Lab Exercise 2: Measurements Of Fundamental

Quantities
Contents
2-1 P RE - LAB A SSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2 I NTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3 E QUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-4 E XPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-4.1 Measuring The Speed Of Light In Air (c) . . . . .
2-4.2 Measuring The Wavelength Of Light () . . . . . .
2-4.3 Measuring The Electron Charge To Mass Ratio
(e/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-4.4 Measuring The Critical Temperature of YBCO (Tc )
2-5 L AB WRITE - UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17
17
17
17
17
20
25
28
32

Objective
To experimentally determine through measurements the speed of light,
wavelength of a laser beam, the electron charge to mass ratio (e/m), and
Tc .
General concepts to be covered:
Determining the electron charge to mass ratio (e/m)
Determining the wavelength of light
Determining the critical temperature of a superconductor (Tc )
Determining the Permittivity of free space (0 )
Determining the Speed of light in free space

16

2-1

PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT

2-1

17

P RE - LAB ASSIGNMENT

2-1.a To be entered into your lab notebook prior to coming to lab:

Summarize the experimental procedure (1 paragraph per section) of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2-2

Section 2-4.1:
Section 2-4.2:
Section 2-4.3:
Section 2-4.4:

Measuring The Speed Of Light

Measuring The Wavelength Of Light
Measuring The Electron Charge To Mass Ratio (e/m)
Measuring The Critical Temperature of YBCO (Tc )

I NTRODUCTION

In your physics and applied electromagnetics courses, you have take fundamental constants
at face value, without worrying about how they were determined. In this lab, you will be
given the opportunity to learn some of the techniques that have been used over the years to
determine such quantities as 0 , c, for light, and electron properties such as e/m and Tc .

2-3

E QUIPMENT
Item
Michelson interferometer
Speed of light in a fiber kit
e/m Apparatus
Current balance
Low voltage power supply
High voltage power supply
Multimeter

2-4

E XPERIMENT

2-4.1

Measuring The Speed Of Light

Part #
OS-8501

SE-9638
EM-8623
SE-9584A
SE-9585A
HP 973A

In all dynamic electromagnetic problems, one of the parameters is u p , the velocity of light
in the medium. When working in free space or air, u p = c. Until this point, you have
been asked to believe the value of c to be 3 108 m/s. In this lab, you are going to
experimentally verify the speed of light.
In order to accomplish this, you will need to measure
the speed of light through an
optical fiber of known length. Using the relationship u p = c/ r and r for the plastic fiber,
you can experimentally determine c.
Setup
This experiment uses the speed of light kit, oscilloscope, oscilloscope probes, 15 cm optical
fiber, and the 20 m optical fiber.
Setup the experiment as follows (see Fig. 2-1):
Connect Channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the blue test point marked Reference on
the speed of light apparatus.

18

LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Attach the ground lead of the probe to the ground test point just below the
Reference test point.
Connect Channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the blue test point marked Delay on the
speed of light apparatus.
Attach the ground lead of the probe to the ground test point just below the Delay
test point.

Figure 2-1: Setup for measuring the speed of light.

Procedure
1. Setup the oscilloscope:
Set the trigger source to channel 1
Set the volts-per-division on channel 1 to 1 V
Set the volts-per-division on channel 2 to 0.5 V
Set the time-per-division to 50 ns
Set the input coupling of both channels to AC
Use the position knob to make both signals visible on the screen.
You may want to position the two ground references at the same
position to help with the measurements.

2. Plug in the AC adaptor. The yellow LED should turn on at this point. If it does not,
ask the lab instructor to check your setup.

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EXPERIMENT

19

Calibration
3. Turn the calibration knob to the 12 oclock position.
4. Loosen the fiber optic cinch nuts on the fiber optic LED D3 (blue) and detector D8
(black).
5. Insert one end of the 15 cm optical fiber into the LED D3 until it is seated (make sure
the fiber optic cable is inserted as far into the housing as possible). Lightly tighten
the fiber optic cinch nut.
6. Insert the other end of the fiber into the detector D8 until it is seated (make sure the
fiber optic cable is inserted as far into the housing as possible). Lightly tighten the
locking nut.
7. Both the transmitted and received pulses should be seen on the oscilloscope screen.
Rotate the calibration delay knob on the speed of light apparatus until the peak of
the received pulse coincides with the peak of the reference pulse.
8. Adjust the sweep time on the oscilloscope to 20 ns. Fine tune the calibration Delay
Adjustment knob to achieve the best overlapping of pulses.
Speed of light measurement
9. Carefully replace the 15 cm fiber with the 20 m fiber.
10. Change the time per division to 200 ns.
11. Measure the delay between the two pulses on the oscilloscope. Record the delay.
Measured Data
Copy the following chart into your lab book and fill in the measured data. If you are
missing any data, please repeat the necessary parts of this experiment before proceeding to
the analysis section.
Delay

ns

Analysis
1. Using the delay time and the length of the optical fiber. Compute the propagation
velocity, u p , for the optical fiber. Record this value.
2. Assuming r = 2.225 for the plastic fiber, compute the speed of light in free space, c.
Record this value.
3. Compute the percent error in your measurement of the speed of light in free space
(take the theoretical value of c to be 3 108 m/s) and comment on your results.

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LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Questions
1. When you calibrated the speed of light apparatus, you adjusted the delay value. What
does this added delay represent? (Hint: what are you compensating for assuming that
the travel time through the 15 cm fiber is small enough to ignore?)
2. You are asked to measure the dielectric constant of a plastic fiber. Describe how you
could modify the above technique / analysis to accomplish your goal.

2-4.2 Measuring The Wavelength Of Light)

To measure the wavelength of light in air (air ), you will be using a device known as the
Michelson interferometer. The Michelson interferometer, shown in Fig. 2-2, is used to
measure the wavelength of a monochromatic (single frequency) light source to within 10
percent. Determine the speed of light in air.

Figure 2-2: Michelson interferometer.

The basic principle behind the operation of the Michelson interferometer is interference
between two light sources. In this case, the two light sources originate from the same
source. A block diagram of the Michelson interferometer is shown in Fig. 2-3.

Figure 2-3: Block diagram of the Michelson interferometer as seen from above.
The following is a description of each of the components in the Michelson
interferometer.
Laser
The laser is used to provide a monochromatic source of light.

2-4

EXPERIMENT

21

Lens
The lens is used to spread out the beam of the laser.
Beam-splitter The beam-splitter is used to split the beam into two different paths,
one towards mirror M1 and the other towards mirror M2 .
M1
The first mirror is a fixed mirror. The part of the laser beam that is directed towards
M1 is reflected at the mirror and travels back to the beam-splitter. At the beam-splitter,
part of the returned laser beam is passed to the viewing screen while the other half is
sent back towards the laser itself.
M2
The second mirror serves the same role as the first mirror. This gives two different
path lengths that the laser beam has traveled through. At the viewing screen, the
light that traversed path 1 is interfered with the light that has traversed path 2. If the
path lengths are equal, the two beams will constructively interfere. The mirror M2 is
movable so that any phase shift can be imparted on the beam traversing path 2.
Viewing Screen
The viewing screen allows you to view the interference pattern resulting from the
superposition of the beams from path 1 and path 2.
Distances
d1 , d2 , and ds denote the distance from the center of the beamsplitter to the center of
M1 , M2 , and the viewing screen, respectively. dL is the distance from the beamsplitter
to the focal point of the beam after the lens.
At the viewing screen, the two spherical waves can be described as f1 =
A1 cos(1t kr1 ) and f2 = A2 cos(2t kr2 ), where: = 2/T and k = 2/. The radius
of curvature for each wave is just the distance from the focal point to the viewing screen:
s
q
x 2 y2
r1 = x2 + y2 + z21 = z1 1 + 2 + 2
z1 z1
if we make a binomial approximation (x, y) z

1 x2 y2
2
r1 z1 1 +
+
=
z
+
1
2 z21 z21
2z1

(2.1)

where 2 = x2 + y2 . Since we are interested in the phase, we will assume that A1 = A2 and
concentrate on the argument of the cosine. Since the beams originated from the same stable
source, we can conclude that 1 = 2 . Hence, we can simplify the problem by looking at
the following two terms: e jkr1 and e jkr2 . Note that since we are traveling in air, k was
used for both terms. The resulting phase difference is due to the path length difference
r1 r2 .

1
1
2

(2.2)
r1 r2 (d1 d2 ) +
2z1 2z2
In the above step, we omitted the effect of the glass in the beam splitter. Since the the M2
wave passes through the glass 3 times, and the M1 wave passes through the glass once,

22

LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

the M2 wave will have extra phase that we havent accounted for. This occurs because the
wavelengthin a medium shrinks according to medium = free space /n, where n is the index of
refraction, r . Fortunately, we can compensate for the extra phase by simply moving M2
closer to the beamsplitter. If we adjust d2 such that kair d2 + kglass dglass = kair d1 , then the
two wave will again be in phase at the viewing screen. Additionally, the two waves will be
in phase when z2 = z1 + 2n, where n is an integer. When the two waves are out of phase,
z2 = z1 + m, where m is an odd integer.
From transmission line theory, we know that moving a distance of is equivalent to
a phase shift of 2. If the position of the mirror M2 is adjusted such that the interference
goes from a maximum to a minimum and back to a maximum, the distance that M2 traveled
can be used to determine the wavelength. Since the wave coming from M2 underwent a
2 phase shift, we know that the total path length distance is equal to . In the Michelson
interferometer, the wave at the viewing screen due to the reflection off M2 has traveled the
distance between the beam-splitter and the mirror twice (once going toward the mirror and
once going back to the beam-splitter). Hence, the distance M2 has moved is actually /2,
or,
= 2d
(2.3)
where d is the distance the mirror was moved (read off of the knob in microns). In order
to average out any errors that might occur from the mechanics involved in moving M2 ,
measure the distance traveled such that the center spot goes from a maximum to a minimum
and back to a maximum between 20 and 30 times. Then Eq. 2.3 becomes,
=

2dk
k

(2.4)

where k is the number of transitions counted and dk is the total distance M2 has traveled.
Depending on the starting position of M2 , the center of the fringe pattern could be at a
maximum, a minimum, or somewhere in between. To simplify the measurements, you
want to start from a known state, say the center at a maximum. To do this, you will have
to move M2 a distance di which represents an offset distance in your measurements. To
compensate for this, Eq, 2.4 becomes,
=

2(dk di )
k

(2.5)

The interference pattern that is observed on the viewing screen is not a solid pattern as
one might expect. Instead, it is a series of consecutive rings as shown in Fig. 2-4, where the
black areas represent minimums.

2-4

EXPERIMENT

23

Figure 2-4: (left) Graphical representation of the interference pattern observed on the
viewing screen. (right) Intensity seen along a line passing through the pattern center
The spacing of the rings is determined by the coefficient in front of 2 in equation 2.2.
As we move M2 1/2 wavelength, the interference pattern will grow or shrink through one
entire cycle. Although the fringe spacing is dependent on z2 , the change in 2z11 2z12 as we
move M2 is negligible.
Setup

Warning:
A low power diode laser is used for part of this experiment. Do not look directly into the
laser beam.
This experiment requires the Michelson interferometer, viewing screen, and HeNe laser.
Setup the experiment as shown in Fig. 2-5.
Place the laser and the interferometer on the optics bench approximately 10 to 20 cm
apart. Place the viewing screen on the workbench as shown in Fig. 2-5.

Figure 2-5: Michelson interferometer setup.

24

LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Procedure
Aligning the interferometer
1. Turn on the laser.
2. Loosen the thumbscrew that holds the beam-splitter and rotate the beam-splitter so it
is out of the path of the laser, making sure that the partially silvered mirror is furthest
away from M1 .
3. Loosen the thumbscrew that holds M2 . Adjust the rotation of M2 so the laser beam
is reflected directly back toward the laser. Confirm that the laser beam is striking
the mirror by placing a small opaque object just in front of the mirror (Do not look
directly into the laser beam!). Tighten the thumbscrew while holding M2 in place.
Note: The reflected beam may not be at the same height as the incident beam. Make
sure that the reflected beam hits the front of the laser along a vertical line that passes
through the aperture.
4. Rotate the beam-splitter clockwise so its surface is at an angle of 45 with the incident
beam. Two sets of laser spots will appear on the viewing screen, corresponding to the
two paths that the laser beam takes. Adjust the beam-splitter so the two sets of laser
spots are as close as possible. Tighten the thumbscrew to hold the beam-splitter in
place.
5. Using the two alignment screws on the back of M1 , adjust the angle of M1 until the
two sets of laser spots are superimposed on the viewing screen (the two brightest
spots must be superimposed).
6. Place the 18 mm focal length lens on the alignment stand between the laser and the
beam-splitter. Adjust the position of the lens on the lens holder (the lens attaches
magnetically) so that the laser beam now strikes the center of the beam-splitter.
If the alignment has been successfully completed, you will see a fringe pattern on the
screen. If the center fringe can not be seen, adjust the alignment of M1 to center the
pattern. If no fringe pattern is visible, return to step 1 and repeat the procedure.
Laser
7. Adjust the micrometer knob so the lever arm is approximately parallel with the edge
of the interferometer base. In this position, the relationship between knob rotation
and mirror movement is approximately linear.
8. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue turning
counterclockwise until the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark.
9. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly in the counterclockwise direction until the center
of the fringe pattern is at a maximum. Record the initial (offset) direction di .
10. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly in the counterclockwise direction. Count the
number of times the center of the pattern goes from a maximum to a minimum and
back to a maximum. You should count at least 20 transitions. When you finish your
count, the center spot should be at a maximum. Record the number of transitions k.

2-4

EXPERIMENT

25

11. Record the distance dk that the mirror M2 has traveled (do not compensate for the
offset distance di at this point). Each division of the knob is 1m.
12. Place a hot soldering iron in the path of M1 . Comment on the resulting fringe pattern.
You should observe localized changes in the pattern shape and contrast.
Measured Data
Copy the following chart into your lab book and fill in the measured data. If you are
missing any data, please repeat the necessary parts of this experiment before proceeding to
the analysis section.
Source
Laser

di

dk

Analysis
1. Compute the wavelength of the output beam for the laser. Compare this to the
value marked on the laser and compute the maximum percent error from the true
wavelength.
Questions

For questions 1 and 2, remember that the velocity of light in a medium is u p = c/ r . Since
the frequency of light has to stay the
same, the wavelength shrinks as medium = free space /n,
where n is the index of refraction, r .
1. Suppose that you were given a very thin film (assume < in thickness) with a known
index of refraction. How could you use the interferometer to determine the thickness
of the film?
2. In step 12, you placed a hot soldering iron in the path of M1 . Explain the observed
fringe pattern in terms of r for air.

2-4.3 Measuring The Electron Charge To Mass Ratio (e/m)

The purpose of this experiment is to measure the electron charge to mass ratio (e/m). To
accomplish this task, a beam of electrons is accelerated through a known potential. This
allows for the velocity of the electrons to be known. A pair of Helmholtz coils is used to
produce a known magnetic field that is at right angles to the electron beam. This causes the
electrons to be accelerated in a circular path.
The e/m tube used in the experiment is filled with helium and contains the electron guns
to produce the stream of electrons.
The magnetic fields produced by the Helmholtz coils is,
B = (7.8 104 )I

Tesla

(2.6)

where, I is the coil current in Amps. Each coil has 130 turns (N = 130) and a radius of
15 cm. The two coils are separated by a distance of 15 cm.

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LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Setup
This experiment requires the e/m apparatus, high voltage power supply, low voltage power
supply, and the HP E3620A power supply.
Setup the experiment as shown in Fig. 2-6.
Make sure that the power supplies are switched off!
Connect the DC output of the low voltage power supply to the Helmholtz coil voltage
input.
Turn the current adjust on the low voltage power supply to its rightmost position.
Turn the voltage adjust to its leftmost position.
Connect the 0 and 500 V DC output of the high voltage power supply to the electrode
voltage input. Be sure to observe polarity!
Turn the 500 V adjust on the high voltage power supply to its leftmost position.
Connect the V1 outputs on the HP E3602A power supply to the electron gun heater
inputs.
Turn the V1 voltage adjust knob on the HP E3620A power supply to its leftmost
position. Depress the V1 meter selection button.

HP Power Supply
Low Voltage
Power Supply

e/m Apparatus

Helmholtz Coil
Voltage Input
Helmholtz Coil
Current Adjust
Knob

Electrode
Voltage
Input

High Voltage
Power Supply
Electron Gun
Heater Voltage
Input

Figure 2-6: e/m apparatus setup.

Procedure
1. Flip the front panel toggle switch to the e/m measure position (up).
2. Turn the current adjust knob for the Helmholtz coils to the OFF position.
3. Turn on the low voltage power supply. Adjust the voltage so it is between 6 and 9 V.
4. Turn on the high voltage power supply. Make sure that the 500 V LED is lit. Adjust
the voltage so it is between 150 and 300 V.

2-4

EXPERIMENT

27

5. Temporarily disconnect the leads from the HP E3620A power supply. Turn on the
power supply and adjust the voltage to 6.3 V. Do not go above 6.3 V or you may
damage the heaters. Turn off the power supply and reconnect the leads, observing
the correct polarity. Turn on the power supply.
6. Slowly turn the current adjust knob for the Helmholtz coils clockwise. Watch the
ammeter on the low voltage power supply and take care that the current does not
exceed 2 A.
7. Wait several minutes for the cathode to heat up. When it does, you will see the
electron beam emerge from the electron gun and it will be curved by the field from
the Helmholtz coils. Check that the electron beam is parallel to the Helmholtz coils.
If it is not, the turn the tube until it is. Do not take the tube out of its socket, the socket
will rotate with the tube.
8. Carefully read the current to the Helmholtz coils off the ammeter on the low voltage
power supply and the electrode voltage off the voltmeter on the high voltage power
supply. Record these values.
9. Carefully measure the radius of the electron beam using the mirrored scale positioned
to the rear of the apparatus. To avoid parallax errors, move your head to align the
electron beam with the reflection of the beam that you see on the mirrored scale.
Measure the radius of the beam as you see it on both sides of the scale, then average
the results. Record the electron beam radius.
Measured Data
Copy the following chart into your lab book and fill in the measured data. If you are
missing any data, please repeat the necessary parts of this experiment before proceeding to
the analysis section.
Coil amperage
Electrode voltage
Electron beam radius

A
V
cm

Analysis
1. Using the Lorentz force equation and the fact that the electrons are in uniform circular
motion, derive an expression relating the charge of an electron (e), the mass of the
electron (m), the velocity (v), the beam radius (r), and the magnitude of the magnetic
field.
2. Using the principle of conservation of energy, derive an expression relating the
velocity of the electrons to the electrode potential.
3. Starting with the the magnetic field due to a single loop of current, derive an
expression for the magnitude of the magnetic field in the center of the Helmholtz
coils. (Hint: The two Helmholtz coils are separated by one radius, i.e. 2z = r)
Compare the theoretical magnetic field with the measured field (eq. 2.6)

28

LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

z
B

Bz =

0
2r2
I
4 (z2 + r2 )3 /2

single loop

y
I

4. Using your experimental data and the expressions derived above, determine the
experimental ratio of e/m. Compare your results to the accepted value (found in
any Physics textbook). Compute the percent error in your measurements.
Questions
1. What phenomenon is causing the blue-green light to be emitted?
2. Explain how the addition of an electric field parallel to the magnetic field) would
cause the the loop to change. (Hint: Consider how applying an electric field would
change the force on the electrons.)

2-4.4 Measuring The Resistance Of Superconductors

Experiment
A superconductor is a material that loses all resistance to the flow of electric current when
it is cooled below a certain temperature, called the critical temperature (Tc ). Below Tc , the
material is characterized by the complete absence of electrical resistance and the damping
of interior magnetic field (the Meissner effect.)
In this experiment, we use a bar-shaped YBCO (yttrium-barium-copper-oxide:
YBa2 Cu3 O7 ) superconductor and liquid nitrogen to cool it below its Tc . We will measure
the change in resistance with temperature and also determine the critical temperature of
YBCO.
Setup
This experiment utilizes the superconductor probe board, electronics board (Fig. 2-7),
signal interface cable, a liquid nitrogen Styrofoam container, two multimeters and a lowvoltage power supply. The superconductor has small resistance above its Tc , so a voltage
amplifier on the electronics board is provided to monitor the voltage drop across YBCO.
Make sure that the low-voltage power supply is switched off and its knob is fully
counter-clockwise (minimum.) Connect the DC Power Supply on the superconductor
probe board to the terminals of low voltage power supply. Be careful of the polarity.
Connect the electronics board and the superconductor probe board through interface
jack, using the provided telephone jack connector.
Connect the Voltage Output on the electronics board to a multimeter. Be careful of
the polarity. Set the multimeter to the DC V range. This multimeter will be referred
to as the voltage meter.

2-4

EXPERIMENT

29

Figure 2-7: Probe board and supporting electronics board

Connect the Temperature Monitor on the electronics board to a multimeter. Be careful
of the polarity. Set the multimeter to the DC V range. This multimeter will be referred
to as the temperature meter.
Turn on the electronic board, and check for the blinking LED ( 1/2 Hz).
Procedure
The standard practice for measuring resistance is to drive a constant current through the
resistor. The resistance is then found using Ohms law R = V /I. Since the power supplies
we will be using can only supply a constant voltage, we can approximate a constant current
source if we place a second larger resistance in series with the YBCO. The probe board
has a built in 25 resistor in series with the YBCO as shown in the figure below. Since
the resistance of the YBCO is much less than 25 , the current will be approximately
constant as the resistance of the YBCO varies.
I DC
25
x100

VDC
RYBCO

amplified
voltage
output

1. Write down the reading of the temperature meter. One millivolt corresponds to 1 K.
The thermometer of diode sensor is not designed for room temperature measurement,
so the reading might not be accurate, but that is acceptable.

30

LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Approximating a Constant Current Source
2. Double check the knob on the low voltage power supply to make sure it is fully
counter-clockwise (minimum output.)
3. Turn on the power supply and slowly increase the voltage until a reading of 2.5 V
is shown on the voltage meter. This gives us a current of 100 mA. Record the actual
voltage and current.
Warning: Liquid Nitrogen is at 77 K (-196 C). If mishandled, it can cause frostbite or eye
damage. Keep your face at least one foot away from the LN container. Warning: Avoid
thermally shocking the materials. A wet probe should never be immersed in liquid nitrogen
because of the possibility of destructive ice expansion between components.

Cooling the YBCO

4. Insert the superconductor probe board into the liquid nitrogen container in such a
way that the board is kept above the liquid level and the cap covers the opening of the
container as shown in (2-8.2) of the figure below. The YBCO bar is gradually cooled
by the cold nitrogen evaporating from the liquid nitrogen. The cap prevents humidity
in the air from forming frost (and causing damage) on the superconductor bar.
5. While performing the above step, monitor the temperature meter and take
measurements of voltage reading every 10 K. If the temperature drops too faster than
10-20 /min, lift the probe a little. Besides the potential for destructive thermal shock,
a fast temperature drop will allow the diode and the superconductor to be at different
temperatures, skewing your results. If the temperature drops very slow, slightly insert
the probe a little more. Meanwhile, listen carefully. If you hear a hissing noise, the
end of the probe is touching the liquid nitrogen. You should lift the probe a little from
that position.
6. As the probe is cooled down to 120 K, insert the probe a little more until you hear a
hissing noise. Only let the board end of the probe in contact with the LN for a short
while as shown in figure 2-8.3. As the temperature drop slows down, you can insert
the probe into LN entirely. Be careful of the voltage readings, because it will drop
very rapidly over the course of a few degrees, indicating that YBCO is entering its
superconducting phase.
7. Lift the probe out of the liquid nitrogen but still keep it in the container as shown in
figure 2-8.2. The temperature of the probe will gradually rise. Once the temperature
has passed 0 C, take the probe out of the container and allow to warm to room
temperature.
Copy the following chart into your lab book and fill in the measured data. If you are
missing any data, please repeat the necessary parts of this experiment before proceeding to
the analysis section.

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Superconducting
Probe Board
(1)

(2)

Plastic cover

(3)

Styrofoam
container

(4)

Figure 2-8: Stages for cooling down the YBCO Probe

Power Supply Voltage
Temperature
Room Temp.

Amplified Voltage

Current
Temperature

Amplified Voltage

160
290

150

280

140

270

130

260

120

250

110

240

100

230

95

220

90

210

85

200

80

190

77

for

180

additional

170

points

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LAB EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Analysis
1. Calculate the resistance of YBCO from the voltage measurements, assuming a preset
current of 100 mA.
2. Plot the resistance vs. temperature curve, with temperature on the horizontal axis.
3. From the resistance-temperature plot, estimate the critical temperature of YBCO?
4. The resistance vs. temperature response for YBCO is characterized by zero resistance
until the critical temperature is reached. Above the critical temperature, the resistance
varies linearly with temperature. Add a line to the above plot showing the linear fit to
the points above the critical temperature. Record the best fit equation in your report.
Questions
1. In the experiment, we determined that the current passing thorough YBCO is
approximately determined by I = 1 V / 25 , since the resistance of the bar
is extremely small compared to the current monitor resistance of 25 . Using
VDC and the amplified output voltage, determine the current passing through the
superconductor without neglecting RYBCO . Calculate the percent difference between
the two.

2-5

L AB W RITE - UP

For each section of the lab, include the following items in your write-up:
(a) Overview of the procedure and analysis.
(b) Measured data.
(c) Calculations (show your work!).
(d) Any tables and printouts.
(e) Comparisons and comments on results.
(f) A summary paragraph describing what you learned from this lab.