CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will discuss more specifically about movie, speech act, kinds
of speech act, forms of directive speech act, functions of directive speech act,
factor of communication, and previous study.

2.1 Movie

Arnheim (1997:8) states that movie is a series of moving pictures recorded

with sound that tells a story and art. Currently people not only watch movie at the
cinema, but also at home. They normally use electronic devices, such as:
television or computer to help them watching it.

A movie usually consists of a series of parts which tells about a story

(history, fiction, biography, and so on). It can also give as the documentation
since it usually records what happens in the past. Furthermore, movie can be said
as the visualization of idea about experiences, which is supported by a visual or
audio effect.

According to Stam and Miller (2000:167) movie can be classified into

several types or genre. These are action, adventure, animation, biography,
comedy, crime, documentary, drama, etc. The types can interact and create a
movie having more than one genre. For example, a movie could be a romance and
a horror movie at the same time. The type assigned to a movie is based on the
content within the film.

Movie definitely has theme, plot, characters, setting, and other story
elements. There were many utterances that can be found in the movie. Besides as
an entertainment, through movie, we can find out how language is used to
produce meaning. Generally, the characters in the movie have some interactions
and during that interaction, they communicate and use language as their means of
communication.
 The Finest Hours Movie can be classified as a drama-historical movie,
directed by Craig Gillespie and produced by Walt Disney Pictures. The
screenplay, written by Eric Johnson, Scott Silver, and Paul Tamasy, This movie is
a true story of the U.S.Coast Guard's Most Daring Sea Rescue by Michael J.
Tougias and Casey Sherman. The Finest Hours was directed by Craig Gillespie
and starred Bernard Webber who as a crewman at the Coast Guard station in
Chatham, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, has fallen in love with a local girl, Miriam
Pentinen.

2.2 Speech Act

Language gives many important advantages in our life. Language makes

the speaker to communicate whatever in their mind, from the simple case into the
complex, by providing such a resources. In other words, with language, people are
provided by expression to communicate meaning. Not only gives a
communication, language also can help people to do something. When a person
makes an utterance, sometimes it is not only about saying something but do
something with that utterance.

The act performed when someone produces an utterance is known as

speech act. Generally, speech act is performed when complaining, greeting
someone, requesting someone to do something, inviting, etc. Therefore, speech
act can be said as an utterance with specific function in the communication.

Austin (1962:23), explains that speech act is used by the people to

accomplish certain kinds of acts. It is distinctive from physical acts or mental acts.
Speech acts include asking, promising, threatening, ordering and so on. According
to Searle (1969:21), speech act is the basic minimal unit of linguistic
communication. And the unit of linguistic communication is not the symbol, word
or sentence but rather the production or issuance of symbol, word or sentence in
the performance of speech acts. This production or issuance of a sentence taken
under certain condition is then called speech acts.

Speech act is the basic unit of communication, taken together, with the
principle of impressibility, suggest that there are a series of analytic connection
between the notion of speech acts, what the speaker means, what the sentence
uttered means, what the speaker intends, what the hearer understands, what the
rules governing the linguistic element.

Levinson (1983:243) states that all utterances not only serve to express
propositions, but also perform actions and of the many ways in which one could
say that in uttering some linguistic expression a speaker was doing something,
there is one privileged level of action that can be called the illocutionary act - or,
more simply, the speech act. All definitions given above emphasize that speech
act is the phenomenon of language from functional perspective. In the sense, the
utterance that one produces is not merely an utterance. It serves particular function
and contains the intents of the speaker and can give effect on the hearer or
addressee.

2.2.1 Kinds of Speech Act

Saddock (1977: 68-76) briefly defines acts as: locutionary act,

illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.

1. Locutionary Acts

Locutions act is the basic of utterance, or producing meaningful linguistic

expression. It is performing an act of saying something. Example:

- It’s raining outside.

In this case, the speaker wants to give (a certain meaning) information to the
hearer that it’s raining heavily. The speaker also has purpose order to make the
hearer understand what the speaker say and do.

2. Illocutionary Acts

Illocutionary act is the real actions which are performed by the utterance.
Illocutionary acts are not easily identifiable, because illocutionary acts do with
who speak to whom, when and where it was done and the illocutionary speech
act. Examples:

- It’s raining outside.

Maybe an indirect request to close the window. Therefore it is similar with.

- Would you mind closing the window?

The intended meaning of the speaker is to ask someone to close the window.

3. Perlocutionary Acts

Perlocutionary act is performing an act of saying something. This act is

also known as the perlocutionary effect. The speaker utters something in the
assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect of the speaker’s utterance. The
speaker utters something in the assumption that the hearer will recognize the
effect of the speaker’s utterance to close the window. Examples:

- It’s raining outside

- Would you mind closing the window?

In this case, when the speaker says “it’s raining outside”. The hearer will close the
window as he understand the intended meaning.

2.2.2 Illocutionary Act

One of the ways to find out the exact illocutionary forces containing in a
particular utterance is that to use illocutionary acts. Austin (1983:34-38) defines
five categories of illocutionary acts that can be used as illocutionary force in
identifying devices as follows:

1. Commissives

Commissives refer to speech acts that commit a speaker to some future

action. It is general when the speaker uses commisive speech acts, it means that he
or she will commit some future action. Such verbs as offer, promise, swear,
volunteer, vow are included in this category.

Examples:

- I promise to pay you the money.

- I vow to get revenge.

2. Directives

Directives refer to speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a
particular action. The illocutionary verbs included in this category are ask, beg,
bid, command, demand, request, recommend.

Examples:

- I order you to leave

- I command you to stand at attention

3. Declarative

Declarative is the defining characteristic of the class that the successful

performance one of its members brings about the correspondence between the
propositional content and reality; successful performance guarantees that the
propositional content corresponds to the world.

Examples:

- I declare: your employment (hereby) terminated.

- I declare: my position is (hereby) terminated.

4. Expressives

Expressives refers to speech acts that express the speaker’s attitudes and
emotions towards the proposition. Some illocutionary verbs that belong to this
category are apologize, commiserate, congratulate, pardon.

Examples:

- I thank you for giving me the money.

- I congratulate you on winning the race.

5. Representative

Representative is a kind of speech act that states what the speaker believes
to be the case or not, for example state, conclude, represent, deduce, etc. By using
this utterance, his or her expresses belief that the proportional content is true.
Examples:

- I state that it is raining

- I predict he will come

2.2.3 Directive Speech Act

Smith (1991:100) states that direct is describe as the primitive directive act.
However, it is as a complex of different acts. Firstly, it describes as request and
order in that by directing the speaker wants the hearer to do something, and
expects to do it without any conflict, and yet at the same time is not making an
order that the hearer carry out the act. In a sense it is co-operative behavior. The
second meaning of direct is to give directions, and, third which is really a variant
on the second seeks an explanation for why directions are sometimes given as
imperatives. The second and third explanations of direct are connected, because it
usually relates to a whole sequence of acts, not just one. It includes direct when
used for giving instructions in the same basic category as argue, a structure and
not a speech act.

For example:

- Passengers are requested to extinguish their cigarettes.

The analysis above is an order. A command with the surface form of a

request is explained by considerations of politeness which I feel should be an
integral part of speech act theory. In the particular example passengers are
required to extinguish their cigarettes; it is a safety requirement of what is
presumably an airline, therefore there is no possibility of refusal.

2.2.4 The functions of Directive speech acts

Searle (1973:35) states that there are at least nine functions of directive
speech acts. They are command, request, suggestion, warning, order, beg, invite,
permit, and advise. The classifications will be described as follow:

1. Command

Command is effective only if the speaker has some degree of control over
the actions of the addressee. In this case, speaker in authority, express a wish that
an addressee should not act the speaker wants to the addressee not to act. For
examples:

- I order you to buy a book at bookstore

- I command you to clean the washroom

2. Request

Request is an expression of what the speaker wants the addressee do or

refrain from doing something. A request does not assume the speaker’s control
over the person addressed.

For examples:

- Would you bring this book for me, please?

- Do you mind if I use the Hand phone?

3. Suggestion

Suggestion is the speaker’s utterance to give opinion about what the

addressee should or should not do. Why don’t we and let’s go are used to state a
suggestion to do something together. Suggestions are often such a ways of giving
command.

For examples:

- I advise you to leave

- Why you don’t give your phone number

4. Warning

Warning is the speaker’s utterance to tell or inform the addressee about the
danger. In warning, there is a threatening and using positive imperative.

For examples:

- Go speak right now or you will be late

- No exhibition!
5. Beg

Beg is the speaker’s utterance to tell or inform the addressee about entreat
something. For examples:

- I beg you for lend me some money.

- I plead you to attend my graduation

6. Invite

Invite is when the speaker’s utterance try to take someone to other place
for some reasons. For examples:

- I invite you to watch the race in my house.

- I invite you to join my football team

7. Permit

Permit is the speaker’s utterance attempt to ask permit about something. It

is usually happen between superior to his subordinate.

For examples:

- I permit you to attend my friend wedding party

- I permit you to lend your motorcycle

2.2.5 The forms of expressing Directive Speech Act

In deciding the forms of directive speech acts, there are two kinds of forms
can describe in this research. First is the sentence patterns the directive speech
acts and second is the dimension of directive speech act. The explanations of
those categories are as follows:

2.2.6 Sentence Patterns of Directive Speech Act

There are three sentence patterns of the directive speech act, they will be
described as follows (Huddleston, 2017: 54) :

1. Imperative

Imperative is one of directive forms. The imperative is “the grammatical

form directly signaling that the utterance is an order”. In request, it is usually
stated by the word “please”. Generally, the use of imperative form of directive
utterance occurs in the conversation between participants who have close
relationship and between superior to his subordinate.

2. Interrogative

Interrogative sentence is a sentence that is used to ask a question

(Levinson, 1984:31). Interrogative types of directive utterance are usually applied
by soften the utterance it may either use modal (can, may, must, shall, will, and so
on) or no modal. Making request by using interrogative forms especially with
modals can make the utterance polite. This form is necessary to be applied in the
daily communication, since it can soften the utterance so the hearer will be
interested in the utterance and gives respect to the speaker.

3. Declarative

The last type of directive utterance is declarative sentence, it is a sentence

that is used to make a statement. Declarative can be uttered in formal or informal
situation and either between intimate or distant participants. In declarative type of
directive utterance, there is a clear statement of wish or desire expressed by the
speaker. Declarative types of the directives utterance.

2.2.7 Dimension forms of Directive Speech Act

Bach and Harnish (1979:60-70) states that dimension forms of directive

speech act include directness and literalness. Based on directness, speech act can
be divided into direct speech act and indirect speech act. Meanwhile, based on
literalness dimension, speech acts can be divided into literal speech act and non-
literal speech act. The explanations of those categories are as follows:

1. Based on Levinson (1983: 101) there are two kinds of directness forms, here
are:
a. Direct Speech Act
The utterance of direct speech act has syntactic form that reflects the
direct illocutionary act. In other words, an utterance is to contain direct
speech act if there is a correspondence between the form and the function
of the utterance. For example: Don’t avoid me! The form of this utterance
 is imperative. It is a command and therefore is used to get someone to do
something. As the form of the utterance, in this case imperative,
corresponds to its meaning and function, it is considered to be direct
speech act.
b. Indirect Speech Act
In simple way, the meaning and function of the indirect speech act is not
related to its syntactic form. For example: Can you open the window?
Based on the syntactic form, this utterance is defined as interrogative.
Normally, interrogative acts as question and is used for asking. However
instead of asking and eliciting information from the hearer, the speaker of
this utterance tends to get the hearer to do something; that is open the
window. Meanwhile, to get someone to do something is the function
performed by imperative. Therefore, the utterance “Can you open the
window?” is classified as indirect speech acts since it does not have direct
relation between its form and meaning as well as function.
2. Based on Recanati (2002:264-274) there are two kinds of literalness forms,
here are:
a. Literal Speech Act
Literal speech act refers to the act of making utterance that means as what
we say. For example: when one eats eleven breads and then announce I
feel just satisfied, he means exactly like what he says. Therefore, it is
consider to represent literal speech act.
b. Non-literal speech act
Non-literal speech act is the opposite of literal one. Speech act of this
kind convoys meaning which is not the same like what the speaker says.
For example: a student who has finished his biology exam and found out
that he got D score and says to his friend “I love biology”. He does not
mean that he likes biology but he really does not like biology and it is
contradiction with what he feels.
2.3 Factor of Communication

The theory used in this study is the Communication theory by Hymes. It is

used to describe the context of situation in order to analyze the function and the
form of the data. In order to facilitate the application of his representation, Hymes
constructed S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G, under which he grouped into eight divisions:

1. Situation

Situation includes the setting and scene. The setting is about physical
circumstance of communicative event, including the time and place. Setting refers
to time and place in which a speech act takes place. The scene is the psychological
setting which refers to the kind of speech event taking place according to culture
definition as formal or informal, serious or festive.

2. Participants

Participants are the second factor that consist of at least four participants;
role, addresser, addressee, hearer or audience who are involved in a conversation.
It deals with who is speaking and who is the speaking to. The social factors such
as age, gender, status, social distance, and role or profession of the participants
have also to be considered.

3. Ends

Ends refer to purpose the speech events and speech acts. This purpose can
be divided into outcome and goal. Outcome is defined as the purpose of the events
from a culture point of view. Goal is defined as the purpose of the individual
participants.

4. Act Sequence

Act sequence refers to the message of the speech event or speech act. It
consists of message form and content. Message form deals with how something is
said by the participants, whereas message content deals with what the participants
talk about or it is simply called a topic of a conversation.
 5. Key

It is the fifth component that refers to the tone manner or spirit in which an
act event is performed. Hymes add that key also refers to the feeling, atmosphere,
and attitude. Manner, feeling, and attitude are used in reference to the situation.

6. Instrument

Instrument includes both channel form of speech, Hymes (1974) defines

channel as the way a message travels from one person to another. It refers to the
medium of transmission of speech. Generally, the mediums to transmit message
are by oral or written, but message can also be transmitted by such means as
telegraph, semaphore, and smoke signal or drumming. Meanwhile, Hymes says
that form of speech acts with language and subdivisions, dialects, codes, varieties,
and registers.

7. Norms

Norm of communication, by Hymes, includes both interaction and

interpretation. Both of them are determined by cultural aspects of certain
community. Norms of interaction refers to an underlying set of nonlinguistic rules
which governs when, how, and how often speech occurs which is commonly have
by all communities and varies from one culture to another. Norm of interpretation
is more or less what we mean by the expression ‘reading between the lines’.

8. Genre

Genre refers to categories like poems, myths, proverbs, lectures

and commercial messages. Genre often coincide with speech events, but have to
be distinguished from speech event since a speech genre can occur in more than
one kind of speech event.

2.4 Previous Study

Andari (2011), analyze speech acts components. Her study was library
research. Her data source was movie entitled Green Hornet. There were two
theories used in her study. They were theory of speech act proposed by Austin
(1962) and the ethnography of communication that was proposed by Hymes
(1972). She discovered that the components of speech acts were closely related.
Each of them cannot stand alone since when the speaker performed locutionary
acts, there would be illocutionary acts intended by the speaker. In turn, when the
hearer achieved what was intended by the speaker, it was said that the hearer got
an effect of the utterance.

This study however not only discussed about the components of speech
acts but also its dimensions, i.e. directness and literalness. Speech acts that was
found was classified based on their directness and literalness such as indirect and
nonliteral speech acts. Furthermore, the interaction between directness and
literalness dimension was also discussed. Generally, when discussing about the
types of speech act, only direct and indirect speech acts are introduces.

Nastri (2004) also discusses about speech acts. This study investigated the
extent to which these communicative goals are reflected in the language structure
of away messages, by examining the speech acts performed through the
production of 483 away messages crafted by 44 participants. The messages are
also analyze for the use of non-standard orthography and humor.

The theory used during the analysis is the theory of speech acts proposed
by Searle. This study used a sample population consisting of 49 undergraduate
students who were recruited in Spring 2004 from a communication class at a large
northeastern university in the United States. The sample consisted of 29 females
(59.1%) and 20 males (40.9%), who ranged in age from 18 to 22 years old.
Students in the study were given course credit for their participation. Five
participants did not produce any away messages; thus the final sample size was
reduced to 44 participants.

This previous study is worthwhile to be read because the research is the

analysis of the speech acts in the field of communication technology. It could
bring us knowledge about the theory of speech acts that could be used in
analyzing the data that is related to the field of communication technology. The
research also shows that not all of the types of speech acts that are proposed by
Searle appeared in the communication.
 The different side between the previous research and this research are not
only analyzed or identified the indirect and non-literal speech acts that appeared
during the communication between the speaker and the hearer but also the
sentence patterns and functions the indirect and non-literal speech acts used in the
movie The Finest Hours Movie. The strength point of this research is the analysis
of the context of situation. It shows how the speaker and the hearer use the
directive speech acts in their face to face conversation in The Finest Hours movie.
It is analyze by the context of situation theory by Hymes (1974).