AWS Welding Journal July 2013

July 2013
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
CONTENTS
28
July 2013 Volume 92 Number 7
AWS Web site www.aws.org
Features
Departments
28
Inverters Improve Control for AC Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Advances in switching devices, microchips, and tungsten
technology are making the inverter the power source of
choice
R. L. Bitzky and J. Garraux
32
A New Development in Aluminum Welding Wire: Alloy 4943

A new filler metal is designed to give a higher-strength
alternative to 4043
T. Anderson
38
How to Improve GTAW Performance

Some pros offer advice on gas tungsten arc welding of thin
steel, aluminum, and stainless steel
M. Franklin
44
Induction Heating for Stress Relieving Shortens Lead Times

An oil and gas equipment manufacturer finds production
help with induction heating
J. Ryan
48
Automated Welding Applied in Deep-Water Pipelines

Pipeline laying in the South China Sea is aided by dualcarriage automated gas metal arc welding
J. Xiang-Dong et al.
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
News of the Industry ..............8
International Update ............14
RWMA Q&A ......................16
Book Review ......................18
Stainless Q&A ....................20
Product & Print Spotlight ......22
Coming Events....................52
Certification Schedule ..........56
Conferences ......................58
Welding Workbook ..............60
Society News ....................63
Tech Topics ......................65
Interpretation AWS 3.0 ........65
Guide to AWS Services ........83
Personnel ........................84
Classifieds ........................97
Advertiser Index..................98
32
Welding Research Supplement
197-s Vacuum-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated Steels
in a Gap-Free Lap Joint Configuration
A stabilized keyhole allowed zinc vapors to escape in laser
welding of zinc-coated steels
S. Yang et al.
38
205-s Active Droplet Oscillation Excited by Optimized

Waveform
Active droplet oscillation is studied as a means of droplet
detachment at peak currents lower than the transitional current
J. Xiao et al.
218-s High-Temperature Corrosion Behavior of Alloy 600 and
622 Weld Claddings and Coextruded Coatings
Thermogravimetric and solid-state testing demonstrated better
corrosion resistance with Alloy 622 under simulated gaseous
conditions
J. N. DuPont et al.
On the cover: The preferred technique for adding filler metal during gas tungsten arc welding is to touch the end of the filler rod to the leading edge of the
molten pool. (Photo courtesy of Victor Technologies.)
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.
130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,
Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box
25542,London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
WELDING JOURNAL
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Working Together to Build a

Better Tomorrow
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
How can we best effect change? Ive given that question a lot of thought over the past
couple of years as I have become more involved with the leadership of the American
Welding Society. And while our tendency as business people in a competitive world is to
go it alone, Ive come to the conclusion that on many issues, Author Simon Mainwaring
was right when he said, Effectively, change is almost impossible without industry-wide
collaboration, cooperation, and consensus.
The current welding industry workforce development situation poses opportunities
and challenges of unprecedented complexity. No single society, organization, person,
agency, or government can single-handedly solve the issues at hand. These groups must
work together to effectively and efficiently solve these tough problems.
The AWS Foundation is heavily invested in workforce development for the welding
industry. Working with other organizations, with a collaborative spirit, has made a significant impact on these workforce development efforts.
Recently, the American Welding Society and the Manufacturing Institute of the
National Association of Manufacturing (NAM) met at AWS World Headquarters in
Doral, Fla., to not only establish workforce development objectives, but develop action
plans both organizations could work toward jointly. This meeting confirmed and identified the following:
82% of manufacturers report a moderate or serious shortage in skilled production
workers.
75% of manufacturers say the skills shortage has negatively impacted their ability to
expand.
600,000 jobs in manufacturing are unfilled today because employers cant find workers with the right skills.
More than 200,000 welding-related jobs will be left unfilled by 2019 because companies wont be able to find workers with the correct skill sets.
Its obvious that to close the skills gap, we need to take action now. To that end, the
Manufacturing Institute, in partnership with the AWS Foundation, has launched the
NAM-endorsed Manufacturing Skills Certification System. This system of nationally
portable, industry-recognized credentials validates both the book and the street
smarts needed to be productive and successful on the job.
I wont list specific projects being considered. After all, some ideas wont pan out and
will be dropped; other not-yet-imagined projects will prove highly successful. However,
I will tell you that those who participated in the recent joint meeting in Doral identified
nine objectives to support this certification system, and badge (welding process) credentialing, master welder certification, women in welding, and weld career data collection
are some of the key areas the two organizations will be working on together.
This push by AWS and NAM to solve the workforce development issue is but one of
many collaborative efforts in which AWS participates. Your Society is actively involved
with trade unions, professional societies, educational institutions, and government agencies to advance the science, technology and application of welding, and allied joining and
cutting processes. These efforts occur at the local, national, and international levels.
Collaboration isnt easy. Cooperation takes a lot of hard work. It requires us to set
aside our natural inclination to compete with others and instead find satisfaction in how
our actions will benefit our industry. When done well,
collaborative efforts can produce amazing results. We
see that all the time at AWS. As you know, all of the
AWS codes, standards, and specifications are consensus standards produced by disparate groups within the
welding industry who set aside their differences to
work together. We have a proven track record of success through collaboration.
Dean R. Wilson
AWS Vice President
4
JULY 2013
Vice President David J. Landon

Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Competition Launched for Three Manufacturing Institutes
The Obama Administration is launching competitions to create three new manufacturing innovation institutes with a federal commitment of $200 million across these five
agencies: Defense, Energy, Commerce, NASA, and the National Science Foundation.
The presidents manufacturing agenda starts with his vision for a National Network
for Manufacturing Innovation. His fiscal year 2014 budget includes a $1 billion investment at the Department of Commerce to create this network, a model based on approaches that other countries have successfully deployed. Each would serve as a regional
hub designed to bridge gaps between basic research and product development, bringing
together companies, universities and community colleges, and federal agencies to invest
in technology areas encouraging investment and production in the United States.
The Department of Defense will lead two of the new institutes on Digital Manufacturing and Design Innovation and Lightweight and Modern Metals Manufacturing, while
the Department of Energy will be leading one new institute on Next Generation Power
Electronics Manufacturing. Winning teams will be selected and announced later this
year. Federal funds will be matched by industry investment, support from state and local
governments, and other sources.
Victor Celebrates 100 Years, Launches Two Contests

Victor Technologies, St. Louis,
., has announced the 100th anniversary of its Victor brand. The
lineup consists of oxyfuel cutting and
gas control equipment; Thermal Dynamics, encompassing manual and
automated plasma cutting systems;
TurboTorch, including air-fuel products for brazing and soldering; and Arcair, representing manual and automated gouging systems.
Company founder, L. W. Stettner,
Victor Technologies honors the 100th anniversary who lost an eye in a welding accident,
of its Victor brand by launching a contest for stu- set out to design and build safer cutdents and schools, plus a photo/caption challenge. ting and welding products. Stettners
As shown, a student and instructor train with oxy- designs resulted in numerous indusfuel cutting using a Journeyman system.
try firsts. For example, Victor cutting
and welding torches were assembled
with screws, not soldered, to provide a stronger connection in the event of overheating.
Also, the company has launched two contests. A Cut Above is open to students in
cutting, welding, and related programs at secondary and postsecondary schools, and will
award more than $30,000 in equipment and cash prizes. Beginner students will write a
500-word essay supporting the contest theme, while advanced students will submit a
team metal fabrication project incorporating an oxyfuel, airfuel, or plasma cutting
process.
The Show Us Your Innovations 2014 calendar contest will award 12 Victor Medalist 250 cutting outfits, and a Victor Thermal Dynamics Cutmaster 42 plasma cutting system as the grand prize, for the best photos and associated captions of the entrant using any Victor or Victor Thermal Dynamics cutting equipment.
Both contests run through September, with winners announced at the Victor Technologies booth at FABTECH 2013 in Chicago, Ill. Contests are open to individuals who
are residents of the United States or Canada (excluding Quebec). Visit
www.victortechnologies.com/victor100.
Publisher Andrew Cullison

Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Hobart Brothers Co. Consolidates Filler Metal Brands

Hobart Brothers Co., Troy, Ohio, has unveiled a new logo for its Hobart brand of
filler metals. The redesign decision coincides with consolidating the companys five
brands of filler metals Hobart, McKay, Tri-Mark, Corex, and Maxal under
the single Hobart brand. The companys brand of filler metals includes a product line of
tubular wires (metal and flux cored), solid wires and covered electrodes for welding carbon and low-alloy steels, stainless steels and aluminum, as well as hardfacing options.
Copyright 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
MEMBER
JULY 2013
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Jim Farley, Project Manager
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The Virginia facility of Liebherr, one of
the worlds leading manufacturers of mining
equipment, has been buying welding
positioners from Koike for years. Some of the
original machines are still in operation, reports
Jim Farley, project manager. And the service support
is terrific. When it comes to responsiveness we can
get directly to a person who can help.
The guys on the floor are sold on Koike, too.
I love the Head and Tailstock, says Fabrication
Lead Man Charles Moler. Koike worked with us
so it was designed to fit our needs and reduce
set-up time for each rotation.
Koike Aronson Ransome

Head and Tailstock positioning
a Liebherr mining truck frame.
Left to Right:
Jim Farley
Project Manager
Charles Moler
Fabrication Lead Man
Jim Pfizenmayer
Fabrication Supervisor
Robert Egloff
Fabrication Manager
Scan here for

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NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Hypertherm Hosts Building America Conference

Hypertherm presented the Building America Conference May
through the companys Technical Training Institute, plus printed
7 and 8 at its new manufacturing facility in Lebanon, N.H. About
circuit board assemblers and technicians. Future goals include
80 invited guests attended to hear numerous speakers and tour
making the facility a key place for listening to customers and
the property.
making continued improvements for them.
Evan Smith, president of Hypertherm, introduced Built in
Event sessions centered on strategic planning, branding,
America: Strategies for Success. He asked what is driving dyLEAN manufacturing, continuous improvement programs, cusnamics by showing a 2004 Business Week cover titled The three
tomer experience management, motivating and engaging your
scariest words in U.S. industry: The China Price and a recent
team, a new measure of cutting efficiency, and the future of air
TIME magazine cover featuring Made in the USA. In the U.S.
plasma.
manufacturing renaissance part of his talk, Smith quoted The
In addition, Sydney Finkelstein, Steven Roth professor of
Boston Consulting Group: By 2015...Manufacturing in China
management and faculty director of the Tuck Executive Program
will be only 10 to 15% cheaper than in the U.S. even before
at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College, reviewed
inventory and shipping costs are considered. He stated a bright
lessons on research he conducted during Why Smart Executives
spot is manufacturing employment has grown faster in the U.S.
Fail. Four red flags in decision making include are your personal
since the recession than in any other developed economy. For
experiences misleading you, is your personal self interest cloudsuccess strategies, as a North American manufacturer, vital facing your thinking, have you made a dangerous prejudgment that
tors are creating collaborative workforce development and buildyou are locked into, and are inappropriate attachments pushing
ing strong supply/distribution infrastructures and partnerships.
you in the wrong direction. Finkelstein gave examples of relying
Kevin Duggan, president of Duggan Associates, discussed
on intuition, experience, and training; the surprise of how comDesign for Operational Excellence. His questions focused on
mon it is to act in a self-interested matter and not realize it; inthe best way to produce continuous improvement, and asked how
tellectual honesty with adaptability and open mindedness; and
do you know where to improve next, why do you strive to create
reinforcing values you care about. He listed executive mindset
flow and what causes its death, what would your shop floor/
failures, organizational breakdowns, delusions of a dream comoffice/supply chain look like if you applied every continuous impany, and leadership pathologies as reasons why smart execuprovement tool, and where will your improvement journey take
tives fail.
you. The steps Duggan listed to achieve operational excellence
Hypertherm Founder and CEO Dick Couch concluded the
concerned designing a lean flow, implementing a lean flow and
event. He recalled the companys start in 1968 with Bob Dean
making it visual, creating standard work for the lean flow, makand tough early years facing hardships in obtaining funding, but
ing abnormal flow visual and creating standard work for it, teachsaid this was a good learning opportunity for designing equiping employees to maintain and improve the flow to the customer,
ment. Weve had this no layoff policy for 45 years, Couch menand free management to work on offense.
tioned as a milestone. Presently, more than 1300 associates deThe guests toured the 160,000-sq-ft facility led by Leadership
liver products and services worldwide.
in Energy and Environmental Design principals.
Videos from the conference can be found on the companys
The extra space is expected to facilitate creating up to 500
YouTube channel.
new jobs for New Hampshire. The plant includes a reliability lab
to test products and manual system assembly lines to make plasma
Kristin Campbell, associate editor
machines with parts close to associates. Ergonomic additions
consist of height-adjustable benches. Other featured areas include a piece-by-the-hour
board that monitors performance; a cutting technology center offers
demonstrations on small/
large machines and nesting software; training
classrooms; and room for
nozzle and electrode
expansion.
Weve had rapid
global growth and needed
the space, Smith said.
Since the new location
opened, he thinks it has
been going remarkably
well and added the biggest
ongoing need there is to
Hypertherms eco-friendly building in Lebanon, N.H., built Associates work inside the new location on
train CNC operators
manual system assembly lines making plasma
long and narrow, leaves the propertys wetlands untouched.
machines for cutting and gouging metal.
JULY 2013
an architectural/ornamental metal fabricator, fabricated the top

40 ft of the spire and pinnacle for the building. At 1776 ft, the
height pays tribute to the year the United States declared its independence and establishes the center as the tallest building in
the Western Hemisphere.
The spires glass and stainless steel structure, featuring a rotating beacon to illuminate the Manhattan skyline at night, was
laser cut on a TRUMPF TruLaser 1030 machine.
One World Trade Center Receives Its

Stainless Steel Spire
KUKA Systems Acquires Uticas

Plant Engineering Business
KUKA Systems Group, Sterling Heights, Mich., has acquired
the plant engineering business of privately owned Utica Companies, Shelby Township, Mich. The purchase price was not disclosed but is in the low double-digit million euro range. It will
absorb Uticas body structure business that builds car body assembly lines and subsystems as well as products like laser welding heads, net forms, and pierce systems; standard press room
automation for metal stamping; and hang-on technologies. About
300 Utica employees have joined the more than 1300-member
KUKA Systems team in southeastern Michigan.
Kammetal fabricated the top 40 ft of the spire and pinnacle for the
new One World Trade Center. The spires glass and stainless steel
structure was laser cut on a TRUMPF 2D system. (Photo courtesy
of DMC Erectors, Inc.)
Hobart Institute Breaks Ground for

Additional Welding Training Area
Driven by demand for welding training and increasing enrollment, Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio, is expanding. The 6360-sq-ft structure will house between 50 and 60
On May 10, the spire for the One World Trade Center building in New York City was permanently installed.
Kammetal Kusack Architectural Metal Inc., Brooklyn, N.Y.,
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WELDING JOURNAL
A rendering by Ferguson Construction Co. shows the Hobart Institute of Welding Technologys new building addition in Troy, Ohio.
arc welding booths equipped for all processes and an extensive

fume-exhaust system. With a goal to match the original building
architectural and aesthetic integrity, construction is set to begin
soon. The first classes are expected to utilize the building in late
fall 2013. The contract went to Ferguson Construction Co.,
Sidney, Ohio.
Wall Colmonoy Celebrates

75th Anniversary
Wall Colmonoy, Madison Heights, Mich., an American Welding Society Supporting Company Member, is celebrating its 75th
anniversary. Albert F. Wall founded the materials engineering
company in 1938 in Detroit, Mich. Today, it is a global organization with offices and manufacturing facilities in the United States,
Oxygen Analyzer
for Welding
elding
3
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Wall Colmonoy has been owned and operated by the same family
for 75 years. Shown is a step for the manufacturing of nickel- and
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How Oxygen Analyzers Work

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United Kingdom, and France with close to 400 employees. Developing new products and technologies with customers, universities, and local government is the driving innovation force. It
has been owned and operated by the same family for 75 years.
Manitowoc Welders Improve Technical

Skills Using New Training Program
nearly 500 welders who build its cranes, the RealWeld Trainer
provided an answer. Using patent-pending technology by EWI,
it digitally records motions and objectively measures/scores critical welding technique while performing real arc-on welds, plus
allows practicing arc-off welds with feedback.
According to Jake Sensinger, manager of weld process engineering at Manitowocs Shady Grove factory, the system was incorporated into operations in July 2012. Since then, two machines
at the companys Pennsylvania facility have provided customization advantages, material cost savings, and faster individualized
training. Its going to have a tremendous impact on how we put
our curriculum together going forward, he added.
Cee Kay Executives Slowly Create a

Snail Sculpture during Cleanup Event
Paul Boulware, an EWI welding engineer, uses the RealWeld

Trainer to explain welding technique fundamentals to a trainee.
When Manitowocs Grove brand recently looked for a costeffective way to teach, train, and evaluate welding skills of the
Cee Kay Supply, St. Louis, Mo., sponsored the 11th annual
Mission: Clean Stream and Stream Trash Art program with the
General Motors (GM) Earth Day Festival on April 6 at GMs
plant in Wentzville, Mo. Approximately 1088 tons of trash have
been removed from streams and rivers to date.
This is the fifth year in a row the company has participated.
Each year, Regional Vice President of Sales Heath Wells and
Western Regional Manager Dave Teson create a metal art sculpture from cleanup pieces. This time, they fabricated a snail from
an old piece of cast iron, which was also converted into a flower
pot. It took about 8 h to complete. Company CEO and Owner
Tom Dunn also made chocolate ice cream with liquid nitrogen.
Additionally, the American Welding Societys St. Louis Section held its 11th annual Mini Weld Show on March 28 at Cee
WELDING JOURNAL
11
Industry Notes
CertainTeed Corp. has selected Jonesburg, Mo., as the home
for a new asphalt roofing shingle manufacturing/distribution
facility and plans to invest $100 million there. It is anticipated
an estimated 400 ancillary local jobs in welding, trucking, and
maintenance services will support operations when completed.
SGL Group The Carbon Co. recognized an investment in its

Ozark, Ark., facility to construct new graphitization for manufacturing graphite electrodes, used in producing steel in electric arc furnaces, with a volume of approximately $26 million.
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y., is sponsoring

Steaming Toward a Cure for Diabetes benefitting the American Diabetes Associations Step Out: Walk to Stop Diabetes
campaign of Western New York. The event is set for July 13.
CRC-Evans Pipeline International, Inc., has opened its new

pipeline supply store and warehouse in Tulsa, Okla. The 9000sq-ft storefront houses a large inventory with standard pipeline
construction items. Also, the warehouse carries accessories.
Optrel is offering prizes at www.facebook.com/OptrelUSA.

Heath Wells and Dave Teson recently fabricated a snail from an
old piece of cast iron, which was converted into a flower pot.
Kays headquarters. Representatives from more than 20 companies provided hands-on demos and expertise. More than 250 students, instructors, and industry professionals attended.
Welders who like its page and send their best welding photos
will be eligible for a monthly drawing to win a new welding helmet plus an iPod Touch through August. At the contests end,
all entries will be redrawn for a grand prize of a free trip to
Wattwil, Switzerland, where the company is headquartered.
continued on page 91
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INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Qualification Center to Support
Automotive Welding Certification
The new Heywood facilitys laser cutting unit.
Pictured is the inaugural session held at I-Car Canadas national welding qualification center.
I-Car Canada, a training and recognition program, is establishing a national welding qualification center to serve as a hub for
Canadian automotive welding certification. The center will operate
in conjunction with a Canada-wide network of welding qualification instructors that is being established this year.
The new qualification center will be located at CARSTARs
Vision Park in Hamilton, Ontario. It will serve an immediate audience of repair facilities and insurance staff in the Greater
Toronto/Southern Ontario region, but its impact will eventually
extend coast to coast. CARSTAR Automotive Canada, Inc., NAPA
Auto Parts, and 3M Canada are each contributing to the operation
of the center.
Marc Brazeau, president and CEO of the Automotive Industries
Association, which operates I-CAR Canada, noted the new center
will meet a critical need in the industry. He said, Most technicians
learned how to weld in their apprenticeship program ten, twenty, or
even thirty years ago. Given how much vehicle technology has
changed in that time with the introduction of aluminum, highstrength steels, and new bonding technologies, it is imperative to
offer opportunities for continued learning. Welding is one of the
most important skills in the collision repair industry, and it must be
done right.
Park in Heywood, Great Manchester, UK. The facility has been

operational since April, with a current staff of 40 employees. When
fully staffed, it is expected to employ more than 100 people in engineering, manufacturing, and support positions.
Lee Morgan, company president, said, Camfil APC has developed into a global dust collection company over the past five years,
with our biggest growth in the UK and European industrial markets. This strategically located facility allows us to expand our manufacturing capacity and service our European customer base more
effectively.
The plant includes a four-bay welding area, fabrication capacity,
powder paint line, assembly room, and storage space.
Center Promotes Development of

Pipeline Technologies
Sciaky Announces Strategic Partnership

Sciaky, Inc., a subsidiary of Phillips Service Industries and
provider of additive manufacturing products, has entered into a
business partnership with EVOBEAM GmbH of Mainz,
Germany, to further expand its electron beam (EB) welding
product portfolio.
Sciaky specializes in large vacuum chamber EB welding systems
with internal moving guns. These systems utilize low voltage and
high power useful for large-scale parts. EVOBEAM specializes in
high throughput, small vacuum chamber EB welding systems with
external guns. These systems utilize low voltage and low power useful for rapid production of small-scale parts. Under terms of the
new agreement, Sciaky and EVOBEAM will market and sell each
others EB welding technology.
New Dust Collection Facility to Serve the

UK and European Industrial Markets
Camfil Air Pollution Control (APC), a global manufacturer of
dust and fume collection equipment, celebrated the grand opening
of its new 40,000-sq-ft facility in the United Kingdom to serve
industrial customers throughout the UK and Europe. Camfil APC
worked closely with the Rochdale Development Agency to find the
optimal site for the plant, which is located in the Birch Business
14
JULY 2013
The Global Pipeline Welding Development Center employs more

than 30 skilled welding technicians on site.
Subsea 7, a seabed-to-surface engineering, construction, and
services contractor, has opened the new Global Pipeline Welding
Development Center that will develop subsea pipeline technologies for the oil and gas markets. It is the culmination of a $15.5
million investment by Subsea 7 in the companys operations base
in Clydebank, Scotland. The development was supported with a
grant of $1.2 million from Scottish Enterprise.
The center has brought 30 new skilled jobs to the area, as
Subsea 7 creates pipeline technologies to satisfy market needs
associated with oil and gas discoveries increasingly made in deeper water and tougher conditions. The new center comprises two
main operational buildings Pipeline Development Center 1, a
welding inspection center, and Center 2, which houses the R&D
and screened radiographic and ultrasound nondestructive examination facilities.
The entire Subsea 7 facility in Clydebank employs 150 people,
including more than 65 engineering and project management
staff, and has more than 30 skilled welding technicians working
on site. The technology developed in Scotland will be deployed
by the subsea oil and gas industry across the globe, including the
UK, Norway, United States, Brazil, and West Africa.
/ Battery Charging Systems / Welding Technology / Solar Electronics
/ Fronius is internationally recognized as the welding clad

leader in process and equipment design. The only manufacturer
of cladding equipment that is vertically integrated which
allows us to maximize the systems deposited weld quality and
throughput. With the support of a global service organization,
Fronius cladding systems have and will continue to set the
standard in the cladding industry.
For more information visit www.fronius-usa.com
RWMA
Q&A
Q: We are considering changing our steel
source for several of the parts we produce;
however, one of the new materials is not
approved by the automotive original
equipment manufacturer (OEM). What
approval process are they talking about?
The proposed replacement appears to be
the same as our existing one.
A: The process of joining two materials
together is something that never really
crosses your mind when you purchase a
motor vehicle. In fact, it is almost something that is assumed since your driving
of the final product is proof that it can be
done. However, as with many things, a little digging reveals there can be much more
to this process than meets the eye. In fact,
the idea behind trying to determine how
weldable a material is begins to make real
good sense once you understand what it
entails and its potential impact on the assembly of the final product. In actuality,
the determination of a materials weldability is really a subset of a much broader
characterization process the automotive
OEM employs to ensure the material in
question is suitable for the intended application. In other words, material characterization is really a methodology used
to classify or describe a material that is
based on an objective analysis of measurable characteristics.
While this discussion focuses on weldability, with the engagement of the right
personnel, it could just as easily be a conversation about determining corrosion resistance, formability, or any of a dozen or
more other manufacturing traits that need
to be accounted for and addressed in
order to successfully assemble the final
product.
An analogy for the process of material
characterization is that of a building inspector. Building inspectors work behind
the scenes and their existence never really crosses your mind. But once you understand they are looking at the structure
before the drywall goes up to ensure that
all of the other supporting elements of the
building (electrical, plumbing, ventilation,
etc.) are in place and functional, you begin
to understand why their role is so important from the point of view of protecting
the eventual final customer. The welding
characterization process works in much
the same way as it affords the automotive
OEM an opportunity to verify if the material is truly capable of being processed
Fig. 1 A resistance spot weld lobe.
16
JULY 2013
BY DONALD F. MAATZ JR.
in its manufacturing environment, thus

protecting you, their customer, and helping to ensure that they have made, and
you are purchasing, a quality product.
Characterization Methodology
The predominate method utilized by
all of the automotive OEMs for welding
characterization is resistance spot welding (RSW). For completeness, gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) and laser beam
welding (LBW) are now also being considered or utilized for OEM characterization. Additionally, and as one would expect, each OEM typically wants the weldability characterization performed in a
manner that is consistent with its
processes and standards. As a result, the
weldability characterization process is
often performed on specific types of
equipment so as to replicate the unique
manufacturing environment in which the
material will be used. A partial list of these
unique manufacturing elements could include the following:
Electrode Caps. The list of requirements in this area alone can be quite extensive and runs the gambit from taper
types (male, female), taper standards
(RWMA, ISO), body diameters, contact
face geometry (RWMA A-nose, ISO-5821
Type-B, etc.), and last, but not least, the
actual material (RWMA Class-1 or
RWMA Class-2, in all their variations).
Weld Control. The requirements in
this area can cover the make of the control (manufacturer), the type of current
[alternating current vs. midfrequency direct current (AC vs. MFDC)], and/or the
methodology of using the control (automatic voltage compensation or constant
current). As an aside, our experience has
shown there can be some slight variation

in weldability when utilizing different AC
controls, but not so with the MFDC units.
Transformer. Once the weld control
has been determined, the selection of the
transformer is really driven by the welding machine. However, care must be exercised in the selection as the lack of weldability variation seen in MFDC weld controls can reappear by the selection of the
wrong MFDC power supply. This is especially true when performing aluminum
characterizations.
Electrode Cooling. Both the water
temperature and flow rate may be specified for a particular characterization.
While both are critical elements to be
monitored and controlled, our experience
has shown the actual physical condition
and arrangement of the cooling system
(water tube placement, size, integrity,
etc.) are far more important than the actual temperature or flow rate.
An important point to keep in mind is
that no one characterization evaluation
can cover all possibilities. In fact, despite
the performance of a thorough weldability characterization, it may be difficult to
predict the necessary weld setup parameters for production operations. The reason for this is that each test is a singular
condition among many possibilities and
cannot account for the potential litany of
material combinations, root opening or
fitup concerns, general condition of the
tooling, or other production variables.
However, if the weldability characterization is conducted in a consistent manner,
the process will allow for the determination of significant material traits that,
when compared to other similar materials, can reveal where deviation from the
norm has occurred and permit the OEM
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Eric
Pakalnins for his invaluable perspective
on resistance weldability material characterization.
References
Final Thoughts
1. AWS D8.9:2012, Test Methods for

Evaluating the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of Automotive Sheet Steel Materials.
Doral, Fla.: American Welding Society.
It is hoped these descriptions have

served to illustrate the challenges facing
both the steel and automotive OEM organizations as they strive to produce a
quality product in a very competitive environment. At the least it should help illustrate there is a great deal that does
occur behind the scenes as a product
moves from concept to design and that
one of the biggest challenges is the selection of the right material for the application. Just as consumers have a choice with
regard as to what they consider important
in a vehicle (passenger and/or cargo room
vs. performance), the product designer
must decide which of the above elements
has more credence for their application.
DONALD F. MAATZ JR. is a laboratory

manager, RoMan Engineering Services. He
is past chair of the AWS Detroit Section,
serves on the D8.9 and D8D Automotive
Welding committees, is vice chairman of
the Certified Resistance Welding Technician working group, and is an advisor to
the C1 Resistance Welding Committee. He
is a graduate of The Ohio State University
with a BS in Welding Engineering. This article would not have been possible were it
not for the assistance from members of the
RoMan team. Send your comments/questions to Don at dmaatz@romaneng.com,
or to Don Maatz, c/o Welding Journal, 8669
Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166.
want to land a job

after graduation?
Employers want commercial divers that are internationally certified.
TE
CH
NICAL INS
T
IT
UT
E
Once it has been determined how the

material will be welded, the next step is to
select the necessary characterization elements that are to be evaluated. The desired elements to be evaluated may vary
based on the material gauge, coating, and
substrate strength. A partial list of these
unique characterization elements could
include the following:
Weld Range/Lobe. A weld lobe is a
means of graphically expressing the numerous combinations of weld current and
weld time that produce satisfactory welds
for a specific set of conditions (weld force,
electrode cap configuration, metal stackup, etc.) (see Fig. 1 and the March 2012
RWMA Q&A for more details on weld
lobes).
Fracture Mode. This is the appearance of the weld after a destructive separation or peel test. (See the May 2010
RWMA Q&A for more details on fracture modes.)
Weld Strength. This may be determined by either a quasi-static or dynamic
test, with the latter being either a fatigue
or impact test. The mechanical samples
constructed for these evaluations typically
test the weld in two directions, either full
shear (0 deg) or normal to the weld (90
deg).
Hold Time Sensitivity. This characterization element is related to a change
in the welds cooling rate and is really a
man-made phenomenon related to processing. The changeover from multifixture, cascade-fire gun stations to almost
complete robot welding has reduced the
likelihood for this to occur. Consequently,
some OEM tests no longer evaluate hold
time sensitivity performance.
Electrode Endurance. This element
really focuses on the coating of the material and its wear effect on the electrode.
As weld processing has changed, so has
this evaluation. Almost entirely gone are
the days of open-ended characterization
tests that might go for 10,000 (or more)
welds, replaced instead by more manageable, but still meaningful, sprints of just
5001000 welds.
Current Sensitivity. The advent of
MFDC has brought to the fore the fact
that some materials weld better with one
current type than the other. While the vast
majority of materials do not exhibit a preference, this is still an important evaluation element as the selection of current
type is one area where the large OEMs
and the smaller Tier 2 and 3 suppliers are
Characterization Elements
most likely to approach welding from divergent points of view.

An important point to consider is that
the descriptions of the above-mentioned
elements do not contain one word regarding acceptability criteria. This was done on
purpose as each OEM evaluates the materials performance of each element
against its particular needs, and it would
be impossible to try and provide more than
the most generic of guidance in this area.
CD
to screen for potential issues. An excellent source for more detailed information
about RSW material weldability characterization testing of sheet metal is AWS
D8.9 (Ref. 1).
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WELDING JOURNAL
17
BOOK
REVIEW
Brazing Book Opens
New Technology Horizons,
Gives Practical Information
BY ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO
modern brazing technology is described.
This is illustrated by examples from automotive and cutting tool industries to applications in aerospace, nuclear power,
and fuel cells.
In addition, all chapters include substantial numbers of reference of data regarding wetting, microstructure, strength,
and corrosion properties of brazed joints,
which means that this volume can easily
be used as a reference book appropriate
both in academic research laboratories
and everyday engineering practices.
Improving Brazing in
Practical Applications
Advances in brazing: Science, technology

and applications, edited by Duan P.
Sekuli, published in March 2013 by Woodhead Publishing Ltd. (www.woodheadpublishing.com), Cambridge, UK. ISBN-13:
978 0 85709 423 0. 628 pages. Price $305.
Advances in brazing: Science, technology and applications presents three original chapters on the fundamentals of brazing and sixteen chapters that consist both
of new studies done by their respective authors as well as state-of-the-art overviews
featuring brazing processes used in
todays industry.
What Else Does the

Publication Offer?
This book covers the basics and
specifics of brazing technologies related
to joining traditional structural materials
such as aluminum alloys, nickel superalloys, oxide ceramics, cemented carbides,
diamonds, cubic boron nitride, and new
materials that offer challenges to engineers such as titanium and nickel intermetallic alloys, ceramic composites, carbon-carbon composites, brazing coatings,
special glasses, and glass-ceramics.
All chapters present an analysis of convenient industrial processes and new, effective approaches to join similar and dissimilar combinations of base materials. A
broad range of applications regarding
18
JULY 2013
Publication of this book is apparently

an important event in the present brazing
engineering community, as well as in the
welding industry, because many new nonweldable but brazeable structural materials appear in the industrial market every
year. Most of these materials are required
to be joined by brazing.
The authors represent different countries and universities but all of them
demonstrate one approach to writing:
They apply fundamental knowledge to explain methods of improving brazing in
practical applications. The effectiveness
of this approach to conveying knowledge
is important, especially today, precisely
because so many new materials that are
challenging to join have entered the industry. If this approach becomes accepted
convention, it can be a strong impulse to
improving depth of knowledge in brazing,
not only as a technology, but as a science.
The Value Theoretical Conceptions Bring
In the last several years, numerous

journal publications have analyzed general practical case studies (procedures of
brazing individual materials and properties of their brazed joints), but discussion
of new theoretical conceptions is rare. The
first three chapters of this book fill in this
gap. They overview the following: fundamental questions of wetting and reactivity at the interface of base materials (chapter 1), criteria of strength and reliability
of brazed structures (chapter 2), and systematic modeling of general procedures
in the field of brazing on macro- and
micro-scale levels (chapter 3).
The importance of these theoretical
conceptions cannot be overestimated.
They shall certainly enter into future textbooks and university courses on brazing.
At the same time, theoretical methods discussed in the first three chapters may al-
ready be used in the field while constructing new systems, assessing their reliability, and testing the appropriateness or
suitability of new base materials and filler
metals.
Additional Chapter Breakdowns,
Including New Approaches to Brazing
Superhard Tooling Materials and
Processes for Joining Aluminum Alloys
Brazing nickel-based superalloys and

stainless steels is discussed in three chapters. Chapter 4 demonstrates successful
application of boron-free Ni-Cr-Zr filler
metals, while chapter 5 is focused on the
application of amorphous foils in traditional Ni-Cr-Si-B systems and metallurgical paths in joint formation. Also, two
chapters are designated to joining new
prospective intermetallic alloys titanium and nickel aluminides.
The authors of chapter 4 introduce new
creep-resistant braze alloys of the Ti-ZrCr, Ti-Zr-Fe, Ti-Hf-Fe, and Ti-Zr-Mn systems, while chapter 8 discusses the property effects of base materials on the brazing procedure and microstructure of
brazed joints made with traditional filler
metals such as BAg-8, Ticuni, CusilABA, BNi-2, and others. Specifics for
applying nickel-based filler metals in manufacturing steel pipes and brass or bronze
components contacting drinking water are
described in chapter 18.
Chapter 6 describes industrial
processes and new approaches to brazing
superhard tooling materials diamond
and cubic boron nitride. The physics of
formation of carbide film on diamond is
an essential aspect of the corresponding
brazing process, and it is discussed in detail. The technology of brazing cemented
carbides and superhard materials for cutting tool applications is also considered
in chapter 14. Both chapters are supported by the analysis of wetting and metallurgical interactions of filler metals with
tool materials.
Several chapters are designated to different aspects of joining ceramics and
high-temperature composite materials;
these summarize practical experience and
scientific knowledge accumulated in the
world to date. At the same time, all authors include results of their original investigations that make these publications
especially interesting, because a general
review is illustrated by case studies.
Chapters 7, 12, and 16 discuss design,
metallization, microstructure, and properties of brazed ceramics both in ceramicto-ceramic and ceramic-to-metal joints for
the needs of the electronic and aerospace
industries. Chapters 11 and 13 are focused

on brazing approaches and joint properties of high-temperature ceramic matrix
composites, including carbon-carbon
composites applied now in aerospace and
nuclear industries. Despite sometimes
similar base materials mentioned there, a
reader will not find any overlapping scientific and technical information in these
chapters; this reflects an original research
and engineering vision by the authors on
obtained results.
The original technology and application of brazed hard coatings by infiltration in cemented carbide particles with
silver- and copper-based filler metal is
discussed in chapter 15. Applications of
glass and glass-ceramic sealants for solid
oxide fuel cells and joining SiC-based ceramics described in chapter 17 is opening a new prospective in manufacturing
energy sources.
Three chapters are designated to new
materials and processes of joining aluminum alloys widely used in the world.
Chapter 9 covers the popular topic of
brazing aluminum to steel, as well as soldering aluminum. Both subjects are combined together due to a similar approach
of application with reactive fluxes. The
chemistry of fluxes is discussed in details
that are unique in brazing publications.
High-productive technology in controlled
atmosphere brazing (CAB) of aluminum
is described in chapter 10 featuring the
focus of interaction oxides with a flux and
furnace atmosphere. This chapter can be
used in the next edition of the Brazing
Handbook as is. Finally, the original technology of fluxless brazing aluminum alloys and features of this promising process
are discussed in chapter 19.
Conclusion
For those just starting to work in the
brazing industry, this book is a great primary source of scientific and practical information regarding important procedures and tendencies in our technology.
A great team of scientists and engineers
is collected under the cover of this book.
Its no doubt this publication shall become a work-table reference book for
many professionals of the brazing industry because it is not only a source of useful technical information but also opens
new horizons in our technology.
ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO (ashapiro@

titanium-brazing.com) is brazing products
manager at Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio. He is a member of the C3 Committee on Brazing and Soldering, has contributed to the 5th edition of the AWS Brazing
Handbook, and the Brazing Q & A column.
WELDING JOURNAL
19
STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We did weld cladding (two layers) with

E309LT0-4 flux-cored electrodes on a
low-alloy steel pressure vessel, then
stress relieved it for 8 h at 1150F. When
we removed the vessel from the furnace
and allowed it to cool, we found that the
weld had separated from the base metal
over a large area. It appeared that the
weld metal had not adhered to the base
metal. When we examined the separated
weld, we found that the underside of the
cladding was only slightly attracted to a
magnet, while the surface of the vessel underneath was strongly attracted to a magnet, which makes us wonder if the weld
cladding actually fused to the base metal
in the first place. What happened, and
what can we do about it?
A: This phenomenon is known as disbonding. While its history indicates that it

is most common with strip cladding, weld
cladding by use of weave beads with other
welding processes have also been known
to be affected by disbonding. Disbonding
is most common when the weld is made
with a method that produces wide, flat deposits with low dilution.
Nelson et al. (Refs. 13) have studied
disbonding to a considerable extent. The
mechanism seems not to be entirely clear,
but carbide precipitation, impurity segregation, a long continuous grain boundary
perpendicular to the principal stress, a
considerable difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the low-alloy
steel and the weld cladding, and hydrogen-induced cracking may all be involved
in the disbonding. The characteristic of
disbonding is cracking in the fusion zone
very close to the fusion boundary along a
particular grain boundary termed a Type
II boundary. Figure 1, taken from Ref. 3,
shows the special nature of the Type II
boundary that extends parallel to the fusion boundary, only a few microns from
the fusion boundary, and several grain diameters in length.
Figure 2, taken from Ref. 3, shows the
disbonded cladding side of the fracture.
The crack path is exactly along the Type II
boundary. When this cracking occurs
along the Type II boundary, only a very
thin layer of the weld (perhaps 10 microns
or so in thickness) remains attached to the
base metal, and no base metal remains attached to the cladding. This accounts for
your observation that the weld metal side
shows very little attraction to a magnet
20
JULY 2013
Fig. 1 Type 309 cladding over ASTM A508 low-alloy steel. Note that the Type II grain
boundary extends continuously along the fusion boundary a few microns into the weld
deposit from the fusion boundary.
Fig. 2 Disbonded Type 309 cladding separated from ASTM A508 low-alloy steel.
(only the ferrite in the weld metal is ferromagnetic, and there is much more ferrite in the second layer than in the first
layer), while the base metal side is
strongly attracted to a magnet.
There are several approaches you can

use to reduce the tendency for disbonding. Since diffusible hydrogen is often involved, it is helpful to reduce available
diffusible hydrogen. The flux-cored stain-
less steel electrodes of E309LT0-4 type

are not always manufactured to low-hydrogen practice, and exposure to humid
air can cause even a low-hydrogen electrode to absorb enough moisture to result
in a problem. It is not possible to consistently measure diffusible hydrogen with
austenitic filler metals like 309L because
hydrogen does not diffuse appreciably in
austenite. However, the transition from
the ferritic base metal to the austenitic
weld metal will invariably include a
martensitic layer adjacent to the fusion
boundary, which sometimes extends from
the base metal to the Type II boundary.
In this zone, hydrogen is mobile enough
to cause cracking. The zone between the
Type II boundary and the fusion boundary consists in part of melted filler metal,
and if this filler metal contains enough
hydrogen, the potential for cracking is
there. So, it is important to maintain lowhydrogen conditions for the filler metal.
This includes sourcing filler metal that
was baked at the end of manufacture and
protecting that filler metal from exposure
to moist air. I would also note that the
E309LT0-4 electrodes are intended to
operate in 75% argon 25% CO2 shielding which tends to produce higher diffusible hydrogen than 100% CO2 shielding. You might consider switching to CO2
shielding to reduce diffusible hydrogen.
A second approach to the prevention
of disbonding is to manipulate the welding procedure to avoid a nearly planar interface between weld metal and base
metal. A nearly planar interface occurs
when the individual weld runs are wide
and shallow, as tends to occur in strip
cladding and in weld cladding with a
weave pattern. It is better to accept a little higher dilution, with flux-cored arc
welding using your E390LT1-4 electrodes
or other welding methods by depositing
the weld metal in stringer beads instead
of weave beads because the stringer
beads produce a scalloped fusion boundary rather than a planar fusion boundary,
and the scalloped fusion boundary is
more resistant to disbonding. Only the
first layer of weld cladding needs to be
deposited by stringer beads. A second
and any subsequent layers can be deposited with any welding pattern because
the geometry of the fusion boundary with
the base metal is already established before subsequent layers are deposited.
A third approach is to replace stainless steel filler metal with nickel-based
alloy filler metal. This is a more expensive
approach due to the cost of the nickelbased alloys as compared to that of stainless steel filler metal. Once a layer of
nickel-based alloy, such as NiCr-3 type

filler metal has been deposited, it is necessary to continue the cladding with the
nickel-based alloy because transitions of
nickel-based alloy to stainless steel are
quite susceptible to solidification cracking. The main functions of the nickelbased alloy are to reduce the thickness of
any martensitic layer in the transition
zone as compared to the thickness of the
martensitic layer in the transition zone
when stainless steel is deposited, and to
reduce the mismatch in coefficient of
thermal expansion between the ferritic
steel base metal and the weld metal. This
latter in turn reduces the stresses at the
Type II boundary. If you choose this approach, it is still important to treat
the filler metal with good low-hydrogen
practice.
None of these approaches will guarantee freedom from disbonding, but
chances are that you can be successful
because many other fabricators have
been.
References
1. Nelson, T. W., Lippold, J. C., and
Mills, M. J. 1999. Nature and evolution of
the fusion boundary in ferritic-austenitic

dissimilar metal welds Part 1: Nucleation and growth. Welding Journal 78(10):
329-s to 337-s.
2. Rowe, M. D., Nelson, T. W., and
Lippold, J. C. 1999. Hydrogen-induced
cracking along the fusion boundary of
dissimilar metal welds. Welding Journal
78(2): 31-s to 37-s.
3. Nelson, T. W., Lippold, J. C., and
Mills, M. J. 2000. Nature and evolution of
the fusion boundary in ferritic-austenitic
dissimilar metal welds Part 2: On-cooling transformations. Welding Journal
79(10): 267-s to 277-s.
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.
He is treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Structural Welding; and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair of
the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, and served as AWS president
(20052006). Send questions to damian@
damiankotecki.com, or Damian Kotecki,
c/o Welding Journal Dept., 8669 Doral
Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166.
INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS

Sales, Rentals, Lease Programs
Weld Preheating,
Post-Weld Heat Treatment,
Coating Removal, Shrink Fit,
Liquid- and Air-Cooled Systems
reddarc.com/ihs
1-866-733-3272
WELDING JOURNAL
21
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
Focus on Stress Relieving, PWHT, and GTAW
GTA Torch Provides Cooling Capacity

The WP-280 water-cooled GTA torch has been designed with the companys
Super Cool technology. Its body also includes an antirotation feature to prevent handle movement during welding and improve operator control. The TriFlex hose and cable assembly has been designed to remain flexible in cold
weather, improve operator control, and prevent cracking. ColorSmart hose
and cable sets differentiate input water, water/power cable, and gas hoses to
simplify torch installation. Extra features include copper components to maximize current capacity and high-temperature silicone rubber insulation to minimize high-frequency voltage leaks. Mechanical fittings provide a secure gas and
water connection to prevent leakage and allow users to easily replace hoses.
Weld-Ready torch package has installed front-end parts, including a nozzle,
medium back cap, 332-in. collet and collet body, and 3-in.-long ceriated tungsten
electrode. The torch packages include a cable cover that offers a hook and loop
closure to prevent slippage and provide cable protection, while also allowing access for remote finger control cables. Packages with part numbers ending in
MFD50 include a cable cover that reaches to the power source to reduce cable
clutter and offer additional cable protection, as well as a 50-mm Dinse connector. The torch is compatible with 13N front-end consumables.
Weldcraft
www.weldcraft.com
(800) 752-7620
Metal-Cored Electrode
Designed for Oil Field Uses
Laser System Cuts

Steel Plate
The 4130C a metal-cored, nickelbased, low-alloy steel electrode

matches the properties of certain quench
and tempered steels following postweld
heat treatment (PWHT). It is a
nickel/chromium/molybdenum bearing
wire that provides these weld metal properties. In addition, it contains less than
1% nickel in the weld deposit and delivers smooth arc transfer with minimal spatter. It is designed to weld 4130, 4140, 8630,
and similar alloy steels that are to be
PWHT. The low-nickel deposit makes the
product suited for most oilfield applications. The electrode is available in 0.045
and 116 in. diameters.
The CL-400 CO2 laser cutting system

uses water-cooled, high-speed linear
motor drives with the same HMI touchscreen control and nesting software found
on the companys other CO2 and fiber
laser cutting systems. Dual 5 10 ft pallets and an optional modular material
handling system reduce beam-off time. It
delivers fast positioning speeds of 12,000
in./min and up to a 1 in. processing range
on mild steel. Other features include a
4000-W resonator; fourth-generation linear motor drives; and 0.75- to 1.5-in. steel
plate frame.
Select-Arc, Inc.
Cincinnati, Inc.
www.select-arc.com
(800) 341-5215
www.e-ci.com
(513) 367-7100
22
JULY 2013
Brochure Highlights
Service Program
The companys new four-page

brochure offers an overview of its 5-Star
Service program and service center. It
explains that whether its an emergency
service call or a complete rebuild, the service program will have customers operating at original equipment standards. The
service center is equipped to remanufacturer complex systems. It employs trained
E71T-12M-JH8 requirements for aswelded and stress-relieved conditions. It

is a choice for pressure vessel fabrication
and other applications requiring postweld
heat treatment (PWHT) of mild steel.
Extra features include arc performance
and bead shape making it easy to use for
welders of all skill levels. The wire is offered in 15- and 33-lb packages, and comes
in the standard 0.045 in. diameter.
technicians, and the machining, fabricating, and welding capabilities necessary to

rebuild equipment. According to the
brochure, 5-Star Service also includes onsite testing and repair. All work is done
with original parts, components, and
assemblies.
Eriez
www.eriez.com
(888) 300-3743
The Lincoln Electric Co.
Tungsten Suits Alternating

and Direct Current GTAW
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Orbital Welding
of Sanitary Process Lines
made EZ
SIMPLE OPERATION
Making a perfect weld is now as
simple as selecting tube/fitting O.D.
and wall thickness, and pressing
Start Weld! The intuitive symbolbased touch screen interface
minimizes operator training and
qualification time.
The LaYZrTM (color code chartreuse)

tungsten electrodes (A5.12M/A5.12:2009AWS Class EWG) are nonradioactive and
can be used in alternating as well as direct
current GTAW applications. They have a
chemical specification of 98.34% tungsten, + 1.5% lanthanum, 0.08% zirconium, and 0.08% yttrium, plus work in
mechanized or robotic GTAW applications. Additionally, the 2% lanthanated
(color code blue) tungsten electrodes
(A5.12/A5.12:2009-AWS Class EWLa-2)
are nonradioactive and perform in alternating current (aluminum) applications.
They have a chemical composition of
1.82.2% lanthanum-balance tungsten
and provide an option as a general
purpose electrode for most GTAW
applications.
AFFORDABLE TECHNOLOGY
The modular EZ Orbital System is
used with standard GTAW power
sources. Priced at 1/3 of industry
standards, this affordable tool
should be in every welders toolbox.
CK Worldwide, Inc.
www.ckworldwide.com
(800) 426-0877
www.MagnatechLLC.com
Flux-Cored Wire Works

for PWHT
The UltraCore SR-12 is a gasshielded flux-cored wire that meets AWS
E-mail: info@MagnatechLLC.com Phone: (+1) 860 653-2573

WELDING JOURNAL
23
Needle Scaler Suitable

for Stress Relieving
The Trelawny TVS needle scaler

with integrated vacuum shroud enables
dust-free working in hazardous applications when used with a dust-extraction
vacuum. Model 3BPG uses 28 needles to
supply 2200 blows/min, making it suitable
for cleaning and stress relieving welds.
Other applications include removing coatings, corrosion, and other accumulated
materials, as well as texturing concrete.
Designed with a pistol grip, this pneumatic
tool consumes 8 ft/min of air at 90 lb/in..
The model weights 9.9 lb and has a vibration level of 19.9 m/s.
CS Unitec, Inc.
www.csunitec.com
(800) 700-5919
Catalog Focuses on
Switch-Rated Plugs
WELDHUGGER
COVER GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Includes 6
nozzles, manifold,
gooseneck
assembly &
magnet
$349.95
yre
he dable!
n
Be T
Flows gas evenly

over and behind the
weld pool.
Reduces oxidation
and discolorization
Designed for trailing
shield and a variety
of other applications.
316L Stainless steel
nozzles and manifolds.
Snake Kit
Trailing
Shield Kit
Includes 6
nozzles &
straight gas flow
manifold
Simulated nozzle flow
Basic Kit
Includes 6 nozzles
& manifold
$249.95
$249.
95
LLC
Toll Free: (877) WELDHGR (877) 935-3447 Fax: (480) 940-9366

Visit our website at: www.weldhugger.com
24
JULY 2013
The companys 239-page product catalog features Decontactor Series switchrated plugs, receptacles, and connectors.
It also provides information about the
companys other plug and receptacle
product offerings, including the new
CS1000 single-pole plugs and receptacles
(up to 400 A, 600 VAC) and a wide variety of multipin devices (from 7 to 37 contacts). The switch-rated plugs and receptacles allow technicians to quickly change
out motors, welding machines, and other
electrical equipment with plug and play

simplicity.
Meltric Corp.
www.meltric.com
(800) 433-7642
GTAW Machine Offers

High-Frequency Start
The TIG 200 DC welding machine has

high-frequency Mosfet inverter technology with a high-frequency start feature
that provides an instant arc strike with no
tungsten contamination. The voltage selfsensing circuitry automatically detects a
power source range of 110 or 220 V, 50 to
60 Hz, and delivers 10 up to 200 A DC. It
welds steel as well as stainless steel up to
3
16 in. thick and includes preset post and
preflow gas, overload protection, and adjustable amperage control for panel (trigger switch) or foot pedal operation.
Eastwood Co.
www.eastwood.com
(800) 343-9353
Furnace Performs
Preheating and PWHT
No. 837 is a 1450F electrically heated

tempering furnace used for preheating
WELDING JOURNAL
25
Manufacturin
Manufacturing
uring
Flux Cored
Welding
elding Wire
W
COBALT
LT
NICKEL
prior to welding and various postweld heat

treatments (PWHT). Workspace dimensions measure 60 60 60 in. Heat to the
load is provided by 180-kW nickel-chrome
wire coils supported by a stainless steel
framework. The unit includes a rear wallmounted, heat-resisting alloy recirculating fan, powered by a 25-hp motor with
V-belt drive and water-cooled bearings. It
features an air-operated vertical lift door
and safety/control components, including
a programming and recording temperature recorder, SCR power controller,
manual reset excess temperature controller with separate contactors, and a recirculating blower airflow safety switch.
The Grieve Corp.
www.grievecorp.com
(847) 546-8225
Cooling Vests Come in

Eight Different Models
bility. The Vortex cooling or heating vest

may be adjusted to provide warm or cool
air; the flame-retardant, low-profile cooling vest may be connected to any clean
compressed-air source and worn under
protective clothing. The Standard vest for
cooling inserts is useful to wear under
HazMat suits, and the Standard and Economy Poncho cooling vests may be soaked
in cold water to provide all-day comfort.
The vests are durable, breathable, lightweight, and available in a variety of safety
colors. Other products include cool offs,
doo rags, and bandanas.
Allegro Industries
www.allegrosafety.com
(800) 622-3530
Catalog Includes
Extensometers
HARDFACE
E
STAINLESS
TAINLESS
ALLOY
Y STEEL
EEL
TOOL STEEL
STEE
EEL
MAINTENANCE
MAINTENAN
CE
FORGE ALLO
ALLOYS
OYS
The companys line of cooling products includes eight different models of

cooling vests that offer on-the-job flexi-
The companys 6th edition materials

testing accessories catalog details, in full
continued on page 93
CUSTOM ALLOYS
OYS
COR-MET,, INC.
COR-MET,
12500 Grand
and River Rd.
Brighton, MI 481
48116
116
800-848-2719
PH: 800
-848-27
719
810-227-9266
FAX: 810
FA
-227-9266
www.cor-met.com
www.cor
ww -met.com
t.com
sales@cor-met.com
sales@cor
-met.co
t.com
26
JULY 2013
If you wish to view the worlds

best weld process for code
quality and alloy welds,
visit www.tiptigusa.com
Inverters Improve Control

for AC Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Inverter technology in GTAW applications has
evolved to offer a costeffective, easytouse,
hightech answer that has broad appeal
nverter technology for alternating current (AC) gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) has traditionally been
thought of as expensive, complicated,
and even problematic. Recent advances
in switching devices, microchips, and
tungsten technology have changed the
playing field, making inverter technology
for AC GTAW applications more affordable and accessible, offering a high-tech
welding solution to a broader range of
users from the average welder to any size
of industrial fabrication shop.
The Early Days of AC

GTAW
For a better understanding of inverters and the benefits they offer, its important to reflect on the early days of AC
GTAW.
During GTAWs development in the
early 1940s, it was discovered that AC reverse polarity could remove the tenacious
oxide layer from aluminum, making it
easier to weld. Alternating current
GTAW employed simple transformer
technology that utilized 60-Hz incoming
Fig. 1 Inverter power supplies make

welding frequencies of upward of 200 Hz
available, providing more control of the
AC waveform. As the frequency is in
creased, the arc column becomes more
concentrated. This allows the welder to
put in smaller beads. With a more con
centrated arc, the cleaning side of the
cycle is also better concentrated, produc
ing a narrower oxide etch zone.
28
JULY 2013
sine wave power to generate an arc suitable for the process. This consisted of a
heavy transformer to supply the proper
power and an equally heavy magnetic amplifier as a means of output control.
A drawback to using AC sine wave
power was the long time period at low
current as the current changed polarity.
High frequency (HF) was required to
BY ROBERT L. BITZKY
AND JEFF GARRAUX
ROBERT L. BITZKY (bbitzky@esab.com) is
manager, Training & Process Center, and
JEFF GARRAUX (jgarraux@esab.com) is
process & training welding engineer, ESAB
Welding & Cutting Products, Florence, S.C.
help ensure reignition of the arc during

the alternation of the current flow. If the
arc didnt reignite, typically on the electrode positive half cycle, rectification occurred and cleaning action was lost.
It was a constant fight to try to keep
the polarity balanced to ensure sufficient
cleaning action on the aluminum surface.
This balanced polarity caused the tip of
Fig. 2 The higher balance control and frequency

provided by modern inverterbased systems allows
the welder to tune the arc from traditional square
wave to a concentrated arc in AC, rivaling DC arc char
acteristics. This helps the welder maintain a very sta
ble and concentrated arc to produce small, highqual
ity welds not achievable with older style equipment.
the tungsten electrode to form a molten

ball and the arc to be quite broad. As a
secondary detriment, the rectification
sometimes caused the tungsten to actually spit a small piece of the molten material into the weld pool. Moreover, the
characteristic of the magnetic devices
caused a further distortion (deterioration) in the sine wave, making this a lessthan-perfect process.
It was obvious the sine wave process
was not the answer. Faster switching
through the current reversal offered a
better solution. The square wave era
(circa late 1970s) introduced fast switching, which helped lessen many of the arc
issues of balance and rectification, but
the welding machines remained very
heavy and not very power efficient.
Better Frequency and

Balance
While the introduction of square wave
technology offered better control of the
polarity balance compared to sine wave
technology, this technology was limited
to approximately 75% direct current

electrode negative (DCEN) and 25% direct current electrode positive (DCEP),
allowing less time on the DCEP side of
the cycle and reducing the overall heating of the tungsten.
What was needed was faster switching and technology that was more efficient and weighed less. This came to pass
with the era of inverter technology.
The advent of inverter power supplies
made welding frequencies of upward of
200 Hz available Fig. 1. The increase
in frequency provides greater control of
the AC waveform. As the frequency is increased, the arc column becomes more
concentrated. This allows the welder to
put in smaller beads. With a more concentrated arc, the cleaning side of the
cycle is also better concentrated, producing a narrower oxide etch zone. In addition to a more concentrated arc, the capabilities for pulsing are also greatly
increased.
Inverter power supplies through the
nature of their design introduced superior electronics. These advanced electronics allow for increased balance con-
trol with balance adjustable up to 90%

DCEN and 10% DCEP. Increasing the
balance control permits a greater control
over the arc. Balance above 75% DCEN
minimizes overheating of the electrode.
This allows the welder to prepare and
maintain a pointed electrode. A pointed
electrode allows for a more concentrated
arc and the ability and convenience to
switch from an AC to a DC process without changing the electrode.
The advanced electronics used in inverter technology also provide a much
more stable arc without the need for continuous HF. In these systems, HF is only
used to initiate the arc and is turned off
for the duration of the weld. This reduces
electrical interference with the machine
and other electronics in the vicinity of
the power source.
Advanced electronics and increased
balance control and frequency directly
impact overall weld performance and
combined offer greater benefits. Higher
balance control and frequency found in
modern inverter-based systems allow the
welder to tune the arc from traditional
square wave up to a concentrated arc in
WELDING JOURNAL
29
Fig. 3 Inverter technology eliminates

the need to use two types of tungsten
electrodes. Inverter power sources use
rare earth elements such as lanthanum
and cerium alloyed with tungsten. With
these newer tungstens, welders can use
the same tungsten type for AC and DC.
AC that rivals DC arc characteristics

Fig. 2. This helps the welder maintain a
stable, concentrated arc for some of
the smallest, highest-quality welds that
are not achievable with older style
equipment.
A Superior Solution
There are several other areas in which
modern inverter-based welding systems
offer the welder advantages:
Tungsten selection: Inverter technology provides the added benefit of sharpened tungsten during AC welding and the
ability to switch back and forth from AC
to DC without changing the tungsten.
What tungsten should be used? Conventional systems instructed welders to use
pure tungsten (green) for AC and thoriated tungsten (red) for DC. Inverter
technology eliminates the requirement
to use two types of tungsten electrodes.
In fact, inverter power sources have
ushered in a new age of tungsten with the
use of rare earth elements like lanthanum
and cerium alloyed with tungsten Fig.
3. Other special alloys have also been
added to the list of tungsten sources.
With these newer tungstens, welders can
use the same tungsten type for AC and
DC. This allows the user to carry a single type of tungsten, which reduces operating costs as well as confusion as to
which type of tungsten to select for AC
vs. DC welding.
Energy savings: The superior arc control that inverters supply should be reason enough to make the switch from
older style equipment, but inverter-based
welding machines have more to offer.
Compared to older style welding machinery, inverters are much more energy efficient; so much so that they typically use
only half of the input amperage of older
systems. This amounts to significant savings in electricity, which directly reduces
operating costs and increases the users
return on investment.
Lower power consumption also makes
these machines suitable for smaller shops
that do not have high-amperage service.
Typical input amperage available in a
30
JULY 2013
smaller shop or house is about 50 A.

Older style welding machines draw an average of 100 A on the input, making them
unsuitable for such environments. Newer
inverter machines at the same rated outputs draw less than 40 A, well within the
available service in these locations.
In addition, for field applications, inverter-based machines can be operated
using smaller generators than older welding equipment can.
Ability to run on three-phase power:
Prior to the introduction of inverter technology, AC GTAW required the use of
single-phase power. In most industrial
applications, three-phase power is available and large single-phase loads tend to
cause unbalanced line currents in the
three-phase supply lines. This further degrades efficiency and can disturb the operation of sensitive equipment.
Lower cost of acquisition: While many
industrial fabricators assume that inverter-based welding systems featuring
high-end electronics and high-speed
switching devices come at a high price
tag, the opposite is true.
Typically, transformers are composed
of copper and iron, and the larger the
transformer, the higher the price tag of
the equipment. Inverters employ transformers that are typically only one-sixth
the weight of traditional machines. Significantly smaller transformers, like
those used on inverter-based welding systems, mean greatly reducing manufacturing cost. This in turn makes inverterbased equipment less expensive to manufacture than traditional machines and
a more cost-effective investment.
Improved portability: The smaller

transformer used on an inverter-based
system reduces the overall weight and
size of the machine, which improves the
systems portability. A reduced machine
footprint saves on valuable floor space
and makes the unit easily transportable
for field work.
Increased program storage: Modern
inverter-based welding machines also
feature increased program storage with
some systems offering up to 60 parameter sets. Built-in program storage reduces
operator input and ensures a quick, consistent setup and exact processing conditions to achieve repeatable weld quality
and high productivity no matter the
welders skill level.
Changing the Rules

Modern inverter-based welding systems are changing the rules of traditional
AC gas tungsten arc welding, providing
better control over the AC arc, more programmability, longer electrode life, and
greater ease of use than old-style welding systems. Inverter technology addresses the need of every welder to control the arc and heat, and to have flexibility in the welding process.
From small job shops welding a variety of short- to medium-run jobs to large
oil refineries welding miles of pipeline,
inverter technology for AC GTAW has
evolved to offer greater functionality at
a lower cost of acquisition, putting a hightech welding solution within the reach of
a broader range of welders.
A New Development in Aluminum

Welding Wire: Alloy 4943
BY TONY ANDERSON
A new aluminum filler metal for wrought

commercial applications offers higher strength
TONY ANDERSON
(tony.anderson@millerwelds.com) is
director of Aluminum Technology, ITW
Welding North America, Appleton, Wis.
lloy 4943 is the first aluminum

filler metal in 50 years to be developed in the USA for wrought
commercial applications and to receive
an Aluminum Association Registered International Designation (the last being
4643, which was registered with the Aluminum Association in 1963 and then later
added to the AWS A5.10 specification in
1988). The 4943 aluminum filler metal
has recently received the AWS A5.10
classifications of ER4943 and R4943,
along with an ASME filler metal material group allocation of F23 (the same F
number as 4043 and 4643) and CWB and
ABS approvals.
The new 4943 filler metal was designed primarily to provide a consistently
high-strength alternative to filler metal
4043 while maintaining the ease of welding and other advantages of 4043, and
also to provide higher postweld heattreated strength when compared to 4643.
To fully appreciate the technological
merits associated with this new filler
metal, it is necessary to understand the
history associated with the 4xxx series silicon-based filler metals, how base metal
and filler metal chemical compositions
combine and influence weld strength,
and the metallurgy of aluminum-silicon
filler metals.
The History of Aluminum

Silicon Filler Metals
Brazing
Starting in the 1930s, the brazing
process was adapted to aluminum joining on a commercial scale. The brazing
filler metals have liquidus temperatures
above 800F but below the melting temperature of the base metal. During the
brazing process, typically no base metal
melting occurs and, consequently, there
is no dilution of base metal and filler
metal.
During this period, Alcoa developed
two basic silicon-based brazing alloys
Table 1 Two Early Silicon-Based Brazing Alloys

AWS/ASTM
Class
Aluminum Association
Designation
%Si
Range
%Mg
Max.
Melting Range
F
BAlSi-1
BAlSi-4
4043
4047
4.56.0
11.513.0
0.05
0.10
10701165
10701080
32
JULY 2013
(Table 1). These silicon alloys are still

used for the successful brazing of
aluminum.
Arc Welding
Arc welding of aluminum began on a
commercial basis in the early 1940s with
the introduction of the gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) process followed by the
gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process.
Unlike in brazing, the arc welding
processes melt the metal under the arc,
both filler metal and base metal, followed
by solidification of the weld bead. For
this reason, most arc weld beads have a
rapidly solidified cast structure that is
comprised of both filler metal and base
metal. As the arc welding process was developed for aluminum, filler metals were
developed for welding the various types
of aluminum base metals. Unlike steel
welding, for reasons associated with weld
integrity and strength, filler metals with
significantly different chemical compositions than that of the base metal are often
used when arc welding aluminum. When
arc welding with the 4043 filler metal,
particularly on the 6xxx series base metals, it is important to recognize that the
completed weld bead chemical composition, resultant weld integrity, and mechanical properties are dependent on the
mixture of the base and filler metals in
the weld bead.
Effect of Porosity on Tensile Strength
How base metal and filler metal

chemical compositions combine and influence weld strength when using 4043
filler metal.
The strength of a weld made with filler
metal 4043, which has no other strengthening additives other than silicon, is often
dependent on dilution with the base
metal. Weld beads (that are a mixture of
filler metal and base metal) can acquire
small amounts of magnesium from the
6xxx series base metals. The addition of
magnesium to the 4043 filler metal, obtained from dilution of the base metal,
combines with the silicon in the 4043 and
produces magnesium-silicide (Mg2Si), an
effective strengthening precipitate. One
problem associated with this method of
weld bead strengthening is its unpredictability. When arc welding the 6xxx series aluminum base metals with the 4043
silicon-based filler metal, there are many
situations in which the dilution ratio between base metal and filler metal can
fluctuate and influence the strength of
the completed weld. The probability of
producing weld metal with consistent mechanical properties is further diminished
when we consider the variations in base
metal/weld metal dilution ratios associated with various weld joint designs,
welding procedures used, and material
thicknesses welded.
There are situations where it becomes
difficult to ensure dilution from a base
metal in order to modify the filler metal
chemistry and improve the strength of
the deposited weld. Two very good examples of these types of applications are
when welding thick or thin base material.
When welding thick material, it is possible to produce a section within a multipass weld that is significantly removed
from the base metal material so that lit-
Fig. 1 Effect of porosity on tensile strength. The effect of

porosity on the tensile strength of welds made with 4043 and
4943 filler metal in comparison with the design allowable
limit for 6061-T6 base (24 ksi) is shown.
tle, if any, base metal chemistry is transferred into the weld filler metal. When
welding thin material, it is often necessary to design welding procedures to provide absolute minimum penetration into
the base metal in an attempt to prevent
melt-through and distortion problems.
In both cases, we would expect to see
weld beads comprised of large amounts
of filler metal and very little base metal
dilution, with corresponding reductions
in strength.
Most filler metal alloys contain all the
alloying elements necessary to meet the
physical and mechanical property requirements of a base metal and filler
metal combination without the need for
base metal chemistry dilution. AWS
A5.10/A5.10M:2012, Welding Consumables Wire Electrodes, Wires and Rods
for Welding of Aluminum and AluminumAlloys Classification, lists all filler
metal classifications for both aluminum
GMAW and GTAW joining methods. All
of the listed filler metal alloys have been
specifically developed for arc welding except Alloys 4043, 4047, and 4145. These
three filler metals were originally developed as brazing alloys.
One development related to this dilution phenomenon was the introduction
of filler Alloy 4643 in the early 1960s.
Alloy 4643 was introduced to address the
specific challenge of obtaining sufficient
dilution from base Alloy 6061 and to
meet mechanical property requirements
when using filler Alloy 4043 in the postweld heat-treated and aged condition.
Alloy 4643 was designed by Alcoa to be
a blend of 80% 4043 and 20% 6061 chemistry in the filler metal. However, filler
metal 4643 still requires some dilution
from the base alloy (approximately 20%)
for postweld heat-treat and aging appli-
cations in order to obtain optimum mechanical properties.

Filler metal 4643, as compared to
4043, has reduced silicon content, which
increases the hot cracking sensitivity,
lowers the fluidity of the molten metal
and the ability for bead contour control
that can significantly impact the strength
and fatigue life of the weld. Also, lower
free-silicon content negatively impacts
strength. As a result, 4643 properties can
typically only achieve 90% of the base
metal 6061-T6 properties when in
the postweld heat-treated and aged
condition.
Development of
Filler Metal 4943
Filler metal 4943 has been developed
specifically for arc welding processes and
to be used for welding wrought aluminum
base alloys. It was developed with the objective of providing a consistently higher
tensile, yield, and shear strength alternative to 4043 and 4643 while maintaining
the same proven welding characteristics
of 4043. The 4043 filler metal is a popular aluminum/silicon filler alloy for general-purpose welding applications. However, it has lower strength when compared to the 5xxx series filler metals, and
can show significant variability in
strength based on welding conditions and
the level of base metal dilution obtained
during welding, as described previously.
The 4943 filler metal has been formulated to be welded with similar weld procedure specifications as 4043, provide improved strength, and address variability
in strength issues associated with 4043.
While improving weld strength, 4943 will
also maintain the same excellent corro-
WELDING JOURNAL
33
sion characteristics, low melting temperature, low shrinkage rate, higher fluidity,
and low hot-cracking sensitivity as the
4043 filler metal, and also exhibit low
welding smut and discoloration. In addition to consistently higher as-welded
strength, the new 4943 filler metal is also
heat treatable and has demonstrated its
improved strength characteristics in the
postweld solution heat-treated and artificially aged condition when compared
to the currently used heat-treatable filler
Alloy 4643 (which has been generally
employed for welding the 6xxx series
base materials that are postweld heattreated).
Shear Strength 4943
Strength Benefits
Groove Welds
In complete-joint-penetration groove
weld applications, the as-welded strength
of 4043 without dilution is typically adequate to support the 24 ksi minimum
transverse tensile strength requirement
of 6061-T6, which is set as a result of the
depleted strength of the base material
heat-affected zone (HAZ). However, the
lower strength weld produced by 4043
leaves less room for discontinuities
(porosity, for example) in a weld before
the weld drops to below the acceptance
strength level Fig. 1. Although 4943
will provide improved strength in groove
welds, this is not its principal intended
benefit. The principal benefit of 4943 is
to provide higher-strength fillet welds.
Fillet Weld Strength

The most important benefit of 4943 is
to provide consistently higher-strength
fillet welds. There are far more fillet
welds than groove welds used in struc-
Fig. 2 Filler metal shear strength comparison chart shows the positioning of 4943 filler metal based on fillet weld shear strength.
tural welded components; of all aluminum welds in industry, approximately

80% are fillet welds. Fillet welds, by design, are partial penetration joints that
are assumed to have minimal base metal
dilution. Unlike complete-joint-penetration groove weld transverse tensile
strength, which is controlled by the base
metal HAZ, fillet weld shear strength is
directly controlled by the strength of the
filler metal used during welding.
Tests comparing 4043 to 4943 have
shown 4943 to have an ultimate tensile
strength that is conservatively 20%
higher than 4043. One potential benefit
of this increase in weld strength may be
the opportunity for a manufacturer to decrease the size of fillet welds while maintaining the same strength. This may provide potential savings to a manufacturer
from the reduced amount of weld wire
needed to be purchased for a project, and
also, in the labor cost that could be reduced from the time saved by making
smaller welds (increased productivity).
One other side benefit to smaller welds,
which is often important, is reduced distortion. With the increased strength of
4943 over 4043, it is quite plausible to
consider a one-pass fillet weld made with
4943 having the same strength as a threepass weld made with 4043. Figure 2 shows
the relative shear strengths of 4043, 4643,
4943, and 5356.
As-Welded, Postweld Aged,

and Postweld Heat-Treated
and Aged Properties
Alloy 4943 has been evaluated alongside Alloys 4043 and 4643. The evaluation was performed using various weld
joint designs welded in accordance with
AWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code
Aluminum. Tensile test specimens were
taken in the longitudinal direction in the
all-weld-metal region, and were tensile
tested per ASTM B557. A number of
tests were performed using fairly wide
joints with Alloy 1100 base plates to prevent any favorable base metal dilution.
Fig. 3 All-weld-metal/all-filler-metal
longitudinal tensile strength of 4043,
4643, and 4943 in the as-welded, postweld artificially aged, and solution heattreated and artificially aged to -t6 temper.
34
JULY 2013
This is important so as to recreate the

little to no dilution conditions obtained
on many thick welds, on very thin joints
where heat input has to be limited, and,
more frequently, on fillet welds in the
field. Figure 3 summarizes the results.
Note: The data in Fig. 3 represent a
25% gain observed on ultimate tensile
strength and a 50% gain on tensile yield
strength for 4943 over 4043 in the aswelded condition. All welds were completed using the same welding procedure
and with the GMAW process. Consideration should be given to the fact that 28
ksi tensile strength for an all-weld-metal
4043 test is achieved in these samples
tested using the GMAW process with a
reasonably low heat input. Any substantial increase in heat input and associated
slow cooling rate, such as with GTAW,
may have the potential to reduce the 4043
weld metal tensile strength to below the
minimum design allowable strength.
How the Filler Metal

Provides Higher Strength
Alloy Design
The 4943 alloy was designed around
two principal ideas. The first was the addition of a strengthening element in
this case magnesium, which combines
with the available silicon in the filler
metal to form Mg 2Si, an effective
strengthening phase as demonstrated in
6XXX series alloys. The range of the
magnesium addition was set at 0.1 to
0.5% to achieve a specific amount of
Mg 2Si precipitation while staying away
from the crack sensitivity peak.
The second idea was to adjust the 4943
silicon range to 5.06.0% to ensure the
level of free silicon is maintained at the
same level as 4043, typically 4.56.0%,
knowing that up to 0.5% silicon will precipitate as Mg 2Si phase. Keeping the
amount of free silicon to the level of 4043
is essential in maintaining fluidity characteristics and resistance to hot cracking
during solidification. This also has a beneficial effect on strength and allows designing for fracture toughness and fatigue performance similar to Alloy 4043
with higher fatigue strength proportional
to the increase in tensile strength.
Metallurgy of AluminumSilicon Alloys

Silicon is one of the most common alloying elements in commercial alu-
Although 4943 will provide

improved strength in groove
welds... the principal benefit
is to provide higher-strength
fillet welds.
minum. Silicons benefits of increasing
fluidity, reducing solidification temperature and solid-state shrinkage, reducing
welding distortion, strengthening, wear
resistance, etc., are taken advantage of
in many markets and applications such
as castings, wrought products, and welding rods and electrodes.
The effect of the silicon on strength
is significant. A small percentage of the
silicon addition contributes to strength
via solid-solution strengthening and a
small percentage via silicon-phase precipitation, but most of the strengthening
comes from the rather large hard and
brittle silicon particles. The strength of
the alloy is proportional to the silicon
content up to a range of 12 to 14% (dependent on the silicon constituent morphology), up to a point where the morphology and distribution of silicon
precipitates offsets the effect of more
additions.
Currently, the main Al-Si filler metal
in terms of volume usage is 4043, with a
range of 4.56.0% silicon. This alloy offers very good resistance to hot cracking
while maintaining practical levels of fracture toughness, fatigue, strength, and
ease of manufacturing. The hot cracking
performance is a result of the alloys high
fluidity, lower melting temperature, and
reduced shrinkage rate obtained from
the silicon content. It is easy to weld with
and produces smooth, great looking
welds.
Alloy 4047 is the second most commonly used 4xxx series filler metal, with
12% silicon. The increased fluidity of
4047 makes it suitable for applications
requiring superior leak proofing, such as
heat exchangers. The improved fluidity
comes at a cost, as fracture toughness and
ductility are negatively impacted by the
higher silicon content. Alloys with silicon content greater than 12% are common in the foundry industry but not in
the wrought or weld wire product forms

as the very high silicon content makes
these alloys extremely difficult for hot or
cold working.
Alloys 4643 (developed in the 1960s
by Alcoa) and 4943 (recently developed
by Maxal-Hobart/ITW) take advantage
of magnesium additions to increase the
strength of the soft matrix, in addition to
all of the above strengthening means
from the silicon. The magnesium combines with the free silicon to precipitate
as Mg2Si. The Mg2Si precipitates are very
effective at strengthening the matrix.
Alloy 4043 takes advantage of this to a
lesser extent when it is welded to a base
metal that contains magnesium, as some
magnesium from the base metal is diluted
into the fusion zone. In this case, the
welding practice and the type of weld
have a significant impact on the amount
of dilution. Alloy 4043 fillet welds and
very thin/thick welds are especially susceptible to variations in the degree of dilution, resulting in variations in weld
strength. The smaller strength variation
for 4943 is because the magnesium is already in the alloy and not dependent
solely on base metal dilution diffusion.
Intended Use
Filler metal 4943 is suitable for all applications currently using Alloys 4043 or
4643. These applications typically use
1xxx, 3xxx, and 5xxx alloys with less than
2.5% magnesium (such as 5052), and 6xxx
series base metals. Filler metal 4943 may
be useful for applications such as automotive and motorcycle frames, wheels,
ship decks, pleasure boats, bicycles,
scooters, 356 casting repair, and high end
ladders.
The 4943 filler metal has demonstrated higher weld strength than Alloys
4043 and 4643 in the as-welded, postweld
aged, or postweld solution heat-treated
WELDING JOURNAL
35
and artificially aged conditions. The 4943

filler metal will exceed the strength of
6061-T6 base metal upon postweld heat
treatment and aging.
Conclusion
Aluminum-silicon alloys of the 4xxx
series are widely used in GMAW and
GTAW because of their excellent welding characteristics, fluidity, reduced
shrinkage distortion, and resistance to
hot cracking. The moderate and variable
strength of 4043 can be improved via
magnesium additions to the filler alloy
itself, and this was achieved to some extent with Alloy 4643. The magnesium addition was optimized with a silicon addition in Alloy 4943 for improved characteristics relating to strength, fluidity,
shrinkage, and hot cracking resistance.
Tests have shown that when using filler
metal 4043 for complete-joint-penetration groove welds, we can come very close
to the minimum design strength allowable for 6061 base metal and that this
concern becomes far less significant if we
use the higher strength 4943 filler metal.
However, the principal advantage of
the 4943 filler metal over 4043 would appear to be when used for fillet welds. In
the fillet weld application, there is a distinct opportunity for improving weld
strength, reducing welding costs, and improving productivity. Welds made using
the new filler metal 4943 can exhibit substantial improvements in strength when
compared with 4043 and/or 4643 filler
metals in both the as-welded and postweld heat-treated conditions.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank
Matthew Stephens, mechanical engineer,
Goddard Space Flight Center, for providing test results and feedback of comparison tests for the 4943 filler metal
used on the James Webb Space Telescope
Project; and the following contributors
from Maxal International: Bruce Anderson, research and development consultant, for the design and development of
4943 filler metal and all the technical support during the extensive testing program; Patrick Berube, QA manager/metallurgical engineer, for designing test
programs, technical support, and preparing test data; and Galen White, senior
welding engineer, for producing and testing many weld samples during many
months of extensive testing of the 4943
filler metal.
36
JULY 2013
NASA Chooses Filler Metal 4943 for the

James Webb Space Telescope Project
During development and testing of this new filler metal, a number of aluminum
fabricators evaluated its performance, but perhaps the most interesting and comprehensive series of tests was conducted at the Goddard Space Flight Center for the
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) project.
The James Webb Space Telescope will be the scientific successor to Hubble; its
science goals were motivated by results from Hubble. The telescope, scheduled for
launch in 2018, will go beyond what Hubble has already done by looking at light
with longer wavelengths (infrared). This ability will allow it to see light from more
distant objects whose visible light is degraded over the vast distance of space from
ultraviolet and optical into near-infrared. To optically see these vast distances a
larger mirror is required. The JWST primary mirror is 6.5 m wide, which is about
seven times the collecting area of Hubbles 2.4-m-wide primary mirror Fig. 4.
To support such a large mirror, JWST itself is a massive engineering feat. This
project includes a sun shield almost as big as a Boeing 737 to protect the heat-sensitive telescope from our own suns radiation.
The science that JWST will explore goes farther and deeper into our knowledge
of the universe than ever before by having the capability to study the assembly galaxies, observe the birth of stars and protoplanetary systems, analyze the chemical properties of planetary systems including our own, and see the first bright objects that
formed in the early universe. All of these amazing capabilities will be achieved by
the telescopes cutting-edge cameras, which are called science instruments (SI). But
dont be fooled, these SI cameras are about as similar to your digital camera as a
Ferrari is to a moped. All four of the SIs are supported by a precision-optical frame
called the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM). Currently, the ISIM is
being prepared for integration and testing at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center
in Greenbelt, Md. One of the multiple testing operations is known as a cryovac test
in which the functionality of the ISIM is evaluated in Goddards Space Environment
Simulator (SES) where the cryogenic temperatures (18 K or 427F) and vacuum of
space are recreated.
Developing Welding Procedures to Meet Strength

Requirements
While safely supporting the ISIM during integration, performing cryovac, and
other testing was an extreme engineering challenge in itself, imposed test requirements, strength margins, and design envelopes demanded a strong, lightweight aluminum 6061 frame that was termed the SES Integration Frame (SIF) Fig. 5. Early
An artists rendering of the

James Webb Space Telescope.
(Image courtesy of NASA.)
Fig. 4 Size comparison between the Hubble and James Webb telescope mirrors.
(Photo courtesy of NASA.)
design iterations revealed that a welded

frame was needed to achieve the weight
requirement but standard welding
strength values did not achieve the design margins needed. It was learned that
the postweld aging process used in specialized industries could achieve the
strength needed. The SIF matured as a
multirolled integration and testing frame
that would support and lift the ISIM as
well as hold needed test equipment in
close proximity around it.
An in-depth development study was
completed to determine which filler
metal (4043, 4643, or 4943) would meet
the design needs. After conducting tests
to compare the new 4943 filler metal with
4043 and 4643, the test results identified
significant improvements in strength
from the 4943 filler metal over the other
filler metals tested and also established
that the 4943 weld wire would maximize
the frames performance. The SIF fabrication has been completed and is
currently in preparation for the first ISIM
cyrovac test expected to start this
summer.
Fig. 5 Imposed test requirements, strength margins, and design envelopes demanded a strong, lightweight aluminum 6061 frame.
(Photo courtesy of NASA.)
WELDING JOURNAL
37
Fig. 1 To prevent contamination, this

grinder is dedicated to the one purpose of shaping tungsten electrodes.
How to Improve
GTAW Performance
L
ike many others in 2008, welder

Mike Balboni became a statistic of
the recession. Laid off from work,
he applied his nearly 20 years of experience and numerous welding certifications for structural steel (SMAW), sheet
metal (GMAW), and general fabrication
(including aluminum GTAW) to accepting a variety of metal fabrication projects. He often took the projects that others wouldnt do.
His shop, Northeast Welding and
Coating Services (www.northeastwelding.
com), is located about 40 miles south of
Boston in Attleboro, Mass. His company
also provides media blasting, powder
coating, electrostatic powder spray, gal-
38
JULY 2013
vanizing, and thermoplastic spraying

services. Some of his recent projects include building four 20-ft-tall solar towers for a local professional sports team
in two weeks, building a massive decorative park fence project for a local municipality, hardfacing an excavator bucket,
stainless steel artwork, and construction
of a stainless steel conveyor system for a
bakery that required 80,000 12-in.-long
gas tungsten arc welds.
Today, Balboni relies on two portable
multiprocess inverters with DC outputs
for gas tungsten arc (GTA), gas metal arc
(GMA), and shielded metal arc (SMA)
welding, as well as a portable inverter
with an advanced AC/DC GTAW output
and high-frequency (HF) arc starting capabilities.

TIG (GTA) welding enabled me to
grow my business, he said. This includes thin-gauge stainless steel, process
piping, and aluminum fabrication.
Whether the work is in the field, under
an emergency vehicle, or on a tuna tower,
having a GTAW inverter with advanced
capabilities lets me take on work that I
used to have to sub-out or turn away.
So that other fabricators in his position dont have to turn away GTAW work
for lack of knowledge, Balboni recently
teamed up with Thomas Ferri, a district
manager with Victor Technologies, as
well as an AWS Certified Welding In-
An entrepreneur became competitive by

mastering the advanced functions on GTAW
power supplies for more control over his welding
of thin steel, aluminum, and stainless steel
spector (CWI) and AWS District 1 director. The following are some of their most
important tips to improve GTA welding
performance. The applications selected
for demonstration purposes include 18gauge, Type 304 stainless steel, 304 stainless steel pipe (1 14-in. diameter, Schedule 40), and 18-in. 6061 aluminum.
select a nonradioactive tungsten such as

ceriated, lathanated, or the new tri-mix
type. They offer similar performance, including easy arc starting, arc stability,
long life, and similar current capacities.
For Schedule 40 pipe, Balboni selects a
3
32-in. tungsten; for 18-gauge stainless
steel, he selects a 116-in. tungsten.
Tungsten Basics
Blunted Point
Dedicated Grinder
A grinding wheel dedicated to shaping tungsten electrodes is essential to
prevent contamination from other metals. Figure 1 shows the proper angle for
shaping.
For GTA welding without the concerns caused by radioactive thorium dust,
For AC welding of 18-in. aluminum

with an inverter-based power source,
Balboni selects a 332-in. ceriated tungsten
electrode and creates a blunted point. To
create a blunted point, he sharpens the
tungsten as he would for welding stainless or mild steel, but then puts a slight
flat spot on the end of it Fig. 2. This
provides better directional control over
BY MELISSA FRANKLIN
MELISSA FRANKLIN is a brand manager
at Victor Technologies
(www.victortechnologies.com),
St. Louis, Mo.
the arc compared to the traditional ball

used for GTAW on AC current for welding aluminum with his previous conventional AC GTA welding machine.
Gas Lens
A gas lens (Fig. 3) uses a mesh screen
to distribute the shielding gas more
evenly around the tungsten electrode, the
arc, and the weld pool. It also enables a
longer electrode extention, which helps
when welding on inside corners or other
spots with tight access.
This photo also illustrates tungsten
extention. As a general rule, the tungsten
should not extend any farther than the
measurement of the inside diameter of
the cup. For example, for the No. 8 cup
shown here, which has a 12-in. ID, the
Fig. 2 Tungsten tip properly blunted.
WELDING JOURNAL
39
Fig. 3 (Top) The screen surrounding the

tungsten electrode serves as a gasdiffusing lens.
Fig. 4 (Bottom) Balboni carefully braces
his arms and hands prior to welding.
tungsten should extend no more than 12in. That said, the gas lens does permit increasing the extension by about 50%.
Setting Gas Flow

When it comes to shielding gas flow,
more is not better. Excessive gas flow creates a swirling venturi-like effect that can
draw in atmospheric air and contaminate
the weld. For GTAW, set the gas flow between 15 and 20 ft3/min. When welding
outdoors or in drafty areas, set up wind
baffles or even a tent if necessary, but do
not increase the gas flow beyond the recommended values.
Aluminum-Only Brush
When exposed to the atmosphere,
aluminum (melting point 1221F) immediately forms aluminum oxide, which
melts at 3762F. To remove the aluminum
oxide, Balboni uses a stainless steel wire
brush dedicated to this task that is clearly
labeled Aluminum Only to prevent
cross contamination from carbon steel.
He makes sure the aluminum filler rods
are kept dry in a storage container and
not exposed to shop dust or other sources
of contamination.
Getting Started
Arc Start Options
When procedures specify a noncontact, HF arc start, operators have no
choice but to use a power source with this
option. Many of todays GTA inverters
have both HF start and Lift TIG arcstart options. With the touch method, it
is a mistake to apply the old-fashioned
scratch-start technique; scratching the
tungsten like a match poses a greater risk
of tungsten contamination.
To start the arc using Lift TIG, perform the following steps: Rest the back
edge of the cup on the workpiece, then
rock the cup forward and touch the tungsten to the workpiece. Depress the torch
switch/foot control and maintain contact
between the tungsten and the workpiece
for a one-thousand-one count to establish the circuit. Rock the cup back to cre-
40
JULY 2013
Fig. 5 Tungsten arc welding a pipe joint.
ate a small gap and ignite the arc. Once

the arc is established, move the torch to
the proper arc length, which is generally
the same or slightly less than the diameter of the tungsten. After practicing several starts, operators may find they no
longer need to rest the cup on the workpiece.
Brace Yourself
Before striking an arc, get into a comfortable position. Brace your body, then
practice the moves required for the joint
at hand. Notice how Balboni braced his
arms on the edge of the table and his
hands close to the weldment Fig. 4.
More Tacks
On material prone to warping, such
as thin-gauge stainless steel, use additional tacks. Here, the tacks are only
about 112 in. apart.
Angles
One of the larger challenges when
learning to GTA weld is maintaining the
correct angle between the torch and the
workpiece (5 to 15 deg back from the direction of travel) and the angle between
the torch and the filler rod (90 deg, or 15
deg off the workpiece) Fig. 5. Tilting
the torch too far back leads to poor
shielding gas coverage at the back of the
weld pool, inviting contamination. Too
steep of a filler rod angle may prematurely melt the filler metal. This photo
also shows the gap and bevel used to promote good penetration. Note that in a
stainless steel application, the pipe would
also be back-purged to promote weld
quality.
Head Position
In order to read the weld pool, you
have to be able to see it clearly. Position
your head to the side and/or in front of
the arc for maximum visibility Fig. 6.
A common mistake is to move the torch
when it blocks your vision, which may
then direct the energy of the arc at the
wrong spot on the joint.
Adding Filler Metal

Do not use the heat of the arc to di-
rectly melt the filler metal. It will form a

ball on the end of the rod, drop into the
molten weld pool with a splash, and reduce pool control. The preferred technique is to touch the end of the filler rod
to the leading edge of the molten pool.
The heat of the pool will melt the rod,
and capillary action will pull it into the
weld pool/joint. When moving forward,
move the torch and filler rod in harmony,
being sure to keep the end of the rod inside the flow of the shielding gas to prevent contamination.
Advanced Settings
Counting Cadence
Just like the military counts cadence
to teach new soldiers how to march in
step, beginners can use the pulsing control functions of an advanced GTAW inverter to develop a rhythm for adding
filler rod and moving forward. Generally,
1 pulse/s is a good place to start. Dab the
filler metal during the pulse of peak current and slide the torch and filler rod forward during the background current.
WELDING JOURNAL
41
Fig. 6 Head position is critical for a clear view of the weld pool.
Pulse to Reduce Heat

Stainless steel, thin-gauge metal, and
out-of-position GTA welds all benefit
from pulsed GTAW. It can reduce heat
input by 30% while maintaining good
penetration. Here are some general
guidelines for setting pulsing parameters:
Peak current: Use the traditional rule
of thumb: 1 A for every 0.001 in. of thickness, increase the current as necessary to
achieve good penetration. When using a
foot control, add 20% more amperage to
provide wiggle room at the top end.
Pulse width (technically percentage
of time at peak amperage): Between 40
and 65% works well in most applications,
using less time on thinner metals.
Pulse frequency: Start at 100 pulses/s
and adjust upward from there without
42
JULY 2013
changing any other pulsing variables.

Higher frequencies increase penetration
and narrow the bead width without increasing total heat input. Many applications benefit from a frequency of 200
pulses/s.
Background current: Start at about
one-third of the peak current, adjusting
upward to perhaps 45 or 50%, if needed.
Adjusting for Aluminum

Increasing AC frequency has the same
effect as increasing pulse frequency; it
narrows and concentrates the arc cone
to create a narrower bead and deeper
penetration while increasing travel
speed.
Following are general guidelines for
setting advanced AC controls for GTAW

of aluminum.
Current: Set as normal, using slightly
more current for fillet welds than for
butt-joint welds.
Frequency: Thinner materials and fillet welds generally benefit from a frequency of 80 to 150 Hz. For butt-joint
welds and outside corners where a wider
arc cone will help catch both plates, start
with a frequency of 80 Hz.
Set the wave balance control, or percentage of electrode positive (which provides cleaning action to remove oxides)
to electrode negative (which provides
penetration): 30% cleaning action is a
good starting point. Black, pepper-like
flakes in the weld may be an indication
of oxidized aluminum and may require
using the advanced GTAW functions, I

hardly ever GTA weld thin steel, stainless steel, or aluminum using standard
technology. The advanced functions give
me that much more control over the weld
process.
Fig. 7 Setting the frequency on a typical inverter power supply control panel.
Hold Steady
more cleaning. Before starting to weld

aluminum, its worth the time to clean it
with a stainless steel wire brush or a solvent cleaner specifically used on aluminum.
After striking the arc, wait until the
weld pool becomes shiny before beginning to add filler metal and moving forward. The shiny surface indicates the aluminum oxides have been removed.
After breaking arc, hold the torch and

filler rod in position so that the shielding gas postflow can do its job of protecting the weld, the filler metal, and extending electrode life. For this stainless application, as well as aluminum of similar
thickness (18 in. and greater), set postflow
duration between 11 and 13 s. Thicker
metals will require more time.
Understanding 4T
More Control
Everyone understands the 2T (normal) GTAW controls. If bulletin board

chatter is any indication, there is some
confusion about 4T, or latch control,
that operators use to reduce hand fatigue
on long welds, or for repeatability. When
using 4T, the power source goes through
these steps:
Press and hold trigger: Gas preflow,
arc initiation, and establishment of initial current.
Release trigger: Current upslope (a
measure of time) to the base current.
This will be the welding current set for
regular welding or the background current for pulsed welding (upon which the
power source will automatically enter the
pulse mode).
Press and hold trigger: Current downslope (a measure of time) to the crater
current. Ramping down the current helps
prevent the formation of a crater that
could promote cracking.
Release trigger: Arc terminated, gas
postflow initiated.
Advanced GTAW power sources, like

smartphones, are full of useful functions
that many people fail to use Fig. 7.
Balboni was not one of those people.
It takes a little time to learn the controls, but the setup is pretty intuitive once
you dive into it, he said. Since I started
Editors note: Two weeks after the interview for this story, Mike Balboni died in
a motorcycle accident. At the request of
his family, this article is presented in its
original version so his story of building
Northeast Welding and Coating Services
may inspire others to overcome adversity, pursue their dreams, and start a
welding business of their own.
After being laid off, Balboni was just
one guy working out of the back of his
Jeep. With hard work, he eventually grew
his business into a 2000-sq-ft shop that
created jobs for others as well.
His boundless energy helped him
meet demanding deadlines, and he drew
upon the many skills he acquired as a
Navy aircraft mechanic with certifications in electrical, pumps, mechanics,
and safety. In short, if it had hydraulics,
wheels, wiring, or needed welding, Mike
could fix it.
He started shop in an old barn, gaining welding skills from a brother-in-law
who passed on many valuable lessons
and helped him handle the tougher jobs.
Even during the depths of the recession, he grew his customer base by never
turning down work. No job was too small
or too large, and he always offered a reasonable price and excellent service. We
dont wait for someone else to solve our
problems, Balboni said during the interviews for this article, and Im not going
to let this economy knock me down. Well
figure out a way and get the job done.

WELDING JOURNAL
43
Induction Heating for

Stress Relieving
Shortens Lead Times
Fig. 1 As a manufacturer of oil and

gas production equipment (like the natural gas separator shown here), Pride of
the Hills has grown and evolved with increased production levels, locally and
nationwide.
BY JOE RYAN
An oil and gas production equipment manufacturer

uses the process to expedite schedules
ride of the Hills Manufacturing, Big

Prairie, Ohio, is largely sustained
by what is stored thousands of feet
beneath those hills: shale gas.
Set in the heart of Marcellus and
Utica Shale country, the company has
grown with the regions shale gas production boom. As a manufacturer of oil and
gas production equipment, it has grown
P
44
JULY 2013
and evolved with increased production

levels, locally and nationwide Fig. 1.
There was once a time when a good
well in the area produced 100,000 ft3 of
natural gas per day. A great shale well
now produces 60 million ft 3 per day.
Pride of the Hills has responded, moving
from smaller, low-pressure equipment to
the larger, higher-pressure systems it now
JOE RYAN is a market segment

manager for process pipe welding
with Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com),
Appleton, Wis.
takes to operate a shale gas well.

With increased production comes an
expedited demand for Pride of the Hills
products: production equipment that sits
at the well head, separates the oil, gas,
and water, and turns them into salable
products. These systems are complicated
networks of pressure vessels and highpressure piping. As the company looked
small footprint in its manufacturing

facility.
Managing High
Pressures
The gas stream comes out of a shale
gas well at between 3000 and 6000 lb of
pressure. The stream then passes through
a sand separator rated between 5000 and
6000 lb, allowing the solids to settle out
of the oil, water, and gas stream. That
stream is then depressurized, which
causes rapid cooling, dropping the temperature by as much as 150 deg. The
stream is then reheated and brought back
through the separator, removing the fluids and sending the natural gas down the
line.
Pride of the Hills also designs systems
that can take the bulk liquid remains
and turn the oil into a stable, salable
product.
Our challenges are that were dealing with high pressures, high volumes of
dirty product that we have to clean, regulate, produce safely, monitor, and put
down into a sales line into a place where
it can be used for your home or my factory or trucked off someplace, said Curt
Murray Jr., vice president of Pride of the
Hills Manufacturing and president/
founder of Grace Automation.
Adhering to Regulations
for new ways to shorten product lead

times, one focus became the stress relieving process for large pressure vessels.
The current practice involved shipping
the vessels 2 h away to an oven in Cleveland. This added significant time challenges, scheduling, and hard costs associated with trucking.
In searching for new ways to conduct
stress relieving, Pride of the Hills was introduced to induction heating, a process
that generates heat electromagnetically
in the part Fig. 2. The company was
able to take several days out of total
product development and limit these
challenges by bringing the process in
house all while taking up a relatively
Pride of the Hills products are extensively regulated due to the volatility of
the oil and gas extraction process. Piping
is typically constructed of an A/SA106
Grade B or C carbon steel, while pressure vessels are typically built of SA516
Grade 70 material. The companys work
is regulated under numerous codes from
the American Petroleum Institute (API);
B31.3 along with Section VIII Division 1
of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME); as well as the strict
requirements of each customer.
Welding the Pressure Vessel

A key component of the systems it
manufactures is the sand separator,
which is a pressure vessel that ranges in
thickness from 112 to 4 in., depending on
the model. The vessel is welded with a
root pass and two hot passes. This is done
to build up the root with enough material to support a submerged arc, or subarc, welding process that completes the
rest of the joint. The subarc process takes
approximately 8 h, as a dual-headed system welds both heads simultaneously.
Stress Relieving with

Induction Heating Cuts
out the Middleman
Under the guidelines of ASME Section VIII Division 1, any pressure vessel
exceeding 112 in. in thickness is required
to undergo postweld stress relief. Depending on the vessels thickness, this
typically involves ramping up its temperature to approximately 1150F.
When were putting four inches of
weld (into a very large gap), that puts a
lot of stresses into the weld, which puts
undue stress on the material, said Murray. So were going up to 1150 degrees,
which allows for stress relieving. Were
not baking anything out or going high
enough in temperature to change grain
structure. Were just relieving stresses
that were put into the part.
Our choices were to ship that product out to a third party that has an oven
able to do the work, said Murray. In
Northern Ohio, there are only a couple
of places that have the ability to do that.
One of the first things we started looking at was just how can we do this process
in house?
Implementing the Process

The company began looking at ovens
of their own, until they were introduced
to the Miller ProHeat 35 induction
heating system. With an induction heating system, heat is created electromagnetically in the part by placing it in an alternating magnetic field created by liquid-cooled induction heating cables. The
induction cables are wrapped around the
part, or on the part, and do not heat up
themselves, but create eddy currents inside the part that generate heat.
Were able to basically pinpoint the
heat where its needed and not waste energy heating the rest of the vessel, said
Murray. These vessels weigh anywhere
from 5000 up to 10,000 pounds. The oven
technology forces us to heat the whole
vessel where the induction heating prod-
WELDING JOURNAL
45
uct can just pinpoint that to those

areas. So we decided to buy the
product, bring it in, and start implementing it. It saved us a tremendous amount of time in just trucking and handling the product.
He added the biggest thing is
having control over their own product and the process doing the stress
relief.
With the recorder on it and the
way we set upits particularly easy
to meet the ASME code requirements. Its been a big advantage,
said Murray.
Induction heating gives Pride of
the Hills control to ramp up the
temperature as fast or as slow as
dictated by the code. Similarly,
after spending the prescribed
amount of time at its soak temperature, the system can ramp down
the temperature to code requirements. This overall process can last
5 to 12 h, depending on the thickness of the vessel.
Having that control, and being
able to document the entire process
through a digital recorder, is important to the quality control
process and, ultimately, in documenting to the customer that the
part was fabricated properly.
Our quality control department looks at it and then our authorized inspector looks at it, and
then as on all of our equipment
we send our customer an as-built
document (that includes these
data), said Murray.
Ending Thoughts
While quality is paramount, the
ability to do it all in house and not
rely on third-party vendors has
helped to noticeably shorten lead
times.
Aside from the 6 h of trucking
and handling previously associated
with getting a vessel to the oven,
Murray also took into account the
labor, diesel fuel, truck wear and
tear, and being at the mercy of the
oven owners schedule, which could
add considerable downtime to the
process.
All together, it added up to a
smart change.
We were literally able to cut at
least a couple of days (out of the
process), concluded Murray.
46
JULY 2013
Fig. 2 Pride of the Hills was able to take numerous days out of total product development,
while taking up a relatively small footprint in its manufacturing facility, by using induction
heating.
Automated Welding Applied

in Deep-Water Pipelines
A system that utilized two automated carriages
and two guns was used for gas metal arc
welding pipe to API standards
n the past few decades, interest in

deepwater oil and gas exploration has
received increased attention. China
intends to explore resources in the South
China Sea, and in order to lay oil and gas
pipelines, a variety of high-quality and efficient welding technologies have been
developed that use the gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) process, which is currently widely used in industrial applications (Ref. 1). Besides pipeline laying, automated welding also can be applied in
some other offshore operations, such as
the J-type laying in the welding installation of steel catenary risers (SCR)
(Ref. 2).
Semiautomatic welding technology
was introduced to China in laying subsea pipelines in the 1990s. Gradually,
more advanced welding technologies
were used in offshore industries (Ref. 3).
As part of a major research program supported by the Chinese government, subsea pipeline welding was investigated
(Refs. 4, 5). In this study, automatic welding equipment used in deepwater
pipeline laying was manufactured, a series of girth welds, which satisfy requirements of API STD 1104, were produced,
and a sea trial was successfully carried
out.
BY JIAO XIANG-DONG, ZHOU CAN-FENG,

CHEN JIA-QING, JI WENG-GANG,
LI ZHI-GANG, ZHAO DONG-YAN,
AND CAO JUN
Development of
Automatic Welding
Equipment
General Design of Automatic
Welding Equipment
For subsea S-type pipeline laying, several welding stations are distributed
along the main laying line to complete
the root pass, fill passes, and cap pass sequentially. As shown in Fig. 1, each welding station is comprised of two automatic
welding machines with dual welding
guns. Two welding vehicles were
arranged on both sides of the pipe, installed on the same rail, and moved from
the top of the pipe to the bottom, each

of which finished welding a half segment,
respectively.
The automatic welding vehicle depicted in Fig. 2 has two torches with a
space of about 50 mm. Two weld pools
are formed during the welding process.
Compared to single gun welding, double
gun welding can significantly increase the
metal deposition rate.
Automatic Welding Vehicle

The welding vehicle is comprised of
mechanisms locking travel, torch oscillation, and welding torch height adjustment; a chassis; and torch components.
Different from pipelines on land, sub-
Welding Vehicle
Circular Guide
Fig. 1 Schematics of equipment for

each welding station.
Fig. 2 The automatic welding vehicle.
JIAO XIANG-DONG, ZHOU CAN-FENG (canfeng@bipt.edu.cn), CHEN JIA-QING, and JI WENG-GANG are with Beijing Higher Institution
Engineering Research Center of Energy Engineering Advanced Joining Technology, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing, China.
LI ZHI-GANG, ZHAO DONG-YAN, and CAO JUN are with Offshore Oil Engineering Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China.
This article is reprinted with permission from Modern Welding, published by Chengdu ONLY Welding Industry Development Co. Ltd., Chengdu,
Sichuan Province, China.
48
JULY 2013
required by welding
movements. The integration of drive and motor
reduced the number of
connection cables in the
system. A tilt sensor installed on the vehicle
captured the welding position of the vehicle on
the rail, and transfered
welding position data to
the drive directly. The intelligent drive can finish
computation independently and transfer computation results to the
main controller via the
CAN bus. The main controller sends commands
to the welding power
Fig. 3 The block diagram of an automatic welding source, which can adaptively adjust the welding
equipment control system.
current according to
welding position.
sea pipelines have a thick concrete to in3) CAN-open bus technology. The concrease weight in the water. To ensure the
trol system utilizes a CAN-open bus,
efficiency and control the cost of laying
which reduces the connection cables and
the pipeline, the length of pipe end where
increases the expansibility of the weldthe concrete is removed must be strictly
ing system.
controlled. Thus, the size of the welding
vehicle is limited to 370 mm (length)
Welding Process
285 mm (width) 175 mm (height). The
Specification
weight of the vehicle is also controlled to
less than 16 kg, which can reduce physical labor during the pipeline laying.
4 deg groove angle, root face of 2 mm,

and no joint clearance between the two
ends. The welding wire selected was AWS
A5.18 ER70S-6 with a diameter of 1.0
mm. The shielding gas was a mix of CO2
50% + Ar 50%.
The internal clamp was used to align
the two pipe ends, which controlled alignment within tolerance. The groove and
nearby areas were preheated by induction heating before the welding process
began. Each dual gun vehicle welded a
half segment of the pipe, and a completed
joint weld was made up of one root pass,
two fill passes, and one cap pass.
The TPS4000 welding power source
has a control where if the wire feed speed
is set, then the welding current and welding voltage are automatically matched.
Half of the circumference of the pipe is
divided into 12 segments on average from
top to bottom. Adaptive welding parameters are set at different segments of the
pipe.
Welding parameters consist of welding speed, wire feed speed, and welding
gun oscillation. For example, the welding speed for the root was 109113
cm/min, the wire feed speed for the first
welding gun was 11.813 m/min, and the
wire feed speed for the second welding
gun was 1011.2 m/min. The welding gun
oscillating speed was 80110 cm/min,
with a width of 1.6 mm, and the dwelling
time on both sides was 0.1 s.
Control System Design
Performance of the Pipe

Girth Welds
The block diagram of the automated

welding control system is illustrated in
Fig. 3. An industrial PC is used as the
main controller of the system. All connections between the main controller and
peripheral devices, such as drive motors
for vehicle propulsion and welding power
source, are realized via CAN bus, which
can transfer data from the welding equipment to a supervisory computer through
the Ethernet network.
Compared to most automatic welding
control systems designed on I/O, this control system has several advantages as
follows:
1) Synchronization of two travel servo
motors. To save space for the welding vehicle, two small servo motors were selected to replace a big servo motor to
drive the vehicle on a round rail. The synchronization of the two motors was
achieved through a synchronizing control program.
2) Vehicle computation. Four drives
with high intelligence are integrated into
the vehicle to propel four servo motors
General Scheme for

Welding Efficiency
The basic requirement of welding in

subsea pipeline laying is that the efficiency be as high as possible to ensure
weld quality.
The use of two welding vehicles and
two welding guns for root, fill, and cover
passes increases welding efficiency. A set
of copper liners is specifically designed
to integrate with the internal clamp,
which gives backing support during root
welding, and allows a high current
needed for complete joint penetration to
be selected. The high current for the root
pass also improves metal deposition. A
narrow groove with the bevel angle of 45
deg is machined to replace the traditional
V-groove, which reduces weld metal
for the fill passes, increasing production
efficiency.
The pipe girth welds satisfied the requirements of API STD 1104-2005,
which includes visual, ultrasonic, and mechanical testing. The weld tensile
strength was 550570 N/mm2. After surface bending, lateral bending, and root
bending, the weld surfaces showed no visible defects. The average impact energy
was 150376 J at 20C.
Automatic Girth Welding of

Subsea Pipeline
The test pipes were API 5L X65 seamless steel pipes with an outside diameter
of 323.9 mm, wall thickness of 12.7 mm,
Fig. 4 The sea trial ship BH108.
WELDING JOURNAL
49
Fig. 5 (Left) The sea trials with automatic welding equipment installed on
BH108.
Fig. 6 (Right) Welded joints performed

during sea trials.
Test at the Construction Site

before Sea Trials
were produced and tested successfully by

ultrasonic inspection Figs. 5, 6.
The automatic welding equipment

was tested at the fabricating facility of
Offshore Oil Engineering Co., Ltd.,
before the sea trial was carried out. The
pipe girth welds passed the ultrasound
examination successfully.
Summary
Environment of Sea Trial

The sea trial for the automatic welding equipment was conducted at Tanggu,
Bohai Bay, with coordinates of 38 deg 59
min latitude and 117 deg 43 min longitude. The wind was coming from the NW
at a speed of 8 m/s. The automatic welding equipment was arranged in a temporary work shed on the sea trial ship
BH108 Fig. 4. The ship was anchored
in water at a depth of 5 m, with a flow velocity of 17 cm/s, and temperature
of 6C.
The Process for the

Sea Trials
The welding sea trials were carried out
according to the plan. Four girth welds
In this investigation, automatic

pipeline welding equipment was manufactured and welding parameters were
developed. Several conclusions are
drawn as follows:
1) The two vehicle, two gun technology utilized in the welding workstation
significantly reduces the cost of offshore
welding operations.
2) The welding vehicle was compact
and light weight, which helps meet special requirements for subsea pipeline
laying.
3) Several advanced technologies
were adopted in the control system of the
automatic welding equipment, such as
synchronization of two traveling motors,
vehicle computation, and all-position
welding.
4) The control system was designed
based on CAN-bus technology, which not
only reduces the connection cables, but
also makes the welding system more
flexible.
5) Copper liners for the root welding

50
JULY 2013
ensured good weld backing and a high

welding efficiency.
6) A specially designed narrow groove
improved welding efficiency and reduced
the amount of weld metal needed.
7) The joint was completed with a root
pass, two fill passes, and one cap pass.
Welding parameters were set depending
on the different positions of the welding
vehicle, which were measured by a tilt
sensor installed on the vehicle.
8) Pipe girth welds produced by the
dual vehicle, dual welding gun equipment
met all requirements of API STD 11042005, such as visual, ultrasonic, and mechanical performance testing.
9) After the experiment in the laboratory and before the sea trial, the automatic welding equipment was tested successfully in a fabricating plant.
10) The welding sea trials were successfully carried out in the China Sea,
and all girth welds were tested by ultrasonic inspection.
References
1. Yapp, D., and Blackman, S. A. 2004.
Recent developments in high productivity pipeline welding. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and
Engineering XXVI(1): 8997.
2. Graaf, J.van der, Wolbers, D., and
Boerkamp, P. Field experience with the
construction of large diameter SCR in
deep water. Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 17524, Houston, Tex.
3. Xiao-jun, Liu. 2003. Submarine
pipeline and welding technology in our
country. Shipbuilding of China 44: 6570.
4. Jing Xi-zhao, Cao Jun, Zhou Canfeng, et al. 2010. Study on welding procedure and equipment applied in subsea
pipeline laying. Ship and Ocean Engineering (3): 128132.
5. Zhou Can-feng, Jiao Xiang-dong,
Chen Jia-qing, et al. 2010. Design of
welding system applied in deepwater subsea pipeline laying. Welding and Joining
(7): 1620.
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COMING
EVENTS
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
Codes and Standards Conf. July 16, 17. Orlando, Fla. To include
AWS D1, Structural Welding Code Steel, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, API pipeline codes, MIL specs, and ISO standards. Sponsored by the American Welding Society (800/305)
443-9353, ext. 264; www.aws.org/conferences.
Laser Technology Days. July 24, 25. Mazak Optonics Corp., Elgin,
Ill. Seminars and demonstrations. Call (847) 252-4500. Register
at www.mazakoptonics.com/td13.html.
59th Annual UA Assn. of Journeymen and Apprentices of the
Plumbing and Pipefitting Industrys Instructor Training Program. Aug. 1117, Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor,
Mich. www.visitannarbor.org/news/detail/ann-arbor-welcomes-the59th-annual-united-association-instructor-training-p.
Intl Conf. on Solar Energy Materials and Energy Engineering
(SEMEE2013). Sept. 1, 2. Hong Kong. www.semme-conf.org.
16th Annual Aluminum Conf. Sept. 4, 5. Chicago, Ill. Sponsored

by the American Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.aws.org/conferences.
12th Intl Conf. on Application of Contemporary Non-Destructive
Testing in Engineering. Sept. 46. Grand Hotel Metropol, Portoroz, Slovenia. Sponsored by The Slovenian Society for Non-Destructive Testing. www.fs.uni-lj.si/ndt.
52
JULY 2013
LPPDE-North America. Sept. 911. Savannah, Ga. Lean Product

& Process Development Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to
lppde@leanfront.com.
Lasers for Manufacturing Event (LME 2013). Sept. 11, 12.
Schaumburg Convention Center, Schaumburg, Ill. Laser Institute
of America. www.laserevent.org; lme@lia.org.
66th IIW Annual Assembly. Sept. 1117. Essen, Germany. Organized by DVS (German Welding Society). www.dvsev.de/IIW2013/.
GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 1518. Orlando, Fla. Gases
and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.
ASM Heat Treating Society Conf. and Expo. Sept. 1618. Indiana
Convention Center, Indianapolis, Ind. www.asminternational.org/
content/Events/heattreat/.
IIW Intl Conf. on Automation in Welding. Sept. 16, 17. Essen,
Germany. www.iiw2013.com. Event in the IIW Annual Assembly.
Schweissen & Schneiden 2013 Intl Trade Fair Joining, Cutting,
Surfacing. Sept. 1621. Essen, Germany. Sponsored by DVS, German Welding Society. www.schweissenuschneiden.de/en/schweissen_schneiden/index.html.
9th Annual Northeast Shingo Prize Conf. Sept. 24, 25. The Resort & Conference Center at Hyannis, Hyannis, Mass.
www.neshingoprize.org.
POWER-GEN Brasil 2013, HydroVision Brasil, and DistribuTech
Brasil. Sept. 2426. Transamerica Center, So Paulo, Brazil.
www.power-gen.com.
Canadian Manufacturing Technology Show (CMTS) 2013. Sept.
30Oct. 3. The International Centre, 6900 Airport Rd., Mississauga, Canada. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (888) 3227333, ext. 4426; www.cmts.ca.
Brazil Welding Show 2013. Oct. 14. So Paulo, Brazil. Sponsored
by DVS, German Welding Society. www.brazil-welding-show.com/.
National Manufacturing Day. Oct. 4. Events held nationwide.
Sponsored by Fabricators & Manufacturers Assn. To find events
planned near you, visit www.mfgday.com for interactive map.
ICALEO Intl Congress on Applications of Lasers & ElectroOptics. Oct. 610, Hyatt Regendy Miami Resort, Miami, Fla.
www.lia.org/conferences/icaleo.
The Intl WorkBoat Show. Oct. 911, Morial Convention Center,
New Orleans, La. www.workboatshow.com.
WESTEC. Oct. 1517. Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 7334763; www.westeconline.com.
Canadian Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 2125, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.ciacmontreal.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
53
12th Inalco Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21, 22, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.inalco2013.com.
FFA Annual Convention. Oct. 30Nov. 3, Kentucky Exposition
Center, Louisville, Ky. Future Farmers of America.
www.ffa.org/Pages/default.aspx.
ASNT Fall Conf. and Quality Testing Show 2013. Nov. 47, Rio
Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing. www.asnt.org.
POWER-GEN Intl Event. Nov. 1214, Orange County Convention Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com/event-info.html.
FABTECH 2013. Nov. 1821, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.

This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
5th Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surfaces.
Nov. 19. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by Intl Thermal Spray Assn., an AWS Standing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012, 2014,

Pragati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by
AWS, FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
Educational Opportunities
Fundamentals of Welding Engineering. Aug. 59, EWI,
Columbus, Ohio. www.ewi.org/events; education@ewi.org.
Laser Welding and Equipment Fundamentals. Sept. 19, EWI,
Aluminum Welding Technology School. Oct. 13, AlcoTec,
Traverse City, Mich. For brochure and to register, visit
www.alcotec.com/us/en/education/Training-Alcotec.cfm.
Brazing School Fundamentals to Advanced Concepts. Oct.
2224 (Greenville, S.C.); Nov. 1921 (Simsbury, Conn.).
www.kaybrazing.com/seminars.htm; dan@kaybrazing.com; (860)
651-5595.
CWI Preparation Courses. Aug. 1923, Nov. 1115. D1.1
Endorsement: Aug. 23, Nov. 15; D1.5 Endorsement: Aug. 16; API
Endorsement: Nov. 8. All courses and endorsements held at
Welder Training & Testing Institute, 1144 N. Graham St.,
Allentown, Pa. www.wtti.com; (610) 820-9551, ext. 204.
Fundamentals of Welding Engineering. Aug. 59, EWI,
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. Aug. 15, 16,
Chantilly, Va.; Oct. 17, 18, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Lyncole XIT
Grounding, www.lyncole.com/courses; education@lyncole.com.
Introduction to Friction Stir Welding. Nov. 6, EWI, Columbus,
Ohio. www.ewi.org/events; education@ewi.org.
Laser Vision Seminars. Aug. 28, 29; Oct. 2, 3; Nov. 6, 7; Dec. 4,
5. Servo-Robot, Inc. www.servorobot.com.
Laser Welding and Equipment Fundamentals. Sept. 19, EWI,
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, failure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Best Practices for High-Strength Steel Repairs. I-CAR courses
for vehicle repair and steel structural technicians. www.i-car.com.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; (614) 888-8320; www.nationalboard.org.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group, www.cwbgroup.org.
54
JULY 2013
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Chicago, IL
Aug. 49
Baton Rouge, LA
Aug. 49
Portland, ME
Aug. 49
Las Vegas, NV
Aug. 49
Mobile, AL
Aug. 1116
Charlotte, NC
Aug. 1116
Rochester, NY
Exam only
San Antonio, TX
Aug. 1116
Seattle, WA
Aug. 1116
San Diego, CA
Aug. 1823
Minneapolis, MN
Aug. 1823
Salt Lake City, UT
Aug. 1823
Anchorage, AK
Exam only
Miami, FL
Sept. 1520
Idaho Falls, ID
Sept. 1520
St. Louis, MO
Sept. 1520
Houston, TX
Sept. 1520
New Orleans, LA
Sept. 2227
Fargo, ND
Sept. 2227
Pittsburgh, PA
Sept. 2227
Indianapolis, IN
Sept. 29Oct. 4
Corpus Christi, TX
Exam only
Long Beach, CA
Oct. 611
Tulsa, OK
Oct. 611
Cedar Rapids, IA
Oct. 611
Miami, FL
Exam only
South Plainfield, NJ
Oct. 1318
Portland, OR
Oct. 1318
Nashville, TN
Oct. 1318
Atlanta, GA
Oct. 2025
Shreveport, LA
Oct. 2025
Detroit, MI
Oct. 2025
Roanoke, VA
Oct. 2025
Cleveland, OH
Oct. 27Nov. 1
Spokane, WA
Oct. 27Nov. 1
Sacramento, CA
Nov. 38
Corpus Christi, TX
Exam only
Miami, FL
Nov. 1015
Anapolis, MD
Nov. 1015
Dallas, TX
Nov. 1015
Chicago, IL
Exam only
Miami, FL
Exam only
Los Angeles, CA
Dec. 813
Orlando, FL
Dec. 813
Reno, NV
Dec. 813
Houston, TX
Dec. 813
St. Louis, MO
Exam only
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
EXAM DATE
Aug. 10
Aug. 10
Aug. 10
Aug. 10
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Aug. 24
Aug. 24
Aug. 24
Sept. 21
Sept. 21
Sept. 21
Sept. 21
Sept. 21
Sept. 28
Sept. 28
Sept. 28
Oct. 5
Oct. 12
Oct. 12
Oct. 12
Oct. 12
Oct. 17
Oct. 19
Oct. 19
Oct. 19
Oct. 26
Oct. 26
Oct. 26
Oct. 26
Nov. 2
Nov. 2
Nov. 9
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Nov. 21
Dec. 5
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Certified Welding Engineer; Senior Certified Welding

Inspector Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

(No exams given.) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet
education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be
taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Orlando, FL
Aug. 1823
Denver, CO
Sept. 1520
Dallas, TX
Oct. 611
New Orleans, LA
Oct. 27Nov. 1
Seattle, WA
Nov. 38
Miami, FL
Dec. 813
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Miami, FL
Sept. 2327
Norfolk, VA
Oct. 1418
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
EXAM DATE
Sept. 28
Oct. 19
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)

LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
EXAM DATE
Dallas, TX
Aug. 1923
Aug. 24
Chicago, IL
Sept. 2327
Sept. 28
Pittsburgh, PA
Oct. 1418
Oct. 19
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The course dates are followed by the location and phone number
Dec. 913 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
Aug. 1923, Dec. 26 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 14 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
July 1519, Oct. 2125 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Training: July 2224, Sept. 2325, Nov. 1820
Exams: July 2526, Sept. 2627, Nov. 2122 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules

Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early
to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
56
JULY 2013
CONFERENCES
Codes and Standards Conference
July 16, 17
Orlando, Fla.
For the first time, the American Welding Society is holding a
conference on Codes and Standards. The timing is right for this
long-awaited conference, based on the important changes that are
taking place throughout the broad range of codes and
standards.
Leading the group of 16 speakers will be Rich Campbell of Bechtel who will discuss the changes in both AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code Steel, and D1.6, Structural Welding Code Stainless
Steel. Thom Burns from AlcoTec will cover the activity within D1.2,
Structural Welding Code Aluminum. About half of the presentations will be on AWS codes and standards. Walt Sperkos presentation, Section IX of the ASME Code New and Improved, will be
the first of several talks concerning the ASME code, and Matt Boring will provide an update on the API 1104 Code. Paul Blomquist,
the on-site chairman of the conference, will discuss Qualification
of Hybrid Laser Arc Welding How Do We Get There. David
Bolser of the Boeing Co. will provide updates on a variety of standards, including AWS D17.3, Specification for Friction Stir Welding
of Aluminum Alloys for Aerospace Applications.
Other presentations will cover such topics as robot safety, the
Tip Tig process, standards for the newer NDE technologies, a repair document from the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, and a revision to AWS A5.32, Welding Consumables
Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Welding and Allied Processes.
16th Annual Aluminum Conference

September 17, 18
Chicago, Ill.
A distinguished panel of industry experts will survey the state of
the art in aluminum welding technology and practice. Attendees
will have several opportunities to network informally with speakers
and other participants, as well as visit an exhibition showcasing
products and services available to the aluminum welding industry.
Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of industrial applications
because of its light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion
resistance, and other attributes. However, because its chemical and
physical properties are different from those of steel, welding of aluminum requires special processes, techniques, and expertise.
Welding Dissimilar Metals Conference

November 18
FABTECH 2013, Chicago, Ill.
Trying to figure out how to weld those various combinations of
dissimilar metals has been described as weldings severest challenge. Sometimes a new or existing process will do it. Other times,
one of a handful of filler metals or even one of many transition
joints will provide the answer. Whether its stainless steel to carbon
steel or steel to aluminum, theres a solution somewhere. The conference will be guided by a hand-picked group of knowledgeable
welding metallurgists.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences
and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 223, or
e-mail ablanco@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference
Department Web site at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming
conferences and registration information.
58
JULY 2013
WELDING
WORKBOOK
Datasheet 341
Postweld Heat Treatment of Welds in Piping and Tubing

In the manufacture, field fabrication, and/or repair of piping
and tubing, it may be necessary to heat components before welding (bake-out or preheating), between passes (interpass heating),
or after welding (postheating or postweld heat treatment). Table
1 compares processes used for localized heating. This column
concentrates on local postweld heat treatment (PWHT).
Code requirements and/or concerns regarding the service environment drive the need for PWHT. Generally, so-called code
required PWHT is aimed at improving resistance to brittle fracture. To accomplish this, PWHT attempts to improve notch toughness and relax residual stress. When service requirements dictate
the need for PWHT, additional objectives such as hardness reduction and/or stress relaxation aimed to be below a specific threshold level become important, depending on the environment.
Postheating encompasses all heating performed after welding
has been stopped this can be after completion and at an intermediate point including PWHT. However, it is generally
recognized that postheating is performed at a lower temperature, generally 300600F (149316C) vs. 10001400F
(538760C) for PWHT, and with a different primary objective
than PWHT.
The primary objective of postheating is removal of hydrogen
and prevention of hydrogen-induced cracking (also known as delayed cracking since it can occur up to 48 h after the weldment
has cooled to ambient temperature).
As with postheating, PWHT may need to be applied without
allowing the temperature to drop below the minimum for preheat/interpass.
Local PWHT of carbon and low-alloy steels is typically performed below the lower critical transformation temperature and
is therefore referred to as subcritical. The lower and upper critical transformation temperatures indicate where the crystal structure of steel begins and finally completes a change from bodycentered cubic to face-centered cubic upon heating (the reverse
upon cooling).
There are several reasons why local supercritical PWHT

(above the upper critical transformation temperature) such as
annealing or normalizing is undesirable. First, the temperature
gradients inherent to local PWHT would produce subcritical, intercritical, and supercritical temperature regions. Depending on
the prior heat treatment of the material, this could result in a
detrimental effect on properties such as tensile/yield strength
and impact toughness, and/or local inhomogeneity. Also, reduced
material strength at supercritical temperatures creates a greater
likelihood of distortion. For reasons related to carbide precipitation and the need for rapid cooling, localized solution anneal of
austenitic alloys such as 300 series stainless steels is also generally undesirable.
Postweld heat treatment can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. The primary benefits of PWHT are tempering,
relaxation of residual stress, and hydrogen removal. Avoidance
of hydrogen-induced cracking, dimensional stability, and improved ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance are consequences of the primary benefits. It is important that PWHT conditions be determined based upon the desired objectives.
Excessive or inappropriate PWHT temperatures and/or long
holding times can adversely affect properties. These adverse effects can include reduced tensile strength, creep strength, and
notch toughness (generally caused by embrittlement due to precipitate formation). The influence of PWHT on properties primarily depends upon the composition of the weld metal and base
metal, and prior thermal and mechanical processing of the base
metal.
The need for PWHT is usually driven by either a direct requirement with a particular fabrication or repair code, or by service environment concerns. Within the fabrication codes, material type and thickness generally trigger the requirements to apply
PWHT. Such code-required PWHT is generally aimed at reducing susceptibility to brittle fracture.
Table 1 Comparison of Heating Processes

Attribute
Induction
Applicability to Bake-out
Yes
Applicability to Preheat/Interpass
Yes
Applicability to Postheating
Yes
Applicability to PWHT
Yes
Main Advantages
A, B
Main Disadvantages
G, H, I
Electric Resistance
Flame
Exothermic
Gas Infrared
Quartz Infrared
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
C, D
J
Limited
Yes
Limited
No
E, F
K
Very Limited
No
Very Limited
Very Limited
E, F
L, M, N
Yes
Limited
Yes
Yes
A, F
G, I, O
Yes
Limited
Yes
Yes
A, F
G, I, O, P
Key to Advantages
A = high heating rates; B = ability to heat a narrow band adjacent to a region that has temperature restrictions; C = ability to continuously maintain heat from welding operation to PWHT; D = good ability to vary heat around the circumference; E = low initial equipment cost; F = good portability and ease of setup.
Key to Disadvantages
G = high initial equipment cost; H = equipment large and less portable; I = limited ability to create control zones around the circumference; J =
elements may burn out or arc during heating; K = minimal precision, repeatability, and temperature uniformity; L = no adjustment possible once
started; M = limited ability to vary heating rate, hold time, and cooling rate; N = available systems currently limited to one weld configuration; O =
separate equipment required for each diameter; P = equipment is fragile and sensitive to rough handling.
Excerpted from D10.10/D10.10M:2009, Recommended Practices for Local Heating of Welds in Piping and Tubing.
60
JULY 2013
A 360 VIEW OF THE MOST INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESSES. FABTECH 2013.
METAL FORMING | FABRICATING | WELDING | FINISHING

FABTECH represents every step of the metal manufacturing process
from start to nish. Its where new ideas, products and technology
are highlighted through interactive exhibits, education and
networking. Compare solutions from 1,500+ exhibitors, find tools
to improve quality and productivity, and learn ways to increase prot.
REGISTER NOW for the show with a degree of difference.
November 1821, 2013 | Chicago, IL | fabtechexpo.com
North Americas Largest Metal Forming,

Fabricating, Welding and Finishing Event
Scan code to
watch video.
Follow us:
Cosponsors:
16
ANNUAL
ANN
UAL
CONFERENCE
CONF
FERENCE
September
September
4 4 5, 2013 / Chicago
A dis
distinguished panel of aluminum-industry
experts will survey the state of the art in
aluminum welding technology and practice.
The 16th Aluminum Welding
Welding Conference will
also provide several opportunities for you to
network informally with speakers and other
participants, and to visit an exhibition
showcasing products and services available to
the aluminum welding industr
industry.
y.
Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of
industrial applications because of its light
weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion
resistance, and other attributes. Howeve
However,
r,
because its chemical and physical properties
are di
different
fferent
f
from those of steel,
st
welding of
aluminum requires special processes,
techniques and expertise.
Register
Re
egister early and
a
save.
save.
Visit
www.aws.org/conferences
w.aws.org/conferences
.aws.org/confere
.
Visit ww
or
call (800) 443-9353 ext 223.
223.
SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
National and District Officers Nominated for 2014
Dean Wilson
president
David Landon
vice president
The 20122013 Nominating Committee

has announced its slate of candidates who
will stand for election to AWS national offices for the 2014 term, which begins January 1, 2014.
Nominated are the following candidates: Dean Wilson, for president; David
Landon, David McQuaid, and John Bray
for vice presidents; and W. Richard Polanin
and Robert Roth for directors-at-large.
Three vice presidents, and two directorsat-large are to be elected.
The National Nominating Committee
was chaired by Past President John Mendoza. Serving on the committee with Mendoza were John Bruskotter, Thomas Ferri,
Dale Flood, Donald Howard, J. Jones,
Thomas Lienert, Sean Moran, Robert Pali,
Neil Shannon, Robert Wilcox, Michael
Wiswesser, and Dennis Wright. Gricelda
Manalich served as secretary.
The Nominating Committees for Districts 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 20 have selected
the following candidates for election/reelection as District directors for the threeyear term Jan. 1, 2014Dec. 31, 2016. The
nominees are Harland Thompson, District
2; Carl Matricardi, District 5; D. Joshua
Burgess, District 8; Robert Wilcox, District
11; Robert Richwine, District 14; Jerry
Knapp, District 17; and Pierrette Gorman,
District 20.
Dean Wilson, currently completing his
third term as a vice president, is nominated
for president. Currently, he is vice president of Well-Dean Enterprises and earlier
served as vice president of welding business
development at Jackson Safety Products
and president, CEO, and owner of Wilson
Industries, Inc.
David McQuaid
vice president
John Bray
vice president
David Landon is nominated to serve a

third term as a vice president. Currently,
he is manager of welding engineering and
missions support at Vermeer Mfg. Co. and
an AWS Senior Certified Welding Inspector. Previously, he had his own welding
business and worked as a welding engineer
for Chicago Bridge and Iron Co. He has
served on many AWS technical committees
and as a Delegate to the IIW Commission
XIV, Welding Education and Training.
David McQuaid is nominated to serve
a second term as a vice president. Currently, he heads D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc., which he founded in 1999. He
has chaired the AWS D1 Structural Welding and the Technical Activities Committees. At American Bridge Div. of U.S. Steel
Corp., he served as senior welding engineer
and corporate engineer. In 2009, he received the American National Standards
Institute Finegan Standards Medal for his
outstanding contributions to industrial
standards.
John Bray, currently serving as District 18 director, is nominated to serve his
first term as an AWS vice president. He is
president of Affiliated Machinery, Inc., in
Pearland, Tex., where he has served as president for the past 17 years. He is a 12-year
AWS member and a former chairman of
the Houston Section.
W. Richard Polanin, a recent District
13 director, has been nominated to serve
as a director-at-large. Polanin is a professor and program chair of Manufacturing
Engineering Technology at Illinois Central
College, president of WRP Associates, and
serves on the adjunct faculty at Bradley
University. He is an AWS Certified Weld-
W. Richard Polanin
director-at-large
ing Inspector,
Welder,
and
Welding Educator, and is a
SME Certified
Manufacturing
Engineer. He
has served as
chair of the Peoria Section, and
a member of the
AWS D16 Committee on AutoRobert Roth
mated and Rodirector-at-large
botic Welding,
and AWS Robotic Technician Certification
Committee. He has served as an instructor
for the AWS Welding Instructors Institute
for three years.
Robert Roth, president and CEO of
RoMan Manufacturing, Inc., has been
nominated to serve as a director-at-large.
Roth, a long-time AWS member, serves on
the AWS Finance Committee and is a past
chair of WEMCO (An Association of Welding Equipment Manufacturers) and its executive committee, and has also chaired a
number of RWMA (Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance) subcommittees.
He has served as board chair of the Grand
Rapids Area Chamber of Commerce and
sits on the boards of the SE YMCA, and
several health and civic associations.
Harland Thompson is nominated to
serve a second term as District 2 director.
Thompson is senior project engineer and
welding supervisor for Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Inc., in Melville, N.Y. Prior
to joining UL in 2006, he worked in engineering and quality assurance positions at
WELDING JOURNAL
63
Harland Thompson
District 2 director
Jerry Knapp
District 17 director
Carl Matricardi
District 5 director
Pierrette Gorman
Belle Transit Div., the Long Island Railroad, Thompson Transit Services, Ronkonkoma, N.Y.; and LTK
Engineering Services.
Carl Matricardi is nominated to continue serving as District 5 director. He is founder and president
of Welding Solutions, Inc., in Lawrenceville, Ga. In
the welding industry for 37 years, he is an AWS Certified Welding Inspector and Welding Educator, and
vice chair of the Atlanta Section. He has worked as a
shipyard welder before earning his masters degree
in education. He has taught welding and manufacturing processes in technical colleges and state universities, and served as an expert witness.
D. Joshua Burgess has been nominated to serve
his first term as District 8 director. He has served as
District 8 deputy director since 2009, holds a masters
in materials science and expects to defend his PhD
thesis this year. He competed in the VICA welding
contests where he won the regional and district levels
to become the Tennessee state champion. He worked
as a welder, a welding engineer technician at Aqua
Chem, and currently is a consultant engineer for Ma-
AWS Bylaws
Article IX, Section 3
Section 3. Nominations.
Nominations, except for Executive
Director and Secretary, shall proceed as
follows:
(a) Nominations for District Directors shall be made by the District Nominating Committees [see Article III, Section 2(c)]. The National Nominating
Committee shall select nominees for the
other offices falling vacant. The names
of the nominees for each office, with a
brief biographical sketch of each, shall
be published in the July issue of the Weld64
JULY 2013
D. Joshua Burgess
District 8 director
Robert Wilcox
terials Applications, Inc. An Expert

Welder, he has earned the AWS
SENSE Level III Certificate.
Robert Wilcox, an AWS member
since 1974, is nominated to serve a
second term as District 11 director.
He has served in many Detroit Section officer positions including chair.
He received his masters degree at
Central Michigan University. He has
worked in the automobile industry as
a cost estimator, buyer, and quality
manager. Wilcox serves on the advisory committees for William D. Ford
Vocational High School and Schoolcraft Community College where he
studied industrial welding and fabrication technology. Currently, he owns
and operates Warriors of Faith Martial Arts Academy.
Robert Richwine, an AWS Distinguished Member, with the Indiana
Section, is nominated to serve his second term as District 14 director. With
Ivy Tech Community College since
1994, he currently serves as director
of its new Welding Institute. He began
his welding career in 1965 at Delco
Remy Division of General Motors
with a pipefitter-steamfitter apprenticeship. He has received the District
CWI of the Year, Meritorious, Private
Sector Educator, and the District Educator and District Director Awards,
the National Meritorious and the National Image of Welding Awards.
ing Journal. The names of the members

of the National Nominating Committee
shall also be published in this issue of the
Welding Journal, along with a copy of this
Article IX, Section 3.
(b) Any person with the required
qualifications may be nominated for any
national office by written petitions
signed by not less than 200 members
other than Student Members, with signatures of at least 20 members from each
of five Districts, provided such petitions
are delivered to the Executive Director
and Secretary before August 26 for the
elections to be held that year. A biogra-
Robert Richwine
Jerry Knapp, an AWS member for

more than 35 years, is nominated for
his first term as District 17 director.
Knapp has served as Tulsa Section
chair for two years and is presently a
board advisor. He has extensive experience as a salesman in the gas and
welding supply industry. He has
worked for Alloy Welding Supply,
Arkansas Specialty Co., Jimmie
Jones, National Welding Supply, Bell
Helicopter, Adair Sheet Metal,
Hobbs Trailers, and American Mfg.
of Texas. Earlier, he worked as a
grinder, welders helper, and in sheet
metal welding,
Pierrette Gorman has been nominated to serve her first term as District 20 director. She has chaired the
New Mexico Section twice and received the Section and District Meritorious Awards. Most recently, she
served ten years at Sandia National
Laboratories as a lead process engineer involved with lean manufacturing and laser processing. Earlier, she
worked as a research and applications
engineer at Optomec, Inc.; welding
engineer at Wilson Greatbatch, Ltd.;
and a research technician at Edison
Welding Institute where she explored
resistance welding of dissimilar and
plated materials. She holds two
patents on forming structures from
CAD solid models.
phical sketch of the nominee (and acceptance letter) shall be provided with
the petition. Any such nominee shall be
included the election for such office. A
District Director may be nominated by
written petitions signed by at least 10
members each from a majority of the
Sections in the District, provided such
petitions are delivered to the Executive
Director and Secretary before August 26
for the elections to be held that year. A
biographical sketch and acceptance letter of the nominee shall be provided with
the petition. Any such nominee shall be
included in the election.
Tech Topics
Official Interpretation AWS 3.0
Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions
Subject: Overlap at the ends of welds
Document: A3.0M/A3.0:2010, Standard
Welding Terms and Definitions
Provision: Page 30, Definition for overlap,
fusion welding; and Page 47, Definition for
weld toe.
Inquiry: Due to the absence of discussion and figures related to weld end-conditions, it is unclear whether requirements
for overlap are applicable at the ends of a
weld bead, where the arc starts and stops.
Response: The overlap condition (as
currently defined) does apply to the ends
of welds, not just the sides which are illustrated in the referenced figures.
Standard for Public Review

A5.01M/A5.01:201X (ISO 14344:2010
MOD), Procurement Guidelines for Consumables Welding and Allied Processes
Flux and Gas Shielded Electrical Welding
Processes. Revised. $32.50. 7/1/13. Staff
secretary R. Gupta, gupta@aws.org, ext.
301.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
Definitions and Symbols Committees Meet in Nashville
The A2 Committees on Definitions and Symbols held their spring meeting in Nashville, Tenn.
Shown from left are (front row) John Gullotti and Chris Lander, (back row) Chuck Ford,
Secretary Stephen Borrero, Rob Anderson, Pat Newhouse, Brian Galliers, Dick Holdren, J. P.
Christein, and Dave Beneteau.
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment during
the approval process. The above standard
is submitted for public review. A draft copy
may be obtained from the staff secretary.
ISO Standards
In the United States, if you wish to participate in the development of International Standards for welding, contact A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org, ext. 466.
Technical Committee Meetings

All AWS technical committee meetings
are open to the public. Persons wishing to
attend a meeting should contact the committee secretary listed.
July 30, International Standards Activities Committee. Houston, Tex. A. Davis,
adavis@aws.org, ext. 466.
July 30, 31, Technical Activities Committee. Houston, Tex. A. Alonso,
aalonso@aws.org, ext. 299.
Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees

Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
Safety and Health Committee seeks educators, users, general interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general interest, and end users; Friction welding,
C6 Committee seeks professionals; H i g h
energy beam welding and cutting, C7
Committee seeks professionals. P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16

Committee seeks general interest and educational members; Local heat treating of
pipe, D10P Subcommittee seeks professionals; Mechanical testing of welds, B4
Committee seeks professionals. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers; Titanium and zirconium
filler metals, A5K Subcommittee seeks
professionals; Welding qualifications,
B2B Subcommittee seeks members; Friction stir welding of aluminum alloys for
aerospace applications, D17J Subcommittee

seeks
members.
A.
Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1
Committee seeks educators, general interest, and users; Thermal spraying and
automotive welding, The D8 and C2 Committees seek educators, general interest,
and end users; Machinery and equipment, and Surfacing and reconditioning
of industrial mill rolls, D14 Committee
and D14H Subcommittee seek professionals. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nominations Sought for National Officers

AWS members who wish to nominate candidates for President, Vice President, and Director-at-Large on the AWS
Board of Directors for the term starting Jan. 1, 2015, may:
1. Send their nominations electronically by Oct. 8, 2013, to
Gricelda Manalich at gricelda@aws.org, c/o W. A. Rice, chairman, National Nominating Committee; or
2. Present their nominations in person at the open session
of the National Nominating Committee meeting scheduled
for 2:00 to 3:00 P.M., Tuesday, Nov. 19, 2013, at McCormick
Place, Chicago, Illinois, during the 2013 FABTECH Expo.

Nominations must be accompanied by biographical material
on each candidate, including a written statement by the candidate as to his or her willingness and ability to serve if nominated
and elected, letters of support, plus a 5- 7-in. head-and-shoulders color photograph.
Note: Persons who present their nominations at the Show
must provide 20 copies of the biographical materials and written
statement.
WELDING JOURNAL
65
Actions of Districts Council

On May 19, 2013, after due consideration, Districts Council approved the charter of the AWS Central Louisiana Section,
District 9, and the AWS Malaysia International Section. The AWS Central Nebraska
Section, District 16, and the AWS West
Zone IndiaVadodara International Section were approved for disbandment.
Approved for Student Chapter charters

were the AWS Parkside Career and Technology Education Center Student Chapter, District 2; AWS Riverside Parishes
Community College Student Chapter, District 9; AWS University of Wisconsin-Stout
Student Chapter, District 15; AWS Oklahoma Technical College Student Chapter,
District 17; and the AWS Laney College

Student Chapter, District 22. The AWS
Ozark Mountain Technical Center Student
Chapter, District 17, and the AWS Brigham
Young University Student Chapter, District 20, were approved for reinstatement.
Student Chapter Member Award Presented

The AWS Beaver Valley Student Chapter,
Pittsburgh Section, District 7, has selected
Matt Tempalski to receive the Student Chapter Member Award.
Tempalski, who served as the Chapters
vice chairman, received the schools 2013 perfect attendance award and is a National Technical Honor Society inductee. He is also qualified to the requirements of AWS D1.1 3 & 4
limited thickness, and B2.1.001-90.
Matt Tempalski
Five Members Receive District Director Awards

District 16 Director Dennis Wright has
nominated the following AWS members
to receive this award:
Chris Beaty Nebraska Section
Karl Fogleman Nebraska Section
Brent Wohl SE Nebraska Section
District 22 Director Kerry Shatell has

nominated the following AWS members
to receive this award:
Ken Morris Sacramento Section
Brad Bosworth Fresno Section
The District Director Award provides
a means for District directors to recognize individuals and corporations who

have contributed their time and effort to
the affairs of their local Section and/or
District.
Candidates Sought for Annual Masubuchi Award

November 1, 2013, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2014 Prof.
Koichi Masubuchi Award. This award includes a $5000 honorarium. It is presented
each year to one person, 40 years old or
younger, who has made significant contributions to the advancement of materials
joining through research and development. Nominations should include a description of the candidates experience,
list of publications, honors, and awards,
and at least three letters of recommendation from fellow researchers. The award
is sponsored by the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineering. E-mail your nomination package

to Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor,
The Pennsylvania State University,
tap103@psu.edu.
Nominate Your Candidate for the Distinguished Welder Award

August 1 is the deadline to submit your
nominations for the AWS Distinguished
Welder Award. The award recognizes professionals with a minimum of 15 years ex-
perience whose skills and achievements

warrant special recognition.
For details on the full description, selection criteria, and the nomination form,
visit the AWS Web site, www.aws.org, and

select the awards category. Or, e-mail
Wendy Sue Reeve, senior manager, awards
programs, wreeve@aws.org.
Name Your Candidates for These AWS Awards

The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations.
Contact Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual who has done the most
over the past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advancing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500
honorarium and a certificate.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,
or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the
development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full
rights of membership.
National Meritorious Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and
dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela66
JULY 2013
tions with industry and other organizations, and for contributions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual who promoted the advancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperative participation in technology transfer, standards rationalization, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a
$2500 honorarium.
International Meritorious Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to
the welding industry for service to the international welding community in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate
and a one-year AWS membership.
New AWS Supporters

Sustaining Members
Airgas, Inc.
259 N. Radnor Chester Rd., Ste. 100
Radnor, PA 19087
Representative: David Levin
www.airgas.com
Avenal State Prison
1 Kings Way, PO Box 8
Avenal, CA 93204
Representative: Michael Valdez
Calif. Correctional Center
711-045 Center Rd., PO Box 790
Susanville, CA 96130
Calif. Correctional Institution
24900 Hwy. 202, PO Box 1031
Tehachapi, CA 93581
Calif. Institution for Men
14901 Central Ave., PO Box 128
Chino, CA 91710
Calif. Mens Colony
Hwy. 1, PO Box 8101
San Luis Obispo, CA 93409
Calif. State Prison-Corcoran
4001 King Ave., PO Box 8300
Corcoran, CA 93212
Calif. State Prison-Solano
2100 Peabody Rd., PO Box 4000
Vacaville, CA 95696
Affiliate Companies
Alpha Iron Fabrication LLC
5880 W. 59 Ave., Ste. G
Arvada, CO 80003
Fastenal Mfg. Co.
1801 Theurer Blvd.
Winona, MN 55987
Goodbody Gear, Inc.
10546 Valle Vista Rd.
Lakeside, CA 92040
H. A. Fabricators
349 W. 2500 N.
Logan, UT 84341
Calif. Substance Abuse Treatment

900 Quebec Ave., PO Box 7100
Corcoran, CA 93212
Centinela State Prison
2302 Brown Rd., PO Box 731
Imperial, CA 92251
Chuckawalla Valley State Prison
19025 Wileys Rd., PO Box 2289
Blythe, CA 92226
Greystone Adult School - Lowar Yard
PO Box 71, 300 Prison Rd.
Represa, CA 95671
Greystone Adult School - P.I.A.
300 Prison Rd., PO Box 71
Represa, CA 95671
Hood - EIC, LLC
45 Vista Blvd., Ste. 102
Sparks, NV 89434
Representative: Michael Labahn
www.hoodeic.com
Kern Valley State Prison
3000 W. Cecil Ave., PO Box 3150
Delano, CA 93216
Mule Creek State Prison
4001 Hwy. 104, PO Box 409009
Ione, CA 95640
Pleasant Valley State Prison
24863 W. Jayne Ave., PO Box 8500
Coalinga, CA 93210
Rasmussen Mechanical Services

3215 Nebraska Ave.
Council Bluffs, IA 51501
Representative: Greg Schroeter
www.rasmech.com
Richard J. Donovan
Correctional Facility
480 Alta Rd.
San Diego, CA 92179
Sierra Conservation Center
5100 OByrnes Ferry Rd., PO Box 497
Jamestown, CA 95327
Techcrane International, LLC
17639 Hard Hat Dr.
Covington, LA 70435
Representative: Ardalan Farahmand
www.techcrane.com
Valley State Prison
21633 Ave. 24, PO Box 92
Chowchilla, CA 93610
AWS Member Counts

June 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................588
Supporting .....................................332
Educational ...................................623
Affiliate..........................................507
Welding Distributor........................53
Total Corporate ..........................2,103
Individual .................................59,002
Student + Transitional .................9,352
Total Members .........................68,354
Minth Mexico SA de CV
Carretera Los Arellanos No. 214
Parque Industrial Siglo XXI
Aguascalientes 20283, Mexico
Charter College
2221 E. Northern Lights Blvd.,
Ste. 120
Anchorage, AK 99508
Rail Mechanical Services, Inc.

PO Box 848
Columbia, PA 17512
Garrett College - CEWD

687 Mosser Rd.
McHenry, MD 21541
Supporting Companies
Great Plains Mfg., Inc.
1525 E. North St.
Salina, KS 67401
Petrustech Oil & Gas
5500 N. Sam Houston
Parkway W., Ste. 200
Houston, TX 77086
Idaho Precision Welding, Inc.

555 Hwy. 52
Horseshoe Bend, ID 83629
Educational Institutions
La Forge De Style
57 Romanelli Ave. S.
Hackensack, NJ 07606
Area Career Center

5727 Sohl Ave.
Hammond, IN 46320
Mason High School

1105 W. College Ave.
Mason, TX 76856
Wylie High School
4502 Antilley Rd.
Abilene, TX 79606
Welding Distributor
Airgas USA, LLC
5635 International Dr.
Rockford, IL 61109
WELDING JOURNAL
67
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed are the members participating in the 20122013 campaign. Standings as of May 18. See page 81 of this Welding Journal for campaign rules and prize list or visit www.aws.org/mgm. For information, call the Membership Dept. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
Winners Circle
Sponsored 20 or more Individual Members per year since June 1, 1999. The superscript denotes the number of times the status
was achieved if more than once.
E. Ezell, Mobile10
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7
J. Merzthal, Peru2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula2
B. Chin, Auburn
S. Esders, Detroit
M. Haggard, Inland Empire
M. Karagoulis, Detroit
S. McGill, NE Tennessee
B. Mikeska, Houston
W. Shreve, Fox Valley
T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona
G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona
R. Wray, Nebraska
Presidents Guild
Sponsored 20+ new Individual Members
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 36
E. Ezell, Mobile 32
Presidents Roundtable
Sponsored 919 new Individual Members
R. Fulmer, Twin Tiers 10
W. Blamire, Atlanta 9
A. Tous, Costa Rica 9
P. Strother, New Orleans 9
Presidents Club
Sponsored 38 new Individual Members
D. Galigher, Detroit 7
W. Komlos, Utah 7
J. Smith, San Antonio 6
C. Becker, Northwest 5
R. Thacker Jr., Oklahoma City 5
L. Webb, Lexington 4
D. Wright, Kansas City 4
T. Baber, San Fernando Valley 3
J. Bain, Mobile 3
A. Bernard, Sabine 3
J. Blubaugh, Detroit 3
P. Brown, New Orleans 3
D. Buster, Eastern Iowa 3
C. Daon, Israel Section 3
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 3
B. Hackbarth, Milwaukee 3
S. Jaycox, Long Island 3
D. Jessop, Mahoning Valley 3
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 3
T. Sumerix, Dayton 3
J. Turcott, Rochester 3
A. Winkle, Kansas City 3
R. Wright, San Antonio 3
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska 3
68
JULY 2013
Presidents Honor Roll

Sponsored 2 Individual Members
G. Cornell, St. Louis
M. Depuy, Portland
M. Douville, Central Mass./R.I.
D. Hayes Jr., Louisville
J. Helfrich, Tri-River
P. Host, Chicago
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley
J. Kline, Northern New York
L. Kvidahl, Pascagoula
W. Larry, Southern Colorado
G. Lawrence, N. Central Florida
J. Mansfield, Philadelphia
E. Norman, Ozark
A. Sam, Trinidad
C. Shepherd, Houston
G. Solomon, Central Pennsylvania
A. Sumal, British Columbia
C. Villarreal, Houston
J. Vincent, Kansas City
A. Vogt, New Jersey
J. Vorstenbosch, International
M. Wheeler, Cleveland
L. William, Western Carolina
W. Wilson, New Orleans
J. Winston, St. Louis
Student Member Sponsors
Sponsored 3+ new Student Members
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 106
A. Theriot, New Orleans 47
B. Scherer, Cincinnati 39
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 36
W. England, W. Michigan 33
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska 33
R. Bulthouse, Western Michigan 31
D. Pickering, Central Arkansas 31
R. Gilmer, Houston 29
T. Rivera, Corpus Christi 29
R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville 28
A. Stute, Madison-Beloit 28
T. Geisler, Pittsburgh 24
S. Siviski, Maine 24
B. Cheatham, Columbia 23
C. Kochersperger, Philadelphia 23
M. Arand, Louisville 22
R. Hutchinson, Long Bch./Or. Cty. 22
D. Bastian, Northwestern Pa. 21
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 21
J. Falgout, Baton Rouge 20
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh 20
J. Theberge, Boston 20
J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit 19
K. Temme, Philadelphia 19
V. Facchiano, Lehigh Valley 18
R. Munns, Utah 18
S. Lindsey, San Diego 17
R. Richwine, Indiana 17
J. Russell, Fox Valley 17

M. Anderson, Indiana 16
R. Fuller, Green & White Mts. 16
E. Norman, Ozark 16
A. Oberman, Ozark 16
C. Donnell, NW Ohio 14
J. Kline, Northern New York 13
G. Smith, Lehigh Valley 13
D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley 13
T. Sumerix, Dayton 12
C. Daily, Puget Sound 12
J. Daugherty, Louisville 12
C. Morris, Sacramento 12
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 12
J. Ciaramitaro, N. Central Florida 11
K. Cox, Palm Beach 11
A. Duron, Cumberland Valley 11
J. Boyer, Lancaster Section 10
G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona 10
R. Vann, South Carolina 10
C. Schiner, Wyoming 9
C. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana 8
C. Gilbertson, Northern Plains 8
J. Dawson, Pittsburgh 7
R. Udy, Utah 7
A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. 6
T. Buckler, Columbus 6
S. Caldera, Portland 6
J. Elliott, Houston 6
T. Shirk, Tidewater 6
P. Host, Chicago 5
R. Ledford, Birmingham 5
G. Rolla, L.A./Inland Empire 5
G. Siepert, Kansas 5
W. Wilson, New Orleans 5
C. Chifici, New Orleans 4
L. Clark, Milwaukee 4
J. Ginther, International 4
C. Griffin, Tulsa 4
J. Johnson, Northern Plains 4
J. Reed, Ozark 4
E. Shreve, Pittsburgh 4
R. Zadroga, Philadelphia 4
J. Fitzpatrick, Arizona 3
L. Gross, Milwaukee 3
R. Hilty, Pittsburgh 3
C. Hobson, Olympic 3
S. Liu, Colorado 3
D. McGrath, Houston 3
J. Vincent, Kansas City 3
G. Von Lunen, Kansas City 3
B. Wenzel, Sacramento 3
R. Wilsdorf, Tulsa 3
SECTIONNEWS
Manchester Community Technical College welding students and instructors are shown during the dedication of their new welding facilities
attended by Boston Section members in April.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director

(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
BOSTON
APRIL 23
Activity: The Section participated in the
dedication of a new welding lab at Manchester Community Technical College
(MCTC) in Manchester, Conn. An overhead crane was dedicated to Jack Paige, a
retired welding instructor and past Section
chair and technical chair. The roast pig
dinner was provided by alumnus Mark
Stock of Multi-Weld Services. Participating were Tony Hanna, welding instructor;
Dan Chabot, faculty director; Paul
Plourde, professor of welding technology;
Susan Huard, MCTC president; and Section Chair Dave Paquin.
Shown (from left) are Jack Paige, Tony Hanna, Dan Chabot, Paul Plourde, Susan Huard,
and Dave Paquin, Boston Section chair.
CENTRAL MASS./R.I.
APRIL 9
Speaker: Stephen St. John
Affiliation: St. John Fabrication & Welding
Topic: Using a ring rolling machine
Activity: St. John demonstrated how to use
a Baileigh ring rolling machine to bend a
20-ft-long, 3- 2-in., 0.125-in. wall rectangular tubing into an arc. The meeting
was held at Old Colony Regional Technical High School in Rochester, Mass.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director

(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Central Mass./R.I. Section members learned

how to bend rectangular tubing in April.
Long Island Section judges (from left) Jim
Malamon, Lou DeFulio, and Dave Terpolilli Jr. are shown at the SkillsUSA welding
competition.
LONG ISLAND
APRIL 20
Activity: The Section participated in the
SkillsUSA welding competition held at
Somerset Technical High School in Bridgewater, N.J. Judging and other duties were
performed by Jim Malamon, Lou DeFulio,
Dave Terpolilli Jr., Welding Instructor Don
Smith, and Harland Thompson, District 2
director.
Don Smith, welding instructor, poses with

ninth graders Rebecca Jackson and Joe Paolillo at the Long Island Section event.
WELDING JOURNAL
69
Shown at the Long Island Section program are (from left) Jesse Provler, Alex Duschere, Tom Garland, Ray OLeary, Chair Brian Cassidy,
District 2 Director Harland Thompson, and Ken Messemer.
Ray Sosko, advisor, Central Piedmont C.C. Student Chapter, is shown with his class.
Lancaster Section members (from left) Tucker Hill, Daniel Hrizhynku, Pete Bibawy, Chair
Justin Heistand, Steve Mitchell, Josh Joyce, and Mike Sebergandio, are shown during the
Rohrers Quarry tour.
Herb Browne (left), Morris County School

of Technology Student Chapter advisor,
works with Boy Scout Ben Smith (center)
and welding student Gehring Andrew.
APRIL 23
Activity: The Long Island Section held an
awards-presentation program in Wantagh,
N.Y. Chair Brian Cassidy and District 2
Director Harland Thompson presented
Tom Garland the Private Sector Instructor Award, and the Section Meritorious
Award to Ray OLeary.
Morris County School of

Technology Student
Chapter
Mike Sebergandio (right) is shown with

Justin Heistand, Lancaster Section chair.
70
JULY 2013
AWS President Nancy Cole is shown with

Justin Heistand (left), Lancaster Section
chair, and Ed Calaman, York Section chair.
APRIL 20
Activity: The Student Chapter, headed by
Advisor Herb Browne, conducted a Boy
Scout merit badge workshop at the school
in Denville, N.J. The Student Chapter is
affiliated with the New Jersey Section.
Florida West Coast Section board members are (from left) Robert Brewington, Charles Crumpton, Al Sedory, Bill Maknivitz, Walt Arnold,
Alan Shissler, Albert Carr, and Roger Aker.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director

(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
LANCASTER
MAY 4
Activity: The Section members and guests
toured Rohrers Quarry, Inc., in Lititz, Pa.,
to study the equipment and methods used
for processing limestone for agricultural,
construction, and road-building uses.
LANCASTER/YORK
APRIL 25
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: The need for women in welding jobs
Activity: Nancy Cole presented Ed Calaman a certificate for serving as York Section chair. Mike Sebergandio presented
Lancaster Section chair Justin Heistand
his chairman award. The event was held at
Heritage Hills Golf Resort in York, Pa.
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director

(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
CHARLOTTECentral Piedmont C.C.

Student Chapter
MAY 3
Activity: The college hosted its 13th annual welding competition at the college in
Charlotte, N.C. Student Chapter Advisor
Ray Sosko and members participated, including John Grillo, Justin Shearin, Jeremiah Vernon, Justin Burgess, Paul Martin, Joseph Barnes, Dlip Tolani, Frank
Turner, Jayce Kinney, Connor Pohlman,
Austin Price, Ryan Moore, Trey Mitchell,
Kyle Waters, Reed ONeal, Tanner Bright,
Theo VanEssendelft, Jamey Richardson,
Samantha Vick, Matt Cooler, Seth Hogan,
Jason Greene, Richard Grady, Chad Fox,
Jason Laird, Joshua Cox, Melody Blechlin, William Daugherty, and Ryan Wilson.
Student welders from ten local colleges
competed with prizes donated by ESAB,
Victor, Lincoln Electric, Machine and
Welding Supply, Ward Tank, Chicago

Bridge and Iron, Praxair, Airgas, Martin
Marietta, Liburdi Dimetrics, and
Colonnas Shipyard.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
FLORIDA WEST COAST

MAY 4
Activity: The Section hosted its annual
Shrimp-A-Roo outing for more than 75
members and guests at Yuengling Brewery Biergarten in Tampa, Fla. Al Sedory
received the District Meritorious Award
from Carl Matricardi, District 5 director,
for his work at many District 5 conferences.
Charles Crumpton was recognized for his
services as chair. Devin Lytle received a
$750 scholarship from Alan Shissler,
scholarship chair.
Al Sedory (right) receives the District Meritorious Certificate Award from Carl Matricardi, District 5 director, at the Florida West
Coast Section event.
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
NIAGARA FRONTIER
APRIL 18
Activity: The Section and Erie 1 Board of
Cooperative
Educational
Services
(BOCES) hosted a career fair at the school
in West Seneca, N.Y., for about 50 job
seekers.
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director

(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
DAYTON
MAY 14
Activity: The Section held its past chairmens night program at Asian Buffet in
Dayton, Ohio. Al J. Mealey Scholarships
were awarded to Robert Lacy to study at
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
(HIWT), and to Wesley Hart to study at
The Ohio State University. Other scholarships were presented to Lila Golly, Ben-
Wesley Hart (left) receives a scholarship from

Chris Lander, Dayton Section chair.
jamin Kettler, and Justin Heiland, all
studying at HIWT. Chris Lander received
a certificate of appreciation for his services as chair.
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director

(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
WELDING JOURNAL
71
Southeastern Louisiana University Student Chapter members and guests are shown with speaker Nancy Cole, AWS president.
AWS President Nancy Cole is shown with

some of the Birmingham Section members.
Presenter Bill Faircloth (left) is shown with

Johnny Dedeaux, Mobile Section chair.
Cody Manders (right) is shown with Craig

Donnell, advisor, Whitmer Career and Technical Center Student Chapter.
72
JULY 2013
Shown at the Pascagoula Section program

are (from left) AWS President Nancy Cole,
Awardee Cynthia Harris, and George Fairbanks, District 9 director.
Lawson State C.C. Student Chapter members shown at the SkillsUSA event are (from
left) Corey Lehfeldt, Ramiro Lopez, and
Benjamin Vining.
BIRMINGHAM
MOBILE
MAY 14
Topic: Careers in welding for women
Activity: Myron Laurent, education speciality and Alabama SkillsUSA director,
discussed the recent Alabama competition. Jim Casey was recognized for his
services as chair.
APRIL 18
Activity: The Section members met at Faircloth Metallurgical Services in Mobile,
Ala., for a barbecue dinner followed by a
tour of the facilities. Bill Faircloth, metallurgist and owner, discussed the importance of weld procedure qualifications and
weld testing then conducted the plant tour.
Lawson State C.C.

Student Chapter
MAY 2
Activity: Thirteen Student Chapter members and welding students from Wallace
State C.C. participated in two events.
Corey Lehfeldt, James Foster, Ramiro
Lopez, and Ben Vining tack welded for the
competitors from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m at the
National Crafts Championship, sponsored
by Go Build Alabama and the Associated
Builders & Contractors of Alabama. At
the Alabama SkillsUSA competition,
Ramiro Lopez and Ben Vining competed
in the SkillsUSA welding competition. Vining earned the gold medal. He will participate in the National SkillsUSA welding
competition to be held in Kansas City, Mo.
Both events were held at the Birmingham
Jefferson Convention Complex.
PASCAGOULA
FEBRUARY 28
Topic: Women in welding
Activity: Section Vice Chair Cynthia Harris received the District Educator of the
Year Award from George Fairbanks, District 9 director. Harris was recognized for
her outstanding work in the Moss Point
School District where she was cited for
raising the standards for welding education in the district from the lowest to one
of the top-rated programs in the state. She
is the only woman welding instructor in the
Mississippi Public School System.
SE Louisiana University
Student Chapter
FEBRUARY 28
Shown at the Fox Valley Section program are (from left) Bill Hanke, Al Sherrill, Randy Schmidt, Joe Hoban, Barb Schmidt, Colleen Schmidt,
Steve Waldvogel, CDR William Roth, Louis Janzen, Patti Shreve, Jerry Sackman, William Shreve, Jeffery Bunker, and Kevin Werth.
Shown at the Milwaukee Section tour are (from left) Carl Senek, Karen Gilgenbach, Brian
Stone, Dale Gilbertson, Chris and Anni VanDyke, Adam Thomas, and Scott Lancelle.
Shown at the Lakeshore Section event are
(from left) Aaron Parvechek, David Saunders, and Jimmy Dao.
Topic: Careers in welding for women
Activity: The Chapter and members of the
SLU Industrial Technology department
hosted a breakfast meeting for President
Nancy Cole and George Fairbanks, District 9 director, at the university in Hammond, La.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director

(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
NORTHWEST OHIO
APRIL 4
Speaker: Karl Hoes, instructor
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Welding competition vehicles
Activity: More than 25 competition vehi-
cles were on display for study. Members

also tried their skills using a VRTEX 360
virtual reality arc welding training station.
Top scorers won a welding helmet. The
program was held in Perrysburg (Toledo),
Ohio.
Whitmer Career and Technical Center Student Chapter

APRIL 26
Activity: Cody Manders received the Student Chapter Member Award from Advisor Craig Donnell, CWI and CWE. Manders was cited for maintaining a 3.5 GPA
in the welding program while working as
a welder-machinist at TM Tool & Die and
participating in many community service
projects. He was one of four seniors who
fabricated a solar-powered car frame for
an engineering class project.
Topic: Passivation of carbon and stainless

steels for corrosion control
Activity: Colleen Schmidt received a Section scholarship to attend Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology.
LAKESHORE
APRIL 19
Activity: The fourth annual Lakeshore
Section student career day event was held
at Lakeshore Technical College, Cleveland, Wis., to promote welding as a good
career choice. Section scholarships were
presented to Aaron Parvechek and Jimmy
Dao. David Saunders received the Madison-Beloit Section Educator of the Year
Award.
MILWAUKEE
District 12
APRIL 18
Activity: Ninety-four Section members and
guests toured the Caterpillar mining
shovel manufacturing facility in South Milwaukee, Wis.
FOX VALLEY
RACINE-KENOSHA
APRIL 23
Speaker: CDR William Roth, CWI, corporate welding and materials engineer
Affiliation: Proctor & Gamble
MARCH 7
Activity: The Section members and welding students from Gateway Technical College toured the US Tanker-Fire Appara-
Daniel J. Roland, director

(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
WELDING JOURNAL
73
Racine-Kenosha Section members and welding students are shown during their tour of US
Tanker Fire Apparatus.
Bob Zimny (left) and Pete Host, Chicago

Section chair, display the Illinois governors
welding month proclamation.
Indiana Section officers (from left) Gary

Tucker, Chair Bennie Flynn, and Gary Dugger judged the state SkillsUSA welding event.
Shown at the Chicago Section board meeting are from left (seated) Craig Tichelar, Chair
Pete Host, and Jeff Stanczak; (standing) Bob Zimny and Cliff Iftimie.
Dean Wilson, an AWS vice president, and

Glenda Ritz spoke at the Indiana Sections
Mid-West Welding Tournament awards
banquet.
tus, Inc., facility in Delavan, Wis., to study
the manufacture of stainless steel tankers
and pumpers used in rural and suburban
fire departments.
District 13
At the Mid-West Team Welding Tournament, Instructor Keith Cusey poses with his winning
team Marcus Crawford, Ryan Porter, Jordan Bird, Chad Wanless, and Brandon Gibbs.
74
JULY 2013
John Willard, director

(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
APRIL 17
Activity: Jeff Noruk gave a presentation
on the Wiki-SCAN, a hand-held, laserbased welding inspection system for use in
the field. Bob Zimny and Chair Pete Host
displayed a proclamation signed by Illinois
Governor Pat Quinn declaring April as
welding month in the state.
MAY 7
Activity: The board members met at Hog
Wild Restaurant to review applications for
Section scholarships. Participating were
Chair Pete Host, Craig Tichelar, Jeff
Stanczak, Bob Zimny, and Cliff Iftimie.
Shown at the Lexington Section program are (from left) Chair Coy Hall, Welding Instructor
Sherman Cook, Eric McCracken, Kayla Lovell, and Tim Nicely.
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director

(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
INDIANA
APRIL 19, 20
Activity: The Section conducted the Indiana state SkillsUSA welding contest. Serving as judges were Chair Bennie Flynn,
Gary Tucker, Gary Dugger, and Tony Brosio. The teams from New Castle Area Career Programs and Ivy Tech C.C. won trips
to attend the National SkillsUSA contests.
APRIL 14, 25
Speaker: Dean Wilson, AWS VP
Affiliation: Well-Dean Enterprises
Topic: Welding as a career
Activity: The Section held its 35th annual
Mid-West Team Welding Tournament at J.
Everett Light Career Center (JELCC).
Judges included District 14 Director Bob
Richwine, Chair Bennie Flynn, Gary
Tucker, Gary Dugger, Tony Brosio, and
Richard Alley, a past AWS president. Eric
Cooper from JELCC and David Jackson
from Indiana Oxygen Corp. organized the
event. The top three teams represented
Heartland Career Center, 4-County Career Center, and New Castle Area Career
Programs. Dean Wilson, AWS vice president, and Glenda Ritz, superintendent of
public instruction, spoke at the event.
LEXINGTON
APRIL 25
Activity: ESAB presented a program on
automated welding at Bluegrass Community and Technical College in Lexington,
Ky., for 30 attendees.
ST. LOUIS
MARCH 28
Activity: The Section hosted its annual
mini welding show to display the latest in
safety, testing, welding tools, and technology. Representatives from several companies provided demonstrations of their
St. Louis-area vendors are shown at the mini welding show in March.
Shown at the St. Louis Section event are (from left) Chair Tully Parker, Joe Grinston, Brandi
Phelps, Tiffany Turnbo, Charles Siebert, Brandon Shelton, Matthew Lockhart, Wesley Johnson, Brandon Hays, David Gill, and Christopher Crain.
Students recognized by the St. Louis Section are (from left) Instructor Joe Candela, Nick
Vallejo, Tyler Scott, Instructor Kevin Corgan, Mitchel McFarland, and Cameron Medley.
products and technical expertise. The
event was held at the Hil Bax Technical
Center at Cee Kay Supply, Inc., in St.
Louis, Mo.
APRIL 18
Speaker: Pat Cody, welding engineer
Affiliation: Ameren (ret.)
Topic: The SkillsUSA welding competition
Activity: Section and Hil Bax scholarships
were presented to Joe Grinston, Brandi
Phelps, Tiffany Turnbo, Charles Siebert,
Brandon Shelton, Matthew Lockhart,
Wesley Johnson, Brandon Hays, David
Gill, and Christopher Crain. Student
awards were presented to Nick Vallejo,
Tyler Scott, Mitchel McFarland, and
Cameron Medley by their instructors Joe
Candela and Kevin Corgan.
Speaker Pat Cody (right) is shown with Tully

Parker, St. Louis Section chair.
WELDING JOURNAL
75
Nebraska Section members are shown with the Boy Scouts they trained to earn their welding merit badges.
Nebraska Section members are shown at Joes Karting in April.
Angela Harrison from Welsco receives the

Honorary Lifetime Member award from Ray
Winiecki, Arkansas SkillsUSA director, at
the Central Arkansas Section program.
Shown at the Saskatoon Section event are
(from left) Scott Krieg, Eric Krueger, Chair
Ike Oguocha, and Huawei Guo.
Ike Oguocha (left) receives his chairman appreciation certificate from Huawei Guo at
the Saskatoon Section program.
Shown at the Central Arkansas program are (from left) Drake Collins,Chance Johnson,
Vice Chair Dennis Pickering, Kory House, Dillon Dugan, and Jimmy Allison.
Attendees are shown at the Tulsa Section-sponsored CWI training class.

76
JULY 2013
Scott Blom demonstrated a soldering technique at the East Texas Section program.
Some of the attendees are shown at the Alaska Section student night event.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
SASKATOON
APRIL 25
Activity: Ike Oguocha received an appreciation award for his services as chair from
Treasurer Huawei Guo. The presentation
took place in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Canada.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
NEBRASKA
APRIL 19
Activity: The Section visited Joes Karting
in Council Bluffs, Iowa, to celebrate National Welding Month. The Section, in
conjunction with Metropolitan Community College and The Lincoln Electric Co.
taught a group of Boy Scouts how to weld
to help them earn their welding merit
badges.
to Welsco, Inc., for its 27 years of service

and contributions to the Arkansas SkillsUSA welding competitions.
EAST TEXAS
APRIL 25
Speaker: Scott Blom, district sales manager
Affiliation: The Harris Products Group
Topic: Materials and techniques for soldering and brazing dissimilar metals
Activity: Following the lecture, the attendees had a hands-on opportunity to braze
and solder dissimilar metals. The program
was held at Tyler Jr. College in Tyler, Tex.
Ernest Levert, AWS past president, addressed the North Texas Section in April.
NORTH TEXAS
APRIL 16
Speaker: Ernest Levert, AWS past president
Affiliation: Lockheed Martin, senior staff
manufacturing engineer
Topic: New trends in welding
Activity: The program was held in Grand
Prairie, Tex.
TULSA
District 17
MARCH 12APRIL 11
Activity: The Section sponsored a CWI
preparatory class for 27 students. Ray
Wilsdorf and Ralph Johnson taught the
class at Tulsa Technology Center, Lemley
Campus, in Tulsa, Okla.
CENTRAL ARKANSAS
District 18
District 19
HOUSTON
ALASKA
APRIL 17
Speakers: Jean-Marc Tetevuide and John
Evans, general manager and technology
manager, respectively
Affiliation: Plasma Technology Automation & Materials
Topic: Hardfacing using lasers and plasma
transferred arc welding
Activity: The program was held at Bradys
Landing in Houston, Tex.
APRIL 24
Speaker: Kalen Hollinberger
Affiliation: Kiewit Building Group
Topic: Bridges and other projects built by
Kiewit
Activity: More than 60 people attended
this student night event that offered information on careers in welding, advanced
welding processes, and existing welding
jobs in the area.
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
APRIL 10
Activity: The Section members manned a
booth at the SkillsUSA event held at Hot
Springs Convention Center in Hot Springs,
Ark. The District Director Award was presented to Jimmy Brewer from UA Local
155. Section Meritorious Awards were presented to Matt Fair from UA Local 155,
Monte Breeden from UA Local 29, and Angela Harrison from Welsco. Michael
Dugan from the University of Arkansas,
Ft. Smith, received the Section Educator
Award, accepted in his absence by his son
Dillon Dugan. Ray Winiecki, SkillsUSA
director for Arkansas, presented an award
John Bray, director

(281) 997-7273
sales@affiliatedmachinery.com
Houston Section Vice Chair Derek Stelly

(left) is shown with speaker Jean-Marc
Tetevuide.
Ken Johnson, director

(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
WELDING JOURNAL
77
District 19 Section officers are shown at the District 19 conference hosted by the Inland Empire Section.
Speaker Bob Heffernan (left) is shown with

Ken Johnson, District 19 director, at the
Puget Sound Section program.
Shown at the Puget Sound Section program

are (from left) District 19 Director Ken Johnson, Steve Nielsen, Art Schnitzer, Steve Pollard, and Dave Edwards.
Bien Irizarry discussed the casting process for the Central New Mexico C. C. Student Chapter members in April.
Speaker Bob Miller (left) is shown with Steve

Prost, British Columbia Section chair.
Pat Newhouse presents the chairman appreciation certificate to Steve Prost at the British
Columbia Section program.
The New Mexico Section members are shown at the Albuquerque Airgas facility in May.
78
JULY 2013
The winning team in the District 19 Stump

the Experts contest included (from left)
Jared Satterlund, Mark Lynch, and Phil Zammit. Chris Lynch holds the trophy.
Long Beach/Orange County Section members are shown at their April meeting.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
APRIL 17
Speaker: Bob Miller, materials engineer
Affiliation: Postle Industries, Inc.
Topic: Tungsten carbide hardfacing
Activity: Steve Prost received a certificate
of appreciation for his services as chair
from Pat Newhouse. The catered dinner
and program were held at UA Piping Industry College of British Columbia in
Delta, B.C., Canada.
District 19 Conference
MAY 3
Activity: The annual Stump the Experts
contest was held on the eve of the District
conference in Pasco, Wash. The winning
team featured Phil Zammit (Spokane Section), Jared Satterlund (Puget Sound Section), and Mark Lynch (Portland Section).
The conference, hosted by the Inland Empire Section, featured a tour of the Laser
Inferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) in Richland, Wash.
Boy Scouts in Troop 895 earned their welding merit badges with the help of the Utah Section. Shown are (from left) Travis Harding, Brady Horstmann, Jesus Acosta, Rob Hansen,
William Mortensen,Campbell Hall, and Bart Mortensen.
PUGET SOUND
MAY 2
Speaker: Bob Heffernan, welding applications engineer
Affiliation: Praxair
Topic: Laser cutting using carbon dioxide
Activity: The incoming slate of officers was
elected: Dan Sheets, chair; Ken Johnson
and Robert White, vice chairs; Dave Edwards, secretary; Steve Nielsen, treasurer,
Gary Mancel, membership chair; Steve
Pollard, technical and newsletter chair;
and Art Schnitzer, publicity chair. The
event was held at Rock Salt Steak House
in Seattle, Wash.
L.A./Inland Empire officers are (from left) Tim Serviss, Tim Chubbs, Robert Doiron, Che
Chancy, Ladon Gilbert, Kenny Reid, Mariana Ludmer, and George Rolla.
SPOKANE
MAY 15
Activity: Forty-two Section members and
guests met at Spokane Community College welding lab where Phillip Formento
from ESAB demonstrated the submerged
arc welding process.
Eric Budwig, chair of the Long Beach/Orange County Section, presents a certificate of appreciation to Phil Fulgenzi and his team of Lincoln Electric representatives.
WELDING JOURNAL
79
The San Fernando Valley Section members are shown during their Aero Bending Co. tour.
District 20
District 21
Central New Mexico C. C.

Student Chapter
LONG BEACH/
ORANGE COUNTY
APRIL 6
Activity: The Chapter members visited the
Shidoni Bronze Foundry in Tesque, N.
Mex. Bien Irizarry led the tour and explained the steps in the casting process.
APRIL 11
Speaker: Phillip Fulgenzi, district manager
Affiliation: Lincoln Electric Center
Topic: Job opportunities for welders
Activity: After the talk, Fulgenzi and his
team conducted hands-on demonstrations
of plasma cutting machines, wire feeders,
and robotic welding equipment. The meeting was held at the Lincoln Electric Center in Santa Fe Springs, Calif.
William A. Komlos, director

(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
NEW MEXICO
APRIL 18
Activity: The Section met at MEGA Corp.
in Albuquerque, N. Mex., for talks on
welding plastic pipes. The presenters were
Herb Smith and Dean Rogers.
Nanette Samanich, director

(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
L.A./INLAND EMPIRE
MAY 16
Speaker: Steve Mize
Affiliation: Airgas
Topic: Welding gas mixtures
Activity: This New Mexico Section event
was held at Airgas in Albuquerque, N.
Mex.
UTAH
MAY 1
Activity: The Section assisted Boy Scouts
in Troop 895, West Point, Utah, to earn
their welding merit badges. Travis Harding, special process engineer, headed the
training program. The event was held at
the Weber Applied Technology Center in
Ogden, Utah.
80
JULY 2013
APRIL 27
Activity: The Sections board met to discuss the upcoming District 21 conference
and to introduce new board members Tim
Chubbs and Ladon Gilbert. Others attending were Tim Serviss, Robert Doiron,
Che Chancy, Kenny Reid, George Rolla,
and Mariana Ludmer.
SAN FERNANDO VALLEY

MAY 2
Speaker: Neil Chapman, lead welding engineer
Affiliation: Entergy Northeast
Topic: Welding repairs in nuclear power
plants
Activity: The dinner and meeting were
held at Aero Bending Co. in Palmdale,

Calif., hosted by Robert Burns, president.
Following the talk, Burns guided the members on a tour of the facility that specializes in precision tube bending for the aerospace industry.
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
International
Section
GERMANY
CALENDAR
Essen, Germany
SEPT. 1117
66th IIW Annual Assembly
2013 Intl Trade Fair
Joining, Cutting, Surfacing
SEPT. 16, 17
Intl Conf. on Automation in Welding
SEPT. 1621
Young Welders Competitions
www.iiw2013.com
Guide to AWS Services

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166
(800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
INTERNATIONAL SALES
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Marketing Officer
Bill Fudale..bfudale@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(211)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Corporate Director, International Sales

Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Public Relations Manager

Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Human Resources
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Director, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding

Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES

Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors federal issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS

Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal

Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding

Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering

Manufacturers Committee
Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)
GAWDA Gases and Welding

Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
Section Web Editor

Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all international certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Technical Services Operations

Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Associate Director, Technical Services Operations
Alex Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Personnel and Facilities Qualification
Managing Engineer, Standards
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing
Senior Staff Engineer
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes
Standards Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Thermal Spray, Automotive, Resistance Welding,
Machinery and Equipment
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards

may be obtained only by sending a request in writing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services, adavis@aws.org.
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral opinions do not constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of
AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and
should not be used as a substitute for an official
interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.

www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development

Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
Director, Education Development

David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation established to provide support for the educational and scientific endeavors of the American Welding Society.
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS

Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nominees.
Promote the Foundations work with your financial

support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky, (800/305)
443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
WELDING JOURNAL
83
PERSONNEL
Lincoln Promotes Two to

Fill Key Sales Posts
Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, has promoted Michael S.
Mintun to VP sales and marketing
North America, and Phil Bouchard to
U.S. sales manager. Previously, Mintun
served as VP of sales North America
and Bouchard was north central regional
manager.
MSCI Elects Chair

The Metals Service Center Institute
(MSCI), Rolling Meadows, Ill., has
elected David H. Hannah, previously vice
chair, to chairman of the board. He succeeds Michael H. Hoffman, vice chair of
Kloeckner Metals, who served in the post
for two years. Hannah is chairman and
CEO of Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co.
in Los Angeles, Calif. Brian R. Hedges
was named a new vice chair. He is president and CEO of Russel Metals, Inc.,
Mississauga, Ont., Canada.
V. Nakonechnyy
Kevin Barton
Fronius Fills Three Sales

Positions
Michael Mintun
Phil Bouchard
Fronius USA, LLC, Portage, Ind., a

manufacturer of welding equipment, has
promoted Vadim Nakonechnyy to area
sales manager for its southeast region,
Matthew Chynoweth
responsible for Georgia, Florida, the

Carolinas, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Kevin Barton was hired as sales/application engineer for its Chattanooga, Tenn.,
office, filling Nakonechnyys former position. Barton has nine years experience
as a CNC machinist and robot programmer. Matthew Chynoweth, a recent Ferris State University welding technology
graduate, was hired as a sales/system engineer, based in the Portage office.
Mazak Optonics Names

Southwest Sales Manager
Mazak Optonics
Corp, Elgin, Ill., a
provider of laser
cutting systems,
has named David
Widlund regional
sales manager for
its southwest territory, including Arizona, New Mexico,
David Widlund
Texas, Oklahoma,
Kansas, Missouri,
Arkansas, and Louisiana. Widlund has
12 years experience in the sheet metal
fabrication industry, laser production
management, direct sales, and most recently as a regional sales manager.
84
JULY 2013
Member Milestones
Edward N. C. Dalder
Ernest D. Levert Sr.
Edward N. C. Dalder, an AWS Gold

Member, affiliated with the San Francisco Section, has been recognized by
Continental Whos Who as a Pinnacle Professional in the field of engineering. He
was cited for his achievements as vice
president of Dalder Materials Consulting, Inc., in the areas of welding engineering, failure analysis, metallurgy and
process selection, and accident reconstruction. His papers have been published in the Welding Journal, Materials
Transactions, and Cryogenic Engineering
Conference Proceedings. Dalder earned
his PhD in welding engineering from The
Ohio State University.
Ernest D. Levert Sr., an AWS past

president and member of the North Texas
Section, has been named one of 180 of
the nations top African American scientists by The HistoryMakers. Levert was
chosen as a positive role model whose
life story will be used to encourage others to enter scientific professions. His
biography is posted online at www.thehistorymakers.com/makers/sciencemakers.
Levert is a senior staff manufacturing engineer at Lockheed Martin Missiles, Fire
Control Div., Dallas, Tex., where he received its NOVA Award for Outstanding
Leadership. He has worked on the
Space Shuttle, International Space Station,
Multiple Launch
Rocket System, and
the Army Tactical
Missile System. He
chaired IIW Commission IV, Power
Beam Processes,
and was 2007 president of the Federation of Material Societies. He has contributed to the AWS Ernest Levert Sr.
Welding Handbook
and Boy Scouts of America Welding Merit
Badge Book. The Ohio State University
School of Engineering awarded him its
Outstanding and Distinguished Alumni
Awards.
WELDING JOURNAL
85
Obituaries
Robert J. Dybas
William Thomas Phillips
Robert J. Dybas,
an AWS Gold Member, died March 19 in
Niskayuna, N.Y. He
served as chair of the
AWS Northern New
York Section where
he received the Meritorious Certificate
Award. At GE, he reRobert Dybas
ceived its Industrial
and Power Systems Engineering Award.
William Thomas Phillips, 79, died

May 9. A long-time resident of
Northville, Mich., he was founder and
chairman of the board of Phillips Service Industries, Inc., Livonia, Mich., the
$130-million parent company of POWERTHRU, Beaver Aerospace & Defense, Sciaky, Inc., Evana Automation
Specialists,
Mountain Secure Systems,
and Skytronics,
Inc. During the
Korean War,
he served as a
hydraulic technician and line
chief in the
U.S. Air Force,
based in Newfoundland,
Canada.
William Phillips
Gordon Eugene Smith

Gordon Eugene Smith, 65, died
March 21 in Columbus, Ohio. In 1977,
he became one of the first ASNT Certified NDT Level III engineers. He worked
for Marion Power Shovel, GE Plastics,
ASNT in the area of personnel certification and qualification, and H.C.Nutting
Co. as design consultant. Most recently,
Smith was senior engineer with JonesStuckey, Ltd., Inc., a civil engineering
firm. He has authored numerous publications on inspection and the prevention
of cracking in bridge structures.
Randal Keith Easterwood

Randal Keith Easterwood, 58, died
March 30 in Mesa,
Ariz. In the U.S. Air
Force he trained
welders. Later, he
joined Honeywell
Aerospace where he
worked his entire career, serving as an
engineer in the Material and Process
R. K. Easterwood Engineering department and conducting training worldwide. Easterwood was
active with SkillsUSA at the state and national levels, where he participated in
welding contests for more than 25
years.
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JULY 2013
The Emmet A. Craig
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Awards
wards
(from left) are Ernest D. Levert (Individual); David Parker (Educator); Allie Reynolds (Distributor,
(Distributorr, WELSCO);
WEL
David Corbin (Large Business, V
Vermeer
ermeer Corp.); and
Glenn Kay (Educational
ducational Facility,
Facilityy, Washtenaw
Washtenaw Community College). (Not shown are the Small Business, A
AWS
WS Section, and Media winners.)
A
AWS
WS Houston Section
2012 A
AWS
WS IOW Section A
Award
ward Winner
Know an individual, company, educator, or educational

facility that exemplifies what welding is all about?
Nominate them!
Thee Image of Welding
Weld
e ding Awards
Aw
wards Program recognizes
recognizees outstanding
achievement
hievement in the following categories:
Individual
Section
Large Busin
Business
(you or other individual)
(AWS
(A
AWS
W local chapter)
WELSCO
2012 IOW Distributor Award
Award
ard Winn
Winner
Small Business
Busin
(less than 200 employees)
Educator
(welding teacher at an institution, facility

facility,, etc.)
Educational Facility
(any organization that conducts welding

education or training)
(200 or more employees)
Distributor
(welding products)
Media
(imagpromoting
(imagpromoting article or news broadcast)
Entry deadline is July 31, 2013
Vermeer Manufacturing
Vermeer
2012 IOW Large Business Award
Award Winner
For more information and to submit a nomination

form online, visit www
www.aws.org/awards/image.html
.aws.org/awards/image.html
or call 800-443-9353.
BRAZIL WELDING SHOW

OCT. 1 4, 2013 So Paulo
Trade Show and Congress
Essen Trade Shows
Karen Vogelsang
Tel. +1. 9 14. 9 62-13 10
karen@essentradeshows.com
www.schweissen-schneiden.com
In cooperation with:
TRADE SHOWS WORLDWIDE:

GERMANY
SEPT. 16 21, 2013

ESSEN
RUSSIA
MAY 2014
ST. PETERSBURG
CHINA
JUNE 1821, 2013

SHANGHAI
INDIA
OCT. 2830, 2014

MUMBAI
RUSSIA
JUNE 2528, 2013

MOSCOW
ARABIA
JAN. 1013, 2015

DUBAI
19,500-sq-ft facility near Pittsburgh, Pa. It supports global orders with regional manufacturing and instrument repair.
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

continued from page 12
ILMO Products Co., Jacksonville, Ill., an industrial gases distributor, is celebrating its 100th anniversary in 2013. It surprised all 97 employees with $100 on the 100th day of the year.
Iron Man 3 features Lincoln Electric welding equipment used

by actor Robert Downey Jr.s character, Tony Stark/Iron Man,
to fabricate his armored suit, various tools, and weapons.
Hyundai Heavy Industries has developed mini welding robots
PFERD, Leominster, Mass., has a new tool mobile program in

North America. Application specialists have the resources to
instantly address and troubleshoot challenges on-site.
Workshops for Warriors, San Diego, Calif., a metalworking

training facility for veterans, has earned accreditation from
the National Institute for Metalworking Skills.
Freudenberg Sealing Technologies laser welding process has

won a Manufacturing Leadership 100 Sustainability Award
from Frost & Sullivans Manufacturing Leadership Council.
for building ships. The design measures 50 30 15 cm when

its welding arm is retracted. The robot has six joints as well.
SMS Meer, Germany, has received an order from California
ESAB Cutting Systems, Florence, S.C., has been awarded the
Steel Industries for delivering a 24-in., high-frequency tube

welding line. It will be brought into service in 2014.
2013 Gold Stevie Award for sales and customer service, recognized as the Sales Turnaround of the Year. ESAB Welding
& Cutting Products has also launched a blog that will feature
posts on CNC cutting systems and various processes.
USA Tank has expanded its manufacturing capabilities to in-
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., has acquired the assets of Wolverine
Great Falls College Montana State University recently an-
Joining Technologies, Warwick, R.I. It will operate as LucasMilhaupt Warwick LLC and provide the company with a primary domestic mill for brazing consumables.
nounced a $30,000 donation from General Distributing Co. to

be used, in part, for supporting the welding programs needs.
clude shop welded tanks. This division will be located in Goodman, Mo., in the 100,000-sq-ft manufacturing facility.
Many robotic welding enhancements, including new fixtures

More than 1400 experts recently gathered in Livonia, Mich., at
and add-ons, have been made to Gilchrist Metal Fabricating

Co.s 70,000-sq-ft metal fabrication facility in Hudson, N.H.
the Great Designs in Steel seminar. More than 35 presentations on all aspects of advanced high-strength steel design, development, and use showed the future for these materials.
Tom Spika and Spika Welding, a small, family enterprise, re-
Operations have gone live at Industrial Scientifics newly leased
ceived the first Manufacturer of the Year award in Helena presented by the Montana Manufacturing Council.
WELDING JOURNAL
91
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
continued from page 26
color images, a broad range of accessories

to enhance materials testing systems. The
420-page catalog features detailed product information on grips, extensometers,
fixtures, environmental chambers, load
cells, furnaces, and other materials testing accessories. Many items in the catalog
can be adapted to suit testing equipment
from other manufacturers. Highlighted is
the new AutoX 750 automatic extensometer and Bluehill TrendTracker used for
managing and analyzing test results.
zirconia sensor. Designed for personnel

in welding and quality departments, this
monitor is suitable for weld purging of all
stainless, duplex, and superduplex steels,
as well as titanium, zirconium, and nickel
alloys. It has many applications for weld
purging tube and pipe joints, either with
manual or orbital welding techniques, and
welding chambers, boxes, and enclosures
to ensure the internal atmosphere is reduced to 10 parts/million of oxygen or less.
Huntingdon Fusion Techniques Ltd.
www.huntingdonfusion.com
(800) 431-1311
Power Units Useful for

Many Electronic Devices
Instron
based analyzer, as well as the S1 TitanSP,
Si-PIN based analyzer. This optional accessory can be ordered with either model
when buying a new unit.
www.instron.com
(800) 564-8378
Weld Shaver Features

Adjustable Depth of Cut
Bruker Corp.
www.bruker.com/shield
(509) 783-9850
Downdraft Tables Contain

Flame-Retardant Filters
The WS90 weld shaver is hand-held,

operates at 2.3 hp, and weighs 12 lb. It uses
indexable carbide inserts in a milling cutting tool to remove weld beads from both
flat butt-joint welds and inside 90 deg fillet welds. The new model also features an
adjustable depth of cut and an adjustable
fence, making it easy to remove only a
weld bead and not the surrounding primary materials.
Heck Industries
www.heckind.net
(810) 632-5400
Monitor Measures Oxygen

down to 1 Part/Million
The Power Swap System allows the

companys NB Series workstations to operate 24 h a day with no recharging break.
The workstations, which can run computers, printers, scales, testers, scanners, and
other electronic hardware, provide AC
power without extension cords or ceiling
drops. The system is useful for facilities
with multiple work shifts or applications
that draw enough power to shorten typical battery life. The power units are on
swivel casters, and their connectors work
with the workstations ports. They include
a UL- and CSA-approved inverter/
charger package and digital remote meter
with a color-coded LED display.
Newcastle Systems
www.newcastlesys.com
(781) 935-3450
Shield Protects Analyzers

Detector Window
The PurgEye 300 Nano Weld Purge

MonitorTM has been updated to read
down to 1 part/million using a new-style
The Titan Detector Shield, a patent

pending accessory, protects the detector
window from being punctured by sharp
objects like scrap shavings and wires, while
allowing analysis of almost any material.
It also minimizes the chance that the detector will be damaged. This does not sacrifice the instruments analytical performance, even for light elements like magnesium, aluminum, and silicon. The shield
is available for both the S1 TitanLE, SDD
The companys downdraft tables protect workers from smoke, fumes, and particles generated during grinding, welding,
or sanding. They are designed to pass pollutants and sparks over water pans to protect the filters and reduce fire risk. Flameretardant cartridge filters are standard.
They are made of 100% spunbond polyester and remove particulates down to 0.5
micron with a 99.95% efficiency rate. A
jet pulse system cleans the filters using
compressed air. The standard table top is
a 14-in. steel plate. Holes around the tops
perimeter create a higher air flow near the
spark shield and work area. The tables are
available from 26 35 in. for small or single work cells to a large 48 96 in. table.
Denray Machine, Inc.
www.denray.com
(800) 766-8263
WELDING JOURNAL
93
pp
Excellent Feedability
Premium Copper Coating
Asskk u
uss
about it!
NationalStandard.com
info@NationalStandard.com
Come to your
CWI seminar prepareed!
I prepared online & passed CWI with flying colors!
CWI closed-book exam prep

online at your own pace
just $750
OSHA
A estimates that
4 out of every 1,000
welders will
experience a fatal
injury or accident over
their working lifetime
Sign up anytime
anytim
me and start preparing at
your own schedule and pace.
aws.org or call (800) 443-9353 ext 449 for details.
Visit awo.aws.org
CLASSIFIEDS
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
2013
CWI PREPARATORY
Guarantee Pass or Repeat FREE!
80+ HOUR COURSE

MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Little Rock, AR July 29Aug. 9

Houston, TX Sep. 30Oct. 11
Houma, LA Aug. 1930, Nov. 1122
Ellijay, GA July 819, Sep. 920
Pascagoula, MS Oct. 21Nov. 1
Tank Turning Rolls

Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
56+ HOUR COURSE

EXTRA INSTRUCTION TO GET A HEAD START
Little Rock, AR Aug. 19

Houston, TX Oct. 311
Ellijay, GA July 1119, Sep. 1220
40 HOUR COURSE
GET READY FAST PACED COURSE!
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
WANTED TO BUY
BUYING WELDING
RELATED
POST CARDS & COVERS
Little Rock, AR Aug. 59

Houston, TX Oct. 711
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Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:

(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: 9Year CWI Recertification,
RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT Thickness,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
CWS, SCWI, Advanced Inspection Courses
SERVICES
weldit0788@att.net
JOE FULLER LLC

We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Contact Frank Wilson,
Senior Advertising
Production Manager
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
(800) 443-9353,
ext. 465
fwilson@aws.org
WELDING JOURNAL
97
ADVERTISER
INDEX
ALM Materials Handling Positioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.almmh.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 673-5546
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
Arc Machines, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

www.arcmachines.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(818) 896-9556
Magnatech, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

www.MagnatechLLC.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(860) 653-2573
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC

www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Mathey Dearman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.matheycnc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(918) 447-1288
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62, 92, 96

www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Mercer Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

www.mercerabrasives.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(631) 243-3900
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90, 94

www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Micro Air Clean Air Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

www.microaironline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 566-4276
Bonal Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

www.Meta-Lax.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 638-2529
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
National Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

www.NationalStandard.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 777-1618
CM Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
www.cmindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 550-0033
Netbraze LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

www.netbraze.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(855) 444-1440
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Red-D-Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
www.reddarc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 733-3272
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Revco Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

www.bsxgear.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 527-3826
ESAB Welding and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

www.esabna.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 372-2123
RWMA/Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance . . . . . . . .87

www.aws.org/rwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444
ESSEN Welding Show/Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

www.schweissen-schneiden.com . . . . . . . . . . . .001-914-962-1310
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267
FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC

www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
Fischer Engineering Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1750
Sumner Manufacturing Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

www.sumner.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 999-6910
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487
Tianjin Leigong Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

www.hardfacing.en.alibaba.com . . . . . . . . . . . .+86-13752201959
Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Tip Tig USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26, 43, 50

www.tiptigusa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(856) 312-8164
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110
TRUMPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
www.us.trumpf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333
Weld Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243
Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043
Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

www.weldengineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224
Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448
Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

www.weldhugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 935-3447
Image of Welding/WEMCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
www.rodguard.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 944-1552
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
www.koike.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 621-4025
98
JULY 2013
IFC = Inside Front Cover

IBC = Inside Back Cover
OBC = Outside Back Cover
Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JULY 2013

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Vacuum-Assisted Laser Welding of

Zinc-Coated Steels in a Gap-Free
Lap Joint Configuration
High-quality welds were produced with a new laser process that stabilized
the keyhole to allow the zinc vapors to escape
ABSTRACT
Zinc-coated steels are increasingly used in the automotive industry due to their excellent corrosion resistance and long-term mechanical performance. However, it is still
a great challenge to weld zinc-coated steels in a gap-free lap joint configuration. When
zinc vaporizes at 906C, which is much lower than the melting temperature of steel
(1300C), a high-pressure vapor will be generated at the faying interface of the steel
sheets. If the zinc vapor is not appropriately vented out, a weld discontinuity such as
porosity is usually produced in the weld and spatter is expelled from the weld.
In this paper, a new laser welding process is proposed to join zinc-coated steels in
a gap-free lap joint configuration. The new process uses a suction device to create a
negative pressure zone (relative to ambient) directly above the molten pool. The purpose of this negative pressure zone is two-fold. First, a drag force is generated due to
the external suction device, which can counterbalance the shear force induced by the
erupting zinc vapor. Secondly, the negative pressure zone facilitates the zinc vapor to
escape along the suction direction. As a result, the molten pool becomes more stable
and the keyhole will remain open to allow the escape of zinc vapor. With vacuum assist, welds free of spatter and porosity can be obtained. In addition, mechanical properties of the welds are evaluated by tensile shear test and microhardness measurements.
Introduction
To reduce vehicle weight and improve
fuel efficiency, high-strength steels are increasingly used in the automotive industry.
These steels are usually coated with zinc,
which provides an excellent corrosion resistance for a typical guarantee of up to
ten years corrosion protection for automotive body panels. However, the presence of zinc coating in the metal sheets
poses several severe issues for welding.
When welding the zinc-coated steels in a
gap-free lap joint configuration, a highlypressurized zinc vapor is readily produced
at the interface of two coated metal sheets
because of the lower boiling point of zinc
(906C) compared to the melting point of
steel (above 1300C). If the generation of
zinc vapor at the interface of the metal
S. YANG (david.s.yang@gm.com), J.
WANG, , AND J. ZHANG are with GM China
Science Lab, Pudong, Shanghai, China. B. E.
CARLSON is with General Motors R & D Center, Warren, Mich.
sheets is not suppressed, various weld discrepancies such as spatter and porosity will
be produced during welding. Consequently, the resultant mechanical properties are degraded, and repair is usually
required after the welding process.
With respect to high welding speeds
and low heat input, various laser welding
techniques have attracted tremendous attention from industry. In the past several
decades, many efforts were made around
the world in order to achieve a sound weld
in zinc-coated steels. The American Welding Society set a standard of removing the
KEYWORDS
Zinc-Coated Steels
Gap-Free Lap Joint
Single Laser Beam
Weld Dicontinuities
Negative Pressure Zone
Suction Device
zinc coating layer at the interface of metal

sheets completely, prior to welding zinccoated steels (Refs. 1, 2). A common way
for industries to weld zinc-coated steels is
to include a spacer with the thickness of
about 0.10.2 mm at the interface of metal
sheets. The gap created by the spacer facilitates the zinc vapor escape from the interface of metal sheets resulting in
high-quality welds (Ref. 3). Alloying the
zinc with copper is another way to weld
zinc-coated steels (Ref. 4). Before the
steel is melted, a zinc-copper compound is
formed, which has a higher melting point
(1083C) than the boiling point of zinc.
Hence, the formation of highly pressurized zinc vapor is avoided. Similarly, a thin
aluminum alloy foil was set along the weld
line at the interface of metal sheets in
order to alloy the zinc. Under the heat
from the laser, an Al-Zn compound was
formed, resulting in a reduced pressure
level of zinc vapor (Refs. 5, 6). One potential issue for using this method was that
the mechanical properties of welds could
be degraded by excessive dissolution of
aluminum into the welds (Refs. 5, 6). In
addition, methods of depositing a nickel
coating having a high melting point along
the weld line at the interface of metal
sheets (Refs. 7, 8), using dual beam or two
lasers (Refs. 913), pulsed laser (Ref. 14),
and hybrid laser welding (Refs. 1419),
have been proposed to weld zinc-coated
steels. Wang et al. (Ref. 20) proposed a
method of using a laser to cut a slot for the
zinc vapor to escape from the interface of
the metal sheets and using the second
laser to weld the metal sheets. Speranza et
al. (Ref. 21) suggested a method of introducing a metal powder, which can alloy
with the zinc, into the molten pool produced by the laser beam, thereby reducing
the weld porosity and spatter.
Recently, Yang et al. (Ref. 22) developed a hybrid laser arc welding process
that employed a gas tungsten arc welding
WELDING JOURNAL 197-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY S. YANG, J. WANG, B. E. CARLSON, AND J. ZHANG
Fig. 2 Typical laser welds in zinc-coated steels. A Top view; B bottom view. (Laser
power 3.4 kW; welding speed 1.8 m/min).
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Experimental setup of vacuum-assisted

(welding direction: right to left).
(GTAW) preheating technique to weld

zinc-coated, high-strength, dual-phase
steels in a gap-free lap joint configuration
where GTAW preheating leads the laser
beam and simultaneously moves with the
laser beam. With the GTAW preheating, a
portion of the zinc along the weld line at
the interface of metal sheets is vaporized
and part of the zinc is transformed into
zinc oxide, which has a melting point
(above 1900C) greater than that of steel.
Under these welding conditions, a completely defect-free weld in the zinc-coated
steels was achieved. Furthermore, Yang et
al. (Ref. 23) optimized the shielding conditions to stabilize the molten pool, thus
achieving a constantly open stable keyhole. The stable keyhole provides a channel that allows the zinc vapor to escape
from the interface of the metal sheets.
Consequently, the molten pool is not disturbed by the zinc vapor and the formation
of spatter and porosity in the welds is eliminated. Gu et al. (Ref. 25) utilized a remote laser welding technique with a high
scanning speed called laser dimpling to
create a dimple prior to welding, which
provides a gap for the subsequent laser
welding of the zinc-coated steels. Sound
welds were obtained with this laser dimpling technology. In addition, Kim et al.
(Ref. 24) developed a CO2 laser microplasma arc hybrid welding to weld zinccoated steels.
Although the aforementioned methods
can address the issues arising from the
welding of the zinc-coated steels in a lap
joint configuration, there exist some limitations, such as high cost for implementation in the automotive industry. In order
198-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
to reduce the cost and cycle

time, the automotive industry looks for simple and flexible
laser
welding
techniques, using a single
laser beam to weld the zinccoated steels in a gap-free
laser welding
lap joint configuration.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to develop a new laser
welding technique which can
flexibly weld zinc-coated steels in a gapfree lap joint.
In this study, a 4-kW fiber laser was
used to weld the zinc-coated steels. A suction device was developed to create a negative pressure zone directly above the
molten pool. The presence of the negative
pressure zone had two effects: The first
was to help the generated zinc vapor to escape along the suction direction, and the
second was to maintain the molten pool
stability. In addition, tensile shear and microhardness tests were carried out to assess the weld mechanical properties.
Experimental Setup
The materials used in this study were
zinc-coated dual-phase (DP590) steels.
The zinc coating was hot dipped at a level
of 60 g/m2 per side. The tested coupons
had the following dimensions: 120 85 1
mm. The two metal sheets were then
tightly clamped together during the laser
welding process so that there was no joint
clearance. The overlap length between the
two metal sheets was 25 mm, and the laser
beam was located at the center of overlap.
The lap-shear samples did not contain the
start and stop of the welds. The laser welding process was performed with a 4-kW
fiber laser. A multimode laser beam was
brought into the laser welding head by an
optical fiber and focused on the top surface of the workpiece. The laser spot diameter at focus was 0.3 mm. A high-speed
camera with a frame rate of 4000 fps was
used to record images of the laser-induced
plasma in order to study its dynamic be-
havior. During the laser welding process,

the laser beam was focused on the top surface of the two-sheet stack up. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The
suction device used in this study was an
AirStar vacuum cleaner with bag made by
Philips (Model: HomeCare-FC8224),
which has an input power of 1400 W and a
maximum vacuum level of 29 kPa. A copper tube of 8 mm in diameter was connected to the cleaner to provide a negative
pressure zone above the welding pool. It
was positioned 3 mm in front of the laser
beam and 6 mm from the top surface of
the workpiece. In addition, the lap joint
coupons were sectioned, ground, polished,
and etched for hardness measurements
and examination using an optical microscope. Vickers microhardness tests were
conducted using a load of 100 g and a
dwell time of 10 s.
Results and Discussion

Issues from laser welding of zinccoated steels in a gap-free lap joint configuration are below.
Figure 2 shows the characteristics of
typical laser welds in zinc-coated steels. As
shown, a large amount of spatter and
porosity are produced in the welds. It is
well known that the highly pressurized zinc
vapor is the root cause of these weld defects. When spatter is produced and expelled along the laser beam propagation
direction, coupling of the laser beam energy to the workpiece is impeded resulting
in only partial penetration (Fig. 2B) being
achieved, even at high power levels. In addition, a turbulent molten pool is always
observed due to the large difference in the
velocity and pressure between the zinc
vapor and the liquid melt. The instability
of the molten pool manifests itself in the
form of waves, which are generated on the
molten pool with the associated swelling
and troughs. Under these welding conditions, the laser beam is projected onto the
uneven surface of the molten pool. This
phenomenon is equivalent to changing the
position of focus, the spot size, and the

focus location of the laser beam, i.e., the
laser beam intensity will be distributed unevenly at the spatial and temporal dimensions.
Figure 3A and B schematically demonstrates the different mechanisms of the absorption of the laser beam when the
keyhole is unstable and stable, respectively. The absorption of the laser beam
for the case of a stable keyhole is dramatically improved through multireflection
within the keyhole. In contrast, the uneven
surface of the turbulent molten pool
causes a majority of the laser beam energy
to be reflected. When the laser beam is
projected onto the surface of the zinccoated steel, the zinc is immediately vaporized as a result of the low boiling point
of zinc. Furthermore, a large amount of
time varying laser-induced plasma and
plume is always produced during the laser
welding process (Ref. 25).
Previous studies have found that the
laser-induced plasma and plume fluctuates
in a high frequency and changes its shape
and size over time during the welding
process (Refs. 11, 25). The uneven surface
of the molten pool along with the fluctuating laser-induced plasma and plume deteriorates the coupling efficiency of the
laser beam energy into the welded materials. Consequently, the keyhole size and
depth changes during the laser welding
process and is forced to collapse due to an
insufficient power density of the incident
laser beam into the workpiece. When the
keyhole collapses or the keyhole depth
cant reach the faying interface, the zinc
vapor is entrapped and expands inside the
molten pool. Once the zinc vapor pressure
is beyond the threshold, the vapor bubble
and associated liquid metal are ejected out
of the molten pool, scattering drops of
molten metal in different directions, which
deposit onto the surrounding top surface
of the workpiece. As a consequence, spatter and porosity are formed. As mentioned
previously, the spatter scattered along the

laser beam propagation direction blocks a
portion of the incident laser beam energy
into the workpiece to be welded.
In order to study the real-time dynamic
liquid metal behavior, high-speed cameras
were used to monitor the welding process.
Using a 5-W green laser as an illumination
light to suppress the strong laser light enabled the dynamic behavior of the molten
pool and the keyhole to be clearly observed. Figure 4 shows ten successive photos taken in the middle of the welding
process, which indicate the transformation
of a relatively stable molten pool into a
turbulent molten pool due to the eruption
of zinc vapor. A relatively stable molten
pool and a stable keyhole are shown in
Fig. 4A where a white spot represents the
keyhole and the area inside the blue line
represents the molten pool. As shown in
Fig. 3B, a stable molten pool has a relatively flat surface with a circular shape of
the keyhole as seen from a top view. Evolution of the zinc vapor through the keyhole causes the molten metal behind the
keyhole to be pushed back opposite to the
welding direction, as shown in Fig. 4B. A
trough and a swelling featured as indicated
by the yellow line in Fig. 4B are also observed in the molten pool. This phenomenon suggests that the molten pool has
become unstable and is fluctuating at
some frequency. Additionally, the keyhole
begins to disappear in Fig. 4B.
By the analysis of the recorded images
and direct observation of the laser welding
process, it was found that the formation of
spatter is associated with some sort of
molten pool fluctuation frequency and
amplitude of the swelling. Further studies
are needed to clarify this relationship.
From Fig. 4B to J, the shape of the
swelling and troughs vary over time as do
the size and shape of the keyhole and the
inclined angle of the keyhole with respect
to the workpiece. Note that after the
molten pool experiences a significant fluc-
tuation and a given volume of liquid melt

is ejected out of the molten pool, the
molten pool begins to stabilize, as shown
in Fig. 4J. It is theorized that the reason
for the molten pool to resume a relatively
stable condition following a period of turbulence is that the zinc vapor pressure at
the faying interface becomes lower than
the threshold value after the zinc vapor is
released during the turbulent period.
Then as the pressure builds up over time
to a point where the vapor is emitted from
the molten pool, the cyclic nature of the
molten pool turbulence is explained. This
area of study requires further research.
Vacuum-Assisted Laser Welding of
Zinc-Coated Steels
In the current body of work, a new

method, vacuum-assisted laser welding, is
proposed and developed for the welding
of zinc-coated steels in a gap-free lap joint
configuration where a vacuum system is
integrated with the laser system. As shown
in Fig. 1, a copper tube connected to the
vacuum system is positioned directly in
front of the laser focal point. During the
laser welding process, the drag force produced by the vacuum system can be adjusted with a change in the pressure level
within the vacuum system.
Figure 5 shows the initial experimental
results, which exhibit neither spatter nor
porosity in addition to full penetration.
The main reason for achieving sound
welds by the vacuum-assisted laser welding process is that a stable and open keyhole can be consistently created, which in
turn, provides a stable channel for the zinc
vapor to escape. For the conventional single laser beam welding of zinc-coated
steels, a large shear force is always present
and acts upon the molten pool resulting
from the competing forces induced by the
upward and lateral moving, unstable zinc
vapor and the downward acting laser-induced plasma. Under this large fluctuat-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 Effect of keyhole shape on coupling efficiency of laser beam energy. A Unstable keyhole reflecting a majority of the laser beam; B stable keyhole
coupling where most of the laser beam energy is transferred into the workpiece through multireflection within the keyhole.
B
A
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 Sequenced images of molten pool turbulence during laser welding (power 3.4 kW; welding speed 1.8 m/min) taken at different times. A t = 1.00000
s; B t = 1.00025 s; C t = 1.00050 s; D t = 1.00075 s; E t= 1.00100 s; F t = 1.00125 s; G t = 1.00150 s; H t=1.00175 s; I t = 1.00200
s; J t = 1.00225 s.
ing shear force as the zinc vapor pressure

builds, and subsequently releases, the
molten pool becomes dramatically unstable and the keyhole tends to collapse. With
the vacuum-assisted laser welding of zinc-
200-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
coated steels, the leading vacuum system

guides the laser-induced plasma and
plume toward the welding direction,
which provides an external force, i.e., a
drag force, to counter-balance the shear
force acting on the molten pool surface resulting from the zinc vapor.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate this mechanism. The removal of the laser-induced
plasma and plume enhances the coupling
efficiency of the laser power into the weld.

Furthermore, a negative pressure zone is
created directly on the top of the molten
pool when a vacuum system is used during
the laser welding process. This suggests that
the pressure level in front of the laser beam
is always the lowest. The difference in the
pressure level of the highly pressurized zinc
vapor and that around the copper tube facilitates the zinc vapor to escape toward the
lower pressure zone, i.e., the suction direction. Thus, the applied force on the surface
of the molten pool from the zinc vapor and
laser-induced plasma is reduced. Under
these welding conditions, the molten pool
remains stable and the coupling of laser
power into the workpiece is consistent. As
a consequence, the keyhole is stable and remains open during welding for the zinc
vapor to escape.
Real-Time Monitoring of Laser-Induced
Plasma and Plume
A high-speed camera was used to study

the dynamic behavior of the laser-induced
plasma. In this case, the illuminating green
laser light was not used. Figure 8 presents
successive top view images of the laser-induced plasma and plume taken by the
high-speed camera. Figure 8AF indicate
the typical characteristics of the laser-induced plasma plume including weld spatter for conventional laser welding and Fig.
8GM demonstrate the typical characteristics of laser-induced plasma plume with
no weld spatter for vacuum-assisted laser
welding. As shown in Fig. 8AF, the laserinduced plasma and plume are highly dynamic and demonstrate rapid change in
their shape and size over a short time. Because of the strong force the plasma and
plume induce on the molten pool, the
molten pool is severely disturbed and becomes very unstable when the laserinduced plasma and plume fluctuates in a
large angle with respect to the top surface
of the workpiece. Furthermore, changes in
the shape and size of the laser-induced
plasma and plume influences the coupling
efficiency of the laser beam energy into
the workpiece. As a consequence, the keyhole is unstable, and its depth and shape
are changed. When the keyhole depth
does not reach the faying interface of the
two metal sheets or is collapsed, the
highly-pressurized zinc vapor cant find a
channel to escape, and it expands inside
the molten pool. Consequently, a large
amount of liquid metal is expelled from
the molten pool and spatter is observed, as
shown in Fig. 8A. In contrast, the size and
shape of the laser-induced plasma and
plume are very stable when the vacuum
system is applied. As can be seen in Fig. 8
GM, the laser-induced plasma and plume
are guided by the vacuum system toward
the direction of suction, and their shape
and size exhibit little change over time.
The stability of the laser-induced
plasma and plume facilitates coupling of
the laser beam energy uniformly into the
welded materials. Thus, the keyhole depth
and shape do not vary dramatically, which
helps the zinc vapor to escape from the interface. It is observed that when the vacuum system is applied, the weld
penetration is nearly the same at different
locations of the weld. Figure 9 presents a
set of six sequenced images of the keyhole
and molten pool recorded by a high-speed
camera using an illumination light during
the vacuum-assisted laser welding. These
images clearly show that the shape and
size of the keyhole vary within a small
range, and the keyhole is maintained open
during the entire sequence.
The improved stability achieved by vacuum-assisted laser welding can be explained from an energy point of view, by
the fact that the suction device improves
the molten pool/keyhole stability thereby
reducing the effects of defocusing and absorption of laser-induced plasma and
plume on the laser beam energy. Figure 10
schematically shows the improved laser
beam transmission to the workpiece. According to the Beer-Lambert Law,
I(Z)=I0eZ
(1)
Fig. 7 Schematic of the negative pressure zone

above the molten pool.
where I is the laser beam energy absorbed

by the workpiece, I0 is the incident laser
beam energy, is the absorption coefficient of laser-induced plasma and plume,
and Z is the height of the laser-induced
plasma and plume. From Equation 1, it is
found that changes in the height of the
laser-induced plasma and plume are associated with changes in the shape and size
of the laser-induced plasma and plume,
which alters the amount of laser beam energy transferred to the workpiece. As
shown in Fig. 10, the vacuum-assisted laser
welding process has a lower height of
laser-induced plasma and plume of Z2
than that of Z1 produced in the conventional laser welding process.
Previous studies have found that the
absorption coefficient of laser-induced
plasma and plume is relative to the temperature and electron density. The higher
the temperature and electron density, the
higher the absorption coefficient and refraction index of the laser-induced plasma
and plume (Refs. 27, 28). When using the
suction device, the plume is quickly diluted
and removed, i.e., the electron density is
reduced and the value of laser-induced
plasma and plume absorption is reduced.
As a consequence, the vacuum-assisted
laser welding process has a lower value of
Z than that in conventional laser welding.
Based on Equation 1 and considering
the constant incident laser beam energy,
the laser beam energy absorbed by the
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Welds obtained by vacuum-assisted laser welding. A Top view; B bottom view (laser
power 3.2 kW; welding speed 3 m/min).
Fig. 6 Schematic of the stabilizing mechanism

in vacuum-assisted laser welding of zinc-coated
steels in a gap-free lap joint.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Sequenced images of the molten pool during laser welding.(laser power 3.4 kW; welding speed 1.8 m/min) exhibiting dynamic behavior of laser-induced
plasma plume when suction is turned off. A t = 0.500 s; B t = 0.501 s; C t = 0.502 s; D t = 0.503 s; E t = 0.504 s; F t = 505 s (arrows point to
spatter); suction turned on; G t = 1.000 s; H t = 1.002 s; I t = 1.003 s; J t = 1.004 s; K t = 1.005 s; L t = 1.006 s. Welding direction is from right
to left for each image.
laser-induced plasma and plume during

vacuum-assisted laser welding process is
lower than that produced in conventional
202-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
laser welding process. In addition, the

laser beam could be defocused by the
laser-induced plasma and plume during
the laser welding process. As shown in Fig.

10A, the incident laser beam spot is enlarged due to the refractive effect of the
Tensile Tests
Tensile shear testing was carried out to

determine the peak load, which is used as
a measure of strength for base and weld
metals. Three tensile test specimens were
machined from the same weld for both the
vacuum-assisted and without applied vacuum conditions, both of which were
welded under the same conditions. The
average value was used to compare the
vacuum-assisted laser weld strength to that
of the single laser weld strength. The loadbearing area of the weld was assumed to
be the weld length at the faying interface
as measured on polished cross sections.
For the base metal, its tensile strength is
0.78 kN/mm, as calculated from the peak
load divided by sample width. All of the
vacuum-assisted laser welds fractured in
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to
the base metal. Figure 11B shows the characteristics of a typical fracture in a sample
produced by vacuum-assisted laser welding. The average maximum tensile
strength of the vacuum-assisted laser weld
was 0.77 kN/mm. Similar to the previous
studies (Refs. 22, 23), the weld strength
achieved by the vacuum-assisted laser
welding process approaches that of the
base metal. However, the laser welds obtained by regular laser welding fractured
in the weld zone under tensile loading resulting in an average strength of 0.51
kN/mm. The formation of weld defects
such as the porosity degraded the weld
strength. Figure 11C shows that when
deep porosity was present in the weld,
cracking first initiated along its edge and
then propagated into the base material.
Microhardness Tests
Microhardness tests were also conducted across the weld using a 100-g load
and 10 s holding time. Figure 12 shows 1)
the relative position of the hardness measurements, and 2) the microhardness distribution
profile
for
a
typical
vacuum-assisted weld. As is typical for
steel, the highest hardness value is within
the weld zone due to a quenching effect
following the laser welding process. The
hardness value in the weld zone was relatively uniform. Furthermore, the hardness
values decreased from the weld zone,
Fig. 9 Top view images of the stable keyhole achieved by vacuum-assisted laser welding (laser power
3.4 kW; welding speed 1.8 m/min). A t = 1.000 s; B t = 1.002 s; C t = 1.003 s; D t = 1.004
s; E t = 1.005 s; F t = 1.006 s. The welding direction for all images is from right to left.
Fig. 10 Schematic of the laser-induced plasma and plume above the molten pool during welding. A
Baseline without suction; B improved laser beam energy transmission resulting in larger keyhole diameter with application of a suction device. Welding direction is from right to left. Z1 and Z2 are laser-induced plume heights without/with suction device turning off/on respectively. r1 and r3 are the laser focus
spot sizes. r2 and r4 are the real laser spot sizes without/with suction device turned off/on, respectively.
through the HAZ and to the base metal.

The lowest hardness value was located in
the region close to the base metal. No internal porosity was found in the welds,
which is similar to the results obtained by
the previous studies (Refs. 22, 23).
Conclusions
Experiments for zinc-coated steels
were conducted by vacuum-assisted laser
welding. The conclusions of this study can
be summarized as follows:
High-quality, gap-free lap joints in
zinc-coated steels can be obtained by using
a vacuum-assisted laser welding process.
This is achieved because a stable and open
keyhole can always be produced when the
suction is turned on. Therefore, the highly

pressurized zinc vapor can be vented out
through the open keyhole.
Aside from the zinc vapor itself, the
laser-induced plasma and plume are key
factors that influence the stability of the
laser welding process. When using a single laser beam, the shape and size of the
laser-induced plasma and plume fluctuate at a high frequency. This imposes a
large force on the molten pool and results
in a turbulent molten pool. A large
amount of liquid metal is squeezed out of
the molten pool and spatter is observed
when laser-induced plasma and plume vibrate at a large angle.
The laser-induced plasma and plume are
guided by the vacuum system and move
WELDING RESEARCH
laser-induced plasma during the conventional laser welding process. However, the
defocusing effect of the laser-induced
plasma and plume is reduced during the
vacuum-assisted laser welding process, as
shown in Fig. 10B. Based on the above
analysis, the coupling efficiency of the
laser beam energy is improved by vacuum
assisted laser welding in comparison to
conventional laser welding.
Fig. 11 Fracture under tensile shear loading. A

Schematic representation of lap-shear sample; B
fracture at HAZ for the vacuum-assisted weld; C
fracture in the weld zone for a conventional laser
weld.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 12 Microhardness profile of welds obtained by vacuum-assisted laser welding. A Position of

hardness measurements; B microhardness distribution profile.
along the suction direction, which also helps

to stabilize the molten pool. Vacuum-assisted laser welding can also have a higher
coupling efficiency of the laser beam than
that of the conventional laser welding.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Professor Chunming Wang from the
Huazhong University of Science and Technology for providing a fiber laser system
for concept validation. The authors would
also like to thank Shichun Chen, Xiyuan
Hu, and Jun Wang for preparing the tensile shear test coupons.
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24. Kim, C. H., Ahn, Y. N., and Kim, J. H.
2011. CO2 laser-micro plasma arc hybrid welding for galvanized steel sheets. Transactions of
Nonferrous Metals Society of China 21: 47/s53/s.
25. Gu, H. P. 2010. Laser lap welding of zinccoated steel sheet with laser-dimple technology.
Journal of Laser Applications 22(3): 8791.
26. Yang, S. L. 2009. Hybrid laser-arc welding of galvanized high strength steels in a gap
free lap joint configuration. PhD dissertation.
Southern Methodist University.
27. Mazumder, J., and Steen, W. 2011. Heat
transfer model for cw laser material processing.
Journal of Applied Physics 211: 668674.
28. Beck, M., Berger, P., and Hugel, H. 1995.
The effect of plasma formation on beam focusing in deep penetration welding CO2 lasers.
Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 28:
24302442.
Active Droplet Oscillation Excited by

Optimized Waveform
Experiments reveal the effects of waveform parameters on the excited droplet
oscillation, plus the optimal range of current waveform parameters is determined
ABSTRACT
The active droplet oscillation method is an approach previously proposed to
detach the droplet at currents below the transition current. In this method, a
droplet oscillation is first excited by intentionally switching the current from the
peak to base level; the downward momentum of the oscillating droplet is then utilized to enhance the droplet detachment such that the droplet can be detached at
reduced peak currents lower than the transition current. In the present work, this
method is systematically studied to initiate stronger oscillations with lower average currents. To this end, the current waveform is modified by differentiating the
exciting current from the growing current. This differentiation enables the growing current (heat input) be reduced without affecting the oscillation excitation.
The current waveform is then further modified by adding a base period before the
exciting pulse to maximize the oscillation, resulting in an optimized waveform. A
series of experiments has been conducted to correlate the droplet oscillation to
the parameters in the optimized waveform. The optimal ranges for the waveform
parameters are experimentally determined. The active droplet oscillation method
is improved at a fundamental level, and its mechanism is also better understood.
Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is currently the most widely used arc welding
method in the manufacturing industry due
to its high productivity by using a consumable wire and its good compatibility to automatic welding. The formation and detachment of the metal droplet is generally
referred to as the metal transfer process,
which plays a critical role in determining the
arc stability and welding quality; therefore,
effective control of the metal transfer helps
improve the GMAW process for better stability and weld quality (Refs. 1, 2).
The metal transfer is typically classified
into three modes short circuiting transJ. XIAO is with the National Key Laboratory of
Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute
of Technology, China, and the Institute for Sustainable Manufacturing, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky. G. J. ZHANG and L. WU are with
the National Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology,
China. S. J. CHEN is with the Welding Research
Institute, Beijing University of Technology, China.
Y. M. ZHANG (yuming.zhang@uky.edu) is with
the Institute for Sustainable Manufacturing and
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
fer, globular transfer, and spray transfer.

Spray transfer can be further classified
into drop (projected) spray and streaming
spray (Ref. 3). With relatively low welding
currents, the transfer mode is expected to
be short circuiting or globular transfer,
which both often produce unstable arc and
significant spatters unless appropriate
controls such as surface tension transfer
(STT) and cold metal transfer (CMT)
(Refs. 46) are applied. When the welding
current increases to be higher than the
transition current (Ref. 3), the transfer
mode changes into the spray transfer in
which the droplet is detached at a diameter similar to that of the wire. A further increase in the current would result in the
KEYWORDS
Droplet
Oscillation
Waveform
Metal Transfer
Transition Current
Spray Transfer
streaming spray where the impact from

high-speed small particles on the weld
pool may produce undesirable fingershaped penetration (Refs. 710).
While drop spray, which is generally associated with good stability and low spatter, is often the preferred transfer mode,
its required amperage higher than the
transition current, resulting in increased
heat input, metal vapors, and arc pressures may not always be preferred.
Welding researchers are motivated to develop methods that use currents lower
than the transition currents to produce
drop spray transfer. According to the dynamic force model balance (DFMB) theory on metal transfer (Ref. 11), the electromagnetic force determined by the
welding current is the primary detaching
force, and the gravitational force, plasma
gas drag force, and momentum force also
contribute to droplet detachment. The
major retaining force that resists the
droplet detachment is the surface tension.
When the detaching force is greater than
the retaining force, the droplet is detached
from the wire tip. Based on this theory, the
approaches developed to achieve spray
transfer have focused on changing the
forces on the droplet using electrical and
mechanical ways (Refs. 1217).
Pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAWP) is a widely used electrical way to produce the desired drop spray transfer at a
wide range of average current (Refs. 14,
18). In GMAW-P, the desired one droplet
per pulse (ODPP) transfer is achieved by
selecting an appropriate combination of
the duration and amplitude of the peak
current. Basically, the amplitude of the
peak current still needs to be higher than
the transition current to avoid one droplet
multiple pulses (ODMP) while its duration needs to be appropriately short to
avoid multiple droplets per pulse (Refs.
19, 20) and appropriately long to ensure
the detachment for ODMP. Achieving the
desired droplet ODPP transfer using
GMAW-P through optimizing parameters
may not be robust enough while a peak
WELDING RESEARCH
BY J. XIAO, G. J. ZHANG, S. J. CHEN, L. WU, AND Y. M. ZHANG
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Active metal transfer by monitoring the excited droplet oscillation.
Fig. 2 Schematic of the experimental system.
Fig. 3 Sketch of the droplet oscillation.
Fig. 4 Simple current waveform for the separation-based modification.
current higher than the transition current

is still needed.
A method has been proposed to
achieve a robust control for repeatable
and controllable metal transfer in
GMAW-P with reduced peak current amperage, referred to as active control of
metal transfer, by using an excited droplet
oscillation (Refs. 2123). The droplet is
actively oscillated to generate a downward
momentum that will significantly enhance
the droplet detachment. As shown in Fig.
1, during the exciting pulse, the droplet
grows gradually at the same amperage as
the exciting current and is dragged into an
elongated shape with initial amplitude in
the weld pool direction by the electromagnetic force. Then the current is
switched from the exciting level to the
base level, so the electromagnetic force
decreases, and the droplet springs back to
the wire tip and starts oscillating due to the
surface tension.
206-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
When the downward motion of the

droplet is first detected, the current is increased to the detaching level. With the assistance of the downward momentum, the
droplet detachment is ensured with a detaching current lower than the spray transition current, which is essential in conventional GMAW-P. The synchronization
of the detaching current and downward
momentum of the droplet is referred to as
phase match. In Ref. 24, this method has
been modified to suit for metal transfer
control for titanium by applying appropriate current levels, but the current waveform is unchanged.
In the dynamic force balance model
(DFBM), a mass-spring system is used to
model the droplet oscillation (Ref. 11).
The dynamic droplet motion is described
as a second-order system varying with time
as follows:
m(t) + c(t) + k(t)x = F(t)
where x represents the mass center displacement in the axial direction, F is the
axial force exerted on the droplet, and m,
c, and k are the mass, damping coefficient,
and spring constant of the droplet, respectively. The surface tension acts as a spring
force. In literature (Ref. 11), the droplet
oscillation under continuous current is numerically analyzed. The droplet oscillation under the pulsed current condition is
studied in literature (Ref. 25). The numerical computation results in Refs. 11
and 25 both demonstrate that the droplet
oscillation frequency is mainly determined
by the droplet mass.
With respect to the active droplet oscillation, the previous research focused on
introducing its novel principle. However,
the associated oscillation was not fully
studied. In particular, the exciting pulse
current was fixed at a high level (220 A for
a 1.2-mm-diameter wire) to ensure that
the droplet could be elongated and oscil-
lated consequently. The droplet growing

period was coupled within the exciting period. Only the base current and duration
were adjusted to analyze the droplet oscillating frequency and amplitude (Ref. 21).
Its further analysis may result in improvements and optimization for much enhanced metal transfer control abilities.
In particular, the excited droplet oscillation is a damping process. The initial displacement of the droplet that determines
the initial oscillating energy increases with
the exciting peak current. However, in the
original active oscillation method, this exciting peak current is the same with the
current that grows the droplet. If a lower
and adjustable growing current is used to
form the droplet as determined by the application, and then a shorter exciting pulse
is applied to excite the droplet oscillation,
the growing and exciting processes can be
separately controlled. The metal transfer
control achieved by the active oscillation
method may be improved.
Active droplet oscillation can be considered as an electrical control strategy for
metal transfer. This active control technology can be applied not only in GMAWP as a modified GMAW-P process, but
also can be coupled with other control
methods to improve the original process
such as laser-enhanced GMAW, a method
recently developed to actively control the
metal transfer at given arc variables (Ref.
26). In such a process, a laser beam irradiating on the droplet is applied to vaporize
the droplet partially. A recoil force is generated as an additional detaching force to
enhance droplet detachment. As a result,
short circuiting transfer under a range of
welding currents becomes controlled
globular transfer or even drop spray transfer. Therefore, the metal transfer and heat
input, respectively, can be freely controlled. Welding spatter is also reduced
significantly, and the arc stability is improved (Refs. 27, 28). However, the requirement on the laser power restricts its
application in industry. If the active
droplet oscillation technology is combined
into laser-enhanced
GMAW, a reduction in
the required laser
power may be expected,
just as the reduction of
the detaching peak curC
rent in GMAW-P.
In this paper, the active droplet oscillation process is further
analyzed and optimized. A modified current waveform is proposed in which the
droplet growing and oscillation exciting
are decoupled and become separately
controllable. The growing current can be
set no longer as high as the exciting peak
current. The average welding current decreases. On the other hand, the exciting
peak duration can be set very narrow,
which is expected to generate enough
electromagnetic force to elongate the
droplet prominently but not melt the wire
significantly. Based on the observation
and analysis of the preliminary results, the
Table 1 Definitions of Variables in Oscillation Description
Symbol
Definition
Lint
Initial droplet length measured at the end of the growing period
A(i)
Droplet oscillation amplitude of cycle i:

A(i) = Lmax (i) Lmin (i)
T(i)
Measured droplet oscillation period of cycle i:

T(i) = ts(i) te(i)
Aint
Initial amplitude of the whole droplet oscillation duration:

Aint = Lmax(0) Lint
Aavg
Average oscillation amplitude of N droplet oscillating cycles:
avg
Tavg
A( i )
i =0
Average droplet oscillation period under certain waveform parameters:
avg
T ( i )
i =0
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Current waveform and droplet oscillation with a 1-ms interval per
frame. A Experiment 1; B experiment 2; C experiment 3.
WELDING RESEARCH
C
Fig. 7 Optimized welding current waveform.
Fig. 6 Dynamic curves of the droplet oscillation. A Experiment 1;

B experiment 2; C experiment 3.
Table 2 Growing Parameters in

Experiments 13
Table 3 Growing Parameters in

Experiments 4, 5
No.
Ig (A)
Tg (ms)
Waveform
No.
Ig (A)
Tg (ms)
Waveform
1
2
3
150
80
40
11
20
40
Original
Modified
Modified
4
5
80
150
20
11
Optimized
Optimized
current waveform is further optimized to

maximize the droplet oscillation energy
despite the actual growing current level.
The key factors that characterize the dynamic droplet oscillation, such as the amplitude, frequency, and rate of decay
under different exciting parameters, are
calculated to measure the droplet oscillation magnitude. By selecting an optimal
combination of the exciting parameters, a
much stronger droplet oscillation with significantly lower heat input are achieved.
In this sense, the study improves the active
oscillation method and furthers the un-
208-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
derstanding on the dynamic droplet oscillation behavior and mechanism.
Experimental System
and Approach
Experimental Setup
The experimental setup is shown in

Fig. 2. An inverter power source was used
to conduct the welding experiments. It can
be used for either constant current (CC)
or constant voltage (CV) mode. In this
work, the CC mode was selected to
achieve the desired welding current waveform. The arc length was controlled to be
stable by adjusting the wire feeding speed
based on arc voltage feedback. The power
supply and wire feeder can both be controlled by analog input signals. A singleboard computer-based controller was established to compute the output waveform
of the welding current and wire feed
speed. A data-acquisition set was established to record the actual welding current
and arc voltage waveform during the welding experiments, and an Olympus iSpeed2 high-speed camera was used to observe
and record the droplet oscillation. The
data-acquisition board and high-speed
camera both can be triggered to work by a
5-V TTL signal such that recording the arc
variables and metal transfer is synchronized; therefore, the arc voltage signal can
be further processed to analyze the
droplet oscillation process. To view the
highly dynamic characteristics of the
droplet oscillation, the recording fre-
Fig. 9 Dynamic curve of the droplet oscillation in experiment 4.
quency was set at 5000 hz.

All the welding experiments were conducted as bead-on-plate welding with a
travel speed of 3 mm/s; the base metal was
mild steel; the wire was ER70S-6 with 0.8
mm diameter; and the distance from the
contact tip to workpiece was set at 12 mm.
Experimental Study Steps
As mentioned earlier, the major modification introduced from this study is that
the droplet growing and exciting are intentionally separated as two actions. That
is, a lower growing current with a specified
duration is applied to form the droplet.
When the droplet reaches the desired size,
the welding current is increased to the exciting peak level. This peak current is
maintained for several milliseconds. During this exciting peak period, the droplet is
elongated by the increased electromagnetic force. Due to this elongation, the
droplet springs back to start oscillating
when the current is switched to the base
level. As can be seen, this modification involves a number of parameters that char-
Fig. 10 Droplet oscillation amplitudes measured from experiments 14.
acterize the current waveform and may affect the effectiveness of the proposed
modification. To optimize the modification, the experimental studies will follow
pursuing three steps.
Feasibility Verification. The experiments in this step will be designed and
used as examples to verify that the modification characterized by the separation of
the exciting current from the growing current can help increase the initial energy of
the oscillation. The average droplet diameter will be controlled to be slightly larger
than the wire diameter to avoid the effect
from the droplet mass.
Waveform Optimization. The separation of the exciting current from the growing current provides a modification to increase the oscillation. However, the
separation method (current waveform)
used above for the feasibility verification
is a relatively simple one. To further take
advantage of the separation, the effect of
the separation is maximized by reducing
the current from the growing current to
the possible minimal level allowed, i.e.,
the base current, before the exciting pulse
is applied. The waveform is further modified to maximize the oscillation.

Parameter Optimization. While the
optimized waveform provides a type of
current waveform that can further increase the oscillation using the separation
principle, there are still parameters depicting the actual waveform and that can
be optimized to maximize the oscillation.
In
this
step,
experiments
are
designed/conducted and the experimental
data are analyzed to optimize these
parameters.
Analysis Approach
High-speed droplet image sequences

and actual arc variable waveforms are synchronously recorded by using the same
trigger signal to analyze the oscillation.
For quantitative analysis of the oscillation,
the vertical coordinates of the droplet top
and bottom are measured in pixels (11.25
pixels = 1 mm) from the recorded images.
The droplet length can be calculated to
describe the droplet oscillation behavior.
The fluctuation of the measured droplet
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Droplet oscillation using the optimized current waveform with a 1-ms interval per frame. A Experiment 4; B experiment 5.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 Droplet oscillation with different exciting peak durations. A Te = 2 ms; B Te = 3 ms; C Te = 4 ms; D Te = 5 ms; E Te = 6 ms;
F Te = 7 ms.
Fig. 12 Droplet oscillation energy with different

exciting peak durations.
Fig. 13 Droplet motion during the exciting period for experiment 11 with a 0.4-ms interval per frame.
length curve gives the droplet oscillation

magnitude. However, in previous work
(Ref. 21), only the coordinates of the
droplet bottom position were measured to
describe the oscillation. The top and bottom coordinates of the droplet can apparently be used to better describe and analyze the oscillation.
A standard damping oscillation is
used to model the droplet oscillation in
this study as shown in Fig. 3. The parameters in this model are self defined in Fig.
3 and explained in Table 1. In Table 1, N
denotes the total oscillation cycles the
droplet experiences from the end of the
exciting pulse to the application of the
detaching pulse.
In particular, at the end of the exciting
pulse, the droplet oscillation starts. The
initial amplitude Aint is used to represent
the initial droplet oscillation energy for a
given mass droplet. Because of possible

errors in image measurement, the average
amplitude of the droplet oscillation Aavg is
defined to better quantify the droplet oscillation energy during the whole oscillating period. What should be pointed out is
that each oscillating cycle is not isochronous because the droplet mass is still
slowly increasing during the oscillation.
Therefore, the droplet oscillation period
and frequency cited in this paper are actually the average period and frequency.
Also, in this paper, the oscillation of the
droplet is quantitatively analyzed using
the model and parameters together with
high-speed images.
210-s
JULY 2013, VOL. 92
Simple Current Waveform

for Separation
The effectiveness of separation as a
modification to the active oscillation

method is first verified using a simple current waveform as shown in Fig. 4. In this
case, the whole metal transfer cycle is divided into four periods as follows: growing, exciting, oscillating, and detaching.
The droplet grows gradually during the
growing period at a relatively low current
Ig. The initial droplet length Lint is controlled by adjusting the growing duration
Tg. Then the current is increased to the exciting peak level Ie. The exciting peak duration Te is expected to be as short as several milliseconds. The difference between
the exciting peak current and growing current is defined as the exciting rising level
IR: Ie Ig. Then the current is reduced to
the exciting base level Ib, and this stepdown level is defined as the exciting falling
level IF: Ie Ib. The base duration Tb is set
to be long enough to provide adequate
Fig. 14 Droplet oscillation with different exciting base currents. A Ib2 = 10 A; B Ib2 = 50 A.
Fig. 15 Droplet oscillation amplitude with different exciting base currents.
Fig. 16 Droplet oscillation with 70-A exciting

peak current.
three experiments were measured at approximately 1.2 mm.

The droplet oscillation frequencies in
experiments 13 were all measured to be
approximately 166 Hz. The oscillation periods Tavg were approximately 6 ms in
these experiments. The equivalence of the
oscillation frequency observed from these
experiments is supported by the previous
theoretical work that the droplet oscillation frequency is mainly determined by the
droplet mass (Refs. 11, 25).
The initial droplet oscillation energy
should have been believed to be mainly
determined by the exciting peak current
level when the droplet mass is given. This
would suggest that the initial amplitude in
all these three experiments should be similar as their exciting peak current and
droplet mass are the same. However, this
prediction is not supported by the experimental results.
Each frame 6 in Fig. 5AC shows the
elongation of the droplet at the falling
edge of the exciting pulse. As aforementioned, this elongation represents the initial energy of the active oscillation. As can
be seen, despite the same droplet mass
and application of the same exciting current, the droplet is more elongated when
applying the lower growing current. In
particular, the difference among these
three experiments is the exciting rising
level IR, defined as Ie Ig, which is 0 A in
experiment 1, but 70 and 110 A for experiments 2 and 3. The dynamic droplet
length curves of the whole metal transfer
cycle in experiments 13 are measured to
demonstrate the droplet oscillations and
perform a further quantitative comparison, as shown in Fig. 6AC. It can be seen
that the fluctuation of the droplet length
in experiment 3 is prominently more significant, implying that its droplet oscillation energy is significantly larger than
those in experiments 1 and 2.
It is now clear that the exciting peak
current is not the only parameter determining the initial oscillation energy when
the droplet mass is given. Instead, the initial oscillation energy is determined by the
exciting raising level. In the original active
oscillation method, the exciting current
equals the growing current, resulting in a
zero exciting raising level. The separationbased modification specifies an effective
direction to increase the oscillation.
Current Waveform Optimization

Rising Level Maximization
Although the droplet oscillation can be

enhanced by applying a lower growing current to enlarge the exciting rising level, the
droplet growth also slows down, resulting
in reduced metal transfer frequency. The
current waveform should maximize the
WELDING RESEARCH
time for the droplet to oscillate. At the end

of the base duration, the detaching current
Id is applied to guarantee the droplet detachment. Hence, the whole growing, exciting, oscillating, and detaching periods
are
periodically
repeatable
and
controllable.
Experiments 13 were conducted to examine the droplet oscillation under the
simple waveform modification. The growing parameters of the current waveform
used in these three experiments are listed
in Table 2. The growing period Tg has been
intentionally changed with the growing
current Ig to control the droplet diameter
to be slightly greater than that of the wire.
The droplet mass in these three experiments were controlled approximately the
same such that the effect of the droplet
mass on the oscillation can be excluded in
the verification experiments.
The remaining waveform parameters
in these experiments are fixed to be the
same: Ie = 150 A, Te = 4 ms; Ib = 30 A, Tb
= 30 ms; and Id = 165 A, Td = 5 ms. It is
apparent the oscillation in experiment 1,
where the growing current equals the exciting current, is actually the oscillation excited using the original method. Its comparison with those in experiments 2 and 3
will be used to verify the effectiveness of
the separation-based modification.
In particular, the exciting peak current
Ie was set at 150 A based on that the actual
transition current was experimentally
measured to be 165 A under the aforementioned welding condition (wire diameter, shielding gas, etc.). The exciting peak
duration Te was 4 ms. The growing currents Ig were set at 150, 80, and 40 A for experiments 13, respectively. The growing
durations Tg were correspondingly set at
11, 20, and 40 ms to keep the initial droplet
size approximately even in the three
experiments.
The average current in experiments
13 79.5, 66.5, and 49.7 A, respectively
can be easily calculated. It is quite clear
that the heat input can be effectively reduced by using the modified current waveform. The droplet oscillations in these
three experiments were analyzed from the
obtained image sequences. A typical cycle
of measured current waveforms and images of droplet oscillation are shown in
Fig. 5AC in which the time interval for
each frame is 1 ms. Due to the rapid damping of the droplet oscillation, only the
droplet images during the exciting period
and first oscillating cycle are presented for
a quick visual verification. As can be seen
from the recorded current waveform, the
dynamic response time of the selected
power source to a step control signal is approximately 1 ms. Consequently, the exciting peak duration should be no less than
2 ms. The initial droplet lengths Lint in the
Fig. 17 Droplet oscillation with Ie = 140 A. A Te = 2 ms; B Te= 3 ms; C Te = 4 ms.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 18 Droplet oscillation with Ie = 130 A. A Te = 2 ms; B Te = 3 ms; C Te = 4 ms.
rising level of the exciting pulse despite the

growing current. To this end, the further
optimized waveform shown in Fig. 7 is
proposed. In this waveform, at the end of
the growing duration, the current is first
switched to the base level, and then increased to the exciting peak level. Two new
parameters are introduced: the base current Ib1 and its duration Tb1 before exciting. The exciting rising level IR becomes
Ie Ib1. Since the base current is approximately the lowest amperage allowed, the
exciting rising level is maximized.
Preoscillation
While the intentional decrease of the
212-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
current before exciting maximizes the exciting rising level to enhance the droplet
oscillation, it introduces a possible need
for phase match such that the base duration Tb1 should be determined based on
the growing current level. That is, when
the growing current amperage is high
enough, for example, 150 A, the droplet is
expected to have been pre-elongated during the growing duration. As a result,
when the current is changed to the first
base level Ib1, the droplet oscillation
should have been excited. This oscillation
that occurs before the exciting pulse is referred to as the preoscillation in this study.
In this case, the droplet downward momentum during the first base period Tb1
can be utilized to further enhance the

droplet oscillation during the second base
duration Tb2. However, this enhancement
occurs only when the exciting pulse
matches the preoscillation in phase, i.e.,
the exciting pulse that is supposed to elongate the droplet should be applied when
the droplet moves down toward the workpiece during the preoscillation. The first
base duration Tb1 should be half of the
droplet oscillation period to synchronize
the droplet downward motion and exciting
pulse. However, if the growing current is
not high enough to pre-elongate the
droplet significantly, the phase match condition is not required. Hence, the first base
current period in the optimized current
WELDING RESEARCH
waveform needs to be determined based

on the growing current.
Verification of Optimization Effect
To verify the effect of the optimized

waveform, which is characterized by the
first base period before the exciting pulse,
experiments 4 and 5 were conducted using
the optimized waveform with different
growing parameters listed in Table 3. The
remaining waveform parameters in these
two experiments were fixed: Ib1 = 30 A,
Tb1 = 3 ms; Ie = 150 A, Te = 4 ms; Ib2 =
30 A, Tb2 = 30 ms; and Id = 165 A, Td =
5 ms. The initial droplet mass in the two
experiments were also approximately the
same. To utilize the possible preoscillation

to enhance the final droplet oscillation,
the first base time Tb1 was set at 3 ms to
match the phase because the droplet oscillation period was approximately 6 ms
for the given droplet mass in experiments
4 and 5. The recorded current waveforms
and droplet oscillation images from experiments 4 and 5 are shown in Fig. 8A, B.
The time interval for each frame is also 1
ms. The measured droplet length curve of
experiment 4 is shown in Fig. 9.
The result from experiment 4 (using
the optimized waveform for separationbased modification) is first compared with
that from experiment 2 (using the simple
waveform for separation-based modifica-
tion). The growing and exciting parameters in the two experiments are the same.
The only difference is that the exciting rising level IR has been maximized to 120 A
in experiment 4 for the exciting current
and base current used while it is 70 A in experiment 2 due to the simple waveform. It
can be clearly seen from corresponding
frame 6 in Figs. 5B and 8A that the droplet
is apparently more elongated during the
exciting period in experiment 4. From
Figs. 6B and 9, it also can be seen that the
droplet length fluctuation in experiment 4
using the optimized waveform is much
more intensive than that in experiment 2
using the simple waveform. The droplet
oscillation energy in experiment 4 is sigWELDING JOURNAL 213-s
Table 4 Waveform Parameters in

Experiments 611
WELDING RESEARCH
No.
Te (ms)
6
7
8
9
10
11
2
3
4
5
6
7
nificantly higher than that in experiment 2.

The effect of the optimized waveform
characterized by the first base period before the exciting pulse is experimentally
demonstrated.
Secondly, the results of experiments 4
and 5 can be compared to demonstrate the
effect of the growing current (preoscillation) on the droplet oscillation. In these two
experiments, the exciting rising level IR is
120 A in both experiments. However, the
growing current is different although the
droplet mass is approximately the same. In
experiment 5, the growing current (150 A)
is high enough to pre-elongate the droplet.
In experiment 4, the growing current (80 A)
is relatively low; the droplet is not significantly pre-elongated during the growing period such that the preoscillation during the
first base period is quite weak. It can be seen
from Fig. 8B the droplet is detached by the
exciting pulse of 150 A current with only 4
ms duration due to the preoscillation in experiment 5. However, in Fig. 8A for experiment 4 where the preoscillation is insignificant, the droplet is not detached. The
oscillation in experiment 5 (with preoscillation) is stronger. The effect of the preoscillation in enhancing the oscillation is demonstrated, and it is apparently an additional
advantage of the optimized waveform.
To further perform a global quantitative analysis of the current waveform
(original, simple, and optimized) effect on
the droplet oscillation, the initial ampli-
214-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
tude Aint and average amplitude Aavg for

experiments 14 are measured and calculated. The results are shown in Fig. 10.
In addition, the following can be seen:
1. For experiments 13, in which the
simple current waveform was used, the exciting rising level is 0, 70, and 110 A, respectively. From Fig. 10, the droplet oscillation amplitude increases with the
increased exciting rising level. The average amplitude in experiment 2 is 42.8%
higher than that in experiment 1, and the
average amplitude in experiment 3 is, respectively, 171 and 90% higher than that
in experiments 1 and 2. Much stronger
droplet oscillation is achieved by using the
simple waveform for separation-based
modification with a reduced growing current when the exiting current is given.
2. In comparison with experiment 3, the
magnitude of the droplet oscillation in experiment 4 is improved. As can be seen from
Fig. 10, the initial amplitude of experiment
4 is 25% higher than that in experiment 3,
and the average amplitude is increased by
7.9%. This improvement is achieved because the exciting rising level IR is 9.09%
higher than that in experiment 3. This increase in the exciting rising level IR is the result of the first base period that characterizes the optimized waveform, which
decouples the exciting rising level IR from
the growing current. The growing current
can be freely selected to grow the droplet
and control the metal transfer frequency. It
is apparent that the optimized waveform is
responsible for the improvement.
In summary, it has been found that a
larger exciting rising level produces a
stronger droplet oscillation. The optimized waveform proposed provides a
method to maximize the exciting rising
level by adding a base period before the
exciting pulse. This addition of additional
base period also introduces a possible preoscillation, and this preoscillation may
further enhance the oscillation if the duration of the added base period facilitates
a phase match with the exciting pulse.
Optimization of
Waveform Parameters
Although the optimized waveform provides a method to maximize the exciting rising level, there are still other parameters
which specify the actual waveform and can
be optimized to maximize the oscillation.
These parameters include the exciting peak
duration, exciting peak/base current, and
growing duration. A series of experiments
was designed and conducted in this section
to analyze the effects on the droplet oscillation and determine the optimal selection of
these parameters.
Exciting Peak Duration
In this subsection, the exciting peak duration Te was set into several different levels to analyze its influence on the droplet
oscillation. If the exciting peak duration is
too long, the droplet may grow to a relatively large size and then get detached by
the gravity such that the desired droplet
oscillation cannot be observed. On the
other hand, if the peak duration is too narrow, the droplet probably could not be
elongated enough, and the droplet oscillation would be too weak to be observed. In
this sense, an appropriate range for the exciting peak duration is needed. Based on
the results from experiments 3 and 4, it has
been confirmed that the droplet oscillation is reasonably strong by using 4 ms exciting peak duration. Furthermore, the
droplet oscillations with other different
exciting peak duration levels also need to
be studied to lead a deeper comprehension on the droplet oscillation behavior.
Hence, experiments 611 were conducted
in which the exciting peak duration Te was
the only varying variable. As can be seen
from Table 4, the exciting peak duration
was changed from 2 to 7 ms in experiments
611. The other waveform parameters in
this group of experiments were fixed: Ig =
80 A, Tg = 20 ms; Ib1 = 30 A, Tb1 = 3 ms;
Ie = 150 A; Ib2 = 30 A, Tb2 = 30 ms; and
Id = 165 A, Td = 5 ms.
The dynamic droplet length curves are
measured, as shown in Fig. 11AF, for experiments 611, respectively. The initial
amplitude Aint and average amplitude Aavg
in this group of experiments are also measured to demonstrate how the exciting peak
duration influences the droplet oscillation
magnitude, as shown in Fig. 12.
As can be seen from Fig. 11AC, the
droplet length keeps increasing during the
whole exciting peak period when the exciting peak duration is 24 ms. When the
exciting peak duration is 57 ms, as shown
in Fig. 11DF, the droplet is elongated to
its maximum displacement in approximately 3 ms from the start of the exciting
pulse. In the rest of the exciting peak period, the droplet length is no longer increased and even slightly reduced. The
fluctuations of the droplet length curve
with the exciting duration of 3 and 4 ms are
approximately in the same level. The fluctuation in experiment 6 with the exciting
duration of 2 ms is significantly weaker.
This result agrees with the logical prediction that weaker droplet oscillation is associated with shorter exciting duration.
However, the unexpected result is that the
droplet oscillation also got weaker when
the exciting peak duration exceeded 4 ms.
As can be seen from Fig. 11CF, the fluctuation of the droplet length gets weaker
with the increased exciting peak duration
(from 4 to 7 ms). As can be calculated
from Fig. 12, the average amplitude of the
droplet oscillation with 5 ms exciting peak
duration is approximately 36.6% lower
than that with 4 ms exciting peak duration,
even 13.3% lower than that with 2 ms exciting duration.
Take experiment 11 using 7 ms exciting
peak duration as an example to analyze
the dynamic motion of the droplet during
Fig. 25 Droplet oscillation with different growing durations.
the entire exciting peak period, as shown

in Fig. 13, with the time interval for each
image being 0.4 ms. During the period as
frames 18 show (3.2 ms), the droplet
length keeps increasing until it reaches the
maximum displacement, and the arc
length is stable. After that, the droplet
length stops increasing, while the droplet
starts to move upward and the arc length
is slightly increased by 0.6 mm, as shown in
frames 916 of Fig. 13. Such a fluctuation
level of the arc length is absolutely acceptable in the GMAW process. It can be seen
that the droplet is getting slightly less elongated during its upward moving period.
A qualitative analysis of this phenomenon is performed based on the dynamic
force balance model (DFBM) of metal
transfer (Ref. 11), in which droplet momentum is considered. The droplet momentum contributes to attaching or detaching the droplet, depending on the
droplet moving directions. During the exciting peak period, the wire melting rate is
significantly increased because the current
is increased. Meanwhile, the wire feed
speed can be considered constant during
this several-millisecond short period, because the adjustment on the wire feed
speed is much slower. As a result, the wire
melting rate exceeds the wire feed speed
during the exciting peak period. The wire
is burned back toward the contact tip, and
the droplet moves upward.
It is the upward momentum of the
droplet that partly counteracts the electromagnetic force. Therefore, the droplet
gets less elongated, and the droplet oscillation is weakened.
The dynamic motion of the droplet
during the whole exciting peak period
clearly reveals two effects of the current
increase (from the base level to exciting
peak level) on the droplet:
1. Force Effect. The high electromagnetic force generated by the exciting peak
current drags the droplet into an elongated shape. Based on the experimental
results, we can see that this effect takes
place instantly once the current is
switched to the exciting peak level.
2. Thermal Effect. Because the current
is increased, the wire melting rate increases to exceed the wire feed speed. The
wire is burned back slightly, in other
words, the arc length increases slightly,
and the droplet moves upward to the wire
tip during the dynamic process. The upward momentum is produced, and it weakens the droplet oscillation. However, the
so-called thermal effect demonstrates a
slight delay to the current increase, which
is approximately 3 ms measured from the
experimental results.
In summary, it is the upward momentum of the droplet during the exciting period that weakens the droplet oscillation,
but the delay of its occurrence to the current increase determines that there is a
threshold of exciting peak duration for the
droplet oscillation to get weaker. Based on
the results as Figs. 11 and 12 show, the
threshold level is 4 ms, and the optimal selection of the exciting peak duration is
confirmed to be 3 to 4 ms. An exciting
peak duration of 2 ms is also acceptable.
However, the exciting peak duration exceeding 4 ms is not recommended.
Exciting Base Current
As mentioned above, the droplet oscillation is a damping process. When the exciting peak current is switched to the base
level, the electromagnetic force is reduced
but not eliminated, and it contributes to
decay of the droplet oscillation. In this
sense, an applicable exciting base current
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 24 Average amplitude with different exciting peak currents.
Table 5 Exciting Parameters of

Experiments 1434
Table 6 Growing Duration of Experiments

3537
WELDING RESEARCH
No.
Ie(A)
Te (ms)
No.
Tg (ms)
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
140
140
140
130
130
130
120
120
120
110
110
110
100
100
100
90
90
90
80
80
80
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
35
36
37
10
20
40
should be determined. The criteria should

be that the droplet oscillation will not
decay too fast to weaken the beneficial
downward momentum significantly and
that the arc would still burn stably. To this
end, the exciting base current Ib2 is set to
be 10 and 50 A in experiments 12 and 13,
respectively, to verify its effect on the
droplet oscillation. The other current
waveform parameters in the two experiments were fixed to be Ig = 80 A, Tg = 20
ms; Ib1 = 30 A, Tb1 = 3 ms; Ie = 150 A, Te
= 4 ms; Tb2 = 30 ms; and Id = 165 A, Td
= 5 ms. The result of experiment 8 is referred to as a comparison, in which the exciting base current Ib2 is 30 A, and the
other parameters are the same with those
in experiments 12 and 13.
The measured droplet oscillation from
experiments 12 and 13 are shown in Fig.
14A and B, respectively. It can be seen that
the fluctuation of droplet length in experiment 13 is weaker than that in experiment
12. The initial amplitude Aint and average
amplitude Aavg in experiments 8, 12, and
13 are calculated correspondingly, as
shown in Fig. 15. It can be seen that the initial amplitudes in the three experiments
are quite similar, because the same growing and exciting parameters were used in
the three experiments. However, the average amplitude demonstrates a down trend
with the increased exciting base current.
As shown in Fig. 15, the average amplitude with the base current of 10 and 30 A
are measured being similar, but that with
the exciting base current of 50 A is approximately 24% weaker. Furthermore,
with respect to the fact that the arc burning at 30 A is more stable than that burn216-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
ing at 10 A, the exciting base current was

fixed at 30 A in the following experiments
as an optimal selection.
Exciting Peak Current
The droplet oscillation behavior is further analyzed by changing the exciting

peak current in this subsection. The exciting peak current certainly cannot be
higher than the transition current. However, it is also doubtless that the exciting
peak current cannot be lower than a specific level. Otherwise, the droplet will not
be elongated and then oscillated effectively. This minimum exciting peak current level is defined as the oscillating transition current in this paper. Based on the
study above, the selections of the current
waveform and exciting peak duration are
optimized. An exciting peak current, Ie of
150 A, is used to elongate the droplet according to the transition current of 165 A.
The optimal range of the exciting peak duration is also confirmed to be 24 ms. In
this subsection, the oscillating transition
current is first verified by experiments,
then a group of experiments with a different combination of exciting peak current
Ie and duration Te are conducted. The
droplet oscillations are recorded and
analyzed.
The oscillating transition current was
tested to be 70 A by the experiments in
which the exciting peak current is stepping
down, while the exciting peak duration Te
was fixed at 4 ms. The droplet length curve
with the exciting peak current of 70 A is
shown in Fig. 16. It can be seen from the
figure that the droplet is almost not oscillated at all. Based on this result, the selected exciting peak current Ie changes
from 140 to 80 A, stepped down by 10 A
each time, as shown in Table 5; plus, the
exciting peak duration ranges from 2 to 4
ms for each selected exciting peak current
level. The other waveform parameters are
fixed to be the same: Ig = 80 A, Tg = 20
ms; Ib1 = 30 A, Tb1 = 3 ms; Ib2 = 30 A, Tb2
= 30 ms; and Id = 165 A, Td = 5 ms.
The droplet length was measured to
demonstrate the dynamic droplet oscillation in experiments 1434, as shown in
Figs. 17 to 23, respectively. The average
amplitude Aavg was also calculated to
quantitatively reveal the relationship between the droplet oscillation energy and
exciting current, which is shown in Fig. 24.

It can be seen that the average amplitude
of the droplet oscillation presents a parabolic growth approximately with the increased exciting peak current. As calculated before, the average amplitude of the
droplet oscillation in experiment 1, applying the original waveform and 150 A exciting peak current, is approximately 0.124
mm. By comparing this result with those in
experiments 3234, it is found that the
same or even stronger droplet oscillation
is achieved with only 80 A exciting peak
current by applying the optimized current
waveform. In this sense, the enhancement
of the optimized current waveform on the
droplet oscillation is further ensured.
Meanwhile, the average current is 79.5 A
in experiment 1, but only approximately 58
A in experiment 32 and 60 A in experiment 34. The heat input is significantly reduced by applying the optimized current
waveform.
Growing Duration
As introduced previously, the initial

droplet size/mass can be controlled by adjusting the growing duration. In this subsection, the growing duration Tg is set at
three different levels, and the remaining
waveform parameters are fixed: Ig = 80 A;
Ib1 = 30 A, Tb1 = 3 ms; Ie = 140 A, Te = 3
ms; Ib2 = 30 A, Tb2 = 30 ms; and Id = 165
A, Td = 5 ms. As shown in Table 6, the
growing duration is double increased from
10 to 40 ms in experiments 35 to 37, so the
initial droplet mass is also approximately
doubled. The droplet oscillations in these
three experiments were measured and
shown in Fig. 25. It demonstrates that the
initial droplet size is 0.98, 1.16, and 1.42
mm for experiment 3537, respectively.
The droplet oscillation frequencies were
measured to be 216, 183, and 133 Hz, respectively. This result agrees with the theoretical calculation result that the droplet
oscillation frequency changes along with
the droplet mass (Refs. 11, 25).
Conclusions and Future Work

The dynamic droplet oscillation behavior was systematically studied in this work.
Stronger droplet oscillation and lower
heat input were achieved by applying the
optimized current waveform. The effects
of the waveform parameters on the excited droplet oscillation were revealed by
a number of experiments. The optimal
range of current waveform parameters
was determined.
1. The current waveform applied to excite the droplet oscillation is modified.
The critical modification is that the
droplet growing and exciting periods are
separated. It is found that the droplet oscillation can be significantly enhanced by
This work is supported by the State Key

Laboratory of Advanced Welding and
Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology,
Harbin, China, and the National Science
Foundation under grant CMMI-0825956.
Jun Xiao greatly appreciates the scholarship from the China Scholarship Council
that funds his visit to the University of
Kentucky.
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short circuiting arc welding. U.S. Patent
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10. Essers, W. G., and Walter, R. 1981. Heat
transfer and penetration mechanisms with
GMA and plasma-GMA welding. Welding Journal 60(2): 37-s to 42-s.
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transfer in double-electrode gas metal arc welding. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering Transactions of the ASME 129(6):
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14. Thomsen, J. S. 2006. Control of pulsed
gas metal arc welding. International Journal of
Modelling, Identification, and Control 1(2):
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15. Zheng, B., and Kovacevic, R. 2001. A
novel control approach for the droplet detachment in rapid prototyping by 3D welding. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
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16. Wu, Y., and Kovacevic, R. 2002. Mechanically assisted droplet transfer process in
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17. Yang, S. Y. 1998. Projected droplet
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18. Allum, C. J. 1985. Welding technology
data: pulsed MIG welding. Welding and Metal
Fabrication 53: 2430.
19. Kim, Y. S., and Eagar, T. W. 1993. Metal
transfer in pulsed current gas metal arc welding.
20. Amin, M. 1983. Pulse current parameters for arc stability and controlled metal transfer in arc welding. Metal Construction 15:
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21. Zhang, Y. M., Liguo, E., and Kovacevic,
R. 1998. Active metal transfer control by monitoring excited droplet oscillation. Welding Journal 77(9): 388-s to 395-s.
22. Zhang, Y. M., and Liguo, E. 1999.
Method and system for gas metal arc welding.
U.S. Patent #6,008,470.
23. Wang, G., Huang, P. G., and Zhang, Y.
M. 2004. Numerical analysis of metal transfer in
gas metal arc welding under modified pulsed
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Transactions B 35(5): 857866.
24. Zhang, Y. M., and Li, P. J. 2001. Modified active control of metal transfer and pulsed
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25. Li, S. K. 2004. Numerical analysis of
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pulsed GMAW. Masters dissertation. Shandong University.
26. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2010.
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WELDING RESEARCH
enlarging the exciting rising level. The average current is meanwhile reduced.
Based on this result, the modified current
waveform is further optimized to obtain
maximized droplet oscillation energy with
any level of growing current.
2. The influence of the exciting parameters on the droplet oscillation was analyzed. It was found that the exciting peak
duration is a key parameter determining
the droplet oscillation. Its optimal range
was confirmed in experiments to be 34
ms while 2 ms is also acceptable. The
droplet oscillation with a different exciting
base current and peak current was also
studied. The optimal base current is considered to be 30 A according to the experimental results. The exciting transition
current was defined and tested to be 70 A.
The droplet oscillations using the exciting
peak current ranged in 80140 A were
measured. The results demonstrate that
the droplet oscillation energy increased
approximately in a parabolical way when
the exciting peak current was stepping up.
3. The growing duration was set in a
group of values to verify its influence on
the droplet oscillation. It is demonstrated
that the droplet oscillation frequency
changes significantly with the growing duration. The droplet mass gets larger with
increased growing duration, so the droplet
frequency is decreased.
As future work, the correlation of the
droplet oscillation with the arc voltage
needs to be analyzed such that the droplet
motion can be monitored by sensing the
arc voltage signal. Furthermore, a closedloop control of the phase match based on
the feedback of arc voltage is expected to
maximize the enhancement on metal
transfer during the droplet oscillation.
Based on this work, the minimum detaching current utilizing the active droplet oscillation will be tested with a different
combination of the exciting peak current
(80150 A) and duration (24 ms). In addition, such closed-loop controlled active
droplet oscillation technology may be further applied into the laser-enhanced
GMAW process to reduce the required
laser power.
Acknowledgments
High-Temperature Corrosion Behavior of

Alloy 600 and 622 Weld Claddings
and Coextruded Coatings
Thermogravimetric and solid-state corrosion testing techniques were used to
evaluate the corrosion behavior of nickel-based alloys
BY J. N. DUPONT, A. W. STOCKDALE, A. CAIZZA, AND A. ESPOSITO
ABSTRACT
WELDING RESEARCH
Weld claddings are often used for corrosion protection for waterwalls in coal-fired
power plants. Although these coatings provide good resistance to general corrosion,
recent industry experience has shown they are susceptible to premature failure due to
corrosion-fatigue cracking. The failure has been attributed, in part, to microsegregation and dilution of the weld cladding that compromise the corrosion resistance. Coextruded coatings may provide improved resistance to this type of failure due to elimination of microsegregation and dilution. In this work, the high-temperature gaseous
and solid-state corrosion behavior of Alloys 600 and 622 weld claddings, and coextruded coatings were evaluated using thermogravimetric and solid-state corrosion
testing techniques. The results demonstrate that Alloy 622 exhibits better corrosion
resistance than Alloy 600 under the simulated combustion gases of interest, and coextruded coatings provide corrosion resistance that is significantly better than the
weld claddings. The improved corrosion resistance of Alloy 622 is attributed to the
higher Cr and Mo concentrations, while the better corrosion resistance of the coextruded coatings is attributed to elimination of dilution and microsegregation. Additional benefits of the coextruded coatings in terms of service performance are also
likely, and include better control over coating thickness and surface finish and reduced
residual stresses.
Introduction
Many coal-fired power plant operators
have moved toward a staged combustion
process in order to reduce boiler emissions as required by recently implemented
environmental regulations. By delaying
the mixing of fuel and oxygen, and thereby
creating a reducing environment in the
boiler, the amount of nitrous oxides (NOx)
that are released as a byproduct of coal
combustion is reduced (Refs. 1, 2). The
use of this staged combustion process has
been found by many power plant operators to be the most cost- and time-effective
method for decreasing NOx emissions.
Prior to implementation of staged combustion, most boiler atmospheres were oxidizing, allowing for formation of protective
metal oxides on waterwall tubes made out
of carbon or low-alloy steels (Refs. 1, 3).
Under those conditions, failure of waterJ. N. DUPONT and A. W. STOCKDALE
(aws3@lehigh.edu) are with the Department of
Materials Science and Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. A. CAIZZA and A. ESPOSITO are with Plymouth Engineered Shapes,
Hopkinsville, Ky.
218-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
walls due to accelerated corrosion was generally not a major problem. Staged combustion boilers, on the other hand, create a reducing atmosphere in the boiler due to the
lack of oxygen. Sulfur compounds from the
coal are transformed into highly corrosive
H2S gas (Ref. 4). Subsequent reaction with
the steel waterwall tubes leads to the formation of metal sulfides or mixed sulfides
and oxides on the tube surfaces. Additionally, corrosive deposits may form on the waterwall tubes due to the accumulation of
solid particles in the combustion environment, such as ash and unburnt coal. As a result of these changes, the low-alloy steel
tubes are often susceptible to accelerated
corrosion and unsatisfactory service lifetimes (Refs. 1, 4).
KEYWORDS
Corrosion
Weld Overlay Coating
Coextruded Coating
Ni-Based Alloys
Dilution
Microsegregation
The current industry solution to accelerated waterwall corrosion is to deposit a

weld cladding of a more corrosion-resistant alloy on the tube. Commercially available nickel-based alloys have been used
for weld claddings (Refs. 57). These alloys generally provide good resistance to
general corrosion for this application.
However, weld claddings have recently
been shown to be susceptible to corrosionfatigue cracking in many boiler environments (Ref. 6). The primary features associated with corrosion-fatigue cracking
are summarized in Fig. 1 (Ref. 6). Figure
1A is a photograph of a weld cladding with
extensive corrosion-fatigue cracks that
were observed after approximately 18
months of service (Ref. 6). Figure 1B
shows a scanning electron photomicrograph of several small cracks that were examined early in the cracking stage, and
Fig. 1C shows the distribution of alloying
elements across the dendritic substructure
of the overlay. Figure 1D provides a lowermagnification view that demonstrates the
cracks initiate at the valley of the weld ripple. The dendrite cores in the cladding exhibit a minimum in alloy concentration
due to the relatively rapid solidification
conditions associated with welding (Ref.
7). As a result, the corrosion rate is accelerated in these regions and localized attack occurs at the dendrite cores. These localized penetrations form stress
concentrations that eventually grow into
full-size corrosion-fatigue cracks under
the influence of service-applied stresses.
As shown in Fig. 1D, most cracks initiate
in the valley of surface weld ripples where
an additional stress concentration exists.
The high residual stress that results from
welding also probably contributes to the
cracking problem. In addition, dilution
from the underlying tube substrate, which
results in reduced alloy content of the
cladding, compromises the corrosion resistance of the cladding.
It is important to note that the primary
factors that contribute to corrosionfatigue cracking (weld ripple, microsegregation, high residual stresses, and dilution) are all associated with the localized
Fig. 1 A Photograph of an IN625 weld cladding with extensive circumferential cracks; B crosssectional scanning electron photomicrograph of several small cracks early in the cracking stage; C distribution of alloying elements across the dendritic substructure of the IN625 weld cladding; D photograph showing crack initiation at the valley of the weld ripple.
heating, melting, and solidification of the

welding process. As such, use of a coating
that can be applied uniformly on the substrate surface in the solid state (i.e., without the need for localized heating) should
help mitigate these problems and improve
the cracking resistance of the coating.
Thus, there is a need to develop alternative coating technologies that avoid these
drawbacks. Coextruded coatings provide a
potential alternative because they are produced completely in the solid state and
therefore require no melting and resolidification. In this work, the high-temperature corrosion resistance of two nickelbased alloys (600 and 622) were
investigated in the form of both coextruded coatings and weld claddings. The
counterpart wrought product form was
also tested for Alloy 600 for comparison.
Experimental Procedure
Three types of samples were corrosion
tested: coextruded coating, wrought alloy
(for Alloy 600 only), and weld cladding.
Coextruded tubes were manufactured at
Plymouth Engineered Shapes using an
outer layer of either Alloy 600 or 622 and
a 1.25Cr-0.5Mo (SA213-T11) steel substrate. The composition of the Ni-based

alloys and the steel are provided in Table
1. The steel substrate and nickel alloy
outer layer were joined by an explosion
welding process prior to coextrusion. As
shown in Fig. 2, the substrate and outer
layer had a starting diameter of 6 in. and
length of about 2 ft. The bimetallic billet
was heated to 1040C prior to coextrusion,
and the coextrusion occurred in approximately 5 s. Figure 3 shows an example of
the final bimetallic tube produced after
coextrusion that has an outside diameter
of 2.5 in. with a 0.250-in. wall thickness
and a coating thickness of 0.085 in. The
final tube length was approximately 20 ft.
Simulated weld claddings were fabricated
by mixing (by weight) 10% of an Alloy 285
Grade C steel substrate (this alloy is similar to those typically used for waterwall
tubes) with 90% of Alloy 600 or 622. The
10% steel was added to simulate a typical
dilution level of a commercial weld
cladding. (It is recognized that Alloy 600 is
not available in wire form for use as a weld
cladding. However, the weld cladding
samples were prepared and tested here to
provide a direct comparison to the coex-
Fig. 2 Photograph of starting bimetallic billet

showing the inner steel substrate and outer nickel
alloy layer prior to coextrusion. The starting billet had
a diameter of approximately 6 in. and a length of
about 2 ft.
truded coating of the same composition.)

The mixture was then melted and resolidified in an arc button melter, which essentially duplicates the chemical composition
and thermal conditions used to make weld
claddings. This process has been used extensively for preparing and corrosion testing weld cladding samples (Ref. 8).
Gaseous corrosion testing was carried out
at 600C for 100 h in a Netzsch thermogravimetric balance. The gas used for the
corrosion tests was modeled after a typical
low-NOx environment and consisted of
the following mixture (Ref. 8): 10%CO5%CO2-2%H2O-0.12%H2S-N2 (vol-%).
Corrosion samples were acquired from
the coating of the bimetallic tube by completely machining away the underlying
steel substrate.
The Alloy 622 weld cladding and coextruded samples were also tested under
solid-state corrosion conditions. (Alloy
600 was not evaluated under solid-state
conditions, since the gaseous corrosion results demonstrated that Alloy 622 had superior corrosion resistance.) Samples that
were 516 in. were machined from
the coextruded tube and the weld
cladding. A quartz ring was placed on top
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 A section of the final bimetallic tube produced after coextrusion. The tube has an outside diameter of 2.5 in. with a 0.250-in. wall thickness and
a coating thickness of 0.085 in. The final tube
length was approximately 20 ft.
WELDING RESEARCH
of the samples, and 1680 mg of FeS2 powder was poured into the quartz ring. The
FeS2 powder simulates the iron sulfide
that is often deposited on waterwall surfaces in the form of coal particles that are
not completely combusted. The iron sulfide will oxidize at high temperature and
subsequently release sulfur gas that corrodes the underlying coating (Refs. 9, 10).
The samples were placed in a furnace and
heated to 600C for 50, 150, and 300 h
(separate samples were used for each exposure time). The samples were then examined in cross section to reveal the depth
of attack and corrosion morphology after
each exposure time. This test has been
shown (Ref. 8) to simulate the solid-state
corrosion that occurs when deposits form
on the waterwall tubes in service. Corrosion test coupons from the gaseous and
solid-state tests were mounted under vacuum in cold setting epoxy and ground
through 600 grit with a SiC abrasive. The
samples were then polished to a 0.05-m
surface finish. Post-test imaging of corrosion scales was conducted via light optical
microscopy and scanning electron microscopy on a Hitachi 4300 scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an
energy-dispersive spectrometer.
Results
Figure 4 shows photographs that compare the coating surface finish and thickness
uniformity of the coextruded coating (Fig.
4A, B) and a weld cladding typically used for
this application (Fig. 4C, D). The weld
cladding exhibits the typical surface ripples
associated with solidification and a relatively uneven coating thickness. The coextrusion process provides a relatively smooth
surface finish and more uniform coating
thickness. Elimination of the weld ripple is
significant, since the valleys of the weld ripple present stress concentrations that exacerbate corrosion-fatigue crack initiation
(Ref. 6). The more uniform coating thickness and improved surface finish associated
220-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
Fig. 4 Comparison of coating surface finish and thickness uniformity of the following: A, B Coextruded coating; C, D a weld cladding typically used for this application.
with the coextruded coating eliminates this

form of stress concentration and should
therefore be more resistant to initiation of
corrosion-fatigue cracks.
Figure 5 shows the thermogravimetric
analysis results from the gaseous corrosion testing. These results compare the
normalized weight gain of the weld
cladding and coextruded coating. Corrosion results from the alloy in the wrought
condition are also shown for Alloy 600 for
comparison. Good corrosion results are
indicated by relatively low weight gains,
and the slopes of the lines are an indication of the corrosion rates. The coextruded coating clearly shows improved
corrosion resistance over the weld
cladding, and the corrosion resistance of
the wrought alloy and coextruded coating
for Alloy 600 is comparable. Also note
that Alloy 622 demonstrates better corrosion resistance (i.e., lower weight gains)
than Alloy 600.
Figure 6 shows SEM cross-sectional
photomicrographs of the corrosion
coupons from the gaseous corrosion tests.
These samples reveal an outer scale in addition to an inner corrosion scale that
formed adjacent to the coating surface during corrosion testing. It is important to note
that, due to the large differences in corrosion scale thickness, the photomicrographs
acquired from the coextruded coating (Fig.

6A, B) are generally taken at a higher magnification than those of the weld cladding
(Fig. 6C, D). The inner corrosion scale that
formed on the coextruded sample is signifi-
Table 1 Composition of the Ni-Based Alloys

and Steel Used to Make the Coextruded Tubes
(all values are given in wt-%)
C
Co
Cr
Fe
Mn
Mo
Ni
P
S
Si
V
W
Nb
Ta
Ti
Al
Cu
Cs
N
Sn
622
0.002
0.81
21.3
3.7
0.25
13.1
Bal
0.012
0.002
0.03
0.02
2.8
600
0.06
0.06
16
7.47
0.36
Bal
0
0.34
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.22
0.2
0.03
T11
0.12
1.22
0.52
0.52
0.02
0.009
0.026
0.62
0.006
0.029
0.02
0.002
0.005
0.002
Fig. 6 SEM cross-sectional photomicrographs of the corrosion coupons from the gaseous corrosion tests of Alloy 600 for the coextruded coating (Fig. 6A, B)
and weld cladding (Fig. 6C, D).
cantly thinner than the inner scale that

formed on the weld cladding. Figure 6A,
which was acquired from the coextruded
sample, was taken at the same magnification as Fig. 6D acquired from the weld
cladding, and the differences in scale thickness are readily apparent when these two
images are compared. Also note that corrosion has occurred more uniformly on the co-
extruded coating compared to the weld

cladding. The differences in scale thickness
are consistent with the differences in the
weight gain results shown in Fig. 5, where
the weld cladding exhibited a higher weight
gain (due to the higher corrosion rate and
concomitantly larger scale thickness). A
thinner inner corrosion scale is preferred, as
this indicates that the scale provides better
protection between the corrosion environment and underlying coating surface.

Figure 7 shows EDS spectra collected
from the corrosion scales that formed on
the gaseous corrosion samples. The locations that the EDS scans were acquired
from are shown as white boxes in Fig. 6B,
D. (In each case, EDS spectra acquired
from the area between the inner and outer
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Thermogravimetric results from the gaseous corrosion testing. A Alloy 600; B Alloy 622.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 EDS spectra acquired from gaseous corrosion samples of Alloy 600. A Top surface scale of
the coextruded coating; B inner surface scale of coextruded coating; C top surface scale of the weld
cladding; D inner surface scale of weld cladding.
scales were observed to reveal the presence of carbon and oxygen, indicating that
it is merely the mounting material used to
prepare the samples. This occurs when the
inner and outer scales separate during
preparation.) For each coating type, the
outer scales are rich in nickel and sulfur.
The inner scales of each sample are also
similar and reveal the presence of a
chromium-rich mixed oxygen-sulfur scale.
Figure 8 shows the extent of corrosion
that occurred during the solid-state corrosion testing for the Alloy 622 weld
cladding and coextruded coatings. A significant amount of corrosion scale can be
observed on the surface of each sample.
The amount of scale on the surface is indicative of the severity of the corrosive attack. The corrosion resistance of the weld
cladding and coextruded coatings are
somewhat similar up to 50 h of exposure.
However, at 150 and 300 h, the depth of
attack is greater on the weld cladding.
Also note that the weld cladding exhibits
localized corrosion penetrations (arrows
in Fig. 8F) while corrosion on the
coextruded
coating
is
uniform.
Figure 9 shows the 300-h corrosion
sample of the weld cladding after it was
etched to reveal the dendritic substructure. Note that preferential corrosion has
occurred at the dendrite cores (arrows).
Figure 10 provides an EDS line scan that
was acquired across the dendritic substructure of the weld cladding. As expected (Refs. 6, 7), the dendrite cores are
222-s JULY 2013, VOL. 92
depleted in Mo, with Mo concentration

levels down to ~ 11 wt-% (the nominal
Mo concentration of the filler metal is ~
13 wt-%). Note that the Ni segregates in
the opposite direction compared to Mo
(i.e., to the dendrite cores). The particularly high Mo level of ~ 38 wt-% (at a position of ~ 3 m) is coincident with Ni depletion down to ~ 28 wt-% and is
associated with the electron beam interacting with Mo-rich interdendritic phase.
Figure 11 shows the microstructure of
the coextruded coating, and an EDS line
scan acquired across several grains of the
coating is shown in Fig. 12. The coextruded coating exhibits a uniform,
equiaxed grain structure and a uniform
distribution of alloying elements.
Discussion
The corrosion results demonstrate the
effect of the coating process on the resultant corrosion resistance. For each alloy,
the coextruded coatings provide significantly better corrosion resistance than the
weld claddings. Since the alloy is the same
in each case, the reduced corrosion resistance of the weld cladding must be attributed to differences in processing that affect the microstructure. This is confirmed
by the results shown for Alloy 600 in which
a wrought alloy was also tested for comparison Fig. 5A. Note that the wrought
alloy and coextruded coating exhibit essentially identical corrosion rates. This in-
dicates the coextrusion process has no

detrimental effect on the inherent corrosion resistance of the wrought alloy. This
is consistent with the observed microstructure (Fig. 11) and distribution of
alloying elements (Fig. 12) observed for
the coextruded coating. The equiaxed
grain structure and uniform distribution
of alloying elements is similar to that observed for a wrought alloy, so the corrosion resistance is also expected to be similar, as observed in Fig. 5A.
The differences in corrosion resistance
among the two alloys and coating types
evaluated here can be understood by considering differences in their composition.
It is well known that Cr and Mo additions
significantly improve the sulfidation resistance of Ni-based alloys (Refs. 11, 12).
For example, Chen and Douglass (Refs.
11, 13) evaluated the effect of Mo additions on the sulfidation resistance of NiMo alloys at 600C at a sulfur partial pressure of 0.01 atm PS2. Five alloys were
evaluated, including Ni, Ni-10wt-%Mo,
Ni-20wt-%Mo, Ni-30wt-%Mo, and Ni40wt-%Mo. The parabolic rate constant
decreased by four orders of magnitude as
the Mo content was increased to 40 wt-%
Mo. Similar reductions in the parabolic
rate constant were also observed for Ni-Cr
alloys tested by Mrowec et al. (Refs. 12,
14). The sulfidation behavior of Ni with up
to 82 at-% Cr was evaluated in a sulfur
partial pressure of 1 atm PS2 at 600C. The
parabolic rate constant decreased by three
orders of magnitude as the chromium content was increased up to 82 at.-% Cr.
These results demonstrate that the corrosion resistance of Ni-based materials is improved by alloying additions of Cr and Mo.
Thus, the improved corrosion resistance
of Alloy 622 over Alloy 600 is attributed to
the higher Cr and Mo concentration of
Alloy 622.
The improved corrosion resistance of
the coextruded coatings can be attributed
to two factors. First, the weld cladding exhibits a 10% reduction in key alloying elements (e.g., Cr and Mo) due to 10% dilution with the steel substrate, and a
reduction in the concentration of these elements will produce an increase in the corrosion rate. The 10% dilution value used
for these tests represents a lower limit on
the dilution level for commercially applied
weld claddings. The dilution level in fieldapplied weld claddings can often be higher
than this, and the corrosion resistance can
be reduced even further as a result. Such
dilution effects do not occur with the coextruded coating because there is no melting and mixing associated with this
process. Although there is localized solidstate diffusion across the coating/substrate interface during processing, there is
no bulk change in coating composition.
Second, the weld cladding exhibits mi-
Fig. 8 Light optical photomicrographs showing the extent of corrosion that occurred during solid-state corrosion testing for the following: A, B, C Alloy
622 coextruded; D, E, F weld cladding coatings.
Fig. 10 A EDS line scan acquired across the dendritic substructure of the weld cladding showing the
composition profiles for Fe, Ni, and Cr; B EDS line scan acquired across the dendritic substructure of
the weld cladding showing Mo depletion at the dendrite cores.
Fig. 9 Light optical photomicrographs of the

300-h corrosion sample of the weld cladding
after it was etched to reveal the dendritic substructure. Note that preferential corrosion has
occurred at the dendrite cores (arrows).
crosegregation in which the dendrite cores

are depleted in alloying elements (particularly of Mo) that are important for corrosion protection (Ref. 15). As a result,
corrosion occurs more rapidly at the alloydepleted cores, thus leading to the preferential corrosive attack at the dendrite
cores observed in Figs. 6C, 6D, and 9.
It is worth noting that the coextruded
(and wrought) Alloy 600 provides corro-
sion resistance that is nearly comparable

to the Alloy 622 weld cladding, suggesting
that Alloy 600 may be useful as a coextruded coating. However, the objective
here is to develop a coating/process combination that provides performance better
than the current industry standard (622
weld cladding). Thus, the use of Alloy 600
as a coextruded coating does not appear
warranted based on this consideration.
These results indicate that coextruded
coatings should provide significant benefits
over weld claddings for corrosion protection in fossil-fired boilers. (It should be recognized that weld claddings can be applied
in the field or the shop, while coextruded
coatings can only be applied in the shop.)
Reduction or elimination of failures due to
corrosion-fatigue cracking will require the
development of coatings with improved resistance to both general corrosion and localized corrosion that occurs due to microsegregation. Other factors that promote
corrosion-fatigue crack initiation should
also be avoided, such as surface irregularities and high residual stresses. Coextruded
coatings provide several advantages over
the weld claddings in these regards. First,
the coextruded coatings will not exhibit dilution and microsegregation that compromise corrosion resistance. The weld
claddings also exhibit surface ripples associated with the solidification process, and
the valleys of these ripples are sources of
stress concentration that can contribute to
corrosion-fatigue cracking (Ref. 6). In contrast, the coextruded coatings have a uniform coating thickness and smooth surface
finish that should help eliminate localized
stress concentrations that initiate corrosion-fatigue cracks. Weld claddings also develop very high levels of residual stress that
are associated with localized heating and
cooling. The residual stress level is generally on the order of the yield strength of the
alloy (Ref. 16), and this may also be a contributing factor to the corrosion-fatigue
problem. In contrast, the heating and cool-
WELDING JOURNAL
223-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 Light optical photomicrograph showing the microstructure of

the coextruded coating.
WELDING RESEARCH
ing cycles experienced during coextrusion

are less severe and more uniform. As a result, the residual stresses should be significantly reduced. Corrosion-fatigue testing
and field tests are currently in progress to
verify this expected level of improvement
and will be reported in the future.
Summary
The high-temperature corrosion resistance of Alloys 600 and 622 weld claddings
and coextruded coatings was evaluated in
this work. A wrought sample of Alloy 600
was also corrosion tested for comparison.
The results demonstrate: 1) Alloy 622 exhibits better corrosion resistance than
Alloy 600; and 2) coextruded coatings provide corrosion resistance that is significantly better than the weld claddings. The
improved corrosion resistance of Alloy
622 is attributed to the higher Cr and Mo
concentrations. The improved corrosion
resistance of the coextruded coatings relative to the weld cladding is attributed to
elimination of dilution and microsegregation in the coextruded coating. Additional
benefits of the coextruded coating in
terms of service performance are also
likely, and include better control over
12 EDS line scan acquired across several grains of the coating.
coating thickness/surface finish and reduced residual stresses.

Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support through the National Science Foundation Center for Integrated Materials Joining Science for Energy
Applications, Grant IIP-1034703, and PPL
Corp., Contract 00474836. Useful technical
discussions with Ruben Choug and Robert
Schneider of PPL Corp. are also gratefully
appreciated.
References
1. Jones, C. 1997. Power January/February,
pp. 5460.
2. Whitaker, R. 1982. EPRI Journal, pp.
1825.
3. Urich, J. A., and Kramer, E. 1996. FACT
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers),
Vol. 21, pp. 2529.
4. Kung, S. C., and Bakker, W. T. 1997.
Mater. High Temp. 14: 175182.
5. Smith, G. D., and Tassen, C. S. 1989.
Mater. Perf. 28: 4143.
6. Luer, K., DuPont, J. N., Marder, A. R., and
Skelonis, C. 2001. Mater. High Temp. 18: 1119.
7. DuPont, J., Lippold, J., and Kiser, S. 2009.
Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Nickel-
base Alloys. p. 440, Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley

& Sons.
8. Regina, J. R., DuPont, J. N., and Marder,
A. R. 2004. Corrosion behavior of Fe-Al-Cr alloys in sulfur- and oxygen-rich environments in
the presence of pyrite. Corrosion. pp. 501509.
9. Bakker, W. 1998. Waterwall Wastage in
Low Nox Boilers: Root Cause and Remedies. TR111155.
10. Kung, S., and Bakker, W. 2000. Waterwall corrosion in coal-fired boilers a new culprit: FeS. Corrosion 2000. pp. 2631. NACE
International.
11. Chen, M. F., and Douglass, D. L. 1989.
The effect of molybdenum on the high-temperature sulfidation of nickel. Oxid. Met. 32:
185206.
12. Mrowec, S., Werber, T., and Zastawnik,
M. 1966. The mechanism of high temperature
sulfur corrosion of nickel-chromium alloys.
Corros. Sci. 6: 4768.
13. Gleeson, B., Douglass, D. L., and Gesmundo, F. Effect of niobium on the high-temperature sulfidation behavior of cobalt. Oxid.
Met. 31: 209236.
14. Czerski, L., Mrowec, S., and Werber, T.
1962. Kinetics and mechanism of nickel-sulfur
reaction. Journal of the Electrochemical Society
109: 273278.
15. Deacon, R. M., DuPont, J. N., and
Marder, A. R. 2007. Materials Science & Engineering A Vol. 460461, pp. 392402.
16. Kou, S. 2002. Welding Metallurgy. p. 461,
Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.
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July 2013

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