RP Lecture6and7

3.
Resistance of a Ship
3.1 Model testing
Resistance of a ship: RT = f (V , L, , , g )
Total resistance
V Speed of the ship
L Length of the ship
Density of the fluid
Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
g Acceleration of gravity
3. Resistance of a Ship
3.1 Model testing
Dimensional analysis
Total resistance coefficient CT = CT ( Rn , Fn )
R
T
Total resistance coefficient CT =
2
1
/
2
V
S
(S = Wetted surface)
Reynolds number Rn =
Froude number
Fn =
VL
V
gL
2
3.1 Model testing
Flow similarity
Equal non-dimensional numbers.

- Reynolds number:
- Froude number:
Rns = Rnm Vm =
Fns = Fnm Vm =
Ls
Vs
Lm
(same fluid)
Lm
Vs
Ls
Conclusion: it is impossible to satisfy simultaneously the

equality of Reynolds and Froude numbers.
The model dimensions do not allow the equality of the
Reynolds number for model testing.
3
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
Resistance force is measured at model scale (model) and

extrapolated for full scale (ship).
Measurements are performed with the equality of the
Froude number at model and full scale (Froude scaling):
Vm = 1 / 2V s
= Ls / Lm is the scale factor.

Models length Lm is determined by the geometrical
properties of the towing tank.
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
The length of the model should try to minimize the

difference in Reynolds number (maximum length) within
the limits imposed by the towing tank dimensions.
The precision of the measurements increases with the
growth of the model.
Model dimensions are limited by the depth (h) and
width (b) of the towing tank section to avoid a
significant influence of the bottom and side walls.
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
Typical model dimensions:

h: depth
Lm < b / 2
b: width
Area of the models midsection < 1/200 bh
Lm < h
With the reduction of the ships length it becomes

difficult to avoid a significant region of laminar flow.
At full scale, the flow is nearly fully-turbulent (region of
laminar flow at the bow is negligible). Therefore, model
testing should avoid laminar flow.
6
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
For the typical Reynolds number of model testing (106 to

107), transition to turbulence must be stimulated:
Trip wires, studs or roughness strips applied at the bow.
These devices introduce an added resistance that has to
be estimated to correct the measured resistance.
Turbulence of the outer flow may be increased with the
use of grids or bars in the incoming flow.
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
The model is towed at a

constant speed and it is
generally free to heave,
surge, pitch and roll.
The resistance force is
measured.
The test is
performed at
different speeds.
8
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
Examples:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uc35JROubRM&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLc-NRKYqis&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Odkc4ic6jds
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQfzXdTuceY&feature=related
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
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3.1 Model testing
Resistance tests
18
3.1 Model testing
Resistance components
Resistance has two contributions:

Friction resistance.
(Shear-stress at the wall)
Pressure (residual) resistance.
(Pressure distribution on the ship surface)
Non-dimensional coefficients:
CT ( Rn , Fn ) = C F ( Rn ) + C R ( Rn , Fn )
19
3.1 Model testing
Resistance components. Froudes hypothesis
Froudes Hypothesis:
The friction resistance may be calculated from the flow
over a flat plate with the same length of the ship
(equality of Reynolds number) and the same wetted
surface. All the rest is residual resistance.
The residual resistance is independent of the Reynolds
number, i.e. it depends only on the Froude number.
CT ( Rn , Fn ) = C F ( Rn ) + C R ( Fn )
20
3.1 Model testing
Model scale:
Total resistance coefficient:
RTm
CT m =
1 / 2 mVm 2 S m
Friction resistance coefficient:
C Fm = C F ( Rnm )
Residual resistance coefficient:
C Rm = CT m C Fm
21
3.1 Model testing
Ship (full scale):

Residual resistance coefficient:
C R s = C R m = CT m C Fm
Friction resistance coefficient:

C Fs = C F ( Rns )
CTs = C R s + C Fs + ca
Correlation allowance, ca
22
3.1 Model testing
Extrapolation of the friction resistance
Schoenherr:
0,242
= log( Rn C F )
CF
ITTC 1957:
CF =
0,075
(log10 Rn 2) 2
23
3.1 Model testing
Geosims Lucy Ashton
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3.1 Model testing
Geosims Simon Bolivar
25
Froudes method
CT
26
log Rn
Viscous pressure resistance Form drag
CT
F>0
CR
F=0
CF
Resistncia
de forma
log R
CT = (1 + k )C F + C w
Form (viscous pressure) resistance coefficient: kCF
1+k: Form factor
27
Hughess method
CT
log Rn
28
3.1 Model testing
Deteremination of form factor Prohaskas method
Wave resistance coefficient

CT
is proportional to Fn 4
CF

CT = (1 + k )C F + cFn 4
Therefore,
4
CT
Fn
= (1 + k ) + c
CF
CF
Fn 4
CF
29
3.1 Model testing
Extrapolation of the Resistance, ITTC method
Model scale:
RTm
CTm =
1 / 2 mVm 2 S m
Friction resistance coefficient. ITTC line:
C Fm = C F ( Rnm )
Form factor 1+k,viscous resistance coefficient:
CV = (1 + k )C Fm
Wave resistance coefficient:

Cwm = CT m (1 + k )C Fm
30
3.1 Model testing
Extrapolation of the Resistance, ITTC method
Ship (full scale):

Wave resistance coefficient:
Cws = Cwm
Form factor 1+k independent of Reynolds number.
Friction resistance coefficient, ITTC line:
C Fs = C F ( Rns )
CTs = (1 + k )C Fs + Cws + ca
Correlation allowance ca
31
3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects
Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

For typical roughness heights k s smaller than the thickness
of the viscous sub-layer (region with negligible Reynolds
stresses), the wall shear-stress is not affected by the
roughness of the wall, hydrodynamically smooth wall.
+
k s u
w
u =
<5
32
3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects

For typical roughness heights k s much larger than the
thickness of the viscous sub-layer (region with negligible
Reynolds stresses), the wall shear-stress becomes
independent of the Reynolds number and essentially
determined by the roughness height, fully-rough regime.
+
k s u
> 70 80
33
3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects

Equivalent sand-grain roughness height, k sg , of a given
surface is the height of an evenly distributed sand-grain
roughned flat plate that produces the same resistance of the
selected surface. This is a single parameter definition of
roughness that is not easy to obtain for real ship surfaces. A
recently painted ship has a typical value of ksg=30m,
which is equivalent to 150m for the average roughness
height, kM, (the typical roughness height measured in
shipyards).
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3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects

The non-dimensional parameter used to quantify roughness
effects is the Reynolds number based on the roughness
height
Rk =
Vk sg
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3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects
36
3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects

Near-wall non-dimensional roughness parameter depends
on the Reynolds number of the flow
0.1
C
u
k
k
x
k s 0.9
f
+
s
s
k =
=
RL 0.17
RL
2 L
L
L
Model testing is perfomed with hydrodynamically
smooth surfaces.
Full scale ships have rough surfaces.
37
3.1 Model testing
Roughness effects
Roughness effects are covered by the correlation allowance,ca .

The correlation allowance is not only a roughness correction.
Each model basin uses its know-how to determine ca.
Holtrops formula for the correlation allowance:
ca = 0.006( Lwl + 100) 0,16 0.00205
Bowden and Davison formula:
kM
ca = 0.105
LPP
13
0.00064
38
3.1 Model testing
Appendage resistance
Resistance tests are frequently performed with the rudder

and the remaining appendages (shaft brackets, bilge keels,
fins, etc).
The appendages contribute to the wetted surface of the ship.
The Reynolds number based on the ship length (and
undisturbed velocity) is not representative of the local flow
on the appendages. In general, due to the smallest
dimensions of the appendages, the local flow has a smaller
Reynolds number than the ship flow.
39
3.1 Model testing
The extrapolation of the resistance based on a friction

resistance dependent on the Reynolds number and an equal
form factor at model and full scale, may not be applicable to
each appendage separately.
Due to the small size of the appendages at model scale, it
may be impossible to avoid laminar flow on the appendages
for the lowest velocity tests, required to determine the form
factor. At full scale, the flow will be fully-turbulent on the
appendages.
40
3.1 Model testing
An alternative way to determine the viscous pressure

resistance of the appendages (form drag) is to perform
two model scale tests at high speed for a bare hull and a
fully-appended model. Assuming that the wave resistance is
equal in both models and that the friction resistance
component may be corrected according to the wetted
surface of the two models, the difference between the
resistance of the two tests gives a measure of the viscous
pressure resistance of the appendages.
41

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3.

Equal non-dimensional numbers.

Conclusion: it is impossible to satisfy simultaneously the

Resistance force is measured at model scale (model) and

= Ls / Lm is the scale factor.

The length of the model should try to minimize the

Typical model dimensions:

With the reduction of the ships length it becomes

For the typical Reynolds number of model testing (106 to

The model is towed at a

Resistance has two contributions:

Ship (full scale):

Friction resistance coefficient:

Wave resistance coefficient

Total resistance coefficient:

Wave resistance coefficient:

Ship (full scale):

Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

Roughness effects on the wall shear-stress of a turbulent flow:

Roughness effects are covered by the correlation allowance,ca .

Resistance tests are frequently performed with the rudder

The extrapolation of the resistance based on a friction

An alternative way to determine the viscous pressure

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