, without being dissolved, some of the entrapped gases can
form micropores in base metal, leading to
high initial porosity (area-percent porosity
2%~5%, Refs. 6, 10) and making heat
treatment of them very difficult. Expansion and coalescence of these preexisting
pores were considered to be a main cause
of the increase in weld porosity during
laser welding, proposed by Zhao and
DebRoy (Ref. 6). Second, interaction of
water vapor (H2O) contained in the entrapped gases with magnesium can generate hydrogen (Ref. 2), leading to a high hydrogen content in the base metal existing
in both atomic and molecular forms. The
high hydrogen content in die-cast magnesium alloys was also considered to serve as
a main origin of weld porosity (hydrogen
rejection) during laser welding (Refs. 2,
12, 13).
Measurement of the compositions of
the entrapped gases in the preexisting micropores in the base metal, using quadrupole mass analyzer (Refs. 10, 11), showed
that the main composition is nitrogen gas,
~95% by volume, with very little hydrogen
gas, only ~1% (Ref. 10), which supports
the entrapping of air in the base metal during die casting. After welding, the main
composition of entrapped gases in the
weld was also nitrogen gas, ~78%, but
with significant increase in hydrogen gas,
WELDING RESEARCH
BY J. ZHANG, J. G. SHAN, J. L. REN, AND P. WEN
Fig. 2 Sketch showing the dimensions of the tensile specimen (top view).
B
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the experimental setup.
Fig. 3 Weld bead surfaces of the following: A Wrought AZ31; B die-cast AM50
magnesium alloys.
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of AM50 Magnesium Alloy, Mass-%
WELDING RESEARCH
Al
Zn
Mn
Si
Fe
Cu
Mg
4.50
0.20
0.280.50
0.05
0.004
0.008
Bal.
Table 2 Gas Compositions in the Base Metal, Vol-%

Gas component
H2
Hydrocarbon
CO2
Total, mL
Content
72.1
17.7
10.2
2.67
~17% (Ref. 10). The close content of nitrogen in base metal porosity and laser
weld porosity, therefore, was considered
to be evidence of the expansion and coalescence of preexisting pores during laser
welding (Refs. 10, 11), whereas the increase in hydrogen content strongly indicated the occurrence of hydrogen rejection during solidification of the weld pool.
It should be pointed out that these gas
composition analyses only captured the
gases entrapped in preexisting pores in the
base metal and weld, whereas dissolved
gas in the base metal (atomic form, mainly
hydrogen) was not a concern. In fact, our
previous work (Refs. 16, 19) showed that,
besides expansion and coalescence of preexisting pores, solute hydrogen (atomic
form) in die-cast base metal also plays an
important role in pore formation during
laser welding. Removal or partial removal
of solute hydrogen by vacuum-degassing
the base metal of high-pressure die-cast
magnesium Alloy AM50 at 350C significantly reduced the weld porosity (Refs. 16,
19). To better understand the pore-formation mechanisms involved, information on
the content of solute hydrogen in the base
metal and its role during laser welding is
necessary.
Practical efforts also have been made
102-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
to reduce weld porosity during laser welding of die-cast magnesium alloys, but these
are less encouraging compared to their
growing needs in industry. Effects of welding parameters on weld porosity have
been investigated for several different
magnesium alloys. It was found that, in
general, weld porosity decreases with decreasing heat input, i.e., lower laser power
and higher welding speed (Refs. 5, 6, 10,
11), or with decreasing interaction time
(Ref. 2). Suppression of pore formation in
these welding conditions should be attributed to the insufficient nucleation and
growth time, as well as the rapid cooling
rate of the weld pool (Refs. 1, 2). If hydrogen remains dissolved in solid magnesium and preexisting pores are not well
swelled and coalesced yet, then the weld
porosity can be reduced. However, reducing weld porosity by using low heat input
is achieved with the sacrifice of penetration depth. Marya and Edwards work
(Ref. 2) showed that pore-free welds could
be readily obtained for normal-pressure
die-cast magnesium Alloy AZ91 in all
welding conditions employed (also see
Ref. 20). For high-pressure die-cast AZ91,
the lowest weld porosity, ~10%, was obtained using high welding speed, but with
only a 0.65-mm-deep weld for a 3.5-mm-
thick sheet. Similarly, using low heat

input, Zhao and DebRoy (Refs. 5, 6) and
Wahba et al. (Ref. 10) also obtained relatively low weld porosity in die-cast AM60B
and AZ91D magnesium alloys, respectively, also without complete joint penetration. As a remedy, Zhao and DebRoy
(Ref. 6) proposed to use a moderate laser
power and perform a well-controlled remelting of the die-cast AM60B laser
welds, which allows the entrapped gas
bubbles in the welds to have a second
chance to escape. At a high welding speed
of ~6 m/min, this remedy led to a low weld
porosity of ~6% but the penetration status was not mentioned in the report.
Moreover, the weld porosity is sensitive to
the remelting parameters and the choice
of appropriate remelting parameters is of
vital importance. Wahba et al. (Ref. 10)
proposed to perform welding of a butt
joint with an extruded magnesium alloy insert layer to reduce the weld porosity in
die-cast AZ91D, instead of using low heat
input. Weld porosity as low as ~5% was
obtained but the method itself is of less
practicality in actual industrial applications due to its complexity.
There were also reports showing that
lower laser power and welding speed
could reduce weld porosity in die-cast
AZ91 magnesium alloys (Refs. 2, 21, 22),
since long interaction time favors the degasification. However, weld porosity of
18% was obtained even when the welding
speed was only 0.15 m/min (Ref. 2). So far,
it is still challenging to effectively and expediently produce pore-free and complete-joint-penetration laser welds in
high-pressure die-cast magnesium alloys.
In the present study, gas compositions
both entrapped in micropores and dissolved
in the base metal of 2.54-mm-thick highpressure die-cast magnesium Alloy AM50
sheets are measured to better understand
the origin of high weld porosity during laser
welding. Then the effects of welding parameters on weld porosity are systematically investigated using both CO2 and fiber
lasers, and a prevention technique of pore
formation is realized. Welds with low porosity (<5%), complete joint penetration, and
good surface quality are obtained. The control strategy of this technique is also presented. For thicker sheets, 5 mm in thickness, the gas content in the base metal is
lower due to its greater mass (assuming the
same amount of entrapped gas) and lower
casting pressure, and weld porosity can be
reduced more readily, thus the results are
not presented.
Experimental Procedures
Analysis of Gas Compositions in the
Base Metal
Vacuum-Degassing of the Base Metal
To ascertain the effect of solute hydrogen (atomic form) on weld porosity during
laser welding, AM50 base metal was also
vacuum-degassed to remove solute hydrogen (atomic hydrogen) through diffusion.
The samples were mechanically cleaned
and then vacuum-degassed (105 Pa) using
an FF-160/620NE turbomolecular pump
during heating. The temperature reached
350C in about 0.5 h and then was kept for
1.5 h.
Fig. 4 Cross-sectional micrographs of the following: A Wrought AZ31; B die-cast AM50 welds.
Fig. 5 Optical images (side view) of metallic vapor during laser welding of the following: A Wrought
AZ31;B die-cast AM50 magnesium alloys.
Laser Welding Procedures and

Parameters
Bead-on-plate welds were produced on

base metal sheets using a 3-kW CO2 laser
and a 6-kW fiber laser, respectively. The
die-cast sheets were 200 18 2.54 mm
in dimension, and surfaces were ground
with 600-grit SiC paper and cleaned with
acetone before welding. The CO2 laser
has a focal length of 300 mm, with a spot
size of 0.6 mm in diameter, and the fiber
laser has a focal length of 250 mm, with a
spot size of 0.25 mm in diameter. Welding
was conducted with the focal position on
the workpiece surface. Figure 1 schematically shows the experimental setup. During welding, the workpiece was placed
horizontally on an aluminum anvil with a
horizontal square notch (5 5 mm) along
the welding direction, which was just underneath the workpiece to provide shielding gas (argon gas, at a flow rate of 500
L/h) to the bottom surface of the workpiece. Meanwhile, a cylindrical copper
nozzle (8 mm ID) was directed in the
welding direction at an angle of 30 deg
with the workpiece to provide shielding
argon gas at a flow rate of 1000 L/h to the

top surface. The laser powers utilized varied from 0.5 to 2 kW, and the welding
speeds varied from 1 to 10 m/min. Beadon-plate welds were also produced on a
2.54-mm-thick wrought magnesium alloy
AZ31 sheet and on a vacuum-degassed
AM50 sheet for comparison, using the
same welding procedures as depicted previously. In some cases, to characterize gas
release from the weld pool during laser
welding, optical images of high-temperature plasma plume were captured in real
time by a high-speed CCD camera with a
solar filter at a framing rate of 1000 f/s.
Metallographic Examinations and
Porosity Measurement
After welding, welded samples were

sectioned across the weld interface and
mounted, followed by grinding, polishing,
and etching (alcohol with 5% glacial acetic
acid) procedures. Micrographs of weld
cross sections were obtained using a metallurgical microscope. The area-percent
porosity in the fusion zone of the weld
cross section was measured through comWELDING JOURNAL 103-s
WELDING RESEARCH
The material investigated in this study

was 2.54-mm-thick high-pressure die-cast
magnesium Alloy AM50. Chemical compositions of the base metal are shown in
Table 1. Two types of gas composition
analyses were performed for the base
metal. The first is inert gas fusion analysis (IGFA). The AM50 sheet was cut into
a 60 20 2 mm block, mechanically
cleaned with a metal scraper, and then
fused by heating it to a temperature of
700C (the liquidus temperature being
640C) for 0.5 h in a quartz tube in argon
gas current. The compositions of released gases, including solute hydrogen
released as molecular hydrogen (H 2),
were collected and measured using gas
chromatography. Since gas chromatography only gives the volume ratio of each
gas component, a certain amount of gas
not contained in the base metal, 0.5 mL
CO, was mixed into the collected gas and
the absolute volume of each component
can be calibrated according to the absolute volume of CO gas. The second
analysis is similar to the IGFA, with the
only difference being the lower heating
temperature of 350C and longer holding
time of ~1 h. In the latter analysis, only
gas dissolved in the base metal (atomic
form, diffusible) can get released by diffusion, since the heating temperature is
lower than the solidus temperature,
~434C.
were carried out at a travel speed of 2

mm/min (strain rate being 7 104/s) at
room temperature until failure. The
strength was taken as an average of three
specimens from the same welded sample.
Microstructural images of fracture surfaces were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Results and Discussion

Gas Compositions in the Base Metal
Fig. 6 Cross-sectional micrographs of welds produced on the following: A Undegassed; B vacuum-degassed die-cast AM50 sheets.
puter image analysis using MATLAB software and an average was taken over three
different cross sections of each sample.
WELDING RESEARCH
Tensile Testing of the Joints
Welds used for the tensile tests were

produced on relatively large sheets, 200
200 2.54 mm. After welding, samples
were sectioned into 20-mm-wide rectangular sheets across the weld interface. The
tensile specimens were 200 20 2.54
mm in dimension (length and width of reduced section being 50 and 12 mm, respectively), with length perpendicular to
the weld interface, as shown in Fig. 2 (top
view). Before testing, both front and back
surfaces were machined. The tensile tests
Table 3 Porosity, Surface Quality, and Penetration of Welds under Different Welding
Conditions
Complete joint penetration; Partial penetration good surface quality;

bad surface quality; Low porosity (5%); High porosity (>5%)
Welding speed
(m/min)
1.0
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.4
4.0
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
6.0
6.2
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
500
800
104-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
Power (W)
900
1000
1500
1800
2000
Although it has been known for a long

time that gases entrapped in the base
metal of magnesium alloys during the diecasting process have significant effects on
pore formation during laser welding
(Refs. 2, 46, 10), examinations of the gas
compositions were performed only for
gases entrapped in the micropores (initial
porosity 2~5%) of the base metal (Refs.
10, 11), and nitrogen gas was found to be
the main composition. Measuring the
compositions of dissolved gas (atomic
form) in the base metal of die-cast magnesium alloys has not been reported yet,
and therefore their effects (especially hydrogen effects) on pore formation during
laser welding were not evaluated relevantly. Using inert gas fusion analysis
(IGFA), the total gas compositions in the
base metal of high-pressure die-cast magnesium Alloy AM50 were measured after
fusion, and results are presented in Table
2. It is found that the base metal indeed
has a high gas content, 63.4 mL/100 g, noting that the values for low-pressure castings and vacuum die castings are only 1~5
mL/100 g and < 3.5 mL/100 g, respectively
(Ref. 23). The major composition (72.1%
in volume) of the gas content is hydrogen,
45.7 mL/100 g (the average solubility of
hydrogen in solid magnesium being 30
mL/100 g from Ref. 1). Differing from gas
composition analysis using a quadrupole
mass analyzer (Refs. 10, 11), nitrogen gas
was not detected by IGFA, since nitrogen
can react with magnesium at such a high
temperature (700C) and form nitride.
Therefore, the IGFA results presented
here should not be considered as inconsistent with those obtained by a quadrupole
mass analyzer (Refs. 10, 11), but are complementary to each other.
The hydrogen content in the collected
gas, 45.7 mL/100 g, should originate from
two sources: hydrogen gas entrapped in
micropores (molecular hydrogen H2) and
solute hydrogen dissolved in base metal
(atomic hydrogen). To measure the fraction of hydrogen that originates from each
source, the sample was heated to 350C in
argon gas current for ~1 h in a quartz
tube. This temperature only allowed
solute hydrogen (atomic form) to diffuse
from the base metal and form hydrogen
gas H2, since it is very difficult for hydro-
Weld Porosity Tendency and Effect of

Solute Hydrogen
Bead-on-plate welds were produced on

both a 2.54-mm wrought AZ31 and a 2.54mm die-cast AM50 sheet using the same
welding parameters (fiber laser, power 1
kW, welding speed 4 m/min), to compare
their different weld porosity tendencies.
The weld bead surfaces of wrought AZ31
and die-cast AM50 sheets are shown in
Fig. 3A and B, respectively. It is seen from
Fig. 3 that the wrought AZ31 sheet has a
Fig. 7 Cross-sectional micrographs of CO2 laser welds produced at 800 W with the following welding
speeds: A 7 m/min; B 5 m/min; C 3 m/min; D 1.5 m/min; and at 2000 W with the following
welding speeds: E 7 m/min; F 6 m/min; G 5 mm/min; H 4 m/min.
flat, smooth weld surface, whereas the

weld surface of die-cast AM50 sheet has
obvious swells and open holes. Crosssectional micrographs of these two welds
are shown in Fig. 4. Apparently, die-cast
magnesium alloy AM50 has higher weld
porosity due to its high gas content (63.4
mL/100 g) in the base metal, in accordance
with the results of Haferkamp et al. (Ref.
8). The difference in weld porosity is also
reflected by their different gas release behavior during laser welding. As shown in
Fig. 5 (side view), the ejection of plasma
plume from the AM50 weld pool surface
during laser welding is more intense and
unstable than that from the AZ31 weld
pool surface. Such an unstable and eruptible plasma plume ejection from the
AM50 weld pool surface indicates active
behavior of bubbles (bubble formation,
floating, and escape) inside the weld pool
during laser welding, resulting in high
weld porosity and bad surface quality. The
flames observed, namely the color rim of
the plasma spot as seen only in Fig. 5B, indicates that there are also inflammable
gases released from the weld pool.
It was found in our previous work (Refs.
16, 19) that vacuum-degassing of the base
metal of 2-mm-thick AM50 sheet before

laser welding can reduce the weld porosity
significantly. This indicates that solute hydrogen in the base metal plays a more important role than preexisting micropores in
pore formation during laser welding. Similar to high-pressure pore formation by hydrogen rejection during solidification of the
die-casting process as discussed in the previous section, melting and then solidification of the weld pool during laser welding
will also lead to hydrogen rejection and
form hydrogen pores in the weld. The pore
formation process during laser welding may
be even more violent due to the low pressure (~1 atmosphere) and rapid solidification. The low weld pool pressure reduces
the solid solubility of hydrogen (Ref. 24)
(more hydrogen has to be rejected) and also
favors the growth of formed hydrogen pores
to larger sizes (low internal pressure); while
the rapid solidification of the weld pool suppresses escape of formed pores. As shown
in Fig. 6A, cross-sectional micrograph of a
weld produced on an undegassed 2.54-mmthick AM50 sheet shows high weld porosity,
whereas the vacuum-degassed weld produced at the same welding condition (CO2
laser, 0.8 kW, 1.5 m/min) has much lower
Table 4 Welding Conditions and Porosities of the Tensile Specimens

Welding
Conditions
Fiber Laser
Power (W)
Welding Speed
(m/min)
Power Density
(W/cm2)
Heat Input
(J/mm)
Porosity
(%)
1
2
3
4
500
1000
1000
1500
1.5
1.5
2
5
1.0 106W/cm2
2.0 106W/cm2
2.0 106W/cm2
3.1 106W/cm2
20
40
30
18
15.4
12.0
1.8
0.4
WELDING RESEARCH
gen gas (molecular hydrogen H2) entrapped in micropores of the base metal to
release at such temperature. The composition of the collected gas was analyzed by
gas chromatography and was found to be
hydrogen, 17.4 mL/100 g. It is notable that
this value is about 38% of the total hydrogen contained in the base metal and
should be considered as a lower limit,
since it is impossible for all solute hydrogen to diffuse into the vacuum due to both
the limited diffusion time period and the
high magnesium vapor pressure. The real
amount of solute hydrogen could be
higher than 17.4 mL/100 g.
The abundant hydrogen in the base
metal of die-cast AM50, 45.7 mL/100 g,
should result from the interaction of water
vapor (H2O) with magnesium during the
die-casting process. It is well known that
the hydrogen solubility in magnesium is
higher (average solid solubility ~30
mL/100 g from Ref. 1) than that in aluminum alloys (Ref. 6), and can be increased (Ref. 24) by the high casting pressure (22~70 MPa) (Ref. 25). During die
casting, a large fraction of hydrogen
should be dissolved in the liquid metal due
to the higher liquid solubility (Ref. 6).
During solidification, part of the dissolved
hydrogen will be rejected from solid phase
to liquid phase (Ref. 13) due to the decrease in hydrogen solubility at the liquidus (Refs. 6, 26). The rejected hydrogen
will eventually form high-pressure hydrogen pores inside the base metal (Refs. 12,
13), since escape from the liquid at such a
high casting pressure (22~70 MPa) is extremely difficult. The remaining solute hydrogen in solid magnesium could still be
supersaturated, and is speculated to play
an important role in pore formation during subsequent treatments, such as laser
welding. The role of hydrogen in pore formation during laser welding could be similar to that during die casting, since the two
solidification processes have some similarities. However, hydrogen rejection during laser welding could be more intense,
considering the fact that the pressure on
the weld pool is much lower than that during die casting, and the hydrogen solid solubility is reduced. This will be addressed in
the following section.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Cross-sectional micrographs of fiber laser welds produced at 500 W with the following welding
speeds: A 5 m/min; B 4 m/min, C 2 m/min; D 1.5 m/min; and at 1000 W with the following
welding speeds: E 10 m/min; F 3 m/min; G 2 m/min; H 1.5 m/min; and at 1500 W with the
following welding speeds: I 10 m/min; J 7 m/min; K 5 m/min; L 4 m/min.
porosity, as shown in Fig. 6B. This result

clearly demonstrates that solute hydrogen
in the base metal dominates weld porosity
during laser welding, and also implies that
the entrapped gases (molecular hydrogen
H2, as well as other gases) in the preexisting
micropores in the base metal only have limited effects, probably because the amount of
gases entrapped in the micropores is much
smaller compared to the amount of solute
hydrogen, or because escape of these preexisting gas bubbles from the weld pool is
much easier.
Although removal or partial removal of
solute hydrogen from the base metal can reduce weld porosity significantly, vacuum degassing is hardly a valuable or economically
effective porosity-reducing remedy due to
its complexity and efficiency. The next session seeks to reduce weld porosity effectively and expediently using a conventional
laser welding technique.
Effects of Welding Parameters on Weld
Porosity and Discussion
Welding parameters, i.e., laser power

and welding speed, were varied in a wide
range in this study, to systematically inves-
106-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
tigate their effects on weld porosity, as

well as penetration and weld surface quality. In total, there were seven different
laser powers ranging from 0.5 to 2 kW, and
24 different welding speeds ranging from
1 to 10 m/min used for both CO2 and fiber
lasers. Typical cross-sectional micrographs
of welds produced by CO2 laser using different welding parameters are shown in
Fig. 7. For both laser powers of 0.8 and 2
kW, weld porosity as well as penetration
depth increase with decreasing welding
speed, as shown in Fig. 7AH. This is consistent with previous results by Zhao and
DebRoy (Refs. 5, 6) and by Wahba et al.
(Ref. 10). Low weld porosity can be obtained only when using low laser power
and high welding speed (low heat input),
accompanied with shallow penetration, as
seen in Fig. 7A. Considering that weld
porosity is dominated mainly by solute hydrogen in the base metal, therefore, a
smaller weld pool, which contains less
extra hydrogen diffused from the heataffected zone during melting (hydrogen
gathering, a reverse process of hydrogen rejection as during solidification), is speculated to have low weld porosity. To get a
smaller weld pool without losing penetra-
tion depth, a fiber laser with smaller beam

diameter (0.25 mm in diameter) was used
instead of a CO2 laser (0.6 mm in diameter).
Typical cross-sectional micrographs of
welds produced by fiber laser using different welding parameters are shown in Fig.
8. For low laser power of 0.5 kW, similar to
CO2 laser welds, both weld porosity and
penetration depth increase with decreasing welding speed, as shown in the first
row of Fig. 8. Low weld porosity was obtained only when using high welding
speed, accompanied with shallow penetration, as seen in Fig. 8A. For higher laser
powers of 1 and 1.5 kW, weld porosity increases with decreasing welding speed
first, reaching a maximum (rows 2 and 3,
second column in Fig. 8), and then decreases, encouragingly, reaching a minimum (rows 2 and 3, third column in Fig.
8). A further increase in welding speed will
increase weld porosity again (rows 2 and 3,
fourth column in Fig. 8). Differing from
welds with low porosity but also shallow
penetration (Fig. 7A, first column of Fig.
8A), these welds with minimum porosity,
as seen in rows 2 and 3, third column of
Fig. 8, also have complete joint penetration, and therefore could be considered as
sound welds. This was achieved only by selecting fiber laser power and appropriate
welding speed, and could be easily applied
in practical applications.
To obtain the laser-welding variables
(combinations of welding parameters) that
control pore-formation phenomenon in
welds, variations in weld porosity with heat
input at different laser powers are shown in
Fig. 9. The independent variable being heat
input (laser power over welding speed) was
indicated by the fact that weld porosity increases monotonously with increasing heat
input in some cases (Fig. 7, first row in Fig.
8, also see Refs. 5, 6, 10, 11). To allow quantitative comparison of weld porosity in both
CO2 and fiber laser welds in spite of their
different beam diameters, the beam diameter and laser power were grouped into a
single variable, laser power density (laser
power over spot area), accounting for both
laser spot size and laser power. This single
variable then was used to divide the variations of weld porosity into two categories,
instead of using both laser type and power.
For laser power densities less than 1.8 106
W/cm2, weld porosity always increases monotonously with increasing heat input, as
shown in Fig. 9A. This includes all CO2
laser welds and fiber laser welds produced
at low power. Sound welds were neither obtained by using the CO2 laser nor by using
the fiber laser at low laser power in this
study. Moreover, the variations of weld
porosity with heat input for both lasers have
the same trend, as shown in Fig. 9A. It is indicated that, at low power density, the two
lasers have common dependence of weld
porosity (regularity) on welding variables,
Fig. 9 Variation in weld porosity as a function of heat input for laser power densities: A Less; B greater than 1.8 106 W/cm2. Each data point represents an average of three cross sections of each weld.
Fig. 10 Surfaces of welds produced at different power densities and heat inputs: A 2.0 106 W/cm2,
30 J/mm; B 2.0 106 W/cm2, 40 J/mm; C 4.1106 W/cm2, 12 J/mm.
processes depends on many factors, such

as heating and cooling rates, weld pool
size, interaction time, etc., and could be
very intricate. Taking welding speed as an
example, at the same power density a
lower welding speed will introduce more
energy to the weld pool and generate a
larger pool size, since energy loss through
heat conduction from the pool to the base
metal stays the same. Thus, it will take
longer for the pool to cool down, favoring
diffusion of solute hydrogen from the
heat-affected zone to the weld pool (hydrogen gathering). As a result, more gas
bubbles will be formed due to hydrogen
rejection during solidification. On the
other hand, longer cooling time also favors escape of formed gas bubbles, making
the dependence of weld porosity on welding speed unpredictable. Actually, from
Fig. 9B, it is clearly seen that the dominance of the latter process over the former
depends not only on the welding speed but
also on the laser power density used.
To better understand the dependence
of the two processes on weld-pool thermal history (heating and cooling rates)
and welding parameters, dynamic behavior of both atomic and molecular hydrogen during laser welding were systematically investigated (Ref. 28). A detailed
presentation of the pore-formation
mechanisms will be given in a separate report, since the present work mainly focuses on the prevention technique.
Control Strategy of the Prevention

Technique
Besides low porosity and complete

joint penetration, good surface quality is
also a requirement for a sound weld. In
general, a low-porosity weld corresponds
to a flat, smooth surface, as shown in Figs.
8G and 10A, and vice versa (see Figs. 8H
and 10B). However, at very high power
density and low heat input, the weld pool
is melted rapidly but also solidifies rapidly, resulting in low weld porosity but
with bad surface quality, as shown in Fig.
10C (the porosity is ~5%). This should
be attributed to the reduction of the
molten pool fluidity due to rapid cooling,
as well as eruption of gas bubbles. Qualities of all welds obtained in this study
were assessed according to their weld
porosity, penetration status, and surface
quality; the results are summarized in
Table 3. Only welds with low porosity
(<5%), complete joint penetration, and
good surface quality (flat and smooth) as
marked by triple solid symbols in Table 3,
are considered to be sound, and their corresponding cross-sectional micrographs
are shown in Fig. 11. The operating window for the welding variables (laser
power density and heat input) to obtain
sound welds, as well as the major weld defects for defective welds is also presented,
as shown in Fig. 12. It is seen that, for low
heat input, welds have incomplete peneWELDING JOURNAL 107-s
WELDING RESEARCH
although they have different spot sizes and

wavelengths that could result in totally different energy absorptivity.
For laser power densities greater than
1.8 106 W/cm2, as shown in Fig. 9B, weld
porosity increases with increasing heat
input but there exists a minimum at a specific moderate heat input. This only includes fiber laser welds produced at relative high power, since the threshold laser
power density 1.8 106 W/cm2 is already
beyond the capability of our CO2 laser
(<7.1105 W/cm2). It should be noted
that, to determine whether or not at high
power density the dependence weld
porosity on welding variables for a CO2
laser is the same as that for a fiber laser,
further investigation with assistance of a
more powerful CO2 laser with a smaller
spot size is needed.
For the fiber laser, it is concluded that
the controlling laser-welding variables of
weld porosity are laser power density a
and heat input. To obtain sound welds with
low porosity and complete penetration (as
shown in Fig. 8G, K), the laser power density must exceed a threshold of 1.8 106
W/cm2. Meanwhile, the heat input should
be within a specific range to minimize
weld porosity.
It is well known that weld porosity is
governed by two processes: nucleation/
growth of gas bubbles and their escape
from the weld pool. If the former process
overwhelms the latter, then the weld will
have high porosity and vice versa. For
wrought and sand-cast magnesium alloys
that have low gas content, low weld porosity can be obtained at low welding speed,
since the small amount of dissolved gas
can only result in limited amount of gas
bubbles (i.e., the bubble source is limited),
yet the long interaction time favors the escape process (Ref. 27). For die-cast magnesium alloys that have high gas content,
during laser welding the nucleation/
growth process could be sustaining until
all gas content exhausts, and whether it
can be overwhelmed by the escape process
is a key to obtain low-porosity welds. However, the competition between the two
Fig. 12 Operating window for the welding variables of laser power density and heat input. Main defects for defective welds are also indicated.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 Cross-sectional micrographs of sound welds produced at various laser power densities and heat inputs. Laser power density of 1.8 106 W/cm2 with the following heat inputs: A 33.8 J/mm; B 30 J/mm;
C 27 J/mm; D 24.5 J/mm; E 22.5 J/mm. Laser power density of 2.0 106 W/cm2 with the following
heat inputs: F 30 J/mm; G 27.3 J/mm; H 25 J/mm; I 23.1 J/mm. Laser power density of 3.1
106 W/cm2 with the following heat inputs: J 19.6 J/mm; K 18.8 J/mm; L 18 J/mm; M 17.3 J/mm.
Laser power density of 3.7 106 W/cm2 with the following heat inputs: N 18 J/mm; O 17.4 J/mm.
tration; for insufficient power density,

the weld porosity is always high due to the
dominance of the gas bubble nucleation/growth process over escape
process; for low heat input and low power
density, welds have both incomplete penetration and high porosity; and for sufficient power density, a sound weld can be
obtained only when using appropriate
heat input. It is concluded that, in order
to obtain sound laser welds with low
porosity, complete joint penetration, and
good surface quality, the laser power
density should be greater than 1.8 106
W/cm 2 such that the variation of weld
porosity with heat input minimizes at a
moderate value where complete joint
penetration is ensured, but less than 4.1
106 W/cm2 to obtain good surface quality. For laser power densities of 1.8 106,
2.0 106, 3.1 106, and 3.7 106 W/cm2,
the corresponding optimal heat inputs
should be within the range of 23~34,
23~30, 17~20, and 17~18 J/mm, respectively, to obtain sound welds with low
good surface quality. It is clear that the
window size for the heat input is larger if
a relatively low power density is adopted.
Tensile Test of the Joints and Fracture
Features
Uniaxial tensile tests were performed

to determine the mechanical properties of
108-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
joints obtained using different welding parameters. Welding conditions and porosities of the tested joints are listed in Table
4, and the corresponding results are shown
in Fig. 13. As seen in Fig. 13, both tensile
strength and elongation increase with the
decrease in porosity. Fractographs of the
joints are shown in Fig. 14. As seen in Fig.
14, the fracture surface of the joint with
high weld porosity has plenty of pores (see
Fig. 14A), whereas fracture surface of the
joint with low weld porosity has fewer
pores (see Fig. 14B). The increase in tensile strength and elongation with decreasing porosity should be attributed to the increase in effective loading area, as shown
in Fig. 13. When the porosity is extremely
low (~0.4%, nearly pore free, as seen in
Fig. 8K), the tensile strength is comparable to that of the base metal and the joint
fractures in the base metal. Thus, it is concluded that the welds with low porosity obtained through the prevention technique
have a joint performance comparable to
the base metal.
Conclusions
Analyses of gas compositions in the
base metal of high-pressure die-cast magnesium Alloy AM50 were performed and
solute hydrogen in the base metal was
found to attribute to weld porosity during
laser welding. Effects of welding parameters on weld porosity were systematically
Fig. 13 Tensile strengths and elongations for the

base metal and joints obtained under different
process conditions. Each data point represents an
average of three joints.
investigated, and an effective and expedient prevention technique was realized.

1. Analyses of gas composition in the
base metal showed the base metal contains a high gas content, 63.4 mL/100 g,
most of which is hydrogen (72.1% in volume). A fraction of the hydrogen, at least
38% in volume, is dissolved in the base
metal in atomic form, and is found to attribute to the weld porosity during laser
welding.
2. Effects of welding parameters (laser
power and welding speed) on weld porosity were systematically investigated. It is
found that, within the range of welding parameters investigated here, weld porosity
and penetration depth increase with increasing heat input monotonously when
laser power density is low for both CO2
and fiber lasers; with sufficient fiber laser
power density (>1.8 106 W/cm2), variation of weld porosity with heat input minimizes at a moderate value, which enables
obtaining low porosity welds with complete joint penetration.
3. A prevention technique was realized
to obtain sound laser welds with low
good surface quality: the laser power density should be greater than 1.8106 W/cm2
such that the weld porosity minimizes at a
moderate heat input where complete joint
penetration is ensured, but less than 4.1
106 W/cm2 to obtain good surface quality.
The operating window of laser welding
variables were presented for the following

laser power densities: 1.8 106, 2.0 106,
3.1 106, and 3.7 106 W/cm2; the corresponding optimal heat inputs should be
within the range of 23~34, 23~30, 17~20,
and 17~18 J/mm, respectively.
4. Tensile tests were performed to determine the mechanical properties of the
joints. It is found that both tensile strength
and elongation increase with decreasing
weld porosity. This is attributed to the increase of effective loading area with deceasing porosity. When porosity is extremely low, the joint performance is
comparable to the base metal.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr. Shoumei Xiong

at the University of Tsinghua for the donation of die-cast AM50 alloys, Dr. Rongshi
Xiao at the Beijing University of Technology for valuable technical assistance in fiber
laser welding, and Dr. Yizhe Tang at Johns
Hopkins University for assistance in manuscript preparation. The authors gratefully
acknowledge the sponsorship from National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 50775124) and Research Fund for the
Doctoral Program of Higher Education.
References
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W. Z., and Ren, J. L. 2009. Experimental study
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Burmester, I., and Niemeyer, M. 1997. The
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Chen, W. Z., and Ren, J. L. 2009. Experimental
study on the reason of pore formation in laser
welding of die-cast magnesium alloy. Acta Metall. Sin. 45: 10061012.

17. Lehner, C., Reinhart, G., and Schaller,
L. 1999. Welding of die-casted magnesium alloys for production. J. Laser Appl. 11: 206210.
18. Haferkamp, H., Bach, F. W., Burmester,
I., Kreutzburg, K., and Niemeyer, M. 1996. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on
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J. L. 2011. Formation regularity of pores during
laser welding of die-cast magnesium alloys and
its mechanism. Chin. J. Laser. 38(6): 0603006.
20. Kolodziejczaka, P., and Kalita, W. 2009.
Properties of CO2 laser-welded butt joints of
dissimilar magnesium alloys. J. Mater. Proc.
Technol. 209: 11221128.
21. Lehner, C., Reinhart, R., and Schaller,
L. 1998. Welding of die-casted magnesium alloys on production machines. Proceedings of
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of America, Orlando, Fla.
22. Lehner, C., and Reinhart, R. 1999.
Welding of die-casted magnesium alloys on production machines. J. Laser Appl. 11: 206215.
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WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 14 Fractographs of the joints obtained under the following welding conditions: A 1; B 3; C 4.
The Weld Heat-Affected Zone Liquation

Cracking Susceptibility of Naval Steels
Hot-ductility testing was employed to determine the relative cracking
susceptibilities of three naval steels and a high-strength, blast-resistant
steel recently developed for naval applications
BY J. L. CARON, S. S. BABU, AND J. C. LIPPOLD
ABSTRACT
WELDING RESEARCH
A high-strength, blast-resistant steel known as BlastAlloy160 (BA-160), recently

developed for naval applications, and naval alloys HY-100, HSLA 100, and HSLA-65,
were subjected to hot-ductility testing to assess their relative susceptibility to heataffected zone (HAZ) liquation cracking. The widest liquation cracking temperature
range (LCTR) of 148C was exhibited by BA-160, which suggested moderate cracking susceptibility. Its susceptibility was attributed to several factors including a completely austenitic microstructure at elevated temperatures, enrichment of Ni and Cu
along grain boundaries, good wetting and penetration of liquid films along the austenite grain boundaries, and a large HAZ grain size. A slightly wider LCTR of 62C was
exhibited by HY-100 as compared to the HSLA steels. Microstructure characterization suggested the onset of liquation to occur within the austenite single phase and
wider grain boundary enrichment was exhibited compared to the HSLA steels. The
HSLA steels exhibited similar overall behavior and narrow LCTRs (HSLA-100, 40C;
HSLA-65, 43C). Their sharp decrease in on-heating (OH) ductility over a narrow
temperature range of approximately 10C was attributed to the formation of -ferrite
within the same temperature range as incipient grain boundary melting. The OH liquation mechanism in the HSLA steels was directly related to the -ferrite and reverse peritectic transformations. Ineffective wetting and liquid discontinuity in the
HSLA steels was established through metallographic and fractographic observations.
Introduction
Steels are currently the principal structural materials in existing naval ships and
submarines. This will continue to be the
trend in the near future, given their relatively low cost, suitable combination of
mechanical properties, and existing infrastructure for their processing and fabrication (Ref. 1). As such, the development,
certification, and utilization of highstrength steel is an active research area for
the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
Naval steels must exhibit good weldability
and maintain adequate properties over a
temperature range of approximately 35
to 50C (31 to 122F). Two major series
J. L. CARON (jcaron@haynesintl.com) is with
the Research and Technology Group, Haynes International, Inc., Kokomo, Ind. S. S. BABU and J.
C. LIPPOLD are with the Welding Engineering
Program, Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
110-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
of naval alloys in use today are the highyield (HY) steels and the high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steels.
The HY steels have been used extensively for ship and submarine construction
since the 1950s (Ref. 2). These alloys were
developed for thick-plate structural applications and their microstructures typically
consist of quench and tempered martensite with a fine distribution of carbides.
During welding of HY steels, the formation of brittle martensite in the heat-
KEYWORDS
Hot Ductility
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
Liquation Cracking
High-Strength Steels
BlastAlloy160 (BA-160)
Microstructure Evolution
Weldability Testing
affected zone (HAZ) makes them susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC)

(Ref. 3). To limit HIC susceptibility, preheat and weld interpass temperatures are
carefully controlled to slow the cooling
rate such that martensite is not formed in
the HAZ. This action also provides longer
time and higher temperatures for hydrogen to diffuse out of the weld, and reduces
the tensile residual stress level. However,
the required preheat/interpass procedure
results in lower productivity and higher
fabrication costs. Also, it has been reported that HAZ liquation cracking is
often encountered during welding of HY
steel for shipbuilding purposes (Ref. 4).
The HSLA steels began their development in the 1980s as replacements for the
HY steels (Ref. 5). The incentive for developing the HSLA steels was for improved weldability through the minimization or elimination of preheat, utilization
of a wider range of energy inputs, and employment of more relaxed fabrication controls. This was achieved by developing
steels containing lower carbon contents
than the HY steels, and which obtain their
strength through additions of Cu for
precipitation strengthening and Cr, Mo, V,
Nb, and Ti for carbide strengthening
(Ref. 2).
The current research is directed toward developing naval steels with yield
strengths of 1030 to 1240 MPa (150180
ksi) and Charpy V-notch impact toughness
values above 115 J (85 ft-lb) measured at
an approximate room temperature of
22C (72F) (Ref. 6). BlastAlloy160 (BA160) is a high-strength transformationtoughened alloy that was developed to
meet the property requirements for blastresistant naval material applications
(Refs. 68). The minimum yield strength
of 1103 MPa (160 ksi) is provided by fine
(3 to 5 nm) Cu-rich precipitates and M2C
carbides (where M represents the elements Cr, Mo, and V) in a mixed martensitic/bainitic matrix. An enhanced impact
toughness level of 176 J at a temperature
of 20C is attributed to the dispersed
phase transformation toughening phenomenon, which occurs when Nistabilized austenite precipitates undergo a
martensitic transformation in a frontal
zone ahead of a crack tip (Ref. 9). The
strain-hardening effect from the martensite that is formed in advance of the crack
tip offsets the softening from microvoid
formation and forces strain localization
elsewhere, thus delaying the onset of shear
localization during ductile fracture (Ref.
10). The heat treatment procedure for
BA-160 is provided in Table 1.
Previous investigations have been conducted to characterize the microstructure
evolution in the weld fusion zone (FZ) and
HAZ of BA-160 (Refs. 11, 12). Characterization of simulated HAZ regions revealed Cu segregation, leading to concerns of HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility (Ref. 13). The metallurgical
basis for HAZ liquation cracking involves
the simultaneous presence of continuous
liquid films at grain boundaries and a critical level of restraint (Ref. 14). These liquid films cannot accommodate the strains
that accompany thermal and mechanical
restraints during cooling, leading to cracking along the grain boundaries in the partially melted zone (PMZ).
The hot-ductility test is a simple and
accurate test method to evaluate the HAZ
liquation cracking susceptibility of an alloy
(Refs. 1517). These tests simulate the
metallurgical degradation that occurs during a weld thermal cycle and provides a
measure of the ductility of the alloy that
would be experienced at high temperatures in the HAZ. Ductility is a key component of overall weldability because weld
cracking is often associated with an exhaustion of available ductility. To determine the elevated temperature ductility
signature of an alloy, both on-heating
(OH) and on-cooling (OC) ductility tests

are performed.
The nil-ductility temperature (NDT) is
defined as the OH temperature where
ductility is reduced to zero (Refs. 16, 17).
Traditionally, this is viewed as the temperature of liquation onset, where grain
boundary surfaces are coated by a thin
continuous liquid film. At even higher
temperatures, the nil-strength temperature (NST) is reached, representing the
point where the strength of the alloy drops
to essentially zero. This is observed when
grain boundaries are coated by a substantial thickness of liquid, such that the
boundaries cannot accommodate any
stress. At the NST, the continuous liquid
Table 1 Heat Treatment Procedure for BA-160

Step
1. Austenitization
2. Liquid nitrogen hold
3. Tempering
4. Tempering
Temperature (C)
Duration
TTambient
900
196
550
450
1h
30 min
30 min
5h
water quench
air warm
water quench
air cool
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Hot-ductility test results: Ductility curves.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Hot-ductility test results: Ultimate force curves.
layer present at the NDT has thickened to

the point where minimal capillary exists.
To determine the OC curve, typically
samples are heated to a temperature
somewhere between the NDT and NST,
and are brought to the test temperature at
a prescribed cooling rate. The amount of
melting that can be tolerated by the sample during OC tests is often limited experimentally to a peak temperature between
the NDT and NST; employing a peak temperature that is closer to the NST than the
NDT provides a more sensitive and accurate indication of cracking susceptibility
(Refs. 16, 18). Upon cooling from the peak
temperature, measurable ductility of approximately 1 to 5% reduction of area
(RA) is regained at the so-called ductility
recovery temperature (DRT). At the DRT,
it is assumed that liquid that has formed
Experimental Procedure
Table 2 Measured Chemical Compositions of Experimental Alloys

Element(wt-%)
C
Mn
Si
P
S
Cu
Ni
Cr
Mo
V
Nb
Ti
BA-160
0.059
0.001
0.015
<0.005
<0.001
3.39
6.80
1.90
0.61
<0.001
<0.001
0.016
112-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
HY-100
0.18
0.28
0.21
0.008
0.002
0.15
2.32
1.37
0.26
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
HSLA-100
0.051
0.90
0.25
0.008
0.002
1.17
1.58
0.60
0.37
<0.01
0.017
<0.01
during the OH cycle has solidified extensively enough after cooling that measurable ductility is reachieved.
In this study, hot-ductility tests were
conducted to determine the liquation
cracking temperature ranges of BA-160
and established naval alloys HY-100,
HSLA-100, and HSLA-65. From these
data, the relative HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibilities of the alloys could be
determined.
HSLA-65
0.074
1.35
0.24
0.011
0.006
0.25
0.34
0.14
0.06
0.058
0.018
0.012
Materials
The measured chemical compositions

of the experimental alloys are provided in
Table 2. The BA-160 experimental material was provided by QuesTek Innovations
LLC (Evanston, Ill.) in the form of 34.9mm-diameter barstock. The other alloys
were provided by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division (West
Bethesda, Md.). The HY-100 material was
in the form of 0.25-in. (6.35-mm) rolled
plate, and the HSLA-100 and HSLA-65
Fig. 3 Micrographs of hot-ductility samples adjacent to fracture location: A BA-160 NDT; B BA-160 NST; C HY-100 NDT; D HSLA-100 NST.
Secondary microcracks were observed well away from fracture surface in BA-160 NDT samples. Nonetching segregated boundaries were observed in BA-160
and HY-100 samples suggesting wetting and penetration of liquid films.
materials were in the form of 0.50-in.

(12.7-mm) rolled plates.
Hot-Ductility Tests
Hot-ductility tests were conducted with

the GLEEBLE 3800 thermal-mechanical simulator using solid bar samples of dimensions 5 mm in diameter and 75 mm in
length. The tests were performed with a
jaw-to-jaw free span of 20 mm and within
a high-vacuum (1.3 104 Pa) testing
chamber. Temperature control was provided by Types K and R thermocouple
wires percussion welded at the midsection
of the sample. The OH test samples were
heated at a rate of 100C/s to the test temperature and held for 1 s prior to stroke
initiation at 50 mm/s. The NST was determined by continued heating at a rate of
100C/s of the sample until failure occurred by massive liquation; three test
samples were used to determine an average NST. The OC tests peak temperature
for each alloy was made in reference to the

NDT and NST. The OC tests were conducted by heating to the peak temperature, holding for 1 s, and cooling at a rate
of 25C/s to the test temperature. The
samples were held at the test temperature
for 1 s prior to stroke initiation at a rate of
50 mm/s. For OH and OC tests, single
samples were tested at each temperature.
After the tests, the ductility of the sample
was evaluated by measuring the diameter
of each fracture surface in two locations
with digital vernier calipers to determine
an average diameter for the %RA calculation. To determine the equilibrium
NST (NSTeq) of each alloy under slower
heating rate conditions, samples were
heated to 1400C at a rate of 100C/s and
then heated at a rate of 1C/s until failure.
To minimize the amount of force on the
sample, the Gleeble low-force jaw set
was employed for these tests, which exert
a force of approximately 2 N on the
sample.
Microstructure Characterization
After testing, the samples selected for

metallographic analysis were sectioned
along their longitudinal direction using a
precision diamond saw. Samples were
then mounted, ground, polished, and
etched. Light optical micrographs were
acquired using an Olympus GX-51 inverted metallurgical microscope equipped
with an Olympus DP71 digital camera.
Fractographic analyses were conducted
with a Philips ESEM FEG-30 scanning
electron microscope. Samples were ultrasonically cleaned in ethyl alcohol, air
dried, and then furnace baked before
examination.

Hot-Ductility Results
Shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are the hot-ductility test curves for each of the alloys. For
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 Micrographs of NSTeq samples: A, B BA-160; C, D HSLA-100. In the BA-160 sample, the microstructural interface between the partially melted
region and fully melted region is evident. In the HSLA-100 sample, the interface is not clear and small discontinuous cracks were observed as indicated in the
micrograph.
BA-160, the OH ductility values remained

above 75% RA up to 1351C, where a
maximum OH ductility of 89% RA was
observed. Above 1351C, the ductility rapidly decreased to 0% RA at the NDT of
1419C. For the other naval alloys, similar
OH ductility behavior was exhibited, with
essentially maximum ductility (99% RA)
being achieved over a wide temperature
range before a sharp drop to the NDT
over a very narrow temperature range. For
HSLA-100, a drop in ductility from 92 to
0% RA occurred in the range from 1438
to 1446C. Similarly, for HSLA-65, a decrease from 94 to 0% RA was experienced
in the range from 1441 to 1450C. The
drop experienced by HY-100 was more
gradual, with ductility decreasing from 94
to 0% RA in the range from 1400 to
1431C. The order of the NSTs was seen to
correlate with the order of the NDTs. The
average NST of 1451C for BA-160 was
the lowest of the alloys tested; the highest
NST of 1489C was exhibited by HSLA-65.
114-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
The DRT of BA-160 was found to be

1303C. The DRT of HY-100 occurred at
1411C, which was lower compared to its
NDT than for the HSLA-100 and HSLA65, which exhibited immediate ductility
recovery at 1442 and 1446C, respectively. Similarly, the OC ductility of each
alloy was lower than the OH ductility at all
test temperatures.
For each alloy, the NSTeq was found to
be between the NDT and NST. In each
case, the NSTeq was closer to the NDT

than the NST. The largest difference between the NSTeq and NDT was 13C for
HY-100. For the HSLA steels, the NSTeq
was only 1C above the NDT. A summary
of the hot-ductility parameters for each
alloy is provided in Table 3.
As shown in Fig. 2AD, the ultimate
force values increased with decreasing
temperature both OH and OC for each of
the alloys tested. Generally, the OC values
Table 3 Summary of Hot-Ductility Test Parameters for Each Alloy

Parameter (C)
NDT
NST
Tp,OC
DRT
LCTR
NSTeq
BA-160
1419
1451
1440
1303
148
1428
HY-100
1431
1473
1450
1411
62
1443
HSLA-100
1446
1482
1465
1442
40
1447
HSLA-65
1450
1489
1470
1446
43
1451
Fig. 5 Fractographs of NDT samples: A BA-160; B HY-100; C HSLA-100; D HSLA-65. Smooth intergranular fracture was exhibited by BA-160
and HY-100, which indicated continuous grain boundary liquid films. The HSLA steels exhibited primarily intergranular fracture with localized features suggesting that liquation did not occur over all the grain boundaries. Note that the fractographs are at different magnifications.
were below those measured for the OH

tests. At OH test temperatures above
900C, HY-100 consistently exhibited the
lowest strength. The values were similar
for the other alloys until the strength of
BA-160 began to decrease below the
HSLA steels above 1200C, which could be
attributed to either grain growth and/or
the onset of liquation. The OC strength
values of BA-160 were slightly below the
other alloys at temperatures above 1100C.
Quantitative Interpretation of Results
Several criteria can be used to interpret

hot-ductility results. Among the various
criteria, the temperature range between
the NST and DRT, which is referred to
here as the liquation cracking temperature range (LCTR), has been recommended by Lin et al. (Ref. 19) as the most
appropriate for assessing HAZ liquation
cracking susceptibility. The LCTR represents the maximum temperature range
(NST-DRT) over which liquid films are
present in the HAZ. An alloy with a narrower LCTR is deemed to have better resistance to HAZ liquation cracking because it is presumed that continuous liquid
films are present in the microstructure
over a narrower temperature range. The

LCTR of 148C for BA-160 indicates
greater susceptibility to HAZ liquation
cracking when compared with the other
naval alloys tested. When compared with
the results from various other alloys tested
in a similar manner (Refs. 1927), the
LCTR for BA-160 is located intermediately between resistant alloys, such as 310
stainless steel (25C), and highly susceptible alloys, such as A-286 alloy (300C).
Alloy 718 in wrought form is known to be
susceptible to HAZ liquation cracking in
actual practice and exhibited a LCTR of
103C (Ref. 27). Thus, the susceptibility of
BA-160 can be considered greater than
718 alloy and overall moderate based on
a quantitative comparison to other alloys.
Moderate susceptibility suggests good
overall resistance to HAZ liquation cracking if weld restraint and alloy composition
can be controlled carefully. Since the
LCTRs of the HY and HSLA steels tested
are much lower than any of the alloys exhibiting susceptibility, they are considered
to have low susceptibility to HAZ liquation cracking. Of the three, HY-100 would
be expected to exhibit a slightly higher susceptibility due to its slightly wider LCTR
of 62C.
Hot-Ductility Microstructures
The microstructures of BA-160 NDT

and NST samples adjacent to the fracture
locations are shown in Fig. 3AD. In the
NDT sample, secondary cracks were observed at locations away from the fracture
surface. The cracking occurred along prior
austenite grain boundaries (PAGBs) in
multiple locations and appeared to extend
across adjacent grains. At higher magnification, the secondary cracks exhibited
some discontinuity, suggesting discontinuous liquid films were present at temperatures slightly below the NDT. In the NST
sample, nonetching grain boundary regions were observed near the fracture surface, suggesting that elemental segregation to the PAGBs had occurred during
the thermal cycle. This finding also suggests that significant enrichment of the
grain boundaries had occurred in the
NDT to NST temperature range and that
a greater quantity of liquid had formed
along the boundaries prior to failure. The
HY-100 NDT samples exhibited evidence
of grain boundary segregation and subsequent liquid phase formation. However,
secondary cracking at locations away from
the fracture surface was not evident. Sim-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 Fractographs of NST samples: A BA-160; B HSLA-100. The NST fracture surfaces exhibited similar washed-out features from significant grain
boundary liquation that obscured the sharper intergranular surfaces seen in the NDT samples. Note that the fractographs are at different magnifications.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Fractographs of OC samples: A BA-160 OC-1320C exhibiting predominantly intergranular fracture with some grain facets exhibiting ductile tearing; B HSLA-100 OC-1422C exhibiting predominantly ductile tearing features with isolated pockets of smooth intergranular or dendritic features. Note
that the fractographs are at different magnifications.
ilar features of secondary cracking or

grain boundary enrichment were not observed in the HSLA steels. As shown in
Fig. 3D, HSLA-100 exhibited a ferritic microstructure near the fracture surface.
Figure 4A, B shows the microstructure
of the BA-160 NSTeq sample. The center of
this sample experienced complete melting,
which resulted in a distinct microstructural
boundary being created between the fully
melted region (simulated FZ) and the partially melted region (simulated PMZ) of a
weld. The microstructural interface between the simulated FZ and PMZ regions
is clearly distinguished by the different etching characteristics of each region. Evident in
the simulated FZ are the solidification subgrain boundaries (SSGBs) separating adjacent subgrains, which are present as cells or
dendrites. These boundaries are evident
due to strong compositional differences
with the bulk microstructure. The SSGBs
were observed to connect via an epitaxial
link with the PAGBs of the PMZ, consistent
with observations from autogenous weld
microstructures (Ref. 11). Overall, the microstructure suggested that good wetting
and penetration of liquid films occurred
116-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
along the PAGBs.

To estimate the compositional enrichment occurring along the microstructural
boundaries, semiquantitative energydispersive spectroscopy (EDS) line scans
were performed across the SSGBs in the
simulated FZ and PAGBs of the simulated
PMZ (Ref. 28). There was found to be significant compositional enrichment of Ni
and Cu at these microstructural boundaries, reaching average maximum values
of 8.7 wt-% Ni and 5.6 wt-% Cu at the
SSGBs and 8.8 wt-% Ni and 5.4 wt-% Cu
at PAGBs.
While the microstructure of the
HSLA-100 NSTeq sample did not exhibit
wide grain boundary enrichment, evidence suggesting slight grain boundary enrichment and partial liquation are apparent Fig. 4C, D. Small discontinuous
cracks were observed away from the fracture surface in a location presumed to be
the simulated PMZ (based on a similar
distance from the fracture surface compared to the BA-160 NSTeq sample). Discontinuous darker etching regions along
the grain boundaries were also noted as
shown in Fig. 4D.
Hot-Ductility Fracture Surfaces
Representative NDT fracture surfaces

for each alloy are presented in Fig. 5AD.
The fracture surface of the BA-160 sample
exhibited clean intergranular features,
supporting the assertion that failure was
associated with thin liquid films present
along the austenite grain boundaries. The
large facets indicated extensive austenite
grain growth had occurred, with grain separation evident in multiple locations as
noted in the micrograph. Figure 5B exhibits a similar smooth intergranular type
of fracture morphology for HY-100 at the
NDT. In contrast, the HSLA-100 NDT
sample exhibited intergranular fracture
with elongated and step-like features. The
HSLA-65 NDT fracture surfaces exhibited a smooth intergranular morphology
with localized areas decorated with dendritic features, which suggests localized
melting or liquation. Higher magnification of the HSLA NDT samples revealed
other areas to possess microductile rupture characteristics. This indicates that initial liquation did not occur over all of the
grain boundaries in the HSLA steels. The
comparatively finer grain size of the

HSLA steels compared to BA-160 and
HY-100 is also noted. The NST fracture
surfaces (Fig. 6AD) exhibited similar
washed-out features from significant liquation that obscured the sharper intergranular surfaces seen in the NDT
samples.
The fracture surface of the BA-160
OC-1320C sample exhibited predominantly intergranular fracture with some
grain facets exhibiting ductile tearing
Fig. 7A. While the measured ductility of
the sample was zero, the ductile tearing
features signaled the onset of ductility recovery that occurred at a slightly lower test
temperature of 1303C. After cooling to
lower temperatures, ductile failure by microvoid coalescence became the dominant
fracture mode. Similar behavior was ob-
served for HY-100 OC samples, where intergranular fracture persisted to 1411C.

Shown in Fig. 7B is the fracture surface
from the HSLA-100 OC-1422C sample.
The sample exhibited predominantly ductile tearing features with isolated pockets of smooth intergranular or dendritic
features. The pockets suggest that some
discontinuous/localized liquid remained
in the microstructure upon cooling from
the 1465C peak temperature. The discontinuous nature of liquid allowed for
measurable ductility to be achieved by the
sample.
Microstructure Evolution at Elevated
Temperatures
Previous research related to the ductile-brittle transition in steels at near-
Table 4 Summary of Calculated Data for Each Alloy

Parameter (C)
BA-160
HY-100
HSLA-100
HSLA-65
1467
1410
1442
1447
1459
1453
1449
1455
1495
N/A
1477
1508
1495
1466
1514
1484
1488
1520
1461
1479
fcc
1495
1477
1316
18
179
bcc
1507
1476
1427
31
80
bcc
1511
1484
1403
27
108
bcc
1517
1481
1417
36
100
Incipient Melting Temperature Calculations

Tdb
Tdb
Thermodynamic Calculations
Tliq
T-f
Tsol
Solidification Calculations
Primary Solidification Phase
Tliq
Tsol
Tsch
Tliq-Tsol
Tliq-Tsch
solidus temperatures has shown this transition to be characterized by a rapid decrease in ductility over a narrow temperature range typically less than 10C (Refs.
29, 30). The reason for the rapid decrease
in ductility was attributed to incipient
grain boundary melting. This mechanism
involves the segregation of solute and impurity elements to grain boundaries during both initial processing and grain
boundary migration upon heating to elevated temperatures near the solidus temperature (Tsol) (Ref. 29). The transition
temperature was shown to be mainly dependent on C content and the level of impurity elements such as S and P (Ref. 30).
By considering the results of more than 40
compositions of low-alloy steels, Zabil'skii
and Nikonova (Ref. 30) developed an empirical equation describing the ductile-tobrittle transition temperature that occurs
during high temperature fracture as a
function of chemical composition (wt-%):
Tdb (C) = 1479 169C 547S 199P
8Mn 6Si
The calculated Tdbvalues for each alloy
are provided in Table 4. The difference between the Tdb values and the NDTs for the
alloys are 48, 11, 13, and 1C for BA160, HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65,
respectively. For BA-160 and HY-100, the
element contributing by far the largest decrease in Tdb is C. For the HSLA steels,
the elements C and Mn have approximately the same contribution to lowering
Tdb. Both the multiplying factor and the
magnitude of the element need to be considered together when determining the
overall effect of each element. While S
and P have the largest multiplying factors,
their contents in the steels are also much
lower than other elements, which limit
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Equilibrium phase diagrams: A Binary Fe-C in the vicinity of the peritectic reaction; B pseudobinary Fe-C-6.5Ni showing the elimination of the
-ferrite phase field. Calculated with Thermo-Calc software.
Fig. 9 Schematic illustrations of HAZ liquation mechanisms.
WELDING RESEARCH
their overall effect. Since C, S, P, Mn, and

Si contents are all very low in BA-160, it
reasons that incipient melting may be attributed to other alloying additions, such
as Ni and Cu, which are not accounted for
in the Tdb equation of Zabilskii and
Nikonova.
One of the findings in Ref. 30 was that
the effect of C on Tdb is similar to its effect
on Tsol, which is 1.8 to 2.0C per 0.01
wt-% C according to the FeC binary
phase diagram. By considering a similar
approach, an estimate of the incipient
melting temperatures was developed that
includes the effect of other elements, particularly Ni and Cu. The liquidus temperature (Tliq) for each alloy calculated using
thermodynamic data was used as the starting temperature. Examining the Fe-x binary phase diagrams provides an estimate
of the effect of each element in lowering
Tdb*. Specifically, the average slope of the
solidus line on the Fe-rich side of the diagram is used as a multiplying factor in a
way similar to the equation developed in
Ref. 30. The equation developed as a function
of
chemical
composition
(wt-%) is
Tdb* (C) = Tliq (500/175)C 7Mn
24Si 1236S 175P
7Cu 7Ni 1Cr 2Mo
The calculated Tdb* values are shown
in Table 4. For C, the solidus slope can be
determined from either the -ferrite or
austenite phases, with the respective
118-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
slopes being 500 and 175C per wt-% C.

Due to the large difference in slopes, it is
important to consider the high-temperature phase transformation sequence of
each alloy. As will be discussed later, it is
more appropriate to use the austenite
solidus slope for calculating Tdb* of BA160 and HY-100. When comparing Tdb
and Tdb* in Table 4, the consideration of
Ni and Cu results in a Tdb* of 1410C for
BA-160 that is much closer to its NDT of
1419C. The poorest agreement between
Tdb* and NDT was exhibited by HY-100;
the HSLA steels exhibited the best
agreement.
Previous research has shown a partial
loss of ductility occurring immediately before incipient melting in low-carbon steels
is related to the austenite to -ferrite
phase transformation and the formation
of -ferrite at the austenite grain boundaries (Ref. 31). The loss in ductility associated with the austenite to -ferrite transformation may be related to the so-called
transformation-controlled intergranular
failure mechanism (Ref. 32), whereby failure occurs due to strain concentration in
the thin films of ferrite surrounding the
austenite grain boundaries.
The behavior of the steels near their incipient melting temperature may be dependent on the high-temperature phase
transformation sequence, particularly
with regard to the peritectic reaction. The
peritectic transformation in steel involves
the transformation of -ferrite and liquid
to austenite. The on-heating, or reverse,
peritectic reaction involves the transformation of austenite to -ferrite and liquid

Fig. 8A. As shown, the -ferrite transformation temperature (T-f) increases
with increasing C content from a temperature of 1395C for pure Fe. In another
study, the experimental austenite to -ferrite transformation temperature range
was determined to be 1442 to 1452C for
several low-carbon (0.080.10 wt-% C)
steels (Ref. 31).
Thermodynamic calculations were performed with Thermo-Calc software and
TCFE5 database to determine the equilibrium phase transformation sequences
for the alloys:
BA-160 austenitic:
+L L
HY-100 hyperperitectic:
+L + +L +L L
HSLA-100 and HSLA-65 hypoperitectic:
+ + +L +L L
The results predict that BA-160 is fully
austenitic as the -ferrite phase field and
peritectic reaction are eliminated due to 6.5
wt-% Ni being a strong austenite-stabilizing
factor Fig. 8B. For HY-100, liquid is predicted to begin forming from the austenite
phase prior to the -ferrite transformation
and is deemed hyperperitectic. For HSLA100 and HSLA-65, the transformation sequence is hypoperitectic as austenite trans-
forms to -ferrite before reaching the reverse peritectic transformation.

To better understand the liquation
mechanisms that are discussed in the following section, it is useful to understand
the differences in the predicted weld solidification for the alloys. Solidification
simulations were performed with the
Thermo-Calc software and TCFE5 database. The analysis did not include impurity
elements, and Tsol and Scheil nonequilibrium solidus (Tsch) were considered to
occur at 0.99 fraction solid (fs). The results
are presented in Table 4. The primary solidification phase was predicted to be
austenite for BA-160 and -ferrite for HY100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65. While BA160 is predicted to have the narrowest
equilibrium solidification range of 18C, it
is also predicted to have the widest nonequilibrium Scheil solidification range of
179C. This indicates significant partitioning of solute elements under nonequilibrium solidification conditions.
Liquation Mechanisms
Considering that the calculated Tsol for

each alloy is well above the measured
NDTs, bulk melting of the alloys during
the hot-ductility tests is considered an implausible mechanism for the observed OH
ductility decrease. Microstructural features of the NDT samples did not indicate
complete melting and solidification near
the fracture surface. Rather, smooth intergranular fracture features were mostly
evident. The bulk melting mechanism is
considered plausible only for very pure
metals. Instead, the OH mechanism is
based on incipient melting. In the following, specific liquation mechanisms will be
discussed. A summary of the contributing
factors to HAZ liquation cracking suscep-
tibility are provided in Table 5 along with

schematic illustrations shown in Fig. 9.
BA-160
The overall hot-ductility behavior of

BA-160 stands in contrast to the other
steels tested. The OH ductility results of
BA-160 suggested that continuous liquid
films did not exist in the microstructure
until the NDT of 1419C. The temperature range (1351 to 1419C) of ductility
decrease during the OH tests was also
much wider compared to the other steels.
Since the calculated Tsol of 1477C is much
above the NDT of 1419C, it is clear that a
homogeneous microstructure was not
achieved during the OH thermal cycle.
Fractographic evidence of large welldefined facets supports that fracture at the
NDT occurred by continuous grain
boundary melting. It reasons that the continuous grain boundary liquid films
formed at temperatures below Tsol were
generated due to a relatively uniform
solute-rich layer present along the PAGBs.
The measured compositional enrichment
of Ni and Cu at the PAGBs suggest their
role in the observed grain boundary liquation (Ref. 28). These measurements were
consistent with previous atom-probe tomography results of simulated HAZ samples that revealed the cosegregation of Ni
and Cu up to maximum values of 17 and
20 at-%, respectively (Ref. 13). The results
also implied that as the peak temperature
of the HAZ increases, the Cu concentration at microstructural boundaries also increases. Increased concentrations of both
Ni and Cu would be expected to lower the
local melting temperature.
From thermodynamic calculations, the
maximum solubility of Cu in austenite is
predicted to be 13.9 wt-% for a nominal al-
loying addition of 6.5 wt-% Ni Fig.

10A. The temperature of maximum Cu
solubility is predicted to occur at 1377C.
Beyond the point of maximum Cu solubility in austenite for the Fe-Cu-6.5Ni system, a sharp decrease in solubility is observed up to Tliq Fig. 10B. While
realizing the complex multicomponent nature of the alloy and the nonequilibrium
weld thermal cycle conditions, the temperature range for the sharp decrease in
the maximum Cu solubility is in general
agreement with the OH ductility transition temperature range for BA-160. Once
a critical level of segregation had occurred
that exceeded the solubility limits of the
system, liquation would have proceeded
along microstructural boundaries. After
heating to a peak temperature above the
NDT, increasing amounts of liquid would
then be formed along these boundaries.
The OC results indicate that the amount
of solute-rich liquid that was formed after
heating above the NDT did not fully solidify until cooled to temperatures approaching the DRT of 1303C.
The observed compositional enrichment suggests a segregation-induced liquation mechanism for BA-160. In this
mechanism, solute elements segregate to
grain boundaries and depress the local
melting point such that liquation occurs.
In the absence of liquating particles, grain
boundary liquation occurs from a localized variation in composition relative to
the surrounding matrix. Lippold et al.
(Ref. 33) suggested that grain boundary
segregation in actual welds could occur
from 1) equilibrium diffusion of solute elements to the grain boundaries, 2) grain
boundary sweeping of solute elements
into migrating grain boundaries during
grain growth, and 3) pipeline diffusion
of impurity and solute elements along the
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Thermodynamic calculations of Fe-Cu-6.5Ni composition: A Pseudobinary phase diagram; B maximum solubility of Cu in austenite. Calculated with Thermo-Calc software.
Table 5 Summary of Contributing Factors to HAZ Liquation Cracking Susceptibility for each Alloy
WELDING RESEARCH
Alloy
Compositional
Microstructural
BA-160
high Ni and Cu content stabilizes

austenite phase at elevated temperatures
low impurty contents in experimental lab heat
incipient grain boundary melting within single

austenite phase due to compositional enrichment
of Ni and Cu
good wetting/penetration of liquid films along
austenite grain boundaries
large HAZ grain size promotes continous liquid
films and increases strain accommodation requirements
solute elements are rapidly transported across fusion
boundary (pipeline diffusion) due to completely
austenitic structure over the entire solidification
temperature range
HY-100
high C and Ni content produces a reverse

hyper-peritectic transformation sequence
at elevated temperatures
low impurity contents
incipient grain bounday melting within austenite

single phase
good wetting/penetration of liquid films promoted
along austenite grain boundaries
large HAZ grain size promotes continous liquid
films and increases strain accommodation requirement
non-epitaxy restricts pipeline diffusion mechanism
possible formation of -ferrite at higher temperatures
would restrict wetting/penetration of liquid films
HSLA-100
HSLA-65
low C and alloy content produces a reverse

hypo-peritectic tranformation sequence at
elevated temperatures
micro-alloying additions form stable precipitates
in HAZ
formation of -ferrite in the same temperature range

as incipient melting contributes to a sharp decrease in
ductility over a narrow temperature range
incipient grain boundary melting at austenite grain
boundaries during reverse peritectic transformation
-ferrite formation restricts wetting/penetration of
liquid films
small HAZ grain size promotes thin and discontinous
liquid films
solidification grain boundaries (SGBs) of

the FZ into the PAGBs of the HAZ/PMZ
due to the epitaxial link established at the
weld interface. Metallographic examination of the NSTeq sample (Fig. 4B)
strongly suggests pipeline diffusion as an
operative mechanism of grain boundary
segregation. The epitaxial link observed in
BA-160 is due to its completely austenitic
structure in the HAZ/PMZ coinciding
with primary austenitic solidification in
the FZ. Grain boundary enrichment by
this mechanism can be dominant because
grain boundary diffusion is much faster
than bulk diffusion since these interfaces
have a more open structure and offer less
resistance to atomic diffusion. Furthermore, as the solidification simulations
showed, significant partitioning of solute
elements is expected to occur in BA-160
under nonequilibrium weld solidification
conditions. This is partially due to negligible backdiffusion in the solid due to facecentered cubic (fcc) solidification and the
higher alloy content of BA-160. When
comparing the thermodynamic phase
transformation data with the Scheil solidification results, it was found that a completely austenitic HAZ is in contact with
the solidifying (austenite + liquid) weld
120-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
pool over the entire weld solidification

temperature range of 179C. While the
pipeline diffusion mechanism cannot be
conclusively proven, it is supported by optical metallographic evidence and similar
grain boundary compositions measured in
the simulated FZ and PMZ (Ref. 28). This
is due to the fact that rapid grain boundary diffusion ensures that the boundary
concentration equilibrates.
Segregation-induced liquation by itself
is not enough to produce a crack-susceptible microstructure. It is essential that the
liquid species penetrate and wet the
boundary to create a continuous liquid
film that limits solidsolid contact along
the grain boundaries. Metallographic evidence suggesting good wetting and penetration of liquid films along the PAGBs
was apparent in the simulated PMZ.
These observations can be attributed partially to a completely austenitic (fcc) microstructure at elevated temperatures.
The
enhanced
wettability
of
austenite/austenite grain boundaries compared to austenite/ferrite grain boundaries was established by Matthews and
Savage (Ref. 34). Their research indicated
good wetting and penetration of liquid
Cu-Ni weld metal along austenite grain
boundaries in the HAZ of HY-80 naval

steel. The liquid did not tend to penetrate
alloys possessing a body-centered cubic
(bcc) structure at elevated temperatures,
even under the application of a considerable amount of strain.
The average prior austenite grain diameters measured for a peak temperature
of 1300C were 76, 70, 54, and 24 m for
BA-160, HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA65, respectively. The relatively large grain
size of BA-160 would exacerbate the factors mentioned previously. The linear relationship between grain size and cracking
susceptibility has been demonstrated
(Ref. 35) and is based on a strain accommodation and liquid distribution argument. As the total grain boundary area decreases (larger grain size), it reasons that
the fraction of the total strain accommodated by a single boundary increases. Furthermore, as grain size increases for a
fixed volume-percent of liquid, the boundary liquid film becomes thicker and/or
more continuous. Control of austenite
grain size in BA-160 should be considered
for improved HAZ liquation cracking
resistance.
As detailed in the preceding, HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility of BA-160
HY-100
The HY-100 steel exhibited a much

narrower LCTR compared to BA-160, but
a slightly wider LCTR compared to the
HSLA steels. This greater susceptibility
can be partially attributed to the onset of
liquation within the austenite single
phase. The higher C and Ni contents compared to the HSLA steels allows for a
higher concentration of these elements for
an equivalent level of segregation. Similar
to BA-160, metallographic features of
wider grain boundary enrichment were
observed, which is attributed to the better
wettability of austenite/austenite boundaries.
The higher C content (0.18 wt-% C) of
HY-100 is well outside the C range of
steels that were used to experimentally determine the -ferrite transformation temperature noted previously in Ref. 31.
However, increasingly higher C contents
increase the -ferrite transformation temperature up to the peritectic transformation temperature in the hyperperitectic
range. Thermodynamic calculations predict liquid to begin forming from the
austenite single phase either due to incipient melting or through the transformation of austenite to liquid prior to the ferrite transformation at 1495C.
The transformation of austenite to ferrite at higher temperatures would act to
limit the wetting and penetration of liquid
films in HY-100. In the presence of a steep
temperature gradient between the weld
pool and HAZ, it is possible that -ferrite
does not form. If the transformation does
not occur and the matrix remains completely austenitic in the HAZ/PMZ regions near the weld interface, epitaxial
growth of the bcc -ferrite weld metal
would be inhibited due to its different
crystal structure (Ref. 36). As such, the
HAZ grain boundaries would be noncontiguous with the SGBs in the FZ and
pipeline diffusion would be greatly restricted. Thermodynamic calculations
predict that an austenitic HAZ is in contact with the solidifying weld pool at fs >
0.49 over a temperature range of 68C,
which are much narrower ranges than

those calculated for BA-160.
HSLA-100 and HSLA-65
The calculated Tsol of the HSLA steels

were in the range of 2942C above their
NDTs. This is in good agreement with the
experimental findings of Weinberg (Ref.
29) for steels containing 0.05 to 0.12 wt-%
C, where brittle failure due to incipient
grain boundary melting was noted to occur
in a range beginning approximately 40C
below the equilibrium Tsol. The sharp
drop in the OH ductility of the HSLA
steels was also very similar to the behavior
of plain carbon steels reported in that
study.
The NDT values for both HSLA steels
(Table 3) were within the experimental
austenite to -ferrite transformation temperature range noted previously from Ref.
31 (1442 to 1452C). The -ferrite transformation temperature was calculated to
be 1484 and 1461C for HSLA-100 and
HSLA-65, respectively. The better agreement for HSLA-65 between the experimental and calculated values is not surprising given that its composition is a
better match with the steels in that experimental study. The higher Ni content of
HSLA-100 compared to HSLA-65 is expected to stabilize the austenite phase to a
higher temperature, as predicted by thermodynamic calculations.
Since the calculated Tdb and Tdb* values are near the experimental austenite to
-ferrite transformation temperatures, it
is possible that the formation of -ferrite
occurs within the same temperature range
as incipient melting. The formation of ferrite actually promotes incipient melting
at the austenite grain boundaries. When a
particular steel is in the two-phase austenite + -ferrite region, partitioning of alloying elements occurs. During growth of
-ferrite, austenite stabilizing elements
such as C, Mn, and Ni segregate to the
austenite phase. Since C is a very fast interstitial diffuser, it easily becomes enriched in the austenite phase. Due to the
reverse peritectic transformation, incipient melting occurs at the austenite/austenite grain boundaries, but not at the
austenite/-ferrite or -ferrite/-ferrite
boundaries. The strong effect of C on the
incipient melting temperature is borne out
in both of the Tdb and Tdb* equations. Additionally, since bcc Fe has a higher solid
solubility for impurity elements, such as S
(Ref. 37) and P (Ref. 38), than fcc-Fe, it
can be reasoned that initial liquation due
to impurity element segregation is not
promoted at the -ferrite grain boundaries. It can be concluded that the volume
of liquid that forms along austenite/
austenite boundaries is probably far
greater than at austenite/- ferrite and
-ferrite/-ferrite boundaries, which has

been supported elsewhere through microstructural examination of stainless
steels (Ref. 33).
With reference to diffusion data calculated at 1400C (Ref. 39), the diffusion coefficients of C in austenite (3.5 106
cm2/s) and -ferrite (1.0 104 cm2/s) are
orders of magnitude greater than for Ni or
Cu in austenite (5 1010 cm2/s). Since it
is proposed that the liquation mechanism
in HSLA steels is dominated by the fast interstitial diffusion of C during the reverse
peritectic reaction, it is expected that sample failure in the slower heating rate
NSTeq tests would occur near the NDT.
This is what was observed for the HSLA
steels, where the NSTeq values were only
1C above the NDT (Table 3). However,
where the liquation mechanism is associated with slower diffusing elements such
as Ni and Cu, the NSTeq was shown to be
farther above the NDT, as was the case for
BA-160 and HY-100.
This nucleation and growth of -ferrite
would also promote a sharp OH ductility
decrease from a mechanical standpoint.
Since the self-diffusion coefficient of bcc
-Fe (6 108 cm2/s) is at least two orders
of magnitude greater than that of fcc -Fe
(6 1010 cm2/s) (Ref. 39), the rate of recovery is also higher in bcc -Fe. This
mechanism is valid in low-carbon steels in
the vicinity of the incipient melting temperature, whereby a rapid drop in the flow
stress is attributed to the austenite to ferrite transformation (Ref. 31). Also, the
formation of -ferrite has the potential to
cause grain boundary decohesion and
cracking, and reduce ductility similar to
that observed in stainless steels, where ferrite is avoided during thermo-mechanical processing.
The OH loss in ductility of the HSLA
steels can be attributed to two factors: 1)
the formation of -ferrite at austenite
grain boundaries and 2) incipient melting
at the austenite/austenite grain boundaries. However, the formation of -ferrite
within the same temperature range as incipient melting is considered beneficial to
cracking susceptibility. The formation of
-ferrite restricts wetting and penetration
of liquid films since two-phase boundaries
do not wet nearly as effectively as like
boundaries promoting liquid discontinuity. This beneficial effect of -ferrite formation was observed by Kujanpaa et al.
(Ref. 40) in austenitic stainless steels,
where a small amount of ferrite formed
along austenite grain boundaries in the
HAZ was effective in reducing susceptibility to cracking relative to completely
austenitic alloys. Any evidence of -ferrite was most likely masked by subsequent
re-transformation to austenite upon cooling. The fracture surfaces of the HSLA100 (Fig. 5C) and HSLA-65 (Fig. 5D)
WELDING RESEARCH
can be attributed to the following: 1) a

completely austenitic microstructure at elevated temperatures, which would promote pipeline diffusion of solute elements
in an actual weld; 2) a segregation-induced liquation mechanism involving the
compositional enrichment of Ni and Cux
along austenite grain boundaries; 3) observed good wetting and penetration of
liquid films along like austenite/austenite
grain boundaries; and 4) a large HAZ
grain size, which promotes continuous
grain boundary liquid films and increases
the strain accommodation requirement
for a given grain boundary.
NDT samples were comparatively more

decorated than for BA-160 and HY-100,
suggesting failure did not occur solely due
to continuous grain boundary liquid films
in these alloys.
Due to their lower overall alloy contents, grain boundary liquation in the
HSLA steels is expected to be limited
when compared to the more highly alloyed
BA-160 and HY-100 steels. The finer
HAZ grain size of the HSLA steels is also
beneficial since any liquid that does form
has much less capability of wetting and
forming continuous liquid films compared
to the larger HAZ grain size of BA-160
and HY-100. As such, the liquid films that
do form along the grain boundaries in the
HAZ are predicted to be extremely thin
and/or discontinuous. This was best exemplified by the isolated pockets of smooth
intergranular and dendritic fracture observed on the fracture surfaces of HSLA100 OC samples Fig. 7D.
Limitation of Hot-Ductility Approach
WELDING RESEARCH
It should be cautioned that the hotductility approach for determining HAZ

liquation cracking susceptibility provides
information for only one location in the
HAZ. Since the DRT is determined using
a single peak temperature, it approximates only a single location in the
HAZ/PMZ that is close to the weld interface. Although the NDT is viewed as being
a constant for a given heating rate, the
DRT is known to be a function of the OC
peak temperature (Ref. 18). Selection of a
peak temperature close to the NST is thus
imperative for obtaining representative
values of the LCTR that relate to locations
in the PMZ where HAZ liquation cracking occurs. Upon further scale-up of the
BA-160 alloy, spot Varestraint testing of
plate/sheet material is recommended to
provide an additional assessment of HAZ
liquation cracking susceptibility. The technique developed by Lin et al. (Ref. 19)
could be employed to accurately determine the thermal crack-susceptible region
surrounding the weld within which HAZ
liquation cracking is possible. The determination of a precise temperature range
for cracking through spot Varestraint testing would provide more information
toward verifying the current assessment of
moderate HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility.
Conclusions
In this study, hot-ductility testing was
employed to determine the LCTR and
evaluate the HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility of BA-160, an alloy recently developed for naval applications, relative to
established naval alloys HY-100, HSLA100, and HSLA-65.
122-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
1. A LCTR of 148C was determined

for BA-160, which was the widest of the alloys tested and indicates the greatest susceptibility to HAZ liquation cracking. In
comparison to published results from a
wide range of alloys tested in a similar
manner, BA-160 is considered to have
moderate susceptibility. The other alloys
exhibited narrower LCTRs (HY-100,
62C; HSLA-100, 40C; HSLA-65, 43C)
that suggest low cracking susceptibilities.
2. The HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility of BA-160 can be attributed to the
following: a) a completely austenitic microstructure at elevated temperatures,
which would promote pipeline diffusion of
solute elements in an actual weld; b) a segregation-induced liquation mechanism involving the compositional enrichment of
Ni and Cux along austenite grain boundaries; c) observed good wetting and penetration of liquid films along like austenite/austenite grain boundaries; and d) a
large HAZ grain size, which promotes
continuous grain boundary liquid films
and increases the strain accommodation
requirement for a given grain boundary.
3. The slightly wider LCTR of HY-100
compared to the HSLA steels was attributed to the onset of liquation within the
austenite single phase. Microstructure
characterization revealed wider grain
boundary enrichment, and enhanced wetting and penetration of liquid films compared to the HSLA steels.
4. The HSLA-100 and HSLA-65 steels
exhibited similar overall hot-ductility behavior. Their sharp decrease in OH ductility over a narrow temperature range of
approximately 10C was attributed to the
formation of -ferrite within the same
temperature range as incipient grain
boundary melting. The OH liquation
mechanism was related to the reverse
peritectic transformation. Their narrow
LCTRs were attributed to restricted wetting and penetration of liquid films due to
the presence of -ferrite and a relatively
small HAZ grain size. Ineffective wetting
and liquid discontinuity was established
through metallographic and fractographic
observations.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Office of Naval

Research and Grant Officer Dr. Julie
Christodoulou for funding of this research
through
Grant
Award
No.
N000140811000.
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Magnetically Assisted Resistance

Spot Welding of Dual-Phase Steel
The mode and intensity of an externally applied constant magnetic field

were analyzed along with the effect on nugget formation
BY Y. B. LI, Y. T. LI, Q. SHEN, AND Z. Q. LIN
WELDING RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
External magnetic field (EMF) has been verified as an effective way to improve
the welding of dual-phase (DP) steels. In the present study, two typical modes of
EMFs generated by, respectively, a single and a pair of permanent magnets, were
used to study the magnetically assisted resistance spot welding (MA-RSW) process.
Effects of the EMF mode and intensity on nugget formation were discussed on 0.80mm-thick DP980 steel for the first time. Concerning the practical application, sensitivity of the MA-RSW process to welding current and the weldability of the MA-RSW
process were experimentally investigated. Results showed that the horizontal component of the EMF magnetic flux increased monotonically from the center to the
edge of the welding region. Due to the superposition of two symmetric magnetic
fields, the horizontal magnetic flux density and the circumferential magnetic force
under a pair of permanent magnets were, respectively, twice and 1.5 times that under
a single one. Moreover, the diameter growth rate of the weld nugget was faster, the
nugget symmetry better, and the macrocrystallization direction in the fusion less obvious. Meanwhile, with the increase in EMF intensity, the nugget diameter got larger,
and the central thickness got thinner. Under the action of the EMF, weld tensileshear strength, ductility, and fracture modes were all improved. Besides, such improvement was more obvious for welds under relatively low welding current. Moreover, the weld lobe diagram moved leftward by approximately 400 A under the EMF,
while the overall width remained almost unchanged.
Introduction
Nowadays, resistance spot welding
(RSW) is still the major joining technology used in car body assembly lines. On
the other hand, in order to reduce body
weight under the prerequisite of occupant
safety, advanced high-strength steels
(AHSS) with high strength-to-weight ratio
Y. B. LI (yongbinglee@sjtu.edu.cn), Y. T. LI,
Q. SHEN, and Z. Q. LIN are with the Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacture for ThinWalled Structures, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China. LI and LIN are also with the
State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and
Vibration, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
124-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
have been gradually introduced into the

structural component fabrications to replace the traditionally used mild steels
(Ref. 1). Dual-phase (DP) steel, as one of
the most common AHSS used in car body
KEYWORDS
Resistance Spot Welding
(RSW)
Dual-Phase (DP) Steel
External Magnetic Field
(EMF)
Electromagnetic Stirring
Grain Refinement
manufacturing, features both high

strength and acceptable ductility owing to
its unique microstructure, i.e., soft ferrite
matrix with dispersed martensites at the
grain boundaries (Ref. 2). Differing from
the conventional mild steels, DP steel contains a relatively higher amount of carbon
and alloy elements, which makes it much
easier to form coarse martensite
microstructures in the weld nugget (Refs.
3, 4).
Previous studies have demonstrated
that these hard and brittle nonuniform microstructures might lead to a decrease in
weld ductility and raise the risk of interfacial fracture (Refs. 3, 5). Such phenomenon is more severe in high-strength DP
steels like DP980 (Ref. 6). Generally, button-pullout fracture is the preferred failure mode rather than interfacial fracture
for its stronger capacity of energy absorption (Refs. 7, 8). Applying a posttempering process (Refs. 9, 10), reducing cooling
rate (Ref. 11), or pretreating the workpieces by coating a layer of carbon dilution
on the interface of the two steel sheets
(Ref. 10) will refine these microstructures
and be able to improve weld ductility. Nevertheless, these methods either reduce
production efficiency or substantially raise
production cost.
On the other hand, since nugget diameter is generally acknowledged as the
major quality criterion for spot welds (Ref.
12) and the primary factor influencing the
type of weld fracture (Ref. 13), some related studies (Refs. 6, 13) have tried to
identify the minimum critical value of
nugget diameter for button-pullout fracture with DP steels. At present, raising
welding current is the most popular and
most efficient method used in car body as-
Finite Element Model and

Experimental Setup
Calculation Model and Boundary
Conditions
Numerical simulations were carried

out based on commercial FE code Ansys
11.0/multiphysics. In view of the symmetry
features of a typical RSW process (Ref.
12), as shown in Fig. 1, a 1/2 2D axisymmetric submodel meshed with element
PLANE 67 was used for electric field
Fig. 1 Electromagnetic calculation model for MA-RSW process. A 1/2 2D electric submodel; B
18 deg, 3D magnetic submodel; C schematic view of the ring-shaped permanent magnet.
Table 1 Magnetic Properties of NdFeB Permanent Magnet

Item
Value
Maximum energy product (BH) max/kJ/m3

Intrinsic coercive field HcB/kA/m
Remanent magnetism Br/T
Working temperature Tw/C
287310
907
1.221.25
150
Table 2 Chemical Composition of Sample Material

Chemical composition in mass %
Type
DP980
Si
Mn
Al
0.150
0.500
1.500
0.010
0.002
0.040
analysis and an 18-deg, 3D wedge-shaped

submodel meshed with element SOLID
97 for magnetic field analysis.
For the 2D electric field analysis, a uniform welding current and a relative zero
electric potential surface were applied, respectively, at the top and at the bottom, as
indicated in Fig. 1A. Thermal boundary
conditions were defined as heat convection with water inside the electrode and
heat convection with air on the outer surface of electrode and sheets, respectively.
The sheet-to-sheet and sheet-to-electrode
contact resistances were defined on the
faying surfaces between the electrode and
sheets (Ref. 19). For the 3D magnetic field
analysis, the EMF source was surrounded
by a finite air layer, as indicated in Fig. 1B.
In addition, a flux parallel condition of
magnetic potential was set on the outer
surfaces of the air layer. In order to reduce
model size and improve calculation efficiency, an 18-deg, 3D wedge-shaped
model was used, and cyclic symmetry (Ref.
20) boundaries were specified at the two
cutting planes. In order to realize the coupling of the 2D electric model and the 3D
magnetic model, the 2D axisymmetric
electrical analysis was first carried out to
output the current density, which would
then be loaded into the 3D magnetic
model as excitation input to calculate the
magnetic field and magnetic force field.
Ring-shaped NdFeB permanent magnets were used as the EMF source. Dimensions and properties of the axially
magnetized magnet are shown in Fig. 1C
and Table 1, respectively. The 0.80-mmthick DP980 steel was used in modeling.
The corresponding material data were referred from Ref. 21. Electromagnetic
properties of the copper electrode and the
air surrounding the electrode and workpieces were referred from Ref. 22.
Experimental Setup and FE Model
Validation
Materials and dimensions of the workpieces and permanent magnets used in the
WELDING RESEARCH
sembly lines to increase nugget diameter

and ensure the overall weld quality. However, strong welding current usually consumes more energy and accelerates the
electrode wear rate, which will eventually
raise the total production cost.
In the past decades, as a simple, efficient, and low-cost technology, the magnetically assisted (MA) method has been
successfully applied to continuous casting
(Ref. 14), arc welding (Ref. 15), and other
materials-processing technologies to control the melting and solidification of metals in specific processes. Earlier studies
(Refs. 14, 15) have demonstrated that the
MA method is capable of refining grain
structures, reducing segregations and
cracks, and improving mechanical performance of processed metals. Based on
those studies, the magnetically assisted
RSW process (MA-RSW) has recently
been proposed to improve the weld quality of DP steels by applying an external
magnetic field (EMF), which is produced
by a pair of cylindrical magnets symmetrically mounted on the two electrode arms.
Latest research (Refs. 1618) has
demonstrated that compared with the traditional resistance spot welds (thereafter
abbreviated as traditional weld), the magnetically assisted spot welds (MA weld)
feature higher strength, better ductility,
and longer fatigue life. However, the MARSW process is still an emerging topic,
and the related studies, especially on magnetic field distribution and its practical effectiveness on high-strength DP steels are
still unknown.
The present study was aimed to give a
deeper understanding of the MA-RSW
process. In this paper, a finite element
(FE) model was proposed to investigate
the effect of two different modes of EMF
on the MA-RSW process. Nugget formations under the two modes were experimentally studied on 0.80-mm-thick
DP980 steel in terms of nugget shape and
microstructures. Trends of nugget size
variations along with the changes in the
EMF intensity were also revealed. Furthermore, effectiveness of the MA-RSW
process was systematically discussed in
terms of weld tensile-shear strength and
weld lobe diagram.
Table 3 Welding Parameters

Type/
thickness
(mm)
DP980/0.80
Tip
diameter
(mm)
5.0
Electrode
force
(kN)
2.6
Welding
current
(kA)
3.87.9
Time parameters (ms)

Squeezing
200
Welding
110190
Holding
250
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 MA-RSW equipment. A RSW system; B EMF source, N: N pole of the magnet, S: S pole
of the magnet; WD: working distance of the permanent magnet.
Fig. 3 Experimental validation of the EMF distribution. A Experimental results measured by Gauss
Meter; B simulated results; C Gauss Meter; D experimental equipment; E sketch of the measuring path.
126-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
experiments were consistent with those

used in the numerical simulation. Chemical compositions of DP980 steel and the
welding parameters used in this study are
listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Figure 2A shows the RSW system, which includes a Fanuc robot R2000-Ib210f with
six degrees of freedom, Fanuc AC servo
motor 8/4000is, Medar 5000s medium
frequency direct current welding controller, and Obara C-type welding gun
equipped with two dome-shaped electrodes. The general standard for electrode
geometry we referenced is ISO 5821-2009.
Specifically, the electrode cap we used was
chosen according to Size 2 dome-shaped
electrode of General Motors. Chemical
composition of the electrode cap is Cr0.7%, Zr-0.1%, Cu>98.5%. Tip diameter
is 5.0 mm.
In the experimental studies on EMF,
two modes of EMFs generated by, respectively, a single and a pair of permanent
magnets, were both discussed, while for
the FE model validation, only the EMF
under a pair of permanent magnets was
considered. Figure 2B shows the setup of
the two magnets. There was an interference fit between a ring-shaped magnet
and an insulating nylon fixture, which was
then fixed on the electrode arm by three
brass Phillips head screws.
According to Lorentz force law, if
these two magnets are faced with different
poles, the generated magnetic field will be
parallel with the welding current, which
would hardly produce magnetic force. In
the present study, the two magnets were
symmetrically located with their south
poles (S) against each other. A coordinate
origin was set at the intersection point of
the electrode central axis and the faying
surface of workpieces. Distance from the
S pole of a magnet to the tip of the nearest electrode was defined as working distance (WD).
In order to verify the accuracy of the
FE model, the calculated and measured
values of the EMF distributions on the
faying surface of workpieces were compared, as shown in Fig. 3. A F. W. BELL
5100 series Gauss Meter connected with a
Hall probe was used during the measurement, as shown in Fig. 3C. Since the EMF
generated by a pair of permanent magnets
was axisymmetric about the center axis of
the electrode arm, but also symmetric
about the faying surface of workpieces, the
horizontal EMF components distributed
in the form of concentric circles. A radially
oriented measuring path along the x-axis
was defined, as shown in Fig. 3E. According to the basic principle of Hall Effect
(Ref. 23), the measurement at each point
was the average magnetic flux passing
through the small square area at the head
of the Hall probe. The measurements
would be slightly smaller than the real
value. It can be seen in Fig. 3A and B that

the measured and calculated distributions
of the EMF had a good agreement. The
proposed FE model describing the magnetic field distributions during the MARSW process was considered to be accurate and reliable, and could be used to
calculate the magnetic field and magnetic
force distributions during the MA-RSW
process.

EMF Distribution
Fig. 4 EMF distributions under 3-mm WD. A to C Under a single magnet; D and F under a pair
of magnets; A and D schematic view of the overall EMF distribution; B and E simulated EMF equipotential lines in the region outlined by the orange broken lines shown in A and D, respectively; C and F detailed view of the region outlined by the blue broken lines shown in B and E, respectively.
Fig. 5 Intensity of the horizontal component of the EMF within the workpieces under 3-mm WD.
A and B Contours of horizontal components of the EMF flux density under a single and a pair of magnets, respectively (unit: Tesla); C intensity of the horizontal component of the EMF flux density along
the x-axis.
ternal magnetic force distributions along

the faying surface. During the practical
RSW process, the electromagnetic force
will only affect the molten metal inside the
nugget, while it has no effect on the solid
metal. According to ANSI/AWS/SAE/
D8.9-97 (Ref. 24), the minimum acceptable nugget diameter dc is determined by
the following equation:
d = 4 t = 4 0.8 3.6 mm
c
(1)
where t represents the thickness of steel

sheet. Taking account of the variation of
welding conditions, the workpieces center
with a 0- to 3.5-mm radius were defined as
the welding region, as shown in Fig. 5C.
When discussing the effect of the EMF on
the weld nugget, only the electromagnetic
force within the welding region will be
taken into consideration. On the other
hand, during the MA-RSW process, two

magnetic force components exist in the
welding region, including the circumferential external magnetic force and radial
induced magnetic force. Since the induced
magnet force and its effect on RSW
nugget formation have been well studied
by Li (Refs. 25, 26) and Wei (Refs. 27, 28),
it will not be discussed in the present
study. As shown in Fig. 6, the overall trend
of the external magnetic force distribution
on the faying surface was consistent with
that of the horizontal component of the
EMF. Intensity of the external magnetic
force on the faying surface under a pair of
permanent magnets was almost 1.5 times
that under a single one. During the MARSW process, the circumferential centrifugal movement of the molten metal
driven by the electromagnetic force was
expected to be more intense under a pair
of permanent magnets rather than a single one.
WELDING RESEARCH
As shown in Fig. 4AC, for a single permanent magnet, the closed magnetic field
lines exit from N pole, part of the lines
went through the hollow inside, while the
rest spread outside around the magnet.
Then, all those magnetic field lines gathered near the S pole to go back to the N
pole, and completed the closed path. Details within the workpieces were further
given in Fig. 4C. It can be seen that the
magnetic field in upper and lower sheets
under a single permanent magnet was far
different, which would induce an unstable
fluid flow in the nugget.
For a pair of permanent magnets, as
shown in Fig. 4DF, due to the repulsion
of the two faced magnets, the vertical components of the two magnetic fields gradually canceled each other out when closing
to the faying surface of the workpieces,
whereas the horizontal components superposed with each other. The magnetic
field within the workpieces was symmetric
about the faying surface under a pair of
permanent magnets.
Figure 5 shows the intensity of the horizontal component of the EMF within the
workpieces under a single and a pair of
permanent magnets, respectively. The
maximum (A/A), minimum (C/C), and
zero (B/B) values of the horizontal component of the EMF flux density on the faying surface of workpieces were dotted in
both Fig. 5A and B. Since the vertical component of the EMF is parallel with the
welding current density flowing through
the workpieces, they will not interact with
each other according to Lorentz force law.
Only the horizontal component perpendicular to the electrode arm will be taken
into account while discussing the effect of
the EMF on the weld nugget. It can be
seen that because of the superposition of
the magnetic field produced by the upper
and lower magnets, distributions of the
horizontal magnetic field within the workpieces under a pair of magnets were completely symmetric about the faying surface. Moreover, the intensity of the
horizontal component of the EMF flux
density along the faying surface was twice
that under a single magnet.
Figure 6 shows the circumferential ex-
Fig. 6 External magnetic force distributions along the x-axis

under a single and a pair of permanent magnets, respectively
(WD, 3 mm).
Effect of EMF Mode on Nugget Formation
WELDING RESEARCH
When measuring the size of the growing nugget, two attributes, namely nugget
diameter and nugget thickness, were
mainly paid attention to in the present
study. Usually, width and central thickness
of the weld fusion zone is considered as
nugget diameter and nugget thickness, respectively. In many cases, the nugget diameter is used as the sole parameter to describe the quality of a spot weld. This is
because, when two sheets are joined by a
weld at the nugget, its size determines the
area of adhesion (Refs. 12, 29) and the
stress distribution in the weld nugget interface and its circumference (Ref. 30).
On the other hand, requirements on penetration rate (i.e., the ratio of nugget
thickness and workpieces) go from 20 to
90% depending on the materials and
thickness of workpieces (Ref. 12). There
are many studies on the relationship between nugget diameter and weld strength
or the type of weld fracture. Results
showed that increasing the nugget diameter will enhance weld strength (Refs.
3032) and raise the probability of buttonpullout fracture (Refs. 13, 32).
Nugget formation of the MA welds
under different EMFs was presented in
curves in Fig. 7. Welding current and welding time were set to 6.0 kA and 150 ms, respectively. Data of a traditional weld
under identical welding parameters are
also shown as a benchmark. Five repeated
experiments were done for each parameter combination to get the errors.
It can be seen that at the early stage of
nugget formation, the nugget size of the
three types of welds was almost the same.
Started from approximately 90 ms, the
nugget diameters of these two types of
MA welds were both wider than that of the
traditional weld, and such difference gradually became more obvious with the heat
accumulation in the middle-late welding
128-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
Fig. 7 Nugget diameter growth process along with the welding time (welding current, 6.0
kA; welding time, 150 ms; WD, 3 mm).
stage. Moreover, the diameter growth rate

of the MA weld under a pair of permanent
magnets was faster than that under a single one, especially in the late welding
stage. Since the circumferential external
magnetic force increased almost monotonically with the increase in the distance
from the center to the edge of the welding
region shown in Fig. 6, the circumferential
stirring effect was expected to be more intense along with the radial expansion of
the fusion zone. During the middle-late
welding stage, more molten metal would
be brought to the edge of the growing
nugget driven by the external magnetic
force so as to further promote the nugget
diameter growth. Moreover, for these two
types of MA welds, since the external magnetic force generated by a pair of magnets
was stronger, the diameter growth rate of
the weld was correspondingly faster.
Figure 8 shows the metallographic
views of the nuggets after 150 ms of welding time. Affected by the EMF, the nugget
diameter obtained under a single and a
pair of permanent magnets was increased
by 9.7 and 11.6%, respectively. In addition, differing from the ellipsoidal nugget
of the traditional weld, the two types of
nuggets of MA weld were both peanutshell-shaped with the edge thicker than
the middle, as shown in Fig. 8B and C.
Such difference in nugget shape could
be explained by the flow modes of the
molten metal driven by the Lorentz force.
In the traditional RSW process, the
molten metal driven by the radial induced
magnetic force only makes regular rotational flow in four symmetrical loops
within the radial planes through the center axis of electrodes (Refs. 25, 26). Led by
the radial flow, the high-temperature
molten metal in the nugget center would
be brought to the edge of the nugget,
which would heat the edge region up and
is also able to widen the nugget. While in
the MA-RSW process, the molten metal
driven by the resultant magnetic force

would flow not only radially, but also circumferentially. As a result of the centrifugal flow, more heat would be brought from
center to the edge of the growing nugget,
and the nugget would be decreased in central thickness. On the other hand, in view
that the stirring effect near the edge of the
faying surface is much stronger than that
in the nugget center, a large pressure gradient will form inside the growing nugget
along the width direction. Since the
molten metal is constrained by the surrounding unmelted solid metal, it would
move upward and downward near the
nugget edge, which would further widen
and especially be capable of thickening the
nugget around the edge area.
Besides, for these two types of MA
welds, as more heat in the center of the
growing nugget under a pair of permanent
magnets was taken away, the central thickness of the formed nugget under a pair of
magnets would be further decreased. As
all the nuggets of the MA weld were
peanut-shell-shaped, the commonly acknowledged nugget thickness almost
refers to the thinnest place of the nugget,
whereas it refers to the thickest place of
the nugget of the traditional weld. There
was not much sense to compare the absolute value of nugget thickness between
the traditional weld and MA weld as long
as the penetration rate was in the acceptable range defined by traditional quality
evaluation standards.
By comparing the overall shape of the
two MA welds shown in Fig. 8B and C, it
can be seen that the symmetry of the
nugget under a single permanent magnet
was relatively poorer. Two ends of the
nugget shifted upward slightly. Such
nugget offset is usually not preferred when
welding two sheets with equal thickness.
However, the asymmetric EMF may provide another way to improve the nugget
offset in welding multistackup sheets with
Fig. 9 Intensity of the horizontal component of the EMF under

a pair of permanent magnets along the x-axis in the 0- to 3.5-mm
radius welding region.
Fig. 8 Typical cross-sectioned weld nugget and the microstructures in the weld nugget.
A Traditional weld; B MA weld under a single permanent magnet; C MA weld
under a pair of permanent magnets (welding current, 6.0 kA; welding time, 150 ms; WD,
3 mm).
different thickness (Refs. 33, 34).

The difference in EMF mode not only
changes the nugget shape, but also affects
the microstructures within the nugget. As
shown in Fig. 8, the macrocrystallization
directions in the two MA welds were both
less obvious compared with that of the traditional weld. Moreover, under a pair of
permanent magnets, the oriented growth
of the dendrites toward the faying surface
was less directional, and the boundary of
the faying surface was also less visible.
Therefore, compared with the MA
weld under a single magnet, the MA weld
under a pair of magnets has exhibited better quality in view of nugget symmetry,
nugget diameter, and nugget microstructures. The following discussions on nugget
size variations under different WDs were
all based on the symmetric EMF generated by a pair of permanent magnets.
Effect of EMF Intensity on Nugget Size
Intensity of the EMF can be adjusted

by changing WD. Variations of the horizontal component of the EMF flux density
along the x-axis of the 0- to 3.5-mm radius
welding region under different WDs were
described in Fig. 9 based on the present
FE model.
Intensity of the horizontal component
of the EMF increased monotonically from
the center to the edge of the welding region. Besides, along with the increase in
WD, the slope of the curves became
smaller due to the weakening

of the repulsion effect between
the two magnets. Because of
the special ring-shaped structure of the axially magnetized Fig. 10 Nugget size variations of the MA welds under a pair of
permanent magnets along with the changes in WD (welding curpermanent magnets (Ref. 35), rent, 6.0 kA; welding time, 150 ms).
the direction of the horizontal
magnetic field gradually
changed from the positive xaxis oriented to the negative xEMF intensity. Since the nugget diameter
axis oriented along with the WD varying
is well acknowledged as the major criteria
from 3 to 15 mm. Since the horizontal
when evaluating the quality of a RSW
component of the EMF was always perweld, it is acceptable to suggest that the
pendicular to the electrode arm, it did not
stronger the horizontal component of the
matter whether the measurements were
EMF within the welding region is, the betpositive or negative. Specifically, when
ter the weld quality will be. However, as
WD was set to 3 mm, the horizontal comthe nuggets of MA weld were all peanutponent was the strongest; when WD was
shell shaped, the central thickness should
set to 6, 12, and 15 mm, it was weaker;
probably be considered as an important
when WD was set to 9 mm, intensity of the
evaluation criteria, too, even if the penehorizontal component was close to zero.
tration rate is within the acceptable range.
Figure 10 shows the nugget size variaBecause the stress distributions within the
tions of the MA weld along with the
peanut-shell-shaped nugget under exterchanges in WD. Data of a traditional weld
nal loads might greatly differ from that
under identical welding parameters were
within the ellipsoidal nugget.
also plotted in broken lines as a benchmark. It can be seen that when the horiSensitivity of the MA-RSW Process
zontal component of the EMF was the
to Welding Current
strongest under 3-mm WD, the nugget of
the MA weld was the widest and thinnest.
During the practical MA-RSW
By contrast, when the horizontal compoprocess, current density not only deternent was the weakest under 9-mm WD, the
mines the total heat input, but also greatly
nugget of the MA weld was the narrowest
affects the intensity of the electromagnetic
and thickest. Moreover, compared with
stirring force. Sensitivity of the MA-RSW
the nugget thickness, the nugget diameter
process to the welding current was diswas more sensitive to the variations of
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 4 Comparison of Mechanical Performance of Traditional Welds and MA Welds Along with the Variation of Welding Current (welding time:
150 ms; WD: 3 mm)
MA-RSW
RSW
Current
(kA)
6.0
Average
Increase
Rate
5.6
Average
Increase
Rate
WELDING RESEARCH
5.1
Average
Increase
Rate
TSF
(kN)
Displacement
at failure (mm)
Failure
mode*
TSF
(kN)
Displacement
at failure (mm)
Failure
mode
9.01
9.06
8.94
9.07
9.03
9.02
1.45
1.43
1.47
1.52
1.47
1.47
C
C
C
C
C
100% C
9.61
9.68
9.63
9.55
9.62
9.62
+6.61%
1.59
1.62
1.58
1.56
1.50
1.57
+6.95%
C
C
C
C
C
100% C
0%
8.42
8.70
8.32
8.53
8.38
8.47
1.40
1.49
1.39
1.37
1.30
1.39
B
C
B
B
B
80% B + 20% C
9.10
9.17
9.06
8.90
9.18
9.08
+7.23%
1.57
1.64
1.49
1.53
1.52
1.55
+11.51%
C
C
C
B
C
20% B + 80% C
+ 60% C
7.56
8.21
7.77
7.43
8.03
7.80
1.03
1.19
1.10
0.97
1.10
1.08
A
B
A
A
A
80% A + 20% B
8.63
8.65
8.51
8.43
8.77
8.60
+10.23%
1.37
1.41
1.33
1.30
1.38
1.36
+25.97%
B
B
B
B
B
100% B
+80% B
*A interfacial fracture; B button-pullout fracture; C strong button-pullout fracture.
cussed by tensile-shear testing on the traditional welds and MA welds under different welding currents. Detailed experimental results are presented in Table 4
with the average value and increase rate
listed.
As to the fracture mode, commonly acknowledged definitions of three typical
fracture modes were referred in the present study. For typical interfacial fracture
(represented by A in Table 4), full separation of the faying surface of workpieces occurs as a result of fracture through the
weld; for typical button-pullout failure,
the fracture develops along the periphery
of the weld (Ref. 36). More specifically,
the button-pullout fracture can be further
divided into two modes according to the
fracture development path (Ref. 6). For a
strong weld (represented by B in Table 4),
button-pullout fracture develops within
both the base metal and heat-affected
zone, and a hole is left in one of the steel
sheets; for an extremely strong weld (represented by C in Table 4), a button-pullout
fracture develops only within the base
metal, and a hole is left in each of the steel
sheets.
It can be seen that as a result of the increase in nugget diameter shown in Fig. 8,
130-s APRIL 2013, VOL. 92
the tensile-shear strength and elongation

at break of the MA welds were respectively stronger and higher than that of the
traditional ones. Whats more, the improvement of weld strength and ductility
was more obvious for welds under relatively low welding current, whereas it was
less obvious for welds under relatively
high welding current.
Such phenomena could be explained
by the differences in fracture modes under
different welding currents. With less heat
input under relatively low welding currents, a small weld was formed with a high
risk of interfacial fracture under external
loads. In view of the fracture development
path under interfacial fracture, it can be
inferred that the mechanical performance
of a small weld heavily depends on nugget
appearance. The increase in nugget diameter and refinement of solidified microstructures would lead to the relatively
obvious improvement of weld strength
and ductility. By contrast, with more heat
input under relatively high welding current, a big weld was formed with high
probability of button-pullout fracture, of
which the failure loads and elongations
depends on not only weld quality, but also
the property of base metal. The improve-
ment of weld mechanical performance

due to nugget diameter increase was relatively less obvious.
Differences in the fracture modes between the traditional welds and MA welds
could be explained more clearly by referring to the typical load versus displacement curves of welds under different welding currents shown in Fig. 11. It can be
inferred that affected by the EMF, the
probability of weld button-pullout fracture for DP980 steel was raised, which indicated the enhancement of energy absorption capacity under impact loading,
especially under low welding current.
However, taking account of the fact
that compared with the traditional welds,
the peanut-shell-shaped MA welds were
not only wider, but also thinner, such difference became more obvious along with
the increase in the EMF intensity. With
the variations of the EMF, there might be
a critical value for the ratio of diameter increase and thickness decrease, less than
which the EMF would have negative effect
on weld strength. More specific and systematic studies should be carried out in
the future to investigate the effectiveness
of the EMF on weld mechanical performance improvement.
C
Fig. 11 Typical load vs. displacement curves and the corresponding fracture modes of welds under different welding currents. A 6.0 kA; B 5.6 kA; C 5.1 kA (welding time, 150
ms; WD, 3 mm).
Fig. 12 Comparison of weld lobe diagram between the traditional RSW and MA-RSW process (WD, 3 mm).
In order to further investigate

the practicality of the MA-RSW
process, a comparative study on
weld lobe diagram between the traditional RSW and MA-RSW
process was conducted. Results are
shown in Fig. 12. The left boundary
of weld lobe diagram was determined by the minimum nugget diameter, which was about 3.6 mm according to Equation 1. The right
boundary of weld lobe diagram was
determined by the threshold value
of welding current; beyond that, expulsion will occur.
It can be seen that affected by
the EMF, the right boundary of the
weld lobe diagram of the MA-RSW
process moved leftward by nearly
400 A. Due to the strong fluid flow
driven by the circumferential magnetic force, a lot of high-temperature molten metal would rush to the
edge of the growing nugget, which
could induce expulsion during the
MA-RSW process, especially in the
case of high welding current and
long welding time. Such phenomena should be considered as a negative aspect of the MA-RSW
process from the practical point of
view. On the other hand, due to the
increase in nugget diameter, the
left boundary of the weld lobe diagram of the MA-RSW process also
moved leftward by approximately
400 A. The overall width of the weld
lobe diagram remained almost unchanged. Those results indicated
that under proper welding parameters, the MA-RSW process could be
an alternative way to guarantee
weld quality as well as reduce energy consumption.
Conclusions
The present study systematically
analyzed the mode and intensity of
an externally applied constant magnetic field and its effect on nugget
formation during the magnetically
assisted resistance spot welding of
0.80-mm-thick DP980 steel. Concerning the practical application,
sensitivity of the external magnetic
field on welding current was discussed. The effect of the external
magnetic field on the weld lobe diagram was also investigated.
The following conclusions were
drawn:
1. Intensity of the horizontal
component of the external magnetic field increased monotonically
from the center to the edge of the 0-
to 3.5-mm radius welding region.

On the faying surface of the workpieces, the horizontal magnetic flux
density and circumferential magnetic force under a symmetric magnetic field generated by a pair of
permanent magnets were, respectively, twice and 1.5 times that
under an asymmetric one by a single magnet. Moreover, the horizontal magnetic field in the welding region went through a changing
process as weak-strong-weak
along with the increase in the distance between the permanent magnets and workpieces.
2. Growth rate of the nugget diameter for the magnetically assisted weld was faster than that of
the traditional weld, especially during the middle-late welding stage.
Furthermore, with a symmetric
magnetic field applied instead of an
asymmetric one, the nugget growth
rate was even faster, the diameter
was longer, the nugget symmetry
was better, and the microstructures
in the fusion zone were finer.
3. Magnetically assisted welds
were generally peanut-shell shaped
with the nugget edges thicker than
the middle. Whats more, with the
increase in the external magnetic
field intensity, the nugget became
even wider and thinner.
4. Compared with the traditional welds under identical welding parameters, all the magnetically
assisted welds exhibited higher tensile-shear strength, stronger energy
absorption capacity, and higher
probability of button-pullout fracture. Such improvement of mechanical performance was more obvious for welds under relatively low
welding current.
5. Affected by the external magnetic field, the weld lobe diagram of
resistance spot welded DP980 steel
moved leftward for near 400 A,
while the width remained unchanged. The magnetically assisted
resistance spot welding process
could be an alternative method to
ensure weld quality and meanwhile
reduce energy consumption under
proper welding parameters.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National
Natural Science Foundation of
China under Grant No. 50705059.
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AWS Welding Journal April 2013

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April 2013

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April 2013 Volume 92 Number 4

AWS Web site www.aws.org

Selecting the Right Gun for GMAW

Alabama Trains Workers at World-Class Robotics Center

How to Maintain Your GMA Gun

A Perspective on Welding Engineering Education

Fume Extraction Guns: Understanding the Basics

Should You Add Thermal Spray to Your Welding Course?

Welding Research Supplement

Evaluation of Susceptibility of Alloy IN740 to HAZ

101-s Reducing the Porosity in Die-Cast Magnesium Alloys

Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

124-s Magnetically Assisted Resistance Spot Welding of

For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

White House and Congress Push for Free

The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy

R&D Tax Credit Extended

Labor to Conduct Survey on Independent

As part of the so-called fiscal deal reached by Congress and

Highly Skilled Workers Immigration

PTO Publishes Final Rules and Guidelines

OSHA Issues Interim Final Rule on

NIST Establishes Two New Manufacturing

The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration

The National Institute of Standards and Technologys (NIST)

Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at

ESAB Welding & Cutting Products / esabna.com / 1.800.ESAB.123

GAWDA to Implement Self-Management Plan

Entries Sought for AWS Image of Welding Awards

Publisher Andrew Cullison

Greiner has some of the biggest equipment of its kind in the

25-inch diameter steel node connectors

24-foot hammerhead columns and base

133-ton transfer girder

Capacity. Precision. Strength.

You can count on Greiner!

Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your

Structural Steel Fabrication

Welding Education and Career Opportunities Abound

Workshops for Warriors trains, certifies, and places veterans free of

A CAD/CAM classroom has ten workstations with MasterCam

Lee College to Offer Welding Inspection

Gateway Technical College Opens

THE NEXT GENERATION

Full Size Color Touch Screen

QUALITY. RELIABILITY. PERFORMANCE.

10500 Orbital Way

Pacoima, CA 91331 U.S.A.

fax (818) 890-3724

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

TECHNOLOGY FOR THE WELDERS WORLD.

Jeremy Jurkiewicz, a 22-year-old Racine, Wis., native who served in

DELTA-MIG torches oer superior performance

Prep for AWS Certified Welding Supervisor Exam

Liquid Penetrant & Magnetic Particle Inspection

Arc Welding Inspection & Quality Control

Welding for the Non Welder

Welding Instructor Course

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

2013 Hobart Institute of Welding

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