SUBCOURSE

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EDITION
A

PRINCIPLES OF
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES

PRINCIPLESOFAUTOMOTIVEENGINES
SubcourseNumberOD0610
EDITIONA
UnitedStatesArmyCombinedArmsSupportCommand
FortLee,VA238011809
3CreditHours
EditionDate:November1991
SUBCOURSEOVERVIEW
ThissubcourseisdesignedtoteachyouthePrinciplesofAutomotiveEngines.
Containedwithinthissubcourseisinstructiononhowtoidentifycomponent
functions,characteristics,andprinciplesofoperationsofthetwostroke,
fourstrokespark,compressionignition,andturbineengines,toincludea
comparisonofgasolineanddieselsystemcomponents.
Therearenoprerequisitesforthissubcourse.
Thissubcoursereflectsthedoctrinewhichwascurrentatthetimethe
subcoursewasprepared.Alwaysrefertothemostcurrentpublicationsina
workingenvironment.
Thewords"he","his",and"men",whenusedinthispublication,representboth
themasculineandfemininegenders,unlessotherwisestated.

PLEASE NOTE
Proponencyforthissubcoursehaschanged
FromArmor(AR)toOrdnance(OD).

TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE
TASK:

Identifytheinternalfunctionsofselectedcomponentsof
sparkandcompressionignitionandturbineinternalcombustion
engines.

CONDITIONS:

Giventhissubcoursecontaininginformationdescribing
principlesofautomotiveengines.

STANDARD:

You must identify component functions, characteristics, and

principles of the twostroke, fourstroke spark, compression
ignition, and turbine engines, to include a comparison of
gasolineanddieselsystemcomponents.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS
SECTION

PAGE

SubcourseOverview......................................

Lesson: PrinciplesofAutomotiveEngines................
PartA: EngineConstruction...................
ClassificationofEngines..............
EngineOperation.......................
FourStrokeandTwoStrokeEngines......
PracticeExercise......................
AnswerKeyandFeedback................

1
3
8
10
13
17
18

PartB: DieselEngines.........................
PracticeExercise.....................
AnswerKeyadFeedback.................

19
41
44

iii

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LESSON
PRINCIPLESOFAUTOMOTIVEENGINES
MQSManualTask:None
OVERVIEW
TASKDESCRIPTION
Inthislesson,youwilllearnthecharacteristicsandprinciplesofoperation
ofautomotiveengines.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVE
TASK:

Identifytheinternalfunctionsofselectedcomponentsofspark
andcompressionignitionandturbineinternalcombustionengines.

CONDITIONS:

Giventhissubcoursecontaininginformationdescribingprinciples
ofautomotiveengines.

STANDARDS:

Youmustidentifycomponentfunctions,characteristics,and
principlesofthetwostroke,fourstrokespark,compression
ignition,andturbineengines,toincludeacomparisonof
gasolineanddieselsystemcomponents.

REFERENCES:

TM98000.

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INTRODUCTION
Thissubcourseisaguideforpersonnelchargedwiththeresponsibilityof
maintenanceonanyarmyvehicle.Thissubcoursewillprovidethemotorofficer
withtheinformationondifferentengines,theirconstruction,characteristics,
andoperation.TherisingcostofArmymaterielandtheneedforahighstate
ofequipmentreadinessonthepartofArmyunitsdictatetheneedforan
efficientandresponsivesystemofmaintenance.Properlytrained,well
supervisedoperationsandrepairmen,supportedbyahighlevelofcommand
emphasisforqualitymaintenance,arethemostessentialelementsofa
successfulmaintenanceprogram.But,withouttheknowledgeofengine
components,thesupervisormaynotknowwhatiscausingthemalfunctionsand
highcostsofrepairs.

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LESSONCONTENT
PartA.
1. EngineConstruction.UponcompletionofPartA,youwillbeableto
answerquestionsaboutthecharacteristicsandprinciplesofoperationof
twostrokeandfourstrokecyclesparkignitionengines.
a.Internalandexternalcombustionengines.Intheinternalcombustion
engine,thecombustionoffueltakesplaceinsidetheenginecylinder.Thisis
incontrasttoexternalcombustionengine,suchasasteamengine,wherethe
combustiontakesplaceoutside.Figure11shows,insimplifiedform,an
externalcombustionengine.Theexternalcombustionenginerequiresaboiler
inwhichfuelisburned.Thiscombustioncauseswatertoboiltoproduce
steam.Thesteampassesintotheenginecylinderunderpressureandforcesthe
pistontomovedownward.Withtheinternalcombustionengine,thecombustion
takesplaceinsidethecylinderandisdirectlyresponsibleforforcingthe
pistontomovedownward.Inbothtypeengines,valvesarearrangedtopermit
betterintakeandexhaust.Themostcommonusedengineistheinternal
combustionengine.

Figure11.ComparisonofInternalandExternal
CombustionEngines.

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b.Nomatterhowmanycylindersanenginehas,whether1,2,4,6,or12,
thesameactionstakeplaceineachcylinder.Muchcanbelearnedabout
constructionandoperationbystudyingasinglecylinderengine(Figure12).
Thisengineisafourstrokecycle,internalcombustion,gasolineengine;these
termsareexplainedinsubsequentparagraphs.

Figure12.SingleCylinder,FourStroke,InternalCombustion
GasolineEngine(CutAwayView).
(1)Cylinderandpiston.Eachcylinderofatypicalenginehasa
pistonthatreciprocates(movesupanddownorbackandforth)withinthe
cylinderandisconnectedtothecrankshaftbyalinkknownasaconnectingrod
(Figure13).Enginepistonstransmittheforceoftheexplosiontothe
crankshaftthroughtheconnectingrod,andactasaguidefortheupperendof
theconnectingrod,andserveasacarrierforthepistonringsusedtoseal
thepistoninthecylinder.Thetopofthepistonmaybeflat,concave,
convex,oragreatvarietyofshapestopromoteturbulenceorhelpcontrol
combustion.

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(2)ConnectingRodandCrankshaft.Theupanddownmovementofthe
pistoniscalledreciprocatingmotion.Thisreciprocatingmotionmustbe
changedtorotarymotiontopropelthevehicle.Thechangeisaccomplishedby
thecrankshaftandaconnectingrodwhichconnectsthepiston(Figure13)and
thecrankshaft.Theconnectingrodisattachedtothepistonbyapistonpin
or"wristpin".Thepinpassesthroughthebearingandsurfacesinthepiston
andconnectingrod.Thelowerendoftheconnectingrodisattachedtothe
crankpinonthecrankshaft.Asthepistonmovesupanddowninthecylinder,
theupperendoftheconnectingrodmovesupanddownwithit.

Figure13.Piston,ConnectingRod,andPistonPin.

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(3)Stroke.Thelowerendoftheconnectingrodalsomovesupanddawn
but,becauseitisattachedtothecrankpinonthecrankshaft(Figure14),it
alsomovesinacircle.Eachmovementofthepistonfromthetoptothebottom
orfrombottomtotopiscalledastroke.Thepistontakestwostrokesasthe
crankshaftmakesonecompleterevolution,anupstrokeandadownstroke.When
thepistonisatthetopofastroke,itissaidtobeattopdeadcenter
(TDC).Whenthepistonisatthebottomofthestroke,itissaidtobebottom
deadcenter(BDC).Thesepositionsarecalledrockpositions.

Figure14.RelationshipofPiston,ConnectingRod,andCrank
onCrankshaftasCrankshaftTurnsOneRevolution.

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(4)Valves.Therearetwovalves(Figure15)atthetopofthe
cylinder.Avalveisanaccuratelymachinedplugthatfitsintoamachined
openingatthetopofthecylinder.Whenthevalveisrestinginthis
position,itissaidtobeseated.Whenavalveissopositioned,itisclosed
andtheopeningissealedoff.Whenthevalveispushedoffitsseat,itis
opened.Thevalvesinthecylinderareclosedpartofthetimeandopenedpart
ofthetime.Oneofthevalves,calledtheintakevalve,openstoadmita
mixtureoffuelandairintothecylinder.Theothervalve,calledtheexhaust
valve,openstoallowtheescapeofburnedgasesafterthefuelandairmixture
hasburned.Valvesareopenedbythecamshaftrotationandclosedbyaspring.

Figure15.IntakeandExhaustValves.
(5)Camshaft.Thecamshaftisdesignedtoopentheintakevalveatthe
beginningoftheintakestrokeandholditopenlongenoughtoobtainthemost
efficientfillingofthecylinder.Likewise,thecamshaftopenstheexhaust
valveatthebeginningoftheexhauststrokeandholdsitopenlongenoughto
obtainthemostefficientemptyingofthecylinder.Inmostengines,thelobes
onthecamshaftaredesignedtoopenthevalvessmoothlyandgradually.This
avoidsshocktothevalvesandallowsquietnessofoperation.
Thefinaldesignisusuallyacompromisebetweenefficiencyandquiet
operation.Whenthecamloberotatesoutoftheway,thevalveisclosedand
heldclosedbyspringpressure.Infourstrokeengines,eachvalveisopened
everyotherrevolutionofthecrankshaft,sothecamshaftisgearedtorunat
onehalfthecrankshaftspeed.

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2. ClassificationofEngines.Automotiveenginesmaybeclassifiedaccording
tothetypeoffuelused,typeofcoolingsystememployed,orvalveand
cylinderarrangement.Theyalloperateonthesamebasicprinciples,andare
constructedtomeettheneedsofthesystemitwillbeusedfor.
a.Fuel.
(1)Gas.Ahydrocation,obtainedfrompetroleum,thatissuitableas
aninternalcombustionenginefuel.
(2)Diesel.Thesubstancethatisburnedtoproduceheatandcreate
motionofthepistononthepowerstrokeinanengine.
b.Cooling.Enginesareclassifiedastowhethertheyareairorliquid
cooled.Allenginesarecooledbyairtosomeextent,butaircooledengines
arethoseinwhichairistheonlyexternalcoolingmedium.Lubricatingoil
andfuelhelpcoolengineparts,buttheremustbeanadditionalexternalmeans
ofdissipatingtheabsorbedheat.
(1)AirCooled.Aircooledenginesareusedextensivelyinmilitary
vehiclesaswellasinaircraft.Thistypeisusedwheretheremustbean
economyofspaceandweight.Itdoesnotrequirearadiator,waterjacket,
coolant,orapumptocirculatethecoolant.Thecylindersarecooledby
conductingtheheattometalfinsontheoutsideofthecylinderwallsand
head.Toeffectthecooling,airiscirculatedbetweenthefins.When
possible,theengineisinstalledsoitisexposedtotheairstreamofthe
vehicle;thebafflesdirecttheairtothefins.Iftheenginecannotbe
mountedintheairstream,afanisusedtoforcetheairthroughthefins.
(2)LiquidCooled.Watercooledenginesrequireawaterjackettohold
thecoolantaroundthevalveports,combustionchambers,andcylinders;a
radiatordissipatestheheatfromthecoolanttothesurroundingair;anda
pumpcirculatesthecoolantthroughtheengine.Watercooledenginesalso
requireafantopassairthroughtheradiatorbecausethespeedofthevehicle
doesnotalwaysforceenoughairthroughtheradiatortoprovideproper
dissipationofheat.
c.Valvearrangement.Enginesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothe
positionoftheintakeandexhaustvalves;thatis,whethertheyareinthe
cylinderblockorinthecylinderhead.Variousarrangementshavebeenused,
butthemostcommonareLhead,Ihead,andFhead.Theletterdesignationis
usedbecausetheshapeofthecombustionchamberresemblestheformofthe
letteridentifyingit.

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(1)LHead.InLheadengines,boththevalvesareplacedintheblock
onthesamesideofthecylinder.Thevalveoperatingmechanismislocated
directlybelowthevalves,andonecamshaftactuatesboththeintakeand
exhaustvalves.ThistypehastakenplaceoftheThead,inwhichbothvalves
areintheblockbutonoppositesidesofthecylinder.Thedisadvantageof
theTheadwasthatitrequiredtwocompletevalveoperatingmechanisms.
(2)IHead.EnginesusingtheIheadconstructionarecommonlycalled
valveinheadoroverheadvalveengines.Thisarrangementrequiresatappet,
pushrod,andarockerarmabovethecylindertoreversethedirectionofthe
valvemovement,butonlyonecamshaftisrequiredforbothvalves.Some
overheadvalveenginesmakeuseofanoverheadcamshaft.Thisarrangement
eliminatesthelonglinkagebetweenthecamshaftandvalve.
(3)FHead.InFheadengines,theintakevalvesnormallyarelocated
inthehead,whiletheexhaustvalvesarelocatedintheengineblock.This
arrangementcombines,ineffect,theLheadandtheIheadvalvearrangements.
Thevalvesintheheadareactuatedfromthecamshaftthroughtappets,push
rods,androckerarms(Iheadarrangement),whilethevalvesintheblockare
actuateddirectlyfromthecamshaftbytappets(Lheadarrangements).
d.CylinderArrangement.Automotiveenginesalsovaryinthearrangement
ofcylinders,dependingontheengineuse.Cylinderarrangementinliquid
cooledenginesisusuallyinlineorVtype;inaircooledengines,itisV
type,radial,orhorizontalopposed.
(1)InLine.Theverticalinlinecylinderarrangementisoneofthe
mostwidelyused.Allcylindersarecastorassembledinastraightlineabove
acommoncrankshaftwhichisimmediatelybelowthecylinders.Avariationis
theinvertedinlinetype.
(2)VType.IntheVtypeengine,twoinlinecylindersaremountedin
a"V"shapeaboveacommoncrankshaft.
(3)RadialEngines.Theradialenginehascylindersplacedinacircle
aroundthecrankshaft.
(4)HorizontalOpposed.Thehorizontalopposedenginehascylinders
laidontheirsidesintworows,withthecrankshaftinthecenter.

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(5)HorizontalOpposedwithVerticalCrankshaft.Inthisengine,the
cylindersarehorizontalandopposedtoeachother,butthecrankshaftsset
vertically.
3. EngineOperation.Inanyinternalcombustionengine,thereisadefinite
sequenceofeventsthatmustoccur.Theactionsthattakeplacewithinthe
enginecylindermaybedividedintofourbasicparts,calledstrokes(Figure
16).

Figure16.TheFourStrokesintheFourStroke
Cycle,GasolineEngine.

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a.Intakestroke.Thepistonmovesdownwardandtheintakevalveopens.
Thisdownwardmovementofthepistonproducesapartialvoid,orvacuum,inthe
cylinder,andairrushesintothecylinderpasttheopenedintakevalve.This
hassomewhatthesameeffectasdrinkingthroughastraw:partialvacuumis
producedinthemouthandtheliquidmovesupthroughthestrawtofillthe
vacuum(Figure17).Intheengine,theinrushingairpassesthroughthe
carburetorbeforeitentersthecylinder.Thecarburetorchargestheairwith
gasolinevaportoproduceacombustiblemixture.

Figure17.IntakeStroke.

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b.Compressionstroke.Thepistonreachesthebottomoftheintakestroke
andtheintakevalvecloses.Bothintakeandexhaustvalvesarenowclosed,
sealingtheupperendofthecylinder.Therisingpistoncompressestheair
fuelmixture.Themixtureiscompressedtoonesixthoroneseventhofits
originalvolume.Thisisthesameasonegallonofaircompressinguntila
littlemorethanapintofairisleft.Compressingthemixturemakesitmore
combustible;theenergyinthefuelisconcentratedintoasmallerspace.The
mixtureofairandfuelisignitednearoratthetopofthecompressionstroke
(Figure18).

Figure18.CompressionStroke.
c.Powerstroke.Attheupperlimitofpistonmovement(neartopdead
center),thecompressedairfuelmixtureisignited.Theignitionsystem
producesasparkinthecylindercausingthemixturetoburn.Thegenerated
pressureforcesthepistondownwardonthepowerstroke(Figure19).

Figure19.PowerStroke.
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d.Exhauststroke.Aftertheairfuelmixturehasturned,itmustbe
clearedfromthecylinder.Thisisdonebyopeningtheexhaustvalvejustas
thepowerstrokeisfinishedandthepistonstartsbackupontheexhaust
stroke.Thepistonforcestheburnedgasesoutofthecylinder,pastthe
openedexhaustvalve.Thefourstrokes(intake,compression,power,and
exhaust)mustbeautomaticallyrepeatedoverandoverinthesamesequencein
eachcylinderiftheengineistorun(Figure110).

Figure110.ExhaustStroke.
4. FourStrokeandTwostrokeEngines.Theenginesdescribedinparagraphs2
and3andillustratedinFigures16through110areafourstrokecycle
engine.Fourstrokesofthepiston,withtworevolutionsofthecrankshaftand
onerevolutionofthecamshaftarerequiredforthecompletecycleofevents.
ThistypeofengineisalsocalledafourstrokeOttocycleenginebecauseit
wasDr.N.A.Ottowho,in1976,firstappliedtheprinciplesofthisengine.
Inthetwostrokecycleengine,theentirecycleofevents(intake,
compressions,power,andexhaust)takesplaceintwopistonstrokes.

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a.TwoStrokecycle.Atwostrokecyclegasolineengineisshownin
Figure111.Everyotherstrokeonthisengineisapowerstroke.Eachtime
thepistonmovesdown,itisonthepowerstroke.Intake,compression,power,
andexhauststilltakeplace,buttheyarecompletedinjusttwostrokes.
Intakeandexhaustportsarecutintothecylinderwallinsteadofbeingplaced
atthetopofthecombustionchamberasinthefourstrokecycleengine.As
thepistonmovesdownonitspowerstroke,itfirstuncoverstheexhaustport
toletburnedgasesescapeandthenituncoverstheintakeporttoallowanew
airfuelmixturetoenterthecombustionchamber.Thenontheupwardstroke,
thepistoncoversbothportsandatthesametime,compressesthenewmixture
inpreparationforignitionandanotherpowerstroke.Intheengineshownin
Figure111,thepistonisshapedsothattheincomingairfuelmixtureis
directedupward,sweepingoutaheadofittheburnedexhaustgases.Also,
thereisaninletintothecrankcasethroughwhichtheairfuelmixturepasses
beforeitentersthecylinder.Thisinletisopenedasthepistonmoves
upward,butitissealedoffasthepistonmovesdownwardonthepowerstroke.
Thedownwardmovingpistonslightlycompressesthemixtureinthecrankcase,
givingthemixturesufficientpressuretopassrapidlythroughtheintakeport
asthepistonclearsthisport.Thisimprovesthe"sweepingout",or
scavengingeffectofthemixtureasitentersandclearstheburnedgasesfrom
thecylinderthroughtheexhaustport.

Figure111.EventsinATwoStrokeCycle,
InternalCombustionEngine.

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b.ComparisonofTwoStrokeCycleEngines.Itmightappearthatatwo
strokecycleenginecouldproducetwiceasmuchhorsepowerasafourstroke
cycleengineofthesamesize,operatingatthesamespeed.Thisisnotthe
case.Toscavengetheburnedgasesattheendofthepowerstrokeandduring
thetimeboththeintakeandexhaustportsareopen,thefreshairfuelmixture
rushesintoandthroughacylinder,aportionofthefreshairfuelmixture
mingleswiththeburnedgasesandiscarriedouttheexhaustport.Also,due
tothemuchshorterperiod,theintakeportisopen(ascomparedtotheperiod
theintakevalveinafourstrokecycleengineisopen),arelativelysmaller
amountofairfuelmixtureisadmitted.Withlessairfuelmixture,lesspower
perpowerstrokeisproducedascomparedtothepowerproducedinafourstroke
cycleengineoflikesizeoperatingatthesamespeed,andwithother
conditionsbeingthesame.Toincreasetheamountofairfuelmixture,
auxiliarydevicesareusedwithtwostrokecycleenginestoassuredeliveryof
greateramountsofairfuelmixtureintothecylinder.Figure111showsone
devicethatusescompressioninthecrankcase.Otherenginesmayuse
superchargersorturbochargersorbothtoincreasepower.Obviously,the
greaterthepressuredeveloped,themoreaircarriedintothecylinder.

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LESSON,PARTA
PracticeExercise
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialscoveredinthis
lesson.Thereisonlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhave
completedtheexercise,checkyouranswerswiththeanswerkeythatfollows.
Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,studyagainthatpartofthelessonwhich
containstheportioninvolved.
1.

Whatistheupanddownmovementofthepistoncalled?
_________________________________________________________________

2. Whatiseachmovementofthepistonfromthetoptobottomorfrombottom
totopcalled?
_________________________________________________________________
3.

Whatoperatesbothintakeandexhaustvalves?
_________________________________________________________________

4.

Whatiseverydawnstrokeonatwostrokeenginecalled?
_________________________________________________________________

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PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item

CorrectAnswerandFeedback

1.

Reciprocatingmotionistheupanddownmovementpistoninthe
cylinder.Page5,para(2).

2.

Eachmovementofthepistonfromtoptobottomorfrombottomto
topiscalledastroke.Page6,para(3).

3.

Camshaftoperatesbothintakeandexhaustvalves.Page7,para
(5).

4.

Everydownstrokeinatwostrokecycleengineisapowerstroke.
Page14,paraa.

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LESSONCONTENT
PartB.
DieselEngines.UponcompletionofPartB,youwillbeabletoexplainthe
principlesofoperationoftwostrokeandfourstrokecycledieselengines.
ThedieselenginebearsthenameofDr.RudolphDiesel,aGermanengineer.He
iscreditedwithconstructing,in1897,thefirstsuccessfuldieselengine
usingliquidfuel.Hisobjectivewasanenginewithgreaterfueleconomythan
thesteamengine,whichusedonlyasmallpercentageofenergycontainedinthe
coalburnedunderitsboiler.Dr.Dieseloriginallyplannedtousepulverized
coalasfuel,buthisfirstexperimentalenginein1893wasafailure.Aftera
secondenginefailed,hechangedhisplanandusedliquidfuel.
a.CharacteristicsofDieselEngines.Dieselenginesaresimilarto
gasolineenginesandarebuiltinbothtwoandfourstrokedesigns.Theymay
bewateroraircooled.Ingeneral,theyareheavierinstructuretowithstand
thehigherpressuresresultingfromtheincreasedcompressionratiosused.In
somedieselengines,thecompressionratiomaybeashighas18to1.
(1)FuelIntakeandIgnitionofAirFuelMixture.Themaindifference
betweengasolineanddieselengines(Figure112)isinthemethodof
introducingfuelintothecylindersandignitingtheairfuelmixture.Fuel
andairaremixedtogetherbeforetheyenterthecylinderofthegasoline
engine.Themixtureiscompressedbytheupstrokeofthepistonandisignited
withinthecylinderbyasparkplug.Airaloneentersthecylinderofadiesel
engine.Theairiscompressedbytheupstrokeofthepistonandthediesel
fuelisinjectedintothecombustionchambernearthetopoftheupstroke
(compressionstroke).Theairbecomeshotenough(1000to2000F)toignite
thefuelasitissprayedintothecombustionchamberbytheinjector
(compressionignition).Nosparkplugisusedinthedieselengine;ignition
isbycontactofthefuelwiththeheatedair.

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Figure112.ComparisonofSequenceEventsinFourStroke
GasolineandDieselEngines.

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(2)TwoStrokecycledieselengines.Intwocycledieselengines,it
isnecessarytoforceairintothecylindersandforceexhaustgasesat.One
waytodothisistouseasuperchargeror"blower".TheGeneralMotors(GM)
twocycledieselusesapositivedisplacementtypeblowertoforceairintothe
cylinders(Figure113).

Figure113.Blower.
(a)Twocycledieselenginesdonothaveintakevalves.One
configurationusedbythemilitaryhasfairexhaustvalvesforeachcylinder.
Airentersthecylinderthroughportsinthecylinderlinerinsteadofthrough
intakevalves(Figure114).Theseportsareexposedeachtimethepiston
movesdown.Intakeandexhaustwilloccurinthecylinderatthesametime.

Figure114.CylinderLinerandIntakePorts.

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(b)Whenthepistonisnearthebottomofitsstroke,theportsin
thecylinderlinerareexposed.Air,underpressurefromtheblower,isforced
intothecylinder(intake).Atthesametime,theexhaustvalvesopen.The
incomingairhelpsforcetheexhaustgasesoutoftheengine(exhaust).The
exhaustvalvescloseasthepistonstartsitcompressionstroke.Airis
continuouslyforcedintothecylinderuntilthepistonblockstheports.The
airiscompressedandignitedandthepistonisforcedbackdown.Everydown
strokeisobviouslyapowerstroke.Whenthepistonmovesdownfarenoughto
exposethecylinderports,thesequencebeginsagain.
(3)Controlofspeedandpower.Thespeedandthepowerofthediesel
enginesarecontrolledbythequantityoffuelinjectedintothecylinders.
Thisisopposedtothecommongasolineengine,whichcontrolsspeedandpower
bylimitingtheamountofairadmittedtothecarburetor.Inthediesel
engine,avaryingamountoffuelismixedwithaconstantamountofcompressed
airinsidethecylinder.Afullchargeofairentersthecylinderoneach
intakestroke.Becausethequantityofairisconstant,theamountoffuel
injecteddeterminesspeedandpoweroutput.Aslongastheamountoffuel
injectedisbelowthemaximumestablishedbythemanufacturerwhodesignedthe
engine,thereisalwaysenoughairinthecylinderforcompletecombustion.
(4)Combustionprocess.Inthedieselengine,thereiscontinuous
combustionduringtheentirelengthofthepowerstroke,andpressureresulting
fromcombustionremainsrelativelyconstantthroughoutthestroke.Inthe
gasolineengine,combustioniscompletedwhilethepistonisattheupperpart
oftravel.Thismeansthatthevolumeofthemixturestaysaboutthesame
duringmostofthecombustionprocess.Whenthepistondoesmovedownandthe
volumeincreases,thereisalittleadditionalcombustiontomaintainpressure.
Becauseofthesefacts,thecycleofthegasolineengineisoftenreferredto
ashavingConstantVolumeCombustionwhilethedieselcycleissaidtohave
ConstantPressureCombustion.
b.TurbineEngine.(Figure115).Theturbineengineburnslow
performancedieselfuelmixedwithcompressedandheatedair.Airentersthe
engineandflowsthroughtwocompressors.Thecompressedairisheatedby
exhaustgasestoaidburning.Theheatedandcompressedairisdirectedinto
thecombustionchamberwhereitmixeswithfuelvapor.Continuousburning
occursonceithasbeenstartedbyanignitionspark.Gasesareroutedthrough
therecuperatortoheatincomingairandthenexhausted.

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Figure115.TurbineEngine.

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(1)Turbineenginesystems.Theturbineenginesystemconsistsofair
andfuelcontrolcomponents,combustionchamber,turbines,andanexhaust
system(Figure116).
(a)AirSupply.Theairsupplyforcompressionisdrawnfrom
outsidetheenginebytheactionoftwocompressors.Itiscleanedand
directedtotheengineairinlet.Fromtheinlet,theairflowsthroughalow
pressurecompressorsectionandthenthroughahighpressuresection.The
compressedairthenpassesintoarecuperatorandflowsintothecombustion
chamberwhereitmixeswithfuelvaporandburns.
(b)Fuel.Fuelissuppliedbytwocontrolunitswhich
automaticallysupplythecorrectamountforvaryingengineoperating
conditions.
(c)Combustion.Electricignitioninthecombustionchamberis
usedonlyduringthestartingcycle.Afterthestart,acontinuousflowofair
andfuelvapormaintainsacontinuousburninginthecombustionchamberuntil
thefuelortheairisshutoff.
(d)Turbines.Exhaustgasleavesthecombustionchamberthrough
dischargenozzlesandforcesatwostageturbinetoturn.Thehighpressure
turbinedrivesthehighpressurecompressorrotor.Thelowpressureturbines
drivethelowpressurecompressorrotor.Afterleavingthelowpressure
turbine,theexhaustgasdrivesatwostagepowerturbine.Thepowerturbine
suppliestheforcetoturntheenginepoweroutputdriveshaft.
(e)Exhaust.Theexhaustgasleavingthepowerturbineisrouted
throughtherecuperatortoheatcompressedair.

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Figure116.DieselTurbineEngineComponents
ConstructionandOperation.
(2)Turbineoperation.Inordertomasterthetheoryofoperation
behindthegasturbineengine,fourbasicprinciplesmustbeunderstood:mass,
pressure,acceleratedmass,andconversionofenergy.Thefollowingisa
discussiononeach.

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(a)Mass.Allturboshaftenginesattaintheirhighrotational
torqueoutput,orpower,fromenergytransferredtotheturbinesbythe
acceleratedairmasswithintheengine.Figure117illustratesthisconcept.
Withincontainer1,thereisacertainamountofairmolecules;theexact
amountisreferredtoasmass.Thisairmassisoneofthekeycomponents
requiredtodrivetheturbineinthemassaccelerationprinciple.

Figure117.TheoryofGasTurbineEngine

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(b)Pressure.Asecondcomponentrequiredintheacceleration
principleispressure,ordrivingforce.Toattainthispressure,container2
(Figure117)isheatedandthemoleculescontainedwithinexpandandexert
pressureequallyinalldirections.
(c)AcceleratedMass.Anacceleratedmassisobtainedbyfunneling
thepressurizedgasdownanarrowpassageway(container3).Itisthis
convergencyornarrowingdownofthenozzleareathatcausesthemoleculesto
accelerateandproducethatvelocityenergyrequiredtoperformtherotational
mechanicalwork.
(d)ConversionofEnergy.Thehighvelocitygasespossessalarge
amountofkineticenergy.Thisenergyduetomotionnowmustbeconvertedto
mechanicalenergy,whichcanbeaccomplishedbyaddingaturbinewheelto
container4(Figure117).Thefirstforce,asseenintheillustration,is
theimpactorpushofthehighvelocitygasesexitingthenozzleandhitting
theturbinewheel.Thesecondforce,whichisareactionforce,isgenerated
bythehighvelocitygasesexitingtheturbinewheelintheoppositedirection
ofrotation.

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(3)CycleCharacteristicsandVariations.Thefourstroke/cycle
pistontypeengineisdesignedtoperformfourevents:intake,compression,
power,andexhaust.Onecycle(fourevents)iscompletedasthecrankshaft
rotatestwiceforatotalof720degrees.Eacheventiscompletedwithin180
degreesofcrankshaftrotationandiscalledastroke.Gasturbineengine
operationconsistsoffoureventsthatareessentiallythesameasthe
reciprocatingengine.Airisfirstdrawnthroughtheairinletsectionthat
relatestotheintakeevent.Itthenpassesthroughthecompressorsection,
relatingtothecompressionevent.Theairthenentersthecombustor,mixes
withfuel,andisignited.Astheairfuelmixtureburns,thepressure
increaseisdirectedthroughtheturbinesthatextractworkfromtheflowing
gaseswhichrelatestothepowerevent.Passingthroughtheturbines,theused
gasesareexhaustedtotheatmosphere,relatingtotheexhaustevent.Figure
118illustratesthecomparisonofeventsbetweenthefourstroke/cyclepiston
typeengineandthegasturbine.

Figure118.ComparisonofPistonEnginetoTurbineEngine.

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(4)ContinuousCombustion.Asdiscussedabove,thefourstroke/cycle
pistontypeengineperformsfourseparatediscreteevents.Eacheventmustbe
completedbeforethenextonebegins.Basicgasturbineengineoperation
consistsoffoureventsthatareessentiallythesameasthepistontype
reciprocatingengine;however,theseeventscombinetoformacontinuouscycle.
Asthegasturbineoperates,eachofthefoureventstranspirescontinuously.
Inthegasturbineengine,aslongasthereisasupplyofairandfuelto
burn,expand,andmaintainturbinespeed,thecycleissaidtobecontinuous
andselfsufficient.
(5)ThermalComparison.Thepistontypeengineoperatesatrelatively
coolertemperaturesthanthegasturbineengine.Thepistonenginewithstands
combustionchambertemperaturesofapproximately5000degreesFahrenheit(2760
degreesCelsius)forashortdurationoftime.Thehotcomponentsarecooled
rapidlytomaintainrelativelylowtemperaturesofonlyafewhundreddegrees.
Inthegasturbine,thecombustionchambermaintainsaconstanttemperatureand
limitsittoapproximately1000to2000degreesFahrenheit(537.7to1090.3
degreesCelsius).Thisisdonetoretaintheresilienceofinternalcomponents
andinhibitformationofforeignmatteronrotatingparts.
(6)AirInletSection.Theairinletsection(Figure119)servesto
furnishauniformandsteadyairflowtothefaceofthecompressor.Inlet
sectionsmaybeequippedwithorwithoutinletguidevanes.Inletguidevanes
servetodirecttheairintothefirststageofthecompressor.

Figure119.AirInletSection.

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(7)Compressors.Thecompressorisdesignedtoprovidethecombustion
chamberwithamaximumamountofhighpressureairthatisheatedandexpanded
throughtheturbines.Theamountofenergyreleasedfromtheheatedairmassis
proportionaldirectlytothemassofairconsumed.Thisisthemajorreason
whythecompressorisoneofthemostimportantcomponentsinthegasturbine.
Apoorlydesignedcompressorwillnotprovidethecombustionchamberwiththe
properamountofhighpressureair,andwillresultinalackofpower.Modern
compressorsareabletoachievecompressionratiosofapproximately15:1and
efficienciesapproaching90percent.Twocommontypesofcompressorsare
discussedbelow.

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(8)Axial.Theaxialcompressorperformsthecompressionprocessina
straightlineparalleltotheaxisoftheengine.Theaxialcompressoris
composedofrotatingmemberscalledrotorsandstationarymemberscalled
stators.Arowofrotorsandstatorsiscalledastage.Theaxialcompressor
iscomposedofaseriesofstages(Figure120).Duringoperation,theairis
arrestedinthefirststageofcompressionandisturnedbyasetofstator
vanes,pickedupbyasetofrotorblades,andpassedthrougheachsuccessive
stagetocompletethecompressionprocess.Therotorsincreasevelocitywhile
thestatorsdecreasethevelocity.Thesuccessiveincreasesanddecreasesin
velocitypracticallycanceleachother,witharesultthatthevelocity,asthe
airleavesthecompressor,isusuallyslightlygreaterthanthevelocityofthe
airattheentrancetothecompressor.Asthepressureisbuiltupby
successivesetsofrotorsandstators,lessandlessvolumeisrequired.Thus,
thevolumewithinthecompressorisdecreasedgradually.Attheexitofthe
compressor,adiffusersectionwithintheengineaddsthefinaltouchtothe
compressionprocessbydecreasingagainthevelocityandincreasingthestatic
pressurejustbeforetheairenterstheengineburnersection.

Figure120.AxialCompressor.

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(9)CentrifugalCompressors.Thistypeofcompressorconsistsoftwo
mainparts:animpellerandadiffuser.Centrifugalcompressorsoperateby
takinginairnearthehuboftheimpellerandacceleratingitoutwardby
centrifugalaction.Theimpellervanesguidetheairtowardtheouter
circumferenceofthecompressor,buildingupthevelocitybymeansofthehigh
rotationalspeedoftheimpeller.Airleavestheimpellerathighspeedand
flowsthroughasetofdiffuservaneswhichdeceleratestheflowofair,
convertinghighvelocityairtohighpressureenergy.Thediffuservanesalso
servetostraightenairflow.Atypicalcentrifugalcompressorisshownin
Figure121.

Figure121.CentrifugalCompressor.

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(10)CombustionChamber.Thecombustionchamber,Figure122,is
designedtoburnamixtureoffuelandair,andtodelivertheresultinggases
totheturbineatatemperaturethatwillnotexceedtheallowablelimitsat
theturbineinlet.Thechamber,withinaverylimitedspace,mustadd
sufficientheatenergytothegasespassingthroughtheengine.This
acceleratestheirmassenoughtoproducethedesiredpowerfortheturbine
section.Combustionchambersarebuiltinanumberofdifferentdesigns.The
constructionissuchthatlessthanonethirdofthetotalvolumeofair
enteringthechamberispermittedtomixwiththefuel.Theremainingairis
useddownstreamtocoolthecombustorsurfaces,andtomixwithandcoolthe
burnedgasesbeforetheyentertheturbines.

Figure122.CombustionChamber.

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(11)Recouperator.Thefunctionoftherecouperator,alsocalled
regenerator,istotransferheatfromtheexhaustgasestotheairenteringthe
engine.Thisprocessallowstheincomingairtoexpandpriortocombustion.
Asaresult,lessheatisrequiredduringthecombustionprocesstoobtaina
fullyexpandedairmasswithmaximumvelocity.Therecouperatoris
cylindricallyshapedwithahollowpassagewaythroughthemiddle.Triangular
andovalshapedportsareplacedalternatelyaroundtheperimeterandpass
throughthelengthoftherecouperator(Figure123).Twodifferenttypesof
platesarealternatelystackedtoconstructtherecouperator.

Figure123.TypicalRecouperator.

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Theairplate(Figure124,A)isconstructedwithaflatpathwaybetweenthe
ovalandtriangularports.Theincomingcoolairpassesdownthetriangular
portsandentersapassagebetweentriangularandovalports.Astheair
passesthroughthepathways,itisheatedbyexhaustgasesexitingaboveand
belowthepathway.Theexhaustgasentersthemiddleoftherecouperator,
passesthroughheaterplates(Figure124,B),andexitstheoutsideofthe
unit,givingupheattothecoolairintheprocess.Thebenefitsobtained
fromtheuseofarecouperatorarelistedbelow.
(a)Highthermalefficiency.
(b)Lowerspecificfuelconsumption.
(c)Lowerexhausttemperature.
Basically,theonlydisadvantagetothissystemistheadditionalweightofthe
unittothevehicle.

Figure124.RecouperatorPlateDetail.

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(12)Turbines.Theturbineisdesignedtoextractthekineticenergy
(energyduetomotion)fromtheexpandinggasesthatflawfromthecombustion
chamber.Thiskineticenergythenisconvertedintoshafthorsepowertodrive
thecompressorandengineaccessories.Mostoftheenergyobtainedfromthe
productsofcombustionisusedtodrivethecompressorandtheremainingenergy
isutilizedtopoweradditionalcomponentssuchanoilingsystemandhydraulic
systems.Additionalpowerturbinesareusedtoextractresidualenergyfrom
themovinggasestoprovidevehicularpower.Turbinescanbedividedintotwo
basictypes:radialinflowandaxialflow.
(a)RadialInflow.Thistypeofturbine(Figure125)issimilar
tothecentrifugalcompressorindesignandconstruction.Radialinflow
operatesastheinletgasespassthroughopeningsthatdirectthegasesonto
thebladesatthebaseofthecompressor.Thegasthenactsagainsttheblades
oftheturbinetoproducetherotationaleffect.Thegasesthenareexhausted
atthetopoftheturbine,paralleltotheaxisofrotation.Despiteits
simplisticdesignanddurability,theradialinflowturbinegenerallyis
limitedtouseinsmallerengines.

Figure125.RadialInflowTurbine.

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(b)AxialFlow.Theaxialflowturbine(Figure126)iscomposed
oftwomainelements:asetofstationaryvanesandaturbinerotororrotors.
Theaxialflowturbinerotorsarecategorizedintotwobasictypes:impulseand
reaction.Themodernturbineconsistsofacombinationofthesetwocalledthe
impulsereactionturbine.Eachisdiscussedbelow.Asthenameimplies,the
axialflowturbinewheelextractskineticenergyfromthemovinggasesthat
flowinarelativelystraightline,paralleltotheaxisofrotation.The
turbinewheelisusedastherotatingelement.Stationaryvanesareusedto
deliverthegastothenextstageinthemostefficientwaypossible.

Figure126.AxialFlowDesign.

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oImpulseTurbine.Theconstructionoftheimpulseturbineis
illustratedinFigure127.Inthisconfiguration,theareaoftheinletand
exitoftheturbinebladesaremadeequal.Thus,thevelocityofthegas
enteringthebladeisequaltotheexitingvelocity(minusfrictionallosses).
Thebladesaredesignedinsuchawaythatthehighvelocitygasesconcentrate
theirenergiesonthecenteroftheblade.Thegasesthenbounceofftheblade
atananglerespectivetotheapproachangleproducingtheforcerequiredto
turntheblade.

Figure127.ImpulseTurbine.

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oReaction.Thereactionturbineoperatesonthedifferential
pressureprinciplemuchlikethewingofanairplane(Figure128).Asthe
gasesenteraconvergingpassagewayonthefirststagerotor,anincreasein
velocityandadecreaseinpressureisexperienced.Theresultisarotation
oftheturbinewheelinthedirectionoflowpressure.Thereactionturbine
wheel,therefore,doesnotrequirerelativelyhighentrancevelocitiesasdoes
theimpulseturbine.

Figure128.ReactionTurbine.
oImpulseReaction.Theimpulsereactionturbinebladeisa
combinationofboththeimpulseandreactiondesigns.Thelargercircumference
oftheassemblyattheendsoftheturbinebladesrequiresthetipstotravel
atafasterrateofspeedthantherootstoobtainthesamedegreeofrotation.
Theimpulsereactiontypebladeusesthisconcepttoequalizethevelocitiesof
thegasesexitingtherootandtipoftheturbinewheel.Thistypeisdesigned
sothatthebaseofthebladeisanimpulsedesignandthetipisareaction
design.Thisprovidesanequalpressuredistributionacrossthebladeand
therefore,anefficientturbineblade.Theimpulsereactionturbinebladeis
usedalmostexclusivelyinmodernturboshaftengines.

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c.Construction.Turbinesoperateatspeedsrangingfromapproximately
8000to60,000rpm,dependingonenginesize.Thesehighrotationalspeeds
inducehighstressfactors,whichmustbeovercomeforsafeandefficient
operation.Theturbineisconstructedofadiskandblades,eachofwhichis
carefullybalancedandweighed.Theblades(sometimescalledbuckets)are
attachedtothediskbyafirtreedesign.Thisdesignprovidesfordifferent
ratesofexpansionbetweenbladeanddisk.Thebladesareattachedaxiallyby
fastenersorrivets.Turbinebladescanbeopenattheendsorconstructedto
formashroud.Turbinetemperaturemustbemonitoredcloselyduringoperation.
Toexceedthemaximumoperatingtemperaturecouldresultinchangingthetemper
oftheblades.Thisconditioncanchangethepitchofthebladesandrender
theenginelessefficientanddangeroustooperate.
d.Exhaust.Theexhaustgasespassradiallyoutwardthroughthe
recouperatorcoreintoacollectionplenumthatisconnectedtothevehicle
exhaustduct.

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LESSON,PARTB
PracticeExercise
Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthis
lesson.Thereisonlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhave
completedtheexercise,checkyouranswerswiththeanswerkeythatfollows.
Ifyouansweranyportionincorrectly,studyagainthatpartofthelesson
whichcontainstheportioninvolved.
1.Whatisthemaindifferencebetweengasolineanddieselengines?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.Whatcontrolsthespeedandpoweroutputofdieselengines?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3.Whyisthecycleofadieselenginereferredtoashavingconstant
pressure?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.Whatisthenameofthetwo(2)compressorsintheturbineenginethatair
flowsthroughbeforeenteringtheengine?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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5.Whatarethethree(3)benefitsobtainedfromtheuseofarecouperator?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6.Whatarethefour(4)basicprinciplesthatmastbeunderstood,inorderto
masterthetheoryofoperationbehindthegasturbineengine?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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LESSON,PARTB
PRACTICEEXERCISE
ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK
Item

CorrectAnswerandFeedback

1.

Themaindifferencebetweengasolineanddieselenginesisinthe
methodofintroducingthefuelintothecylindersandignitingthe
airfuelmixture.Page19,paraa.(1).

2.

Thespeedandpoweroutputofdieselenginesarecontrolledbythe
quantityoffuelinjectedintothecylinders.Page22,para(3).

3.

Continuouscombustion(burnout)throughouttheentirepowerstroke
isreferredtoasaconstantpressure.Page22,para(4).

4.

Compressorstheairflowsthrougharelowcompressorandhigh
compressor.Page24,para1.(a).

5.

Benefitsobtainedfromtheuseofarecouperatorarehighthermal
efficiency,lowerspecificfuelconsumption,andlowerexhaust
temperature.Page35,paras(a),(b),and(c).

6.

Thefourbasicprinciplesaremass,pressure,acceleratedmass,and
conversionofenergy.Page25,para(2).

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