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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Speech Acts
1. The Definition of Speech Acts

Speech act is part of pragmatic study. According to Searle (1976: 18), the
speech acts performed in the utterance of a sentence are in general functions of the
meaning of the sentence. Meanwhile, Austin in Tsui (1994: 9) says that speech act
is the act that refers to the action performed in making utterances. Similarly Yule
(1996: 132) states that speech act is the type of act performed by a speaker in
uttering a sentence. It covers actions such as requesting, commanding,
questioning, and informing.
From the opinions above, it can be concluded that speech act is
utterances which function to make the addressee recognize the speakers
communicative intention. Both speaker and addressee are usually helped by the
context and the situation of this process.
Furthermore, Yule (1996: 48) states that speech acts consist of three
related acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlucotionary act.
a. Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or a meaningful linguistic
expression. According to Austin in Levinson (1983: 236) states that
locutionary act is the utterance with determines sense and reference. The
example is: Ive just made some coffee (Taken from Yule, 1996: 48)
b. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.
People might utter Ive just made some coffee to make a statement, an
offer, an explanation, or for some other communicative purpose. This is also
generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance.
c. Perlocutionary act is the effect produced by the utterance. Depending on the
circumstances, people will utter Ive just made some coffee on the
assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect that intended (for

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example, to account for a wonderful smell, or to get the addressee to drink

some coffee).
In conclusion, a locutionary act is the act of saying something.
Meanwhile an illocutionary act is the act of doing something. Finally,
perlocutionary act is performed as a result or effect of locutionary and
illocutionary act. Illocutionary act can be performed directly or indirectly.
There are two types of speech acts, direct speech act and indirect speech act.

2. Direct and Indirect Speech Act

a. Direct Speech Act

A direct speech acts occurs when there is a direct relationship between a

structure and a function of an utterance (Yule, 1996: 54). Further Yule (1996: 54)
states that in English grammar, there is an easily recognized relationship between
three structural forms (declarative, interrogatives, imperative) and the three
general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request).
People generally perform a direct speech when they want to express what
they want to make the addressee understand their utterance easily. For example,
when they express a command, an order, or a request they use an imperative
sentence. These example below, may explain the notion of direct speech act.
Structures

Functions

1) Do you remember me?

(Interrogative)

(Question)

2) Call me (please)

(Imperative)

(Command/request)

3) You called my friend

(Declarative)

(Statement)

From the example above, it can be concluded that interrogative is used to

ask something, here the speaker asks the hearer whether the hearer remember him
or not. The imperative is used to command, or request something, here the speaker
command or request the hearer to call him. Furthermore, the declarative is used to
make statement, that is, the speaker make a statement that the hearer called his
friend.

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b. Indirect Speech Act

An indirect speech act occurs when there is an indirect relationship

between the structure and function (Yule, 1996: 55). An indirect speech act cannot
be identified easily as the direct speech act because the speakers utter his intention
implicitly. For example:
1) Could you open the door?
2) Would you bring this?
The examples above have the form of an interrogative, but it is not
generally used to ask a question. The speaker does not only expect an answer but
also expect action. Those are normally understood as imperative that used to
request the hearer to do something.
An indirect speech act is generally used to utter the intention politely
than a direct speech act as stated by Yule (1996: 56) that indirect speech acts are
generally associated with the greater politeness in English than direct speech acts.
In order to understand why, we have to look at a bigger picture than just a single
utterance performing a single speech act.
From the statement above, it can be concluded that to understand why the
speakers decide to use a direct or indirect speech act with their own way, it is
necessary to look out some complex social assumptions, such as the context and
the situation of utterance.

c. The Classification of Speech Act

There are some authors who classify the speech act into some different
classes. The following classification of speech acts are based on Austin, Searle,
Allan, and Tsui.

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Austin in Levinson (1983: 226) classifies speech acts into five categories:
a. Veridicatives
Veridicatives are represented by giving of verdict. The examples which
may be taken as verdictives are analyze, interpret, convict, etc which usually
performed by a jury, arbitrator, or umpire in involving the judgement.
b. Exercities
This kind of speech acts is the exercising of power, rights, or influence.
The example of exercitives are order, advice, warn, insist, argue, etc which
involve exertion of influence or exercise powers.
c. Commissive
Commissives are the kind of speech acts which is used to commit the
speaker to certain course of action. The example which may be taken as
commissives are define, agree, accept, swear, support, bet, etc. Commissives
are performed to assume an obligation.
d. Behabities
Behabities include the notion of reaction to other peoples behavior,
fortunes, attitudes and an expression of attitude to someone elses past
condust or around conduct. The examples of behabities are apologizing,
congratulating, and cursing which is use in adopting an attitude or expressing
feeling.
e. Expositive
This kind of speech acts makes the utterances fit the course of an
argument or conversation. It is how the people use words in general. The
example of expositive are state, emphasize, assume, and illustrate.

Searle in Yule (1996: 53) make the classification system of general

function performed by speech acts into five types:
a. Declarations
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via
their utterance. The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a
specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.

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b. Representatives
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker
believes to the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and
descriptions. In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world
(of belief).
c. Expressives
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker
feels. They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure,
pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow. They can be caused by something the
speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speakers experience.
In using an expressives, the speaker makes words fit the world.
d. Directives
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that the speakers use to get
someone else to do something. They express what the speaker wants. They
are commands, orders, requests, and suggestions. They can be positive or
negative. In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the
words via the hearer.
e. Commissives
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit
themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends.
They are promises, threats, refusals, pledges. They can be performed by the
speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of a group. In using a
commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words via the
speaker.

Allan in Linguistic Meaning (1986: 192) classifies speech acts into two
major classes with their subclassification, that is, interpersonal acts and
declaratory acts.
a. Interpersonal Acts are defined on the basis of preparatory condition and
sincerity condition. The subclassification of interpersonal acts are:

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1) Constatives
There are more constatives that any other category of interpersonal act.
Here are some classes of constatives:
a) Assertives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker asserts that
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that uttarance be
recognized as a reason for hearer to believe that proposition.
Performative verb that are assertive include are affirm, allege, assert,
avow, claim, declare, deny, indicate, maintain, propound, say, state,
and submit.
b) Informatives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker informs the hearer that
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to form the belief

that proposition. Informative

performatives include: advise, announce, disclose, inform, insist,

notify, point out, regret, report, reveal, tell, and testify.
c) Retrodictives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker retrodicts that
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to believe it was the case that proposition. Retrodictive
performatives include: recount and report.
d) Concessives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker concedes that
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to believe that speaker has adopted the belief that
proposition. Concessive performatives include: acknowledge, admit,
agree, allow, assent, concede, concur, grant, and own.
e) Dissentives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker dissents from the claim
that proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be

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reason for hearer to believe that not proposition. Dissentive

performatives include: differ, disagree, dissent, and reject.
f) Suppositives
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker supposes that
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to believe that it is worth considering the consequences od
proposition. Suppositive performatives include: assume, hypothesize,
postulate, stipulate, suppose, and theorize.
g) Constative Verdicts
It is a kind of constatives, in which the speaker constates a verdict
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to believe or come to the opinion that proposition, or,
minimally, to believe that speaker believes or has the opinion that
proposition. Performatives expressing constative verdicts include:
approve, be of the opinion, classify, corroborate, deem, find, hold,
judge, and rate.
Other classes of constatives are: descriptives (assess, classify, date,
describe, diagnose, identify, rank, etc.), ascriptives (ascribe, attribute,
predicate), retractives (abjure, deny, disavow, repudiate, withdraw, etc.),
assentives (accept, agree, assent, concur, etc.) disputatives (demur, dispute,
object, question, etc.), responsives (answer, reply, retort, etc.), and
suggestives (conjecture, guess, suggest, etc.)
2) Predictives
It is when the speaker predicts that proposition. The speaker reflexivelyintends that utterance be a reason for hearer to believe it is probably or will
probably be the case that proposition. Predictive performatives include:
forecast, predict, and prophesy.
3) Commissives
There are just two classes of commissives, promises and offers.

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a) Promises
It is a kind of commissives that the speaker promises the hearer to do
an action. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a reason
for hearer to believe that the speaker willingly undertakes the
obligation to do an action and intends to do an action. Promising
performatives include: promise, swear, and vow.
b) Offers
It is a kind of commissives that the speaker offers to do an action for
hearer or another. The speaker reflexively-intends that utterance be a
reason for hearer to believe that the speaker undertakes to do an action
and intends to do an action, on condition the beneficiary wants it.
Offering performatives include: offer, propose, and volunteer.
4) Acknowledgment
Its function is to avoid positive face affronts to the hearer. As a part of
being co-operative, the speaker normally tries to make the hearer feel good
by taking a positive interest in the hearers attributes, achievements ideas,
possessions, goals, etc; and by being sympathetic to his problems, gracious
about

his

failings,

and

grateful

for

his

generosities.

Some

acknowledgements are defined below:

a) Apologies
It is kind of acknowledgements that the speaker apologizes to the
hearer for deed doing something. The speaker reflexively-intends the
hearer to recognize that utterance expresses apology for doing
something.
b) Condolences
It is kind of acknowledgements that the speaker condoles the hearer
for some misfortune. The speaker reflexively-intends the hearer to
recognize that utterance expresses his condolences.

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c) Congratulations
It is kind of acknowledgements that the speaker congratulates the
hearer for doing something. The speaker reflexively-intends the hearer
to recognize that utterance expresses his congratulations.
d) Greetings
It is kind of acknowledgements that the speaker greets the hearer. The
speaker reflexively-intends that the hearer recognize in utterance, the
speakers part, but greeting can also be effected with an insult.
e) Thanks
It is kind of acknowledgements that the speaker expresses thanks to
the hearer for doing something. The speaker reflexively-intends the
hearer to recognize that utterance expressed his gratitude.
Other classes of acknowledgements are: farewells, acceptances of
acknowledgements (e.g. youre welcome, my pleasure), and rejection of
acknowledgements (refuse (to accept), reject, spurn).
5) Directives
There are four classes of directives, they are:
a) Requestives
It is kind of directives that the speaker requests the hearer to do an
action. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be recognized
as a reason for the hearer to agree to do an action. Requestive
performatives include: ask, beg, implore, insist, invite, petition, plead,
pray, solicit, summon, tell, and urge.
b) Questions
It is kind of directives that the speaker questions the hearer as to
proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be
recognized as a reason for the hearer to tell him whether or not
proposition. Questioning performatives include: ask, inquire, query,
question, and quiz.

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c) Requirements
It is kind of directives that the speaker requires the hearer to do an
action. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be recognized
as a requirement on the hearer to do an action. Requiring
performatives include: bid, charge, command, demand, dictate, direct,
enjoin, instruct, order, prescribe, and require.
d) Prohibitives
It is kind of directives that the speaker prohibits the hearer from doing
an action. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be
recognized as a requirement on hearer not to do an action. Prohibitive
performatives include: enjoin, forbid, prohibit, proscribe, and restrict.
6) Authoritatives
There are two kinds of interpersonal authoritatives, they are:
a) Permissives
It is kind of authoritatives that the speaker permits the hearer to do an
action. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be recognized
as an entitlement for hearer to do an action. Permissive performatives
include: agree to, allow, authorize, bless, consent to, dismiss, excuse,
exempt, forgive, grant leave or permission, license, pardon, permit,
release, and sanction.
b) Advisories
It is kind of authoritatives that the speaker advises the hearer to do an
action. The speaker reflexively-intends the utterance to be taken as
sufficient reason for the hearer to do an action. Advisory
performatives include: admonish, advise, caution, counsel, propose,
recommend, suggest, urge, and warn.
b. Declaratory Act
A declaratory act is typically broadcast within a social group; and the
act relies for its success on the speaker being sanctioned by the groep, or by a
community, institution, committee, or even a single person within the group,

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to perform such acts under stipulated conditions. There are two categories of
declaratory acts:
1) Effectives
These are the category of declaratory act which the speaker effects the
declaration that proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends the hearer to
recognize that the utterance effects the declaration that proposition. The
classes of effective acts include: baptizing, marrying, appointing,
sacking, inagurating, sentencing, knighting, and otherwise conferring
honours, naming, and consecrating.
2) Verdictives
These are the category of declaratory act which the speaker declares the
verdict that proposition. The speaker reflexively-intends the hearer to
recognize that the utterance declares the verdict that proposition. Classes
of verdictive acts are casting verdicts, declaring umpiring, refereeing
decisions, judging, vetoing, and voting.

Tsui in the book English Conversation has different idea in classifying

the speech act. According to Tsuis theory, speech act is divided into initiating
acts, responding acts, and follow-up act
a. Initiating Acts
This class occuring at the head of initiating move, and also referred to as
initiations. There are four subclasses of initiating act, they are:
1) Directives
These acts prospects a non-verbal action from the addressee without
giving him/ her the option of non-compliance. It is also typically realized
by imperatives. Two major subclasses of directives are:
a) Advisives
Advisives are directives wgich direct the addressee to do an action.
The action advocated is for the benefit of the addressee. There are
two kinds of advisives:

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(1) Warnings
This is kind of advisives which explicitly specifies the
undesirable consequence of non-complience. Sometimes, a
warning can take the form of stating the action and providing a
reason for it.
(2) Advice
This is kind of advisives which advocates a course of action
for the benefit of the addressee, and in which the consequence
of compliance is desirable.
b) Mandatives
Mandatives are directives which the speaker attempts to get the
addressee to perform, or to refrain from performing an action for the
benefit of the speaker himself. There are two kinds of mandatives:
(1) Instructions
An intruction is usually given by a person who has the right to
get the addressee to comply. This right is usually due to the
power or authority that he has over the latter, but not necessarily
so.
(2) Threats
A threat is not to commit the speaker to a future action, but to
get the addressee to perform an action. In threats, the speaker in
which the aim is clearly to get the addressee to do something,
rather than to commit himself to carrying out an action.
2) Requestives
Requestives are the utterances which solicit non-verbal actions and the
addressee is given the option of carrying out the solicited action.
Requestives are classified into five subclasses, they are:
a) An offer
This utterance is for the benefit of the addressee.

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b) A request for permission

A request for permission almost same with an offer, but this action is
for the benefit of the speaker himself.
c) An invitation
This utterance is the addressees action which is for the benefit of the
addressee himself.
d) A request for action
This utterance is the addressees action too, but it is for the benefit of
the speaker. A request for action is typically realized by Can/Could
you do X?.
e) Proposals
Proposals or suggestions almost same with request for action. But
these utterances prospect both speaker action, and typically realized
by Can/Could/Shall we do X?.
3) Informatives
Informatives are characterized as a more general category which covers
not only utterances which provide information, but also those which
report events or states of affairs, recount personal experience, and
express beliefs, evaluative judgement, feelings, and thoughts. The
subclasses of informatives are:
a) Reports
This subclass of informatives is the utterance which reports events or
states of affairs, or recount personal experiences. Reports have been
identified in the speech act literature as state, inform, and
report.
b) Assessment
This subclass of informatives is the utterance which express
judgements of some sort including an evaluative judgement.
Assessments have been identified in the speech act literature as
praise, compliment, assess, characterize, criticize, complain, blame,
and accuse. There are four kinds of assessment, they are:

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(1) Compliment
This is the subclass of assessment which makes a positive
evaluation of the addressee himself.
(2) Critism
This is the subclass of assessment which is called as a facethreatening act. It is usually avoided unless the interlocutors
know each other very well.
(3) Self-denigrations
This is the subclass of assessment which play down the negative
evaluations

directed

at

the

speaker

himself

prospect

disagreements or downgradings.
(4) Self-commendation
This is the subclass of assessment which is contrast to a selfdenigrations, a contrary second evaluation would be socially
unacceptable, because it implies a negative evaluation of the
speaker and is therefore face-threatening. It usually occurs
between interlocutors who know each other very well.
c) Expressives
This subclass of informatives is the utterance which express the
speakers feelings and attitudes towards certain events or states of
affairs. Expressives have been identified in the speech act literature
as thank, apologize, congratulate, condole, welcome, greet, wish,
and so on.
4) Elicitations
It is the subclass of initiations act which discourse function is to elicit an
obligatoy verbal response or its non-verbal surrogate. The subclasses of
elicitations are:
a) Elicit: inform
This is the kind of elicitations which invites the addressee to supply
a piece of information.

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b) Elicit: confirm
This is the kind of elicitations which invites the addressee to
comfirm the speakers assumption. This subclass can be realized by
tag interrogatives declaratives, and positive and negative polar
interrogatives.
c) Elicit: agree
This is the kind of elicitations which invites the addressee to agree
with the speakers assumption that the expresses proposition is selfevidently true.
d) Elicit: commit
This is the kind of elicitations which differs from the above three
subclasses in that, in addition to a verbal response, it also elicits
commitment of some kind.
e) Elicit: repeat and elicit: clarify
This is the kind of elicitations which refers to the discourse itself.
One prospects a repitition and the other prospects the clarification of
a preceding utterance or preceding utterances.
b. Responding Acts
This class of acts fulfils the illocutionary intent of the speakers elicitation. It
supports the pragmatic persuppositions of the speakers elicitation. There are
three major subclasses of responding acts, they are:
1) Positive responding act
This kind of responding acts is occured when the addressee gives a fully
fitting response or positive response.
2) Negative responding act
This kind of responding acts is occured when the addressee gives a not
fully fitting response or negative response.
3) Temporization
This act is neither positive nor negative responding act, because the
addressee is not refusing to grant the speaker utterance, but rather
postponing the decision-making.

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c. Follow-up Act
This class of acts is a very important element in conversation. It has the
general function of acknowledging the outcome of an exchange. The
subclasses of follow-up acts are:
1) Endorsement
This act endorses the positive outcome of the interaction. It is typically
realized by a set of items like good, great, splendid, and
wonderful.
2) Concession
This kind of follow-up acts which accepts a negative outcome.
3) Acknowledgement
This kind of follow-up acts which is typically realized by a closed set of
items like okay, right, yeah, oh I see, or a repitition of the
preceding response in low key.

Based on the theories of the classification of speech acts above, the

researcher prefers to use the theory from Tsui, especially the requestives.
According to him, requestives are divided into five subclasses: an offer, a request
for permission, an invitation, a request for action, and proposal. An offer is the
utterance for the benefit of the addressee. A request utters for permission almost
the same as an offer, but this action is for the benefit of the speaker himself. An
invitation is an utterance which requires the addressees action which is for the
benefit of the addressee himself. A request for action is the utterance which is the
addressees action too, but it is for the benefit of the speaker. While proposal is a
suggestion which almost the same with request for action, but this utterance is for
the benefit of both the speaker and the addressee. Tsui classifies the speech acts in
the different way from the other author. Beside that, Tsui in his book, has
explained the requestives act clearly, so it will make the researcher easier in
analyzing the speech acts of requestives.

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B. Requestives
1. The Definition of Requestives

According to Tsui (1994: 90), requestives are the utterances which solicit
non-verbal actions and the addressee is given the option of carrying out the
solicited action. It is different from directives which do not give the addressee the
option. This following examples will explain that term:
a. Student
Teacher

: Can we give in our homework tomorrow, Sir?

: You have a lot of exercise today?

Students : Yes, Sir.

Teacher

: But, today is your deadline. So you must give in your homework

today. No exception.

b. A man
A boy

: Can you close the door, kid?

: (close the door)

The first utterance in (a) and (b) are interrogative in form and require a
non-verbal action. But these are different whether the addressee is given the
option to comply or not comply with the utterance. In (a), the student is making a
request, and the teacher is given the option to comply or not to comply with the
students request. Although the teacher choose not to comply. By contrast, in (b),
the boy is not really given the option of not doing the mans request to close the
door. So, the boy close the door directly.
From the examples above, it can be concluded that the students
utterance in (a) is classified as a requestive. While, the mans utterance in (b) is
classified as directives.

2. The Classification of Requestives

Furthermore, Tsui in English Conversation classifies the requestives

into five classes, they are:

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a. An offer
This utterance is the speakers action which utters for the benefit of
the addressee. A positive response from the addressee will commit the
speaker to some non-verbal action. In an offer utterance, usually the
addressee response an appreciation or thanking for the speaker. For example:
D: Youre going to China on Friday or Saturday.
R: No, were going on Saturday and coming back Monday.
D: Ill see if I can f- do you go into Canton?
R: Yes
D: Ill see if I can find an old map of Canton that we had of the city
yknow just as reference.
R: Oh Don thats very kind of you.
(Taken from Tsui, 1994: 96)
In that dialogue, Ds action is for the benefit of R. And for the action
of D, R expresses an appreciation to D.

b. A Request for Permission

A request for permission almost same with an offer, but this speakers
action is for the benefit of the speaker himself. In a request for permission,
the addressee usually does not express an appreciation or thanking. The
addressee just allow or not allow the speaker to do something. For example:
A: Dyou mind if I smoke?
B: Go ahead.
A: Thanks.
(Taken from Tsui, 1994: 96)
In the example above, As utterance is to request for permission which
is for the benefit for A himself. This utterance contrast with an offer, A as the
speaker expresses thanking to B as the addressee for allowing him to smoke.

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c. An Invitation
An invitation is an utterance which the non-verbal action is performed
by the addressee. It is for the benefit of the addressee. For example :
H: Well yknow alice and I were just suggesting that maybe some
Friday evening you might be free to come out for supper, right?
......
T: Yeah thank you for phoning up for the invite I definitely will be there.
(Taken from Tsui, 1994: 98)
In the dialogue above, H invites T to come for supper. This utterance
is called an invitation, althought the form is H request T to come for supper.
And towards the end of the conversation, T thanks H for the invitation. This
indicates that the addressee action is for the benefit of the addressee himself.

d. A Request for Action

This utterance is the addressees action too, but it is for the benefit of
the speaker. A request for action is typically realized by Can/Could you do
X?. For example:
Mona : Could you pick me up at the hospital this afternoon?
Bill

: Sure, Ill be there for you.

In the dialogue above, Mona request an action to Bill. The action is for

the benefit of Mona herself.

e. Proposals
Proposals or suggestions are almost same as request for action. But
these utterances prospect both speakers action and addressee action, and
typically realized by Can/Could/Shall we do X?. The action is performed
for the benefit of the speaker and the addresssee. For example:
A: Shall we visit our grandparents next week?
B: Yeah, on Saturday.
In the dialogue above A request for action, but in this case the action
is for the benefit of both A and B.

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Speaker action

speaker benefit

request for permission

addressee benefit
Requestives

Addressee action

speaker benefit

offer
request for action

addressse benefit
Speaker and addressee
action

invitation

speaker benefit/
speaker and addressee
benefit

proposals

(Taken from Tsui, 1994: 101)

C. Context
In the pragmatic study, context has an important role to understand the
meaning of an utterance, especially the intended meaning. The different context
makes a different meaning too, althought it is the same utterances. It means that
the interpretation of the utterance cannot be separated form the context of the
utterance itself. According to Hayawaka (1972: 56), to ignoring the context is one
of stupid practice. He also states that the habit of examining context will enable us
to understand better what others are saying.
Furthermore Malliownsky in Halliday and Hassan (1985: 6) states that
there are two notions of context, context of situation and context of culture.
Context situation is the situation on which the utterance performed. While, the
context of the culture is the culture or historical setting behind the participants. To
understand the meaning of utterance, the participants should know the cultural
background of the language.
To looking at communication as composed of speech situations, speech
events, and speech acts, Hymes in Fasold (1990: 44) suggests that there are certain
components of speech. Each component labelled with one of the letters of the
word speaking. The components are explained as follows:
1. The Situation (S)
The situation is composed of the setting and the scene. The setting is refers to
the physical circumstances of the communicative events, including the time

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and place. While, the scene is about the psychological setting, what kind of
speech event is taking place according to cultural definitions.
2. The Participants (P)
Participants are subjects who involve in the communication events. The
participants include the speaker and the addressee.
3. The End (E)
The ends of a speech event can be divided into outcomes and goals.
Outcomes are the purposes of the event from a cultural point of view. While,
goals are the purposes of the individual participants. For example in the
bargaining events, the outcome is to be orderly exchange of something of
value from one person to the other. The goal of the seller is to maximize the
price, but the buyer wants to minimize the price.
4. The Act Sequence
The act sequence is divided into message form how something is said and
content what is said. Both message form and message content involve
communicative skills that vary from one culture to another. The speakers
have to know how to formulated speech events and speech acts in ways that
their culture values and also how to recognize what is being talking about,
then a topic changes, and how to manage changes in topic.
5. The Key (K)
The key refers to the manner of spirit in which a speech act is carried out,
whether it is mock or serious, perfuntory or painstaking. Often, certain keys
are closely associated with other aspects of communications, like setting or
participants.
6. The Instrumentalities (I)
The instrumentalities include both channels and forms of speech. Hymes
explains that channels is the way a message travels from one person to
another. Probably the most commonly used channels are oral or written
transmission of a message, but message can also be transmitted by such
means as telegraph, semaphore, smoke signals, or drumming. While the

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forms of speech is languages and their subdivisions, dialects, codes, varieties,

and registers.
7. The Norms (N)
Norms include interaction and interpretation. Both norms of interaction and
interpretation are determined by culture of community, and generally, they
are different in each community. For example, Americans typically follow the
no gap, no overlap norm of conversational turn taking, and this norm is not
followed in every other culture. As the result, to be competent in
communicating in a certain culture, one has to follow norms of interaction
and interpretation as well.
8. The Genres (G)
Genres refer to categories like poems, myths, proverbs, lectures, and
commercial message. It is often the case that different genres have defining
formal characteristics. In Hymes view, casual speech is not the absence of
any genre, but genre of its own. It can be conclude that casual speech is the
genre of daily conversation.
Based on those ideas above, the researcher assumes that context includes
the situation of the utterance is performed. It can include the participants of the
conversation, place, and time. Whereas, context has much contribution in the
communication, especially spoken language. It has important role in determining
the meaning of utterances.

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