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1.1
Energy quantization
p2i
X
X
+ V (~ri) + V (~ri ~rj ) + ...
2mi
i
i6=j
(1)
1.2
Boltzmann distribution
(2)
(3)
So indep. of E =
P exp(E)
(4)
allj
P (Ej ) = 1
(5)
So normalized distr. is
Pi = exp(Ei/kT )/
1.3
exp(Ej /kT )
(6)
E = nh
n = 0, 1, 2, 3...
h = Planck0s const. = 6.62 1027
(7)
(8)
PnEn =
nh/kT
n=0 (nh)e
P
nh/kT
n=0 e
dZ
X
=
nen,
d n=0
so
d
1 dZ
= h
log Z
E = h
Z d
d
(9)
P
n=0 e
(10)
(11)
Z may be written
Z = 1 + e + e2 + ...
= 1 + e (1 + e + e2 + ...)
= 1 + e Z = 1/(1 e )
(12)
So
d
e
E = h
log(1 e ) = h
d
(1 e )
h
= h/kT
e
1
4
(13)
(14)
E ' kT
(15)
so
p2
terms: H = 2m
+ 12 kx2, E kT .
1.5
(16)
with
N = no. atoms, m=no. degs. freedom/atom
(Dulong-Petit law)
Experiments (Nernst) found:
i.e, C 0 roughly as T 3 as T 0, approaches 3N kB at higher T
(although not nec. asymptotically high T , see below). Note we get the
3N k result from equipartition with m = 6 for 3 Cartesian directions times
5
2 for both potential and kinetic energy. (Ignored rotational & vibrational
degrees of freedom so far). But what about low-T behavior? It is definitely
not constant in T , so no way Dulong-Petit law holds.
Einstein (1907): If matter oscillator had Planck spectrum with
allowed energies n, low-T sp. ht. went to zero as T 0
kB T h = E heh/kB T , C (h/kB T )2eh/kB T
(17)
Now Einstein sp. ht. result C eh/kB T , kB T h, which qualitatively explains the deviation from the classical result, but in fact the
expt. shows C T 3. Debye: SHOs not atoms but groups of atoms
vibrating collectively: phonons. A complicated solid can have many
normal modes of vibration and, if the solid is infinite, long-wavelength
normal mode frequencies can go to zero (sound!). Debye said just think
of standing sound waves: a sound wave is a time-dependent displacement
of ions, e.g. a solution to the wave equation for ionic displacement u such
that
u(x, y, z, t) = A cos t sin kxx sin ky y sin kz z
(18)
where is 2 times the frequency of the sound wave, and k = 2/ is
the wave vector. We would like the displacement to vanish on the surface
of the solid of size L so that we are describing a standing wave. This can
be done if we allow only discrete values of the components of ~k, e.g.
nx
kx =
, nx = 1, 2, 3...,
(19)
L
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and the same for ky and kz . Check that this means that the wave vanishes
on the boundary always. This means that the standing wave frequencies
= 2 = csk,
(20)
0
We need to sum over all three Cartesian coordinates, so the mean energy
is1
V Z 3
h
n
E =
d
k
(24)
(2)3
eh n/kB T 1
h
cs k
V Z
2
(4)k
dk
(25)
=
(2)3 0
eh csk/kB T 1
X
Debye used a typical theoretical physics trick to solve this integral, introducing a dimensionless variable y = h
/kB T , and scaling out the
1
See if you can figure out where the (2)3 came from!
(26)
Now, even if we couldnt solve the integral, we would have all the important
information, since we can tell it is a dimensionless number of order unity2;
the important physical quantites are all contained in the prefactor, and
we see, e.g. that E T 4. As it turns out, Maple can do the integral,
R 3
y
4
0 y /(e 1) = /15, so the final answer is
U
2 (kB T )4
=
,
V
10 (
hcs)3
(27)
dE 2 kB4
3
CV =
=
T
dT
5 (
hcs)3
(28)
which works very well to explain the experimentally observed specific heat
of normal metals.
1.6
Equipartition:
1
E = N kB T {
2
+
+
+
Trot 200K
(30)
1.7
Blackbody radiationhistorical
(31)
2. Stephan-Boltzman law:
net energy density u =
a = 7.56 10
u d = aT 4,
0
15
3 4
(32)
erg cm K
3. Rayleigh-Jeans law
u = 8kB T 2/c3 valid for small
(33)
Rayleigh & Jeans derived from classical stat mech, which turned out to
be wrong for . Blackbody spectrum was found experimentally
pre-1900 to be quite different from the classical prediction.
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