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Module 15 B1 Gas Turbines 0403
Module 15 B1 Gas Turbines 0403
uk
engineering
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
CONTENTS
1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
16
2.4
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2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
GAS TURBINE
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3.4
3.5
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4.5
4.6
25
4.6.1
Speed of Airflow Over Blades ....................................... 4-25
4.6.2
Angle of Attack .............................................................. 4-25
Some Important Points about Angle of Attack ............................. 4-26
4.7
APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ............. 4-27
4.7.1
Compressor RPM ......................................................... 4-27
4.7.2
Common Causes of Compressor Stall .......................... 4-27
4.7.3
Stagger Angle and End Bend ........................................ 4-27
4.7.4
Recent innovations ....................................................... 4-27
4.8
AIRFLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 4-29
4.9
AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY) ............................................. 4-29
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY) ...................... 4-29
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY) ......................... 4-29
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS................................................................................... 4-30
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4.12.1
4.12.2
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
ENGINES
6.4
6.5
6.6
GAS TURBINE
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7.5
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8.2
8.3
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9.4
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9.6
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9.4.1
Viscosity........................................................................ 9-9
9.4.2
Hydro-Dynamics or Fluid Film Lubrication ..................... 9-9
9.4.3
Boundary Lubrication .................................................... 9-10
LUBRICATING OILS .................................................................. 9-10
TURBINE OILS ........................................................................... 9-11
9.6.1
First Generation Synthetic Oils ...................................... 9-12
9.6.2
Second Generation Synthetic Oils................................. 9-12
9.6.3
Third Generation Synthetic Oils .................................... 9-12
9.6.4
Safety Precautions ........................................................ 9-13
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
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12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
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13.4
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14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
15.3
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16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
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18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
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19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
20.3
20.4
20.5
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20.6
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FUNDAMENTALS
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.
This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of
6 feet, we can use the formula:
Work
= Force x Distance
= 500 X 6
= 3,000 foot-pounds
1.1.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit
time. As a formula, this would be:
power = work done
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second,
and foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in
the United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lbs
or 33000 ft-1b/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the
kilowatt (kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.
Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed
as follows:
Power = work done
Time taken
= 2500 x 100
5
= 50,000 ft-lbs/sec
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1.1.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two
forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.1.3.1
POTENTIAL ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of
that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed
of the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy =mv2 or w v2
2g
where m = mass, v = velocity (in feet or metres per second), w = weight, g =
gravity (32 ft/sec2 or 9.81m/sec2).
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.
Example:
A weight of 50lbs dropped from a height of 5 ft has kinetic energy of
KE = 50 x 25
2 x 32
= 19.53 ft-lbs
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Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system
the pound (1b) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a
force of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 meter per second per second
(m/s2).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne
is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per
second (cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 Ib).
1.2.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when
describing how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar
quantity, whilst the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object.
The full definition of velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over
time, and the direction of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path
from 'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph
in an East-Northeast direction.
Path of Aircraft
A
Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed
Figure 1.1.
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1.2.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred
to a linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation
is increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION
Newtons Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is
necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a
force. If the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will.
continue to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a
force.
2. The Second Law States. When a force acts on a mass the mass will
accelerate in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:
a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: first
law,
the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: second law,
there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: third law.
1.3.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,
the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust = Mass x Acceleration
The MASS is defined as the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W = the weight of the body (in lbs or newtons) and
g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec 2)
The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and
outlet velocity.
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W
V2 - V1
g
Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:
THRUST =
W
V2 - V1
g
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The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which
converts some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor.
The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and
jet pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure
and temperature and decreases the volume of air.
During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases
the temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost
constant (the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the
compressor via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure,
whilst the volume increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled
through the turbine and jet pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater
than the initial momentum; it is this change in momentum which produces the
propulsive jet.
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The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine
engine are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are
made will determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure,
temperature and velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the
higher is the pressure generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given
temperature rise of the gas. Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the
expanding gas, the greater is the output of work for a given temperature drop in
gas.
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During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is
the change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
1.6.3 HOW T HE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.
The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means
of the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine.
When a conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts
are divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy
stored in the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The
design of the passages and nozzles is of great importance, for upon their good
design depends the efficiency with which the energy changes are effected. Any
interference with the smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could
result in component failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of
the gas flow.
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.7.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume
flowing per sec:
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Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system shown in
the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is of a constant value and, naturally, as
the fluid enters the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and
the initial volume will now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given
time, less distance is travelled and the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an
increase in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity, and a
decrease in duct area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express
this action as velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.
Duct System
Figure 1.7.
This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called static pressure and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged
in the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium.
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Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called dynamic pressure and this term is used
to define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to mass x velocity 2 (ie. mv2).
When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from
one end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a
valve, which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall
of the duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static
pressure and total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to
allow a fluid flow, the circumstances changes and, although the total energy must
remain the same, it now consists of static pressure + dynamic pressure. As the
velocity V increases, so dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is
reduced.
Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the total
head or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A
gauge connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure
regardless of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.
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In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure
drops.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoullis theorem produces
the effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct
of varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).
The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:
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Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) changes as area
(and velocity) change.
1.8.1.1
Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1)
and velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will
spread out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down
(continuity equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of
the air will increase (Bernoullis theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the
duct and, because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is
compresses by the rise in pressure in section B of the duct.
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1.8.1.2
ENGINES
Diffuser action.
The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig
1.12.)and its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which
the air is compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and,
because of this, a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When
air is compressed by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle
that is used extensively in jet engine design.
Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.
In addition to the preceding information, the following gas laws are closely related
to the function of a gas turbine engine:
Charles Law. This law states that the volume V of a given mass of gas
increases by 1/273 of its volume at 0C for a rise of 1C when the pressure P of
the gas is kept constant. These laws are now combined in what is called the
ideal gas law. It gives the relationship:
PV = RT where: P = pressure
V = volume
R = a constant
T = absolute temperature in K
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A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic
speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the
pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.
Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.
1.9.2 CONVERGENT DUCT
A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.
Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.
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A Con-Di Nozzle
Figure 1.14.
When a gas flow reaches sonic velocity in a convergent duct the nozzle will choke
and the pressure will increase. To prevent a pressure rise that would eventually
prevent a 'fluid' flow and completely choke the duct a divergent section is added
making the duct convergent/divergent (Con/DI). The pressure of gas released into
the divergent section of the nozzle causes the velocity of the 'fluid' to increase,
pressure to decrease, and therefore temperature to decrease. Gas pressure acts
on the walls of the divergent section, this pressure gives additional thrust that is
known as pressure thrust.
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b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced by-passes the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors
and thrust. These engine are quieter than turbojets and more fuel efficient. The
Spey and Tay engines fall into this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the bypass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than
2:1, medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.
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Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the
gas stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The
engines are either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or
main shaft drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate
power turbine to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high bypass turbofans in that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and
prepare the air before passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet
the demands of airspeed etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.
Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.
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b.
Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share
many of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not
have propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main
rotor gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed
which tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more
efficient as the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.
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ENGINE PERFORMANCE
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WvJ
g
VJ
(A)
Pressure (P)
Velocity
(vj)
The thrust
= ( A P)
Wv j
g
= (182 94)
153 406
0
32
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Choked Nozzle
Considering the formula for thrust under choked nozzle conditions:
Thrust = ( P P0 )A +
Wv J
g
Where: P = Pressure
P = Ambient Pressure
A = Area
W = Mass Flow
V = Velocity
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection to cool the air and increases in jet
velocity by using after-burning.
Changes in ambient pressure and temperature considerably influence the thrust
of the engine. This is because of the way they affect the air density and hence the
mass of air entering the engine for a given engine rotational speed.
Thrust Correction - Turbojet
To enable the performance of similar engines to be compared when operating
under different climatic conditions, or at different altitudes, correction factors must
be applied to the calculations to return the observed values to those which would
be found under I.S.A. conditions. For example, the thrust correction for a turbo-jet
engine is:
Thrust (lb) (corrected) = thrust (lb) (observed) x
30
30
PO
= s.h.p. (observed)
30
273 15
PO
273 TO
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The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance,
the higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of
total output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be
required if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the
shaft. In general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5
h.p. to 5 h.p.
2.2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN THRUST AND HORSE-POWER
Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller engine in
s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without a power
conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine receives its thrust
mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horsepower developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust developed by the turbo-jet
engine to t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to force or force to work. For this
purpose, it is necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.
t.h.p. is expressed as
FV
550 ft . per sec
Where F = lb of thrust
V = aircraft speed (ft. per sec)
Since one horse-power is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is
equivalent to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that one
lb. of thrust equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote the speed
in knots (nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515 m.p.h. or one pound
of thrust is equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed of
600 m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be
5,000 600
8,000
375
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However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine with a
propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600 m.p.h., then the
100
t.h.p. would be:
8,000
14,545
55
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT
Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:
Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine
and the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:
( P P0 )A +
Wv J
g
The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
WV
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as
where:
g
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V = Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
WVJ
Momentum
Thrust
wv
WV
g
Momentum Drag
Gross Thrust ( P Po ) A J
g
g Pr essure Thrust ( P PO ) A
The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag. From the definitions and
formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net thrust of the engine,
W Vj V
simplifying, can be expressed as: P Po A
g
All pressures are total pressures except P which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W
VJ
P
PO
A
V
G
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
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The Balance of Forces and Expression for Thrust and Momentum Drag.
Figure 2.4.
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Since reference will be made to ram ratio and Mach number, these terms are
defined as follows:
Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry to
the static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as the
ratio of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0 therefore
represents a speed equal to the local speed of sound.
From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains constant,
independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases the thrust
would decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ram ratio effect from
the aircraft forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine so that the mass
airflow and also the jet velocity increase with aircraft speed. The effect of this
tends to offset the extra intake momentum drag due to the forward speed so that
the resultant loss of net thrust is partially recovered as the aircraft speed
increases. A typical curve illustrating this point is shown in the figure 2.5.
Obviously, the ram ratio effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure rise at
entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag, is of
considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high speeds. Above
speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock waves at the air intake,
this rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless a suitably designed air intake
is provided; an efficient air intake is necessary to obtain maximum benefit from the
ram ratio effect.
As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air temperature
rises rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This temperature rise affects the
compressor delivery air temperature proportionally and, in consequence, to
maintain the required thrust, the engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry
temperatures. Since the maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is
determined by the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of
turbine materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the ram
ratio effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an increase in fuel
consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with forward speed, the
end result is an increase in specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.), as shown by the
curves for a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure 2.6.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ram ratio effect causes very high
stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is automatically
reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.
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At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine is
negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net thrust.
If after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order of 30 percent
is possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with the by-pass
engine. This augmentation of basic thrust, is of greater advantage for certain
specific operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the ram
effect, better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through the engine.
2.3.3 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced.
This affects the engine in two inter-related ways:The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall. The fuel
control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced mass airflow, so
maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass of air
entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This causes the
mass airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to some extent for the
loss of thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At altitudes above 36,089
feet and up to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature remains constant, and the
thrust or s.h.p. is affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust and fuel consumption are
illustrated in Figure 2.7.
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On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p. is
higher. The denser air does, however, increase the power required to drive the
compressor or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel to maintain the
same engine speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if no increase in fuel is
available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air
entering the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a given
r.p.m. Because less power will be required to drive the compressor, the fuel
control system reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine rotational
speed or turbine entry temperature, as appropriate; however, because of the
decrease in air density, the thrust will be lower. At a temperature of 45C,
depending on the type of engine, a thrust loss of up to 20 percent may be
experienced. This means that some sort of thrust augmentation, such as water
injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel supply is
held practically constant at low air temperature conditions, whereupon the engine
speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow as a result of the increase
in air density, the thrust remains the same. For example, the combined
acceleration and speed control (CASC) fuel system schedules fuel flow to maintain
a constant engine r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air temperature decreases
until, at a predetermined compressor delivery pressure, the fuel flow is
automatically controlled to maintain a constant compressor delivery pressure and,
therefore, thrust, Figure 2.8. illustrates this for a twin-spool engine where the
controlled engine r.p.m. is high pressure compressor speed and the compressor
delivery pressure is expressed as P3. It will also be apparent from this graph that
the low pressure compressor speed is always less than its limiting maximum and
that the difference in the two speeds is reduced by a decrease in ambient air
temperature. To prevent the L.P. compressor overspeeding, fuel flow is also
controlled by an L.P. governor which, in this case, takes a passive role.
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It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range the pure jet stream
wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and consequently is
less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as aircraft speed
increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a high velocity
from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is reduced
and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.
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SFC = SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION is defined as the lbs of fuel used per
HP/lbs of thrust per hour
2.7 FLAT RATING
Flat rating is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine that has
a capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then limit the power
output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits derived from flat rating.
One is the engine will have the ability to make take-off power at lower turbine
temperatures over a wide range of outside air temperatures and pressure
altitudes. Performance at altitude will be greatly enhanced. These two benefits
result in the third benefit, longer engine life. A fourth benefit available on some
engines is, a reserve of power which can be used to boost performance in an
emergency ie. Loss of an engine during take - off.
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS
In the chart, performance ratings are compared on 1 through 12 engines.
Notice the modifiers on the 1, -5, -6, -8 and 10 engines. These temperatures
represent the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will make take-off power
below their turbine temperature limits to the ambient temperatures indicated.
Engines that are not flat rated, such as the 3 or 11, would be unable to make
take-off power below their turbine temperature limits when operating in conditions
above 59F outside air temperatures.
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INLET
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An air intake should deliver air to the engine compressor with a minimum loss of
energy and at a uniform pressure under all engine operating conditions. The inlet
duct is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent diffuser, so that the kinetic energy
of the rapidly moving air can be converted into a ram pressure rise within the duct.
This condition is referred to as Ram Recovery.
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION
The degree of Ram Compression depends upon the following:i.
Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of the intake entry which are
wetted by the intake airflow.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Aircraft speed.
v.
In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses due to the prop blades and
spinner.
At subsonic flight speeds, the ram pressure ratio is apparently quite small, say
1.33: 1 at 0.8M. Nevertheless, since the pressure rise due to ram compression is
multiplied by the pressure ratio of the compressor, the ram pressure rise becomes
significant even at subsonic speeds.
Furthermore, the greater the forward speed of the aircraft becomes, the more
significant is the ram compression; e.g. at 1.5M the ram pressure ratio may be
about 3.5 : 1, and at 2.5M about 8 : 1.
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This intake is suitable for subsonic or low supersonic speeds. Examples, 707,
747, A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually short and is very efficient because
the duct inlet is located directly ahead of the engine compressor. As the duct
length increases, the risk of small airflow disturbances and pressure drop is
increased. This inlet makes maximum use of ram effect until sonic speed is
approached when efficiency falls due to shock wave formation at the intake lip.
Pitot inlets can however suffer from inlet turbulences at high angles of attack
and/or at low speeds.
Figure 3.1.
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The pitot type intake can be used for engines that are mounted in pods or in the
wings although the latter sometimes requires a departure from the circular cross
section due to the wing thickness.
On a single engine aircraft with fuselage mounted engines, either a wing root inlet
or a side scoop inlet may be used. The wing root inlet presents a problem to
designers in the forming of the curvature necessary to deliver the air to the engine
compressor. The side scoop inlet is placed as far forward of the compressor as
possible to approach the straight line effect of the single inlet. Both types suffer
faults, in a yaw or turn, a loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of the intake and
separated, turbulent boundary layer air is fed to the engine compressor.
Divided Intakes.
Figure 3.3.
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Supersonic Intakes.
Figure 3.4.
This type of intake produces a series of mild shock waves without reducing the
intake efficiency, as the aircraft speed increases, so also does the intake
compression ratio. At high mach numbers it becomes necessary to have an air
intake which has a variable thrust area and spill doors to control the column of air.
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Intake Efficiency
The magnitude of the losses occurring in an intake during ram compression are
measured by means of the intake efficiency. Typical optimum efficiencies of some
common types of intake, at subsonic speeds assuming straight-through flow, are:
a
Turbo-jet engine
Pitot
99 to 96%
Turbo-prop engine
Side
89 to 80%
Annular
82 to 74% (DART)
In cases where the direction of flow of the air is reversed within the intake, these
values are reduced by about 10%.
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING
Operations of present day aircraft necessitates flying in all weather conditions plus
the fact that high velocity air induced into the intakes means a provision must be
made for ice protection. There are three systems of thermal anti-icing; hot air, hot
oil or electrical There is, however, one disadvantage and that is the loss of
engine power. This loss must be corrected for on ground runs and power checks.
3.5.1 ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING
The hot air system provides surface heating of the engine and/or power plant
where ice is likely to form. The affected parts are the engine intake, the intake
guide vanes, the nose cone, the leading edge of the nose cowl and, sometimes,
the front stage of the compressor stator blades. The protection of rotor blades is
rarely necessary, because any ice accretions are dispersed by centrifugal action.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the latter stages of the
HP compressor and externally ducted, through pressure regulation valves, to the
parts requiring protection. When the nose cowl requires protection, hot air
exhausting from the air intake manifold may be collected and ducted to the nose
cowl. Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the air to pass into the compressor
intake or vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a flow of air through the system.
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Spray Mat
The spray mat is so called because the conductor element is sprayed onto the
base insulator to protect the spray mat from damage. An outer coating is sprayed
on, sometimes called Stone Guard or Erocoat.
Spraymat Construction.
Figure 3.6.
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Heater Mats
Heater mats differ in design and construction according to their purpose and
environment. The latest mats have elements which are made from a range of
alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn. Other elements are made from
nickel chrome foil. The insulating material is usually polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) and the electrical control may be continuous or intermittent.
3.5.3 OIL ANTI-ICE
Oil anti-ice supplements the other two systems (hot air/electrical) and will also
assist in cooling the oil system.
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ENGINES
COMPRESSORS
Centrifugal flow
Axial flow
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4.2.1 OPERATION
The centrifugal impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and centrifugal
action causes the air between the impeller vanes to accelerate radially outwards
until it is thrown off at the tip into the diffuser. The radial movement of the air
across the impeller, from eye to tip, causes a drop in air pressure at the eye and
the faster the impeller is turning, the lower the pressure at the eye becomes. The
low pressure existing at the eye of the revolving impeller induces a continuous flow
of air through the engine intake and into the eye of the impeller. The air, in turn, is
accelerated across the impeller and passed into the diffuser. The kinetic energy in
the air is then converted to pressure energy ready to enter the combustion
chamber. The action of the diffuser is illustrated in figure 4.3.
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VANELESS
SPACE
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The final volume and mass airflow delivered by the centrifugal compressor is
dependent on:
a
Pressure ratio
Operating RPM
NOTE:
4.2.1.1
Pressure Ratio
The ratio of the inlet pressure to outlet pressure of the compressor is called
pressure ratio. The higher the pressure of the air the more efficiently the thrust will
be produced with a corresponding improvement to the fuel economy of the engine.
The maximum pressure ratio normally obtainable from a single stage centrifugal
compressor is approximately 5:1 and from a two stage, approximately 8:1.Design
of the more modern centrifugal compressors sees them approaching pressure
ratios of 15:1.
4.2.1.2
Diameter of Impeller
A large impeller will deliver a greater mass of air than a small impeller, however a
large diameter compressor leads to an increase in the frontal area of the engine
causing excess drag forces on the aircraft.
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The axial flow compressor is by far the most popular type of compressor and,
although it is more difficult to manufacture, it is a more efficient compressor.
Handling a larger mass of air for any given diameter, it produces more power; and
because the compression ratio is high at least 9:1 and, it can be very much
higher it is a more economical engine. The airflow through the engine is parallel
with the axis, hence the name axial flow compressor.
The compressor consists of a single or multi-rotor assembly that carries blades of
aerofoil section; it is mounted in a casing, which also houses the stator blades.
The axial flow compressor increases the pressure of the air gradually (by
approximately 1.2:1 per stage) over a number of stages, each stage comprising
of a row of rotor blades, followed by a row of stator blades. Both the rotor and
stator blades are of aerofoil section and form divergent passageways between
adjacent blades of the same row. Figure 4.4 refers.
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The compressor rotor spool is driven by the turbine. The rotor blades accelerate
the air rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air into the inlet of the combustion
chamber. The airflow emerges from the rotor stage with an increase in velocity,
due to the rotating action of the blades, and with a rise in pressure and
temperature caused by flowing through the divergent passage formed by the rotor.
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The airflow then passes through the divergent passages formed by the stator
blades which convert some of the kinetic energy into pressure energy and directs
the airflow onto the next set of rotors at the correct angle. The airflow emerges
from each stage at approximately the same velocity as it entered, but with an
increase (approximately 1.2:1) in pressure and, an increase in temperature. See
graph below.
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The stator vanes are secured into the compressor casing or into stator vane
retaining rings, which are themselves secured to the casing.
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The engine rotor assembly forms a hollow drum and is supported in ball and
roller bearings and coupled to a turbine shaft. The rotor discs make up the drum
and the rotor blades are attached as shown in the figure. On some smaller
engines it becomes difficult to design a practical fixing, this is overcome by
designing and producing blades integral with the disc and is called a BLISK.
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Balance Weight
Shroud Rings
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The mass and final volume of the airflow delivered by the compressor is
dependent on:
a. Pressure Ratio. Dependent on the number of stages employed. Axial flow
compressors can achieve a much higher value than centrifugal.
b. Diameter. For a similar mass flow capability, the axial flow compressor can be
made smaller in diameter than the centrifugal type.
c. Operating RPM. As with the centrifugal type, the RPM and hence the mass
flow, is controlled by varying the amount of fuel delivered to the combustion
system, but because of the way that the pressure rise takes place, the
maximum pressure ratio in an axial flow compressor is achieved at a lower
RPM, than in a centrifugal compressor.
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
Surge can occur in both centrifugal and axial flow compressors and is the
reversal of the airflow in the compressor. It is a very undesirable condition, which
can rapidly cause serious damage to the engine.
In an axial flow compressor, surge is nearly always preceded by stalling of some
of the compressor blades. An aerofoil is said to be in a stalled condition when the
airflow over its surface has broken down and no lift is being produced. If a row of
compressor blades stall, then they will not be able to pass the airflow rearwards to
the next stage and the airflow to the combustion chamber will ultimately stop.
The lack of rearward airflow will allow the air in the combustion chamber to flow
forward into the compressor until it reaches the row of stalled blades. Then a
violent backwards and forwards oscillation of the airflow is likely to occur, which
can rapidly cause extensive damage to the compressor blades and also overheating of the combustion and turbine assemblies.
Stalling of the compressor blades can occur for various reasons and to appreciate
how the condition comes about, a review of aerofoil theory and its application to
the compressor is required.
4.4.1 AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
4.4.1.1
For any given engine there is only one set of conditions, mass flow, pressure ratio
and rpm, at which all the compressor components are operating at their optimum
effect. Compressors are designed to be most efficient in the higher rpm range of
operation. The point at which the compressor reaches its maximum efficiency is
known as the DESIGN POINT. Under design conditions the compressor produces
Volume 2
a given compression ratio (ie.
) and the axial velocity (average velocity)
Volume 1
of the gas remains approximately constant from the front to the rear of the
compressor.
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The Angle of Attack of the airflow to the compressor aerofoil blades will be at its
optimum. This is the design condition and the compressor is operating at its
optimum performance. Although compression ratio varies with rpm it is not
proportional to rpm. This fact emerges due to the fixed blade angles, which can
only be correct at the design point. To illustrate this fact, refer to the diagram
showing rpm and compression ratio. Consider a compressor running at 8,000 rpm
and its compression ratio is 10:1. Let us say that the volume of air entering the
compressor is 100cm3. The volume of the air passing through the fixed outlet
annulus of the compressor will be 10cm3.
COMPRESSION RATIO
10:1
4:1
4000
8000
RPM
Graph of Compression Ratio to RPM.
Figure 4.12.
Compressor R.P.M = 8,000
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Now consider the same compressor operating at 4,000 rpm, the volume of air
entering the compressor will be halved, eg. 50cm3 there will also be a reduction in
compression ratio to 4:1. Therefore the volume of air passing through the
compressor fixed outlet annulus will be 12.5cm3. The following conditions will
occur:
a. Axial velocity will increase as it moves towards the rear stages relative to the
front Low pressure stages.
bSince all stages are rotating at the same speed, there will be a NEGATIVE
angle of attack at the rear high pressure stages and a POSITIVE angle of attack at
the front low pressure stages.
Front
Rear
Effect of Velocity on Blade Angle.
Figure 4.13.
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Due to the increased velocity at the rear of the compressor, the outlet of the
compressor will choke as the airflow reaches sonic velocity. At this point there will
be a dramatic reduction in axial velocity resulting in the front compressor blades
stalling. The end result will be compressor surge. To overcome the problem, a
bleed valve is normally fitted in an intermediate stage of the compressor to bleed
off the excess volume of air. This relieves the rear stages of the excess air
causing choking while inducing an increased axial airflow through the early stages
of the compressor, thus establishing conditions which are not conducive of stall
and surge. Unfortunately this bleed valve does not completely cure the problem of
stall as far as the first rotor stages are concerned and stall is still likely to occur.
The blades stall when the angle of attack increases to too large a value. To
overcome this problem, inlet guide vanes are used to pre-swirl the air onto the
rotor blades. The effect of pre-swirling the air alters the angle of attack from a
large value to the correct angle of attack. See figure 4.14.
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SAFETY
MARGIN
UNSTABLE
AREA
SURGE LINE
WORKING LINE
80%
60%
70%
100
%
90%
CONSTANT
RPM LINES
AIRFLOW - Increasing
Engine working line and surge margin.
Figure 4.15.
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A change in temperature will affect mass airflow, compressor pressure ratio fuel
flow and engine performance. The effect of a reduced temperature on the
compressor at a fixed rpm being that the performance is comparable with that at a
higher rpm at STANDARD TEMPERATURE.
Consider an engine running at 10,000 rpm, the temperature of the day is 2C. If
this is corrected for standard conditions (ISA 15C) the corrected rpm will be
10,235 see below.
Observed rpm
Corrected rpm
10,000 rpm
ISAinK
Where
corrected rpm
Corrected rpm
T ambient in K
273 2
=
273 15
ISA in K
10,000
275
288
=
10,000
0.977
10,235
From the above it is clear that temperature has an effect on the compressors mass
flow rate. This is compounded further by the effect that temperature has a direct
effect on the speed of sound and hence when the compressor chokes.
It must be understood that if the engine is running at a fixed rpm and the
temperature of the air is altered, the actual rpm of the compressor will be
unaffected. However, the temperature change will affect the mach number of
mass airflow and it is the speed of the compressor relative to the speed of the
airflow (ie. Mach. Number) which is the critical factor. A decrease in temperature
will raise the mach. Number. The mach. Number is the:
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The speed of the object is the compressor blade, if as previously stated, the mach.
Number is raised with a decrease in temperature, the fixed blade speed relative
to the speed of the air, will be increased. To cater for this situation the operating
point at which the variable inlet guide vanes move will have to be altered for
varying air temperatures. To achieve this the actuator or ram of an airflow control
system is temperature compensated. On a cold day, the variable inlet guide
vanes will operate earlier than on a warm day.
At a temperature of 40F
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Intake
Guide
Vane
Ram
Setting Curve.
Variable
Guide
Vane
Hydraulic
Figure
4.18.
Actuator Figure 4.20.
Issue 2 April 2003
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To further improve airflow control, some engines will adopt a system of Variable
Stator Vanes (VSVs) as well as Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (VIGVs) figure 4.21.
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Once manufactured, their area and shape will remain the same unless they are
damaged in any way. Assuming the blades are in good condition, the variables
will be the speed of the airflow and the angle at which the blades meet the air
(angle of attack).
4.6.1 SPEED OF AIRFLOW OVER BLADES
This will vary with the rpm of the compressor rotor. The faster the rotor turns, then
the faster the air flows over the blades. This will result in an increase in the axial
velocity of the airflow through the compressor.
4.6.2 ANGLE OF ATTACK
This will vary with the combination of the rotational velocity of the blades and the
axial velocity of the airflow. In the normal course of events, the angle of attack
(VA) becomes progressively smaller as the compressor moves from a low rpm to a
high rpm.(VT)
VT
VA
VT
VT
VA
VT
VA
VA
Low R.P.M
R.P.M Increasing
High angle
of attack
Angle of attack
decreasing
High R.P.M
Low angle
of attack
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At very large angles of attack the airflow breaks down and the aerofoil stalls.
The greater the angle of attack (up to the stalling angle), the greater the lift and,
also, the greater the drag. This means that a greater effort will be required to
move the aerofoil through the air.
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Compressor stall normally occurs at low rpm and can be induced by:
a disturbance of smooth airflow due to damaged or dirty blades.
b disturbance of smooth airflow caused by damaged aircraft air intake.
c
The rotor blades are of airfoil section and usually designed to give a pressure
gradient along their length to ensure that the air maintains a reasonably uniform
axial velocity. The higher pressure towards the tip balances out the centrifugal
action of the rotor on the airstream. To obtain these conditions, it is necessary to
'twist' the blade from root to tip to give the correct angle of incidence at each point.
Air flowing through a compressor creates two boundary layers of slow to stagnant
air on the inner and outer walls. In order to compensate for the slow air in the
boundary layer a localised increase in blade camber both at the blade tip and root
has been introduced. The blade extremities appear as if formed by bending over
each corner, hence the term 'end-bend' Figure 4.27.
4.7.4 RECENT INNOVATIONS
The latest engines incorporate blades that have been designed and profiled using
3-D design techniques. This produces blades, which are curved in 3 dimensions,
which are more aerodynamically efficient. Figure 4.28.
Issue 2 April 2003
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3-D Blades
Figure 4. 28.
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Merits.
Simplicity, cheaper, lighter, less prone to damage by FOD.
Not critical to surge and stall.
Will tolerate icing conditions.
Associated Problems
Merits
High Pressure Ratio.
Low specific fuel consumption.
More capacity for development.
Greater axial thrust.
Associated Problems
Complex and expensive to produce.
Critical to stall/surge.
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COMBUSTION SECTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel,
supplied through the fuel burners, with extensive volumes of air, supplied by the
compressor, and releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions
required by the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in
pressure and with the maximum heat release for the limited space available.
The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the maximum temperature
rise required and, as this is limited by the materials from which the turbine blades
and nozzles are made, the rise must be in the range of 700 to 1,200 deg.C.
Because the air is already heated by the work done during compression, the
temperature rise required at the combustion chamber may be between 500 and
800 deg.C. Since the gas temperature required at the turbine varies with engine
speed, and in the case of the turbo-prop engine upon the power required, the
combustion chamber must also be capable of maintaining stable and efficient
combustion over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Efficient combustion has become more and more important because of the rapid
increase in commercial aircraft traffic and the consequent increase in atmospheric
pollution, which is seen by the general public as exhaust smoke.
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to
500 feet per second, but because at this velocity the air speed is far too high for
combustion, the first thing that the chamber must do is to diffuse it, i.e. decelerate
it and raise its static pressure. Because the speed of burning kerosene at normal
mixture ratios is only a few feet per second, any fuel lit even in the diffused air
stream, which now has a velocity of about 80 feet per second, would be blown
away. A region of low axial velocity has therefore to be created in the chamber, so
that the flame will remain alight throughout the range of engine operating
conditions.
In normal operation, the overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber can vary
between 45:1 and 130:1. Kerosene, however, will only burn efficiently at, or close
to, a ratio of 15:1, so the fuel must be burned with only part of the air entering the
chamber, in what is called a primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means
of a flame tube (combustion liner) that has various devices for metering the airflow
distribution along the chamber.
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It is arranged that the conical fuel spray from the burner intersects the recirculation
vortex at its centre. This action, together with the general turbulence in the
primary zone, greatly assists in breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the
incoming air.
The temperature of the combustion gases released by the combustion zone is
about 1,800 to 2,000 deg.C., which is far too hot for entry to the nozzle guide
vanes of the turbine. The air not used for combustion, which amounts to about 60
per cent of the total airflow, is therefore introduced progressively into the flame
tube. Approximately half of this is used to lower the gas temperature before it
enters the turbine and the other half is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube.
Combustion should be completed before the dilution air enters the flame tube,
otherwise the incoming air will cool the flame and incomplete combustion will
result.
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates combustion and the flame is then
self-sustaining.
The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably, but the airflow distribution used to effect and maintain combustion is
always very similar to that described.
So far little has been said of the way in which the fuel is supplied to the air stream.
In general, however, two distinct principles are in use, one based on the injection
of a finely atomised spray into a recirculating air stream, and the other based on
the pre-vaporisation of the fuel before it enters the combustion zone.
Although the injection of fuel by atomiser jets is the most common method, some
engines use the fuel vaporising principle. In this instance, the flame tube is of the
same general shape as for atomisation, but has no swirl vanes or flare. The
primary airflow passes through holes in a baffle plate that supports a fuel feed
tube.
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A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 5.6.
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Reverse flow combustion chambers are used where the engine length is critical or
where the thrust of the engine is not being produced by the exhaust of the primary
air. They are often found on APUs, turboprop and turbo-shaft engines or their
derivatives such as the ALF 502 and LF507 engines used in the BAE 146 and RJ
aircraft.
By wrapping the combustion chamber around other components such as turbines
the length of the engine can be significantly reduced. Losses in thrust do occur
due to the changes in airflow and direction of pressure forces. This is not important
in the types of engine where they are used as the majority of the thrust is derived
by other sources.
They are often found on engines with compound compressors, which have a
centrifugal stages as the last stage of compression.
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The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat generating unit is
dependent on the volume of the combustion area. Thus, to obtain the required
high power output, a comparatively small and compact gas turbine combustion
chamber must release heat at exceptionally high rates.
For example, a Rolls-Royce Spey engine will consume in its ten flame tubes 7,500
lb. of fuel per hour. The fuel has a calorific value of approximately 18,550 British
Thermal Units per lb., therefore each flame tube releases nearly 232,000 British
Thermal Units per minute. Expressed in another way, this is an expenditure of
potential heat at a rate equivalent to approximately 54,690 horsepower for the
whole engine.
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Pollution of the atmosphere by gas turbine engines falls into two categories; visible
(ie. smoke) and invisible constituents (eg. oxides or nitrogen, unburnt
hydrocarbons, oxides of sulphur and carbon monoxide). The combination of the
traditional types of HP burner (eg. Duplex) with increasing compression ratios has
led to visible smoke during take-off and climb. The very strong public opinion
against pollution of the atmosphere has forced engine manufacturers to develop
methods of reducing smoke and other emissions.
5.8.2 SOURCES OF POLLUTION
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Pilot
fuel
Main
fuel
Dump
diffuser
Main stage
Exhaust gases to
turbine
Compressor
air
Pilot
stage
BMW Rolls Royce are testing an axially staged combustion chamber for the BR715
engine, they claim it will cut the NOx by 50% without increasing CO, UHC and smoke
emissions.
Figure 5.12.
x
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5.10 MATERIALS
The containing walls and internal parts of the combustion chamber must be
capable of resisting the very high gas temperature in the primary zone. In
practice, this is achieved by using the best heat resisting materials available, the
use of high heat resistant coatings and by cooling the inner wall of the flame tube
as an insulation from the flame.
The combustion chamber must also withstand corrosion due to the products of the
combustion, creep failure due to temperature gradients and fatigue due to
vibrational stresses.
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TURBINE SECTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and
accessories and, in the case of engines which do not make use solely of a jet for
propulsion, of providing shaft power for a propeller or rotor. It does this by extracting
energy from the hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding
them to a lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are involved in this
process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over
1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed
may have an entry temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg.C. and may reach a
velocity of over 2,500 feet per second in parts of the turbine.
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To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of Several stages each
employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades.
The number of stages depends upon the relationship between the power required
from the gas flow, the rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter
of turbine permitted.
The number of shafts, and therefore turbines, varies with the type of engine., high
compression ratio engines usually have two shafts, driving high and low pressure
compressors. On high by pass ratio fan engines that feature an intermediate
pressure system, another turbine may be interposed between the high and low
pressure turbines, thus forming triple-spool system. On some engines, driving torque
is derived from a free-power turbine. This method allows the turbine to run at its
optimum speed because it is mechanically independent of other turbine and
compressor shafts.
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The mean blade speed of a turbine has considerable effect on the maximum
efficiency possible for a given stage output. For a given output the gas velocities,
deflections, and hence losses, are reduced in proportion to the square of higher
mean blade speeds. Stress in the turbine disc increases as the square of the speed,
therefore to maintain the same stress level at higher speed the sectional thickness,
hence the weight, must be increased disproportionately. For this reason, the final
design is a compromise between efficiency and weight. Engines operating at higher
turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient and have an improved power
to weight ratio. By-pass engines have a better propulsive efficiency and thus can
have a smaller turbine for a given thrust.
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When the gas is expanded by the combustion process, it forces its way into the
discharge nozzles of the turbine where, because of their convergent shape, it is
accelerated to about the speed of sound which, at the gas temperature, is about
2,500 feet per second. At the same time the gas flow is given a 'spin' or 'whirl' in the
direction of rotation of the turbine blades by the nozzle guide vanes. On impact with
the blades and during the subsequent reaction through the blades, energy is
absorbed, causing the turbine to rotate at high speed and so provide the power for
driving the turbine shaft and compressor.
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The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governed by the rate of gas flow
and the energy change of the gas between the inlet and the outlet of the turbine
blades. The design of the turbine is such that the whirl will be removed from the gas
stream so that the flow at exit from the turbine will be substantially 'straightened out'
to give an axial flow into the exhaust system (Part 6). Excessive residual whirl
reduces the efficiency of the exhaust system and also tends to produce jet pipe
vibration which has a detrimental effect on the exhaust cone supports and struts.
It will be seen that the nozzle guide
vanes and blades of the turbine are
'twisted', the blades having a stagger
angle that is greater at the tip than at
the root. The reason for the twist is to
make the gas flow from the
combustion system do equal work at
all positions along the length of the
blade and to ensure that the flow
enters the exhaust system with a
uniform axial velocity. This results in
certain changes in velocity, pressure
and temperature occurring through the
turbine.
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The losses which prevent the turbine from being 100 per cent efficient are due to a
number of reasons. A typical uncooled three-stage turbine would suffer a 3.5 per
cent loss because of aerodynamic losses in the turbine blades. A further 4.5 per cent
loss would be incurred by aerodynamic losses in the nozzle guide vanes, gas
leakage over the turbine blade tips and exhaust system losses; these losses are of
approximately equal proportions. The total losses result in an overall efficiency of
approximately 92 per cent.
6.3 CONSTRUCTION
The basic components of the turbine are the combustion discharge nozzles, the
nozzle guide vanes, the turbine discs and the turbine blades. The rotating assembly
is carried on bearings mounted in the turbine casing and the turbine shaft may be
common to the compressor shaft or connected to it by a self-aligning coupling.
6.3.1 NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
The nozzle guide vanes are of an aerofoil shape with the passage between adjacent
vanes forming a convergent duct. The vanes are located in the turbine casing in a
manner that allows for expansion.
The nozzle guide vanes are usually of hollow form and
may be cooled by passing
compressor delivery air through them to reduce the effects of high thermal
stresses and gas loads.
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Turbine discs are usually manufactured from a machined forging with an integral
shaft or with a flange onto which the shaft may be bolted. The disc also has, around
its perimeter, provision for the attachment of the turbine blades.
To limit the effect of heat conduction from the turbine blades to the disc a flow of
cooling air is passed across both sides of each disc.
6.3.3 TURBINE BLADES
The turbine blades are of an aerofoil shape, designed to provide passages between
adjacent blades that give a steady acceleration of the flow up to the 'throat', where
the area is smallest and the velocity reaches that required at exit to produce the
required degree of reaction.
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A gap exists between the blade tips and casing, which varies in size due to the
different rates of expansion and contraction. To reduce the loss of efficiency through
gas leakage across the blade tips, a shroud is often fitted. This is made up by a
small segment at the tip of each blade which forms a peripheral ring around the blade
tips. An abradable lining in the casing may also be used to reduce gas leakage.
Active Clearance Control (A.C.C.) is a more effective method of maintaining minimum
tip clearance throughout the flight cycle. Air from the compressor is used to cool the
turbine casing and when used with shroudless turbine blades, enables higher
temperatures and speeds to be used.
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Due to their static condition, the nozzle guide vanes do not endure the same
rotational stresses as the turbine blades. Therefore, heat resistance is the property
most required. Nickel alloys are used, although cooling is required to prevent
melting. Ceramic coatings can enhance the heat resisting properties and, for the
same set of conditions, reduce the amount of cooling air required, thus improving
engine efficiency.
6.5.2 TURBINE DISCS
A turbine disc has to rotate at high speed in a relatively cool environment and is
subjected to large rotational stresses. The limiting factor which affects the useful disc
life is its resistance to fatigue cracking.
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In the past, turbine discs have been made in ferritic and austenitic steels but nickel
based alloys are currently used. Increasing the alloying elements in nickel extend the
life limits of a disc by increasing fatigue resistance. Alternatively, expensive powder
metallurgy discs, which offer an additional 10% in strength, allow faster rotational
speeds to be achieved.
6.5.3 TURBINE BLADES
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The early materials used were high temperature steel forgings, but these were rapidly
replaced by cast nickel base alloys which give better creep and fatigue properties.
Close examination of a conventional turbine blade reveals a myriad of crystals that lie
in all directions (equi-axed). Improved service life can be obtained by aligning the
crystals to form columns along the blade length, produced by a method known as
'Directional Solidification'. A further advance of this technique is to make the blade
out of a single crystal. Each method extends the useful creep life of the blade and in
the case of the single crystal blade, the operating temperature can be substantially
increased.
A non-metal based turbine blade can be manufactured from reinforced ceramics.
Their initial production application is likely to be for small high speed turbines which
have very high turbine entry temperatures.
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We must all be familiar with the effects of unbalance in one form or another, but
perhaps the most common effect is that arising from wheel unbalance in motor cars.
At resonance conditions it causes wobble or bounce, the effects of which are
transmitted to the driver through the steering column. This effect may be so violent
as to make the car unsafe or at least uncomfortable to ride in, and the continual
vibratory movements set up, even outside the resonance range will increase the rate
of wear on the various linkages and add to driver and passenger fatigue.
In order to increase passenger comfort, reduce wear and noise levels and also to
increase the life of the engine between overhauls, design effort is put into the various
aspects of minimising vibration in aero-engines. Design features are also included to
permit correction of unbalance forces.
Efforts are made to design engine bearing housings and carcasses with suitable
stiffness to avoid resonance in the engine running range. In addition, precise
balancing instructions are issued to control the rotating forces on the bearings which
could:a) be transmitted to other parts of the engine or airframe structure.
b) lead to engine failure in extreme cases.
The loads on the bearings are of three main forms. These are:
a) thrust loads due to the engine doing work.
b) journal loads due to the dead weight of engine parts.
c) unbalance loads.
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Centrifugal Forces.
Figure 6.16..
Centrifugal force acts on every particle which makes up the mass of the rotating
element impelling each particle outwards and away from the axis, about which it is
rotating, in a radial direction.
If the mass of the rotating element is EVENLY DISTRIBUTED about the axis of
rotation, the part is BALANCED and rotates WITHOUT VIBRATION. However, if
there is a greater mass on one side of the rotor than the other, the centrifugal force
acting on this heavy side exceeds the centrifugal force on the light side and pulls the
entire assembly in the direction of the heavy side.
Eccentric Mass.
Figure 6.17.
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The rotor has a heavy mass M on one side. The centrifugal force exerted by M
causes the entire rotor to be pulled in the direction of force F.
6.6.3 CAUSES OF UNBALANCE
Eccentricity
Eccentricity exists when the geometric centreline of a part or assembly does not
coincide with its axis of rotation. This may be as a result of locating features (eg.
spigot location, bolt holes, splines, serrations, couplings), being eccentric to the
bearing location.
Eccentricity.
Figure 6.18.
b)
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c) Blade Distribution
Unbalance can be caused by an unequal or unsymmetrical arrangement of a set of
blades, either by reference to their mass moments or their dead weights depending
on the size of the blades. This can be as a result of faulty weighting, inaccurate or
illegible recording or assembly errors.
d) Unsymmetrical Features
These may be due to manufacturing processes, such as blow holes in castings or
design features such as offset holes, locating dogs, slots, keyways, etc.
Unsymmetrical Features
Figure 6.20.
e) Distortion
This can be caused by stress relieving, eg. after welding, or by unequal thermal
growth during running.
f) Fits and Clearances
Clearance between mating parts allows relative movement of the parts and a
consequent shift of the axis of rotation during running (or even during balancing).
Joints incompletely assembled, eg. chamfers fouling radii, abutment faces not pulled
together, may cause a bent rotor or an unsuitable joint, which may cause a shift
during running. It is important to prevent separate locating, or fixing, features from
influencing each other eg. bolt holes, spigot locations, serrations, etc. must be
geometrically controlled to prevent fighting between more than one feature. See
also the section on tooling, adapters, drives, dummy rotors, etc.
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g) Swash
Swash.
Figure 6.21.
Swash is caused by out of squareness of abutment faces relative to the bearing
diameter, abutment faces not being parallel across the component, eg. spacers,
adjusting washers, disks, etc. It is important that the bolted joints are tightened in
sequence and in increments according to the torquing instructions.
h) Miscellaneous
Foreign bodies inside assemblies, oil accumulation, carbon deposits, usually found
when check balancing after running.
6.6.4 OBJECTIVE OF BALANCING
The objective of balancing is to determine how the unbalanced mass of the rotor
must be compensated for in order to keep the bearings free of centrifugal force
loading.
6.6.5 DEFINITION OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance can be defined as that condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory
force or motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces.
Unbalance will, in general, be distributed throughout the rotor but can be reduced to:a)
static unbalance
b)
couple unbalance
c)
dynamic unbalance
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Static Unbalance
In a gas turbine engine, static unbalance is primarily associated with thin discs such
as turbine wheels or single compressor discs. It can be corrected by adding mass to
the light side of the rotor. This can be achieved by a single weight DIAMETRICALLY
OPPOSITE to the out of balance or by adding a number of smaller distributed
weights having the same effect as a single weight. (This distribution can be
determined by vectors).
Static Balance.
Figure 6.22.
Unbalance in a Long Rotor
If a rotor is checked for static balance using knife edges it is possible to correct an
out of balance condition to one end of the rotor by a correction weight at the other
end of the rotor. Although in static balance, the rotor may now suffer from other kinds
of unbalance. These are couple and dynamic unbalance.
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Couple Unbalance
This arises when two EQUAL unbalance masses are positioned at opposite ends of a
rotor and spaced at 180 from each other. If placed on knife-edges, the rotor would
be statically balanced. However, when the rotor is rotated, the out of balance
masses will cause a centrifugal force to act at each end and hence each end will
vibrate independently as shown in figure 6.23.
Couple Unbalance.
Figure 6.23.
Dynamic Unbalance
This occurs when the unbalanced masses may be either unequal in size or
positioned at some angle other than 180 to each other, or even both of these
conditions. These unbalanced forces now cause the rotor to vibrate.
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Before we look at fan balancing we must first look at vibration analysis techniques
adopted on modern gas turbines and the reason for doing it. One of the
requirements of an on-condition maintenance policy is that defects can be detected
sufficiently early to permit rectification before secondary damage occurs. The
analysis of engine vibration signatures is becoming an increasingly important tool for
detecting early failure in mechanical components.
A vibration monitoring system begins with a sensor, which may be a velocity
transducer or a peizo electric accelerometer. They both convert the mechanical
vibration of the machine into an electrical signal proportional to the vibrations
produced and together with the associated electrical circuitry feed signals to either
cockpit mounted gauges warning systems or a separate vibration analyser.
Velocity Transducer
This device operates on the principle of a permanent magnet to move within a coil,
inducing voltage. Because of the moving parts with all the inherent disadvantages of
wear, friction, etc. they have been superseded by the peizo electric principle.
Peizo Electric Accelerometer
In this device, vibrating forces are transmitted to a peizo electric disc the resultant
deformation of the disc produces an electrical charge. Accelerometers have a
greater frequency range than velocity transducers and their lack of moving parts
makes them a much more stable and reliable means of collecting the basic vibration
signal.
Many different specifications for accelerometers and transducers are available and
some of the considerations which govern their choice are:(1)
DYNAMIC RANGE. The amplitude range over which the device is required to
perform.
(2)
(3)
(4)
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EXHAUST
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Aero gas turbine engines have an exhaust system which passes the turbine
discharge gases to atmosphere at a velocity, and in the required direction, to provide
the resultant thrust. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gases create the thrust
in the turbo-jet engine, but in the turbo-propeller engine only a small amount of thrust
is contributed by the exhaust gases, because most of the energy has been absorbed
by the turbine for driving the propeller. The design of the exhaust system therefore,
exerts a considerable influence on the performance of the engine. The areas of the
jet pipe and propelling or outlet nozzle affect the turbine entry temperature, the mass
airflow and the velocity and pressure of the exhaust jet.
The temperature of the gas entering the exhaust system is between 550 and 850
deg.C. according to the type of engine and with the use of afterburning can be 1,500
deg.C. or higher. Therefore, it is necessary to use materials and a form of
construction that will resist distortion and cracking, and prevent heat conduction to
the aircraft structure.
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An Exhaust System with a Thrust Reverser and Variable area propelling nozzle.
Figure 7.2.
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With the convergent type of
nozzle a wastage of energy
occurs, since the gases leaving
the exit do not expand rapidly
enough to immediately achieve
outside
air
pressure.
Depending on the aircraft flight
plan, some high pressure ratio
engines can with advantage
use a convergent-divergent
nozzle to recover some of the
wasted energy This nozzle
utilises the pressure energy to
obtain a further increase in gas
velocity and, consequently, an
increase in thrust.
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In a low by-pass ratio engine, the two flows are combined by a mixer unit (fig. 7.5.)
which allows the by-pass air to flow into the turbine exhaust gas flow in a manner that
ensures thorough mixing of the two streams.
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In high by-pass ratio engines, the two streams are usually exhausted separately.
The hot and cold nozzles are co-axial and the area of each nozzle is designed to
obtain maximum efficiency. However, an improvement can be made by combining
the two gas flows within a common, or integrated, nozzle assembly. This partially
mixes the gas flows prior to its ejection to atmosphere. An example of both types of
high by-pass exhaust system is shown in fig. 7.6.
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An Insulation Blanket
Figure 7.7
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Exhaust jet
b)
Turbine
c)
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Exhaust Jet
Jet noise is an externally generated source, which radiates in a rearward direction. It
is caused by the mixing process of the high-speed exhaust gases with the
surrounding air. In the mixing regions, a severe gradient of velocity exists normal to
the jet and due to the viscosity of the air, this gradient produces vortices and shear
forces which, in turn, produce quadrupole noise sources.
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b)
Turbine, compressor and fan noise alleviated by control of nozzle area and
shape.
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c)
d)
Acoustic Linings
One method of suppressing the noise from the fan stage of a high by-pass ratio
engine is to incorporate a noise absorbent liner around the inside wall of the by-pass
duct. The lining comprises a porous face-sheet, which acts as a resistor to the
motion of the sound waves and is placed in a position such that it senses the
maximum particle displacement in the progression of the wave. The depth of the
cavity between absorber and solid backing is the tuning device, which suppresses
the appropriate part of the noise spectrum. The figure shows two types of noise
absorbent line; the figure shows the location of a liner to suppress fan noise from a
high by-pass ratio engine and also the use of a liner to suppress the noise from the
engine core. The disadvantage of using liners for reducing noise are the addition of
weight and the increase in specific fuel consumption caused by increasing the friction
of the duct walls.
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Figure 7.12. shows that the noise from the exhaust jet is the main contributor to the
total noise generated by a low by-pass ratio turbo-fan. For a turbo-jet the noise from
the exhaust is an even greater contributor to the whole. Fortunately it is
comparatively easy to reduce the noise by increasing the mixture rate of the exhaust
gases with the atmosphere. This can be achieved by increasing the contact area of
the atmosphere with the gas stream by incorporating a corrugated or lobe-type
suppresser in the propelling nozzle.
The addition of a corrugate nozzle
gives the effect shown in figure 7.16.
In the corrugated nozzle, atmospheric
air flows down the outside corrugations
and into the exhaust jet to promote
rapid mixing. In the lobe-type nozzle,
the exhaust gases are divided to flow
through the lobes and a small central
nozzle.
This forms a number of
separate exhaust jets which rapidly mix
with the air entrained by the
suppresser lobes. Deep corrugations
or lobes give a greater noise reduction,
but the penalties incurred limit the size
of the suppressers, eg. to achieve the
required nozzle area, the overall
diameter of the suppresser may have
to be so large that excessive drag
results.
A nozzle may be designed to give a
large reduction in noise level, but this
could incur a considerable weight
penalty
due
to
the
additional
strengthening required. A compromise
that gives a noticeable reduction in
noise level with the minimum sacrifice
of engine thrust or increase in weight
is, therefore, the designers aim.
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7.4.1.2
Rolls-Royce and GE are presently developing modified Trent and CF6 engines,
respectively, which aim to reduce noise by incorporating chevron/saw tooth profiles to
trailing edges of the fan and exhaust ducts.
The manufacturers are also
implementing extended areas of acoustic nacelle lining. In the case of the Trent
proof of-concept study, the acoustic liner area is increased by 30 per cent to 95 sq ft.
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These serrated ducts will improve flow mixing and reduce noise on the Trent 800.
Figure 7.17.
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To obtain reverse thrust, the jet efflux must be given a forward component of velocity.
The mechanism to achieve this should fulfil the following requirements:
a. A reasonable amount of thrust (50% of take-off thrust would be adequate) should
be available in the reverse direction.
b. The reverser should not affect the normal working of the engine and there should
be no appreciable loss of thrust or increase in specific fuel consumption (SFC).
c. When in use, the reverser should not cause debris or excessive amounts of hot
air to enter the intake.
d. The discharged hot gases should not impinge on parts of the aircraft (eg.
nacelles, tyres, landing flaps, cabin windows, etc.). Impingement of the turbulent
gas stream may cause damage by vibration as well as by heating.
e. Fire hazards must be avoided. Hydraulic and lubricating systems should not be
fitted near the jet pipe.
f.
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g. The reverser must not operate until required to do so. It is necessary to ensure
that:
1. Accidental selection of reverse thrust is impossible.
2. No single failure in the operating system selects reverse thrust.
3. The thrust changing elements are biased away from the reverse thrust
position.
7.5.3 LAYOUT AND OPERATION OF TYPICAL THRUST REVERSING SYSTEMS
Clamshell Doors.
Figure 7.19.
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In the forward thrust mode (stowed) the thrust reverser doors form the convergentdivergent final nozzle for the engine.
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7.5.3.1
Combination Reversers
Some engines are equipped with both cold and hot stream reversers, these have the
some benefits of both types as well as some of the disadvantages.
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Reverse thrust systems will have some of the following safety features incorporated:
a. Reverse thrust cannot be selected until the engine throttle is brought back
to idle.
b. A mechanical lock prevents doors moving from the forward thrust position
until reverse thrust is selected.
c. Acceleration in forward thrust can only be obtained when the reverse
thrust lever is de-selected and the doors are in the open position.
d. Acceleration in reverse thrust can only be obtained when the reverse
thrust lever is selected and the doors are in the closed position.
e. The aircraft has to be on the ground or very close to it before reverse
thrust selection is allowed (this does not apply to aircraft that use reverse
thrust as an airbrake in flight).
On the cold stream reverser/hot stream spoiler system, a mechanical interlock
prevents reverse thrust being selected except when the throttle lever is at the idle
position. After selection, acceleration of the engine to give reverse thrust is
prevented until the translating cowl has moved rearwards. When the cowl has
moved into position, a mechanical feedback from the cowl screw-jack unlocks the
throttle control.
7.5.5 CFM 56 THRUST REVERSER FOR BOEING 737-300
The 737-300 is equipped with electrically controlled, hydraulically powered, fan only
thrust reversers. The thrust reversers are interchangeable between the two engines
except for the cascade basket assemblies and the strikers which deflect the Krueger
flaps when the fan cowl translates aft.
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The thrust reverser hydraulic system is only pressurised when thrust reverser
actuation is required, or when required to resist motion from the stow commanded
position.
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A throttle interlock system restricts application of engine thrust when the reverser is
not in its commanded position and automatically reduces engine thrust if
uncommanded reverser translation occurs.
Amber lights on the centre panel identify when the reversers are in the unlocked
position.
A "fault light" for each reverser is located in the Engine Module on the aft overhead
panel. When this fault light is illuminated, the Master Caution is triggered after 12
seconds to indicate that a subsequent failure in the reverser system may cause
uncommanded reverser motion.
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8.1 BEARINGS
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A ball bearing consists of an inner race, an outer race and one or more sets of balls,
and a ball retainer or cage. The purpose of the retainer or cage is to prevent the
balls touching one another. Ball bearings are used for radial and thrust loads; a ball
bearing specially designed for thrust loads would have very deep grooves in the
races or be of the angular bearing type, these must always be fitted the correct way
round!
8.1.3 ROLLER BEARINGS
These bearings are manufactured in various shapes and sizes and will withstand
greater radial loads than ball bearings because of greater contact area. They allow
axial movement of the shaft, this is very useful in a gas turbine due to expansion of
the engine due to the heat it produces.
8.1.4 OTHER TYPES OF BEARINGS
It is rare to find taper roller or needle bearings used in gas turbine engines, however
some APUs use plain bearings to support the turbine end of the main shaft.
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The bearing chamber will have an oil feed which is sprayed on to the bearing to
lubricate and cool it.
On some engines, to minimise the effect of the dynamic loads transmitted from the
rotating assemblies to the bearing housings, a squeeze film' type of bearing is
used. They have a small clearance between the outer race of the bearing and
housing with the clearance being filled with pressurised oil. The oil film dampens
the radial motion of the rotating assembly and the dynamic loads transmitted to the
bearing housing thus reducing the vibration level of the engine and the possibility of
damage by fatigue.
The oil will return to the oil system from the bottom of the bearing chamber, either
by gravity or by suction from a scavenge pump.
8.2.2 SEALING
Bearing chambers are usually sealed using air. The internal cooling air within the
engine provides the air. Typical seals used are labyrinth, screw back and carbon
types. . All of these seals need a differential pressure between inside and outside
the bearing housing . Where pressure is available it is used, if the differential is too
low, it can be boosted by suction from a scavenge pump. Carbon seals require the
oil to be in contact with them to provide cooling for the seal.
To prevent excess pressure building up within the bearing chamber, it is usually
vented. This vent on some engines is taken to the oil tank to ensure that the whole
system is working against the same pressure, or it goes to the oil pressure regulator
to ensure that there is a constant pressure drop across the spray jets in the bearing
housings.
8.2.2.1
Labyrinth Seals
Labyrinth seals are constructed of metal non-rotating lands, which are secured to
various parts of the engine case and a series of cylindrical rotating knife-edge steps
that mate with the lands. With this type of seal, there are no contacting parts. A
precise clearance is designed into the seals to control the pressure, as the
compressor air passes over the cascade of knife-edges, the pressure is reduced.
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Labyrinth Seal
Figure 8.3.
The labyrinth seal may be used in conjunction with an abradable coating on the
stationary member as shown in the figure 8.3.
8.2.3 THREAD SEALS
Thread seals or screw back seals work in the same way as labyrinth seals, with a
screw thread instead of the rings of a labyrinth seal. This means that any oil leakage
towards the air will be driven back by the thread. This type of seal is used with
other types of seal to reduce migration of oil to those seals.
Thread Seal
Figure 8.4.
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Carbon Seal.
Figure 8.5.
8.2.5 SPRING RING SEAL
This type of seal would normally be used around a main bearing assembly within
the engine. It may be used in conjunction with a labyrinth or screw back type of
seal.
Ring Seal
Figure 8.6.
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This type of seal may also be found protecting the bearings on the main rotating
assembly of an engine. It is fitted between the rotating shafts on a twin or triple
spool engine. A hydraulic seal would be used in conjunction with another type of
seal, as shown in figure 8.7.
Hydraulic Seal
Figure 8.7.
The seal consists of a circular baffle ring mounted on a rotating shaft; the rim of this
ring sits in the centre of a circular depression in an outer rotating shaft. Oil from the
bearing will fill this depression and be held there by centrifugal force. This oil
reservoir will form a liquid seal with the rim of the rotating baffle ring. Any tendency
for the oil to leak across this seal will be counteracted by air leakage across a backup seal.
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Gearboxes provide the power for aircraft hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical
systems in addition to providing various pumps and control systems for efficient
engine operation. The high level of dependence upon these units requires an
extremely reliable drive system.
The drive for the gearbox is typically taken from a rotating engine shaft usually the
HP shaft, via an internal gearbox, to an external gearbox that provides a mount for
the accessories and distributes the appropriate geared drive to each accessory. A
starter may also be fitted to provide an input torque to the engine. An accessory
drive system on a high by-pass engine takes between 400 and 500 horsepower
from the engine.
8.3.2 INTERNAL GEARBOX
The location of the internal gearbox within the core of an engine is dictated by the
difficulties of bringing a driveshaft radially outwards and the space available within
the engine core.
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Thermal fatigue and a reduction in engine performance, due to the radial driveshaft
disturbing the gasfiow, create greater problems within the turbine area than the
compressor area.
For any given engine, which incorporates an axial-flow
compressor, the turbine area is smaller than that containing the compressor and
therefore makes it physically easier to mount the gearbox within the compressor
section. Centrifugal compressor engines can have limited available space, so the
internal gearbox may be located within a static nose cone or, in the case of a turbopropeller engine, behind the propeller reduction gear as shown in fig.8.8.
On multi-shaft engines, the choice of which
compressor shaft is used to drive the
internal gearbox is primarily dependent
upon the ease of engine starting. This is
achieved by rotating the compressor shaft,
usually via an input torque from the external
gearbox. In practice the high pressure
system is invariably rotated in order to
generate an airflow through the engine and
the high pressure compressor shaft is
therefore coupled to the internal gearbox.
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To spread the load of driving accessory units, some engines take a second drive
from the slower rotating low pressure shaft to a second external gearbox (fig.8.8.).
This also has the advantage of locating the accessory units in two groups, thus
overcoming the possibility of limited external space on the engine. When this
method is used, an attempt is made to group the accessory units specific to the
engine onto the high pressure system, since that is the first shaft to rotate, and the
aircraft accessory units are driven by the low pressure system. A typical internal
gearbox showing how both drives are taken is shown in fig.8.10. This method may
also be used to drive speed sensors and governors for the low pressure shaft.
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The purpose of a radial driveshaft is to transmit the drive from the internal gearbox
to an accessory unit or the external gearbox. It also serves to transmit the high
torque from the starter to rotate the high pressure system for engine starting
purposes. The driveshaft may be direct drive or via an intermediate gearbox.
To minimise the effect of the driveshaft passing through the compressor duct and
disrupting the airflow, it is housed within the compressor support structure. On bypass engines, the driveshaft is either housed in the outlet guide vanes or in a hollow
streamlined radial fairing across the low pressure compressor duct.
To reduce airflow disruption it is desirable to have the smallest driveshaft diameter
as possible. The smaller the diameter, the faster the shaft must rotate to provide
the same power. However, this raises the internal stress and gives greater dynamic
problems, which result in vibration. A long radial driveshaft usually requires a roller
bearing situated halfway along its length to give smooth running. This allows a
rotational speed of approximately 25,000 r.p.m. to be achieved with a shaft diameter
of less than 1.5 inch without encountering serious vibration problems.
8.3.4 DIRECT DRIVE
In some early engines, a radial driveshaft was used to drive each, or in some
instances a pair, of accessory units. Although this allowed each accessory unit to
be located in any desirable location around the engine and decreased the power
transmitted through individual gears, it necessitated a large internal gearbox.
Additionally, numerous radial driveshafts had to be incorporated within the design.
This led to an excessive amount of time required for disassembly and assembly of
the engine for maintenance purposes.
In some instances the direct drive method may be used in conjunction with the
external gearbox system when it is impractical to take a drive from a particular area
of the engine to the external gearbox. For example, figure8.8. shows a turbopropeller engine which requires accessories specific to the propeller reduction drive,
but has the external gearbox located away from this area to receive the drive from
the compressor shaft.
8.3.5 GEAR TRAIN DRIVE
When space permits, the drive may be taken to the external gearbox via a gear train
(fig.8.8). This involves the use of spur gears, sometimes incorporating a centrifugal
breather. However, it is rare to find this type of drive system in current use.
8.3.6 INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX
Intermediate gearboxes are employed when it is not possible to directly align the
radial driveshaft with the external gearbox. To overcome this problem an
intermediate gearbox is mounted on the high pressure compressor case and redirects the drive, through bevel gears, to the external gearbox. An example of this
layout is shown in fig.8.8.
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The external gearbox contains the drives for the accessories, the drive from the
starter and provides a mounting face for each accessory unit. Provision is also
made for hand turning the engine, via the gearbox, for maintenance purposes.
Fig.8.11. shows the accessory units that are typically found on an external gearbox.
An External Gearbox.
Figure 8.11.
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b)
c)
d)
e)
Non-corrosive.
f)
g)
h)
i)
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Fractioning Tower.
Figure 9.1.
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The use of these side-strippers enables kerosene and gas oil to be obtained direct
from the plant. Lubricating oil distillate, if such is present, can usually be drawn
direct from a tray without the use of a side-stripper, while gasoline leaves the top of
the column as a vapour and must be cooled to condense it to liquid gasoline.
9.3 PROPERTIES
9.3.1 EASE OF FLOW
The ease of flow of a fuel is mainly a question of viscosity, but impurities such as
ice, dust, wax, etc., may cause blockages in filters and in the fuel system generally.
Most liquid petroleum fuels dissolve small quantities of water and if the temperature
of the fuel is reduced enough, water or ice crystals are deposited from the fuel.
Adequate filtration is therefore necessary in the fuel system. The filters may have to
be heated, or a fuel de-icing system fitted, to prevent ice crystals blocking the filters.
Solids may also be deposited from the fuel itself due to the solidification of waxes or
other high molecular weight hydrocarbons. Distillates heavier than kerosene, such
as gas oil, generally have a pour point temperature too high for use in aircraft
operating in low temperatures. If these fuels were to be used, some form of heating
in the aircrafts tanks and fuel system would be necessary. Such heating would
obviously be an unreasonable complication.
9.3.2 EASE OF STARTING
The speed and ease of starting of gas turbines depends on the ease of ignition of
an atomised spray of fuel. This ease of ignition depends on the quality of the fuel in
two ways:
a)
b)
The degree of atomisation, which depends on the viscosity of the fuel as well
as the design of the atomiser.
The viscosity of fuel is important because of its effect on the pattern of the liquid
spray from the burner orifice and because it has an important effect on the starting
process. Since the engine should be capable of starting readily under all conditions
of service, the atomised spray of fuel must be readily ignitable at low temperatures.
Ease of starting also depends on volatility, but in practice the viscosity is found to be
the more critical requirement. In general, the lower the viscosity and the higher the
volatility, the easier it is to achieve efficient atomisation.
9.3.3 COMPLETE COMBUSTION
The exact proportion of air to fuel required for complete combustion is called the
theoretical mixture and is expressed by weight. There are only small differences in
ignition limits for hydrocarbons, the rich limit in fuels of the kerosene range being
5:1 air/fuel ratio by weight and the weak limit about 25:1 by weight.
Flammable air/fuel ratios each have a characteristic rate of travel for the flame
which depends on the temperature, pressure and the shape of the combustion
chamber. Flame speeds of hydrocarbon fuels are very low and range from 0.3
0.6 m/sec. These low values necessitate the provision of a region of low air velocity
within the flame tube, in which a stable flame and continuous burning are ensured.
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Flame temperature does not appear to be directly influenced by the type of fuel,
except in a secondary manner as a result of carbon formation, or of poor
atomisation resulting from a localised over-rich mixture. The maximum flame
temperature for hydrocarbon fuels is roughly 2,000C. This temperature occurs at a
mixture strength slightly richer than the theoretical, owing to dissociation of the
molecular products of combustion, which occurs at the theoretical mixture.
Dissociation occurs above about 1,400C and reduces the energy available for
temperature rise.
The problem of the flame becoming extinguished in flight is not perfectly
understood, but it appears that the type of fuel is of relatively minor importance.
However, wide cut gasolines are more resistant to extinction than kerosene and
engines are easier to relight using wide cut fuel. This is due to the higher vapour
pressure of these fuels.
9.3.4 CALORIFIC VALUE
The tendency of a turbine fuel to corrode the aircrafts fuel system depends on two
factors:a)
Water.
b)
The water which causes corrosion is dissolved water. It leads to corrosion of the
fuel system, which is particularly important with regard to the sticking of sliding
parts, especially those with small clearances and only small or occasional
movement.
Corrosion can also be caused by secondary effects, such as biological corrosion
caused by plant spores, which are not killed off by the cracking process. Kerosene
and diesel suffer from this form of contamination.
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b)
Damage to turbine blades caused by lumps of carbon breaking off and striking
them.
c)
There are three main sources of fire hazard; these arise from:a)
Fuel spillage with subsequent ignition of the vapour from a spark, etc.
b)
c)
The first hazard depends on the volatility of the fuel. The lower the flash point, the
greater the chance of fire through this cause. It is more difficult to ignite kerosene
than to ignite gasoline or wide cut fuel in this way.
The second hazard depends on the spontaneous ignition temperature of the fuel. In
this respect, gasoline has a slightly higher spontaneous ignition temperature than
kerosene, but if a fire does occur, the rate of spread is much slower in kerosene
owing to its lower volatility.
The third hazard depends upon the temperature and pressure in the tank and the
volatility of the fuel. For any fuel there are definite temperature limits within which a
flammable fuel vapour/air mixture will exist. If the temperature falls below the lower
limit, the mixture will be too weak to burn, while if the temperature rises above the
upper limit, the mixture is too rich to burn. At ground level the comparative
temperature limits of flammability for gasoline and kerosene is as follows:
a)
b)
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At high rates of climb, fuel boiling and evaporation is a problem which is not easily
overcome. A low rate of climb permits the fuel in the tanks to cool and thus reduce
its vapour pressure as the atmospheric pressure falls off. However, the rate of
climb of many aircraft is so high that the fuel retains its ground temperatures, so that
on reaching a certain altitude the fuel begins to boil. In practice this boiling has
proved to be so violent that the loss is not confined to vapour alone. Layers of
bubbles form and are swept through the tank vents with the vapour stream. This
loss is analogous to a saucepan boiling over and is sometimes referred to as
slugging.
The amount of fuel lost from evaporation depends on several factors:
a)
b)
c)
Rate of climb.
d)
Fuel losses as high as 20% of the tank contents have been recorded through boiling
and evaporation.
9.3.10 METHODS OF REDUCING OR ELIMINATING FUEL LOSSES
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Fluid film lubrication is the most common form of lubrication. It occurs when the
rubbing surfaces are copiously supplied with oil and there is a relatively thick layer
of oil between the surfaces (may be up to 100,000 oil molecules thick). The oil has
the effect of keeping the two surfaces apart. Under these conditions the coefficient
of friction is very small and may be as low as 0.001.
The lubrication of a simple bearing (such as supports a rotating shaft) is a good
example of fluid film lubrication (see figure 9.2.). The rotating shaft carries oil
around with it by adhesion and successive layers of oil are carried along by fluid
friction. As the shaft rotates it moves off-centre resulting in a narrow wedge of oil
within which the pressure increases as the wedge narrows. For efficient lubrication
this wedge, and the resulting increase of pressure, is essential as this keeps the
surfaces apart. If this steady pressure increase breaks down, efficient film
lubrication ceases and boundary lubrication occurs.
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In film lubrication, viscosity is the important factor because it controls the ability of
the oil to keep the surfaces apart. A shaft revolving at high speed in a bearing must
be free to carry oil round with it, with as little drag as possible. The rapid movement
of one layer of oil slipping over another, with minimum drag, can only be achieved
with a low viscosity oil. As the rotational speed decreases, the rate of deformation
of the oil decreases, therefore the drag decreases and consequently an oil of higher
viscosity may be needed if it is to be successfully carried round the bearing.
The running temperature of the bearing is equally as important as the speed of
rotation, as it controls the viscosity of the oil to be used. Bearing temperatures may
vary, hence the need for oils with high VIs.
9.4.3 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
If a shaft carries an appreciable load and rotates very slowly it will not carry round
sufficient oil to give a continuous film and boundary lubrication will occur in which
the friction is many times greater than in fluid film lubrication.
Boundary lubrication is said to exist when the oil film is exceedingly thin and may
only consist of a very few layers of molecules. It occurs due to high bearing loads,
inadequate viscosity (possibly due to excessive bearing temperatures), oil
starvation or loss of oil pressure. The friction is independent of the viscosity of the
oil, but depends on the load and the oiliness of the lubricant. When a lubricating
oil reduces the friction in a bearing to a lower value than that given by another
lubricant of the same viscosity at the same bearing temperature, it is said to have a
greater oiliness. It is thought that the reduction in friction is achieved by the fatty
acids in the oil combining chemically with the bearing metal to form a soap which
gives a boundary layer between the thin oil film and the bearing material to protect
the metals from welding together.
Boundary lubrication is not a desirable phase of lubrication as rupture of the thin film
means wear, a very high surface temperature and possible seizure; therefore
lubrication is designed to be hydro-dynamic if possible. However, boundary
lubrication often occurs during starting conditions and may occur in piston engines
at the end of reciprocating strokes. There is no precise division between boundary
and fluid film lubrication although each is quite distinct in the way in which
lubrication is achieved. In practice both forms occur at some time giving mixed film
lubrication.
9.5 LUBRICATING OILS
General
Viscosity and VI are the factors which decide the lubricant for a particular purpose.
The desirable viscosity for a given purpose is decided by bearing loads and
clearances, sliding speeds, oil pump capacity, operating temperatures, etc.
Therefore, in a lubricating oil specification, the desired viscosity is specified,
together with VI and other safeguards to prevent the use of oil, which would
deteriorate excessively or corrode the engine. Special engine tests are also carried
out in test engines for each main batch of lubricating oil.
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j.
Detergents, which are used in piston engine oils to keep the engine clean.
Pour Point Depressants, that permit oils to flow at lower temperatures than they
were previously able.
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With the progressive development of the gas turbine engine to provide a higher
thrust and compression ratio, mineral oils were found to lack stability and to suffer
from excessive volatility and thermal degradation at the higher temperatures to
which they were subjected. At this stage, a revolutionary rather than evolutionary
oil development took place concurrently with engine development; lubricating oils
derived by synthesis from naturally occurring organic products found an application
in gas turbine engines. The first generation of synthetic oils were based on the
esters of sebacic acid, principally dioctyl sebacate. As a class these materials
exhibited outstanding properties which made them very suitable as the basis for gas
turbine lubricants.
Unlike straight mineral oils, the synthetic oils relied on additives (and in later
formulations on multi-component additive packages) to raise their performance.
This was particularly necessary to improve resistance to oxidation and thermal
degradation (important properties which govern long term engine cleanliness).
9.6.2 SECOND GENERATION SYNTHETIC OILS
The introduction of the by-pass or turbo-fan engine raised further problems; in this
engine the by-pass air acts as an insulating blanket and increases heat rejection to
the lubricant. Therefore the requirement arose for an oil with an even greater
resistance to thermal and oxidative stress. Several synthetic oils which meet this
requirement have been developed. Known as Type 2 lubricants, they are blended
from more complex esters and an additive package consisting of anti-oxidants,
load-carrying additives, corrosion inhibitors, metal deactivators and foam inhibitors.
9.6.3 THIRD GENERATION SYNTHETIC OILS
Sustained flight at speeds in excess of Mach 1 aggravates the lubricant problem still
further as the kinetic heating of the fuel reduces the effectiveness of fuel-cooled oil
coolers. At Mach 2, oil temperatures may reach 260 - 316C, at which level
standard ester-based oils degrade rapidly. In some military aircraft, Type 1 and
Type 2 ester oils are still used under these conditions, but at greatly increased oil
change frequencies. This procedure is expensive to operate as ideally the oil
should remain in the engine for full engine life, with only periodic replenishment.
More complex chemicals have been discovered which are more thermally stable
than esters. However, they have various deficiencies such as poor low temperature
properties or poor steel-on-steel lubricity. All are more expensive than esters.
High temperature lubricants blended from specially developed ester oils, with new
additives to limit oxidation degradation and corrosiveness and of increased load
carrying ability, appear to offer the most practical solution for lubricating the jet
engines in commercial supersonic transport (SST) aircraft. Many firms have been
active in developing lubricants of this type and, after many submissions, two
lubricants have been adopted for the Olympus 593 engines which power the BACAerospatiale Concorde.
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There is much less risk of fire with oil, however it will burn if the conditions are right.
The main risk with oil is to the body; prolonged contact with oil can cause dermatitis
and/or cancer. The use of barrier cream and gloves cannot be overstated. Washing
of hands before going to the toilet or eating is important, as is the reapplication of
protection afterwards.
Oil spills should be cleaned up as soon as possible and waste disposed of in
accordance with company procedures.
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10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
There is always friction when two surfaces are in contact and moving, for even
apparently smooth surfaces have small undulations, minute projections and
depressions and actually touch at only a comparatively few points. Motion makes
the small projections catch on each other and, even at low speeds when the surface
as a whole is cool, intense local heat may develop leading to localised welding and
subsequent damage as the two surfaces are torn apart. At higher speeds and over
longer periods, intense heat may develop and cause expansion and subsequent
deformation of the entire surface; in extreme cases large areas may be melted by
the heat, causing the metal surfaces to weld together.
The gas turbine engine is designed to function over a wider environment and under
different operating conditions from its piston engine equivalent and therefore special
lubricants have been developed to cope with the following main problems:
a. High rpm compared with piston engines.
b. Cold starting in winter can mean initial bearing temperatures of -54C which
rapidly increases after starting to 232C. Therefore a good viscosity index and
adequate cooling are required.
On the other hand, the following advantages can be claimed for the gas turbine:
a. There are fewer bearings and gear trains.
b. Oil does not lubricate any parts directly heated by combustion and therefore oil
consumption is low.
c. There are no reciprocating loads.
d. Bearings are generally of the rolling contact type and therefore only low oil
pressures are needed (40 psi is normal).
Turbo-prop engine lubrication requirements are more severe than those of a turbojet engine because of the heavily loaded reduction gears and the need for a highpressure oil supply to operate the propeller pitch control mechanisms. (For
example, a twin relief valve in the Dart provides 35 psi for engine lubrication and 70
psi, which is fed to the propeller controller and boosted by a further pump to a
pressure of 600 psi).
10.2 BEARINGS
The early gas turbines employed pressure lubricated plain bearings but it was soon
realised that friction losses were too high and that the provision of adequate
lubrication of these bearings over the wide range of temperatures and loads
encountered was more difficult than for piston engine bearings.
As a result, plain bearings were abandoned in favour of the rolling contact type as
the latter offered the following advantages:
a
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The cooling problem is eased because less heat is generated at high rpm.
The bearings are relatively lightly loaded because of the absence of power
impulses.
Oil of low viscosity may be used to maintain flow under a wide range of
conditions and no oil dilution or pre-heating is necessary.
The main bearings are those which support the turbine and compressor assemblies.
In the simplest case (a single spool engine), these usually consist of a roller bearing
at the front of the compressor and another in front of the turbine assembly, with a
ball bearing behind the compressor to take the axial thrust on the main shaft.
Squeeze film main bearings have been introduced to reduce transfer of rotor
vibration to the aircraft. In this type of bearing pressure oil is fed to a small annular
space between the bearing outer track and the housing. Figure 10.1. shows that the
bearing will therefore float in pressure oil, which will damp out much of the
vibration. Squeeze film bearings are fitted to the Spey and all subsequent aero
engines produced by Rolls-Royce (1971) Ltd. They have also been fitted
retrospectively to existing engines. In addition to the main bearings, lubrication will
also be required for the wheelcase, tacho-generator, CSDU, alternator, starter and
fuel pump drives.
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Single Spool
Turbojet
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Recirculatory. In this system, oil is distributed and returned to the oil tank by
pumps. There are two types of recirculatory system:(i) Pressure relief valve system.
(ii) Full flow system.
b)
In the pressure relief valve type of recirculatory lubrication system the flow of oil to
the various bearings is controlled by a relief valve which limits the maximum
pressure in the feed line. As the oil pump is directly driven by the engine (by the HP
spool in the case of a multi-spool engine), the pressure will rise with spool speed.
Above a pre-determined speed the feed oil pressure opens the system relief valve
allowing excess oil to spill back to the tank, thus ensuring a constant oil pressure at
the higher engine speeds.
A typical relief valve type of recirculatory lubrication is shown in the figure 10.3.
The oil system for a typical turbo-prop engine is similar but, as it supplies the
propeller control system, it is more complicated. The oil supply is usually contained
in a combined tank and sump formed as part of the external wheelcase. Oil passes
via the suction filter to the pressure pump, which pumps it through the air-cooled oil
cooler to the pressure filter. A pressure regulating valve upstream of the filter
controls the oil pressure. Both oil pressure and temperature indications are
transmitted to the cockpit. The oil flows through pipes and passages to lubricate the
main shaft bearings and wheelcases. The main shaft bearings are normally
lubricated by oil jets and some of the heavier loaded gears in the wheelcases are
also provided with oil jets, while the remaining gears and bearings receive splash
lubrication.
An additional relief valve is fitted across the pump in the lubrication system of some
engines to return oil to pump inlet if the system becomes blocked.
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The full flow lubrication system is an alternative to the pressure relief valve oil
system and full flow systems are in use as a means of lubricating many modern
high power gas turbine engines.
The full flow system is similar in many ways to the pressure relief system just
discussed i.e. oil is drawn from a tank by a pump and delivered, via a pressure
filter, to various parts of the engine; the oil is then returned by scavenge pumps, via
the oil cooler to the tank; also, air is separated from the oil by a de-aerator and
centrifugal breather.
The major differences from the pressure relief type of recirculatory system are as
follows:
The flow of oil to the bearings is determined by the speed of the pressure pump,
the size of the oil jets and the pressure in each of the bearing housings.
A metered spill of feed oils is fed back to the tank. This spill is calibrated to
match the pump output to ensure that the oil flow to the bearings, via the oil jets,
is the same at all engine speeds.
The relief valve in this system is set to prevent excessive oil pressure in the feed
side of the system.
A filter by-pass is not normally fitted. The pressure drop across the filter is
sensed by a differential pressure switch, any increase in the pressure difference
being indicated to give advance warning of a blocked filter.
The advantages of full flow lubrication are those of suitable oil flow and oil pressure
at all engine speeds. A study of the graph will reveal a difference in oil pressure
between the pressure relief system and the full flow system and, it will also show
that the pressure difference continues throughout the speed range of the engines,
with a crossover point at cruising speed. The relief valve system provides too much
oil pressure at idle rev/min, but because of the relief valve, the oil pressure is below
optimum at maximum engine speed. In contrast the pressure provided by the oil
pump of a full flow system rises progressively with increased engine speed and is
nearer to the optimum value throughout the rev/min range of the engine.
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The oil tank is usually mounted on the engine; it may be a separate unit or part of
an external gearbox called the sump. It has provision to allow the system to be
filled and drained and a sightglass or dipstick to allow the oil contents to be
checked. Usually, the oil level sightglass on the side of the tank is graduated in
half-pint or in litre increments, between LOW and FULL marks. The tank is
replenished either by pressure or by gravity feed. The pressure filler connection
contains a non-return valve and a bayonet adapter to which the oil replenishment
trolley pipe is connected.
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The oil pumps fitted in a recirculatory system are normally gear-type or Gerotor type
pumps. The pumps are usually mounted in a pack containing one pressure pump
and several scavenge pumps. They are driven by a common shaft through the
engine gear train.
Gear type pumps (Fig.10.10. ) require suitable machining of the gear teeth, or the
provision of a milled slot in the casting (adjacent to the delivery side of each pump),
to prevent pressure locking of the gears.
Gerotor type pumps (Fig.10.11.) use an inner and outer rotor, where the inner rotor
is driven by the engine, and the outer rotor which has an extra gear tooth rotates
with it. The inner rotor is eccentric to the outer and it is the stepping of the teeth that
pumps the oil. The pump also requires kidney shaped slots as inlet and outlet ports.
The scavenge pumps have a greater capacity than the pressure pump to ensure
complete scavenging of the bearings in a dry sump system. Furthermore, air tends
to leak into the bearing housings from the air pressurised seals and this aeration of
the oil means that the scavenge pumps have to pump an increased oil/air volume.
As we saw in the previous paragraph the air is subsequently removed by the deaerator.
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All engines transfer heat to the oil by friction, churning and windage within a bearing
chamber or gearbox. It is therefore common practice to fit an oil cooler in
recirculatory oil systems. The cooling medium may be fuel or air and, in some
instances, both fuel-cooled and air-cooled coolers are used.
Some engines which utilise both types of cooler may incorporate an electronic
monitoring system which switches in the air-cooled oil cooler (ACOC) only when it is
necessary. This maintains the ideal oil temperature and improves the overall
thermal efficiency.
The fuel-cooled oil cooler (FCOC) has a matrix which is divided into sections by
baffle plates. A large number of tubes convey the fuel through the matrix, the oil
being directed by the baffle plates in a series of passes across the tubes. Heat is
transferred from the oil to the fuel, thus lowering the oil temperature.
The fuel-cooled oil cooler incorporates a bypass valve fitted across the oil inlet and
outlet. The valve operates at a pre-set pressure difference across the cooler and
thus prevents engine oil starvation in the event of a blockage. A pressure
maintaining valve is usually located in the feed line of the cooler which ensures that
the oil pressure is always higher than the fuel pressure. In the event of a cooler
internal fault developing, the oil will leak into the fuel system rather than the
potentially dangerous leakage of fuel into the oil system.
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The air-cooled oil cooler is similar to the fuel-cooled type both in construction and in
operation except, of course, that air replaces the fuel as the cooling agent. On
some engines, the airflow through the matrix is controlled by a flap valve, which is
automatically operated when the temperature of the return oil rises to a predetermined value. A turbo-propeller engine may be fitted with an oil cooler that
utilises the external airflow as a cooling medium. This type of cooler incurs a large
drag factor and, as kinetic heating of the air occurs at high forward speeds, it is
unsuitable for turbo-jet engines.
10.4.4 PRESSURE FILTER
The pressure oil filter housing contains a wire-wound or mesh, Paper or felt
elements and incorporates a by-pass valve. The filter housing can be drained
independently of the main oil system. This is done through a drain valve in the
housing base. When drained, the filter can be removed for examination, servicing,
or replacement, as necessary, without disturbing the rest of the system. Typical
pressure filters are illustrated in figure 10.13.
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Filters are usually fitted with an impending by-pass indicator. This is usually a red
pop out indicator which will pop out and stay out it the differential pressure across
the filter element exceeds a predetermined value. This value will be less than the
by-pass valve value, to allow the filter to be replaced before the filter goes into bypass. The pop out usually has a thermal lock on it, which prevents the pop out
extending when the oil is cold and thick.
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Some of the gears in the gearboxes and also the main bearing of the engine are
lubricated through oil jets. These jets are usually protected by thread-type oil filters.
These are often referred to as last chance filters. You may also find small mesh
filters doing this job.
When the oil has been distributed to all parts of the engine and has done its job, it is
returned to the oil tank by either gravity or pressure from the scavenge pumps.
Each pump returns the oil from a particular part of the engine and is protected by a
coarse filter (or strainer) in the return line. This arrangement protects the pump
gears. It also gives an indication of impending component failure if the strainers are
examined for metal particles during periodical inspection.
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Magnetic detectors may be fitted into the oil system at various points to collect and
hold ferrous debris. They are normally fitted in gearboxes and in the scavenge
pump return lines to the tank. The collection of ferrous particles on the chip
detector provides a warning of impending (or incipient) failure of a component.
Some detectors are designed so that they can be removed for periodical
examination without having to drain the oil system; others may be checked
externally by connecting a suitable test circuit to the plug; finally, some are
connected to a cockpit warning system to give an in-flight indication of failure. The
chip detector (see figure10.15.) fits into a self-sealing housing and has a bayonettype fitting for easy removal.
We have already noted that air from the bearing sealing system mixes with the oil
and causes frothing. If the air is allowed to remain in the oil it may cause a
lubrication failure. To prevent this, a de-aerating device may be installed; this
removes air from the oil before the oil is re-circulated round the engine by the
pressure pump; the air can be vented to atmosphere via the centrifugal breather.
De-aerators are usually tray types fitted in the oil tank or centrifugal type as a
separate item.
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When the oil/air mixture returns to the tank the air is separated by the de-aerator
tray and passes through to the gearbox via a vent line. It carries some of the oil with
it in the form of a fine mist. The oil/air mist in the gearbox can then pass to the
centrifugal breather (see figure 10.17). As the vanes of the centrifugal breather
rotate, the oil in the mixture is caught in the vanes and thrown back into the
gearbox; the air being vented to atmosphere.
Centrifugal Breather.
Figure 10.17.
10.4.10
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It is more usual to find a pressure relief valve that varies the pressure with engine
speed or breather pressure. These valves are usually adjustable but usually only
effect the max speed oil pressure see Figure 10.19.
BY-PASS VALVE
This is similar in construction to the normal pressure relief valve just discussed. It is
connected in the system in such a way that, should the oil cooler or the pressure
filter become blocked (so that the oil flow is restricted), the appropriate by-pass
valve will operate to re-route the oil. Although the cooling or the filtering has now
been by-passed, oil starvation of the oil bearings is prevented. Popout indicators
are used to warn of an impending by-pass.
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The oil cooler will usually have a thermal by-pass valve which will by-pass the
cooler when the oil is cold, thus ensuring that the oil gets up to running temperature
quickly.
10.5 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
Indications and warnings vary from aircraft to aircraft, in both the warnings given
and the priority that they are given.
10.5.1 LOW PRESSURE WARNING LAMP
If the oil pressure drops below the safe operating value for the particular system, a
pressure-sensing switch will initiate a visual warning; the warning usually consists of
a red or amber lamp switching on in the cockpit accompanied by an audio warning.
The sensing switch may be a differential pressure switch which senses the pressure
difference between the feed oil pressure and the return oil pressure or a simple
pressure switch. When the pressure or difference falls below a pre-determined
level, the switch operates to activate the warning circuit. To reduce the cockpit noise
during taxiing, the audio warning may be inhibited, as engines are often shut down
before reaching the stand.
Although this system is simple, its warning factor may not be quick enough to
prevent serious damage to the engine. This is due to the fact that the warning
pressure must be below the normal oil pressure at idle RPM. This means that the
engine could be running for some time with a low oil pressure before the warning
occurs. To overcome this problem multiple pressure switches are used and
activated at differing engine RPMs. For instance, above 85% RPM the low oil
pressure warning will come ON at 50 psi, below 85% the warning will come on at
20psi.
This is a serious warning and the engine must be shut down as soon as possible.
10.5.2 OIL PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND QUANTITY INDICATION
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Filters are replaced when required by the maintenance schedule or if the pop out
indicator is out.
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Altitude. The density of the air gets progressively less as the altitude is
increased, therefore less fuel will be required in order to maintain the
selected RPM.
b)
Forward Speed. The faster the aircraft flies then the faster the air is forced
into the aircraft intake. A well designed aircraft intake will slow down this
airflow, converting its kinetic energy into pressure energy, so that it arrives at
the compressor inlet at an optimum velocity (0.5Mach) with an increase in
pressure and hence density. This is known as Ram Effect and plays an
important part in the performance of a turbo-jet. Within certain limits the
greater the ram effect, the greater the air mass flow and more fuel can be
burnt at the selected RPM, producing more thrust.
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a)
Fuel Tanks. Stores sufficient fuel for the aircrafts designed flight duration.
b)
Booster Pump. Ensures a constant supply of fuel at low pressure to the inlet
of the engine driven HP Fuel Pump.
c)
Low Pressure Cock. Isolates the engine fuel system from the aircraft fuel
system in the event of engine fire or for maintenance.
NOTE: These aircraft mounted components will be dealt with in greater detail during
the Aircraft Systems Phase.
11.3.2 THE ENGINE LP FUEL SYSTEM
LP Fuel Pump.
Form the LP Cock fuel passes to an engine driven LP Fuel Pump which serves two
purposes:
a. To boost pressure of the fuel to prevent cavitation of the HP pump.
b. To provide means of drawing fuel from the fuel tanks in the event of
failure of the fuel boost pump in the tank.
These are normally centrifugal type pumps which will boost pressure in the region of
5-10 psi.
Fuel/air heat exchanger.
To reduce the possibility of low temperatures forming ice, in the fuel heating is
applied . Fuel heating is achieved by passing the fuel through a form of radiator
which uses hot air (or hot oil) to control and maintain fuel temperature above
freezing.
LP Fuel Filter.
The filter element may be made of felt, paper or in some cases wire wound. Its
purpose is to prevent foreign particles from entering the engine fuel system. An
indication of the filter clogged may be provided on the flightdeck. Not withstanding
this a by-pass will be incorporated to ensure that the fuel supply , albeit possibly
contaminated is still available.
11.3.3 THE ENGINE HP FUEL SYSTEM
HP Pump.
Fuel from the LP Fuel filter passes to the HP pump depending on RPM and FCU in
the region of 600-800 psi. This HP fuel is then fed to the fuel control unit (FCU).
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Burners.
The type of burners employed will vary with design. Two basic types are in common
use, atomisers and vaporisers, and their common purpose is to supply fuel in a
readily combustible form over the whole operating range of the engine.
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS
The factors that determine the quantity of fuel that constitutes the correct amount
to be delivered to the combustion system at any one time are:a)
b)
c)
The rate at which the engine can accept the fuel into the combustion system
under conditions of engine acceleration.
The selection of the RPM must be under the control of the pilot and the system
must ensure that the maximum permissible RPM is not exceeded.
b)
b)
c)
Burners.
Because the fuel flow requirements of an engine running at a constant RPM will
vary with changing atmospheric conditions, the fuel pump must be capable of
delivering fuel at flow rates in excess of the maximum engine demand at any
particular RPM, eg. its output must be variable independently of its speed of
rotation.
The output of the engine driven fuel pump is dependent on engine RPM and
controlling signals from various fuel flow controlling devices.
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There are two basic types of fuel pump, the plunger-type pump and the constant
delivery gear-type pump; both of these are positive displacement pumps. Where
lower pressures are required at the burners (spray nozzles), the gear-type pump is
preferred because of its lightness.
11.7.2 PLUNGER-TYPE FUEL PUMP
The pump shown in the figure 11.2. is of the single-unit, variable-stroke, plunger
type; similar pumps may be used as double units depending upon the engine fuel
flow requirements.
The fuel pump is driven by the engine gear train and its output depends upon its
rotational speed and the stroke of the plungers. A single-unit fuel pump can deliver
fuel at the rate of 100 to 2,000 gallons per hour at a maximum pressure of about
2,000 lb/in2.
The fuel pump consists of a rotor assembly fitted with several plungers, the ends of
which project from their bores and bear on to a non-rotating camplate or
swashplate. Due to the inclination of the camplate, movement of the rotor imparts a
reciprocating motion to the plungers, thus producing a pumping action. The stroke
of the plungers is determined by the angle of inclination of the camplate. The
degree of inclination is varied by the movement of a servo piston that is
mechanically linked to the camplate and is biased by springs to give the full stroke
position of the plungers. The piston is subjected to servo pressure on the spring
side and on the other side to pump delivery pressure; thus, variations in the
pressure difference across the servo piston cause it to move with corresponding
variations of the camplate angle and, therefore, pump stroke.
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The gear-type fuel pump (see figure11.3.) is driven from the engine and its output is
directly proportional to its speed. The fuel flow to the spray nozzles is controlled by
re-circulating excess fuel delivery back to inlet. A spill valve, sensitive to the
pressure drop across the controlling units in the system, opens and closes as
necessary to increase or decrease the spill.
b)
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In the flow control system the fuel flow required to give a selected RPM is selected
by throttle area under the control of the pilot (manual control). Compensation for
air density variation is superimposed on this selection by the altitude sensing control
unit (pressure drop control unit) varying the pressure difference across the throttle
valve.
11.8.1.2
Control Principle
The controlling principle of a flow control system is that a constant throttle pressure
drop is maintained irrespective of throttle area (position) for a given height and
speed.
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If however, height and speed change, then the altitude sensing unit will vary the
pump output and fuel flow (thus throttle pressure drop) by changing the pump
output at constant throttle setting.
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In this arrangement, a half-ball on the end of a pivot arm is suspended above the
fixed outlet orifice (see figure). Up and down movement of the valve varies servo
fuel outflow and thus servo pressure and pump output.
11.9.1.2
A line containing pump output fuel is so placed as to discharge on to the face of the
servo outflow orifice and the kinetic energy so produced restricts servo fuel bleed.
A blade can be moved downwards to interrupt the high-pressure flow; this reduces
the impact onto the servo orifice, thus causing a greater outflow and a reduction in
servo pressure (see figure). The kinetic valve is less prone to dirt blockage than the
half-ball type, although it is more complex.
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Kinetic Valve
Figure 11.8.
System
The function of the barometric control is to alter fuel flow to the burners with
changes in intake total pressure (P1) and pilots throttle movement. Several
different types of hydro-mechanical barometric control are available. Three of the
most common types are described. For simplicity, the description and operation of
each type of flow control is related to the half-ball valve method of controlling servo
fuel pressure.
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Throttle Variations.
If the pilot opens the throttle, the throttle orifice area increases, throttle pressure
drop reduces and therefore PPUMP falls, PBURNER rises and the piston moves down,
allowing the spring to lower the half-ball valve against the capsule force, increasing
servo pressure and pump output. The increased fuel flow increases the throttle
pressure drop to its original value, returning the half-ball valve to its sensitive
position.
P1 Variations.
If the aircraft climbs, P1 will fall, causing the capsule to expand and raise the halfball valve against the spring force. Servo pressure will fall, swashplate angle will
reduce and fuel pump output will reduce. The reduced flow will cause a reduced
throttle pressure drop.
Thus Simple Flow Control keeps the throttle pressure drop constant, regardless of
throttle position. At very high altitude the system becomes insensitive and it is not
used on large turbo-jets. Nevertheless, it is fitted on the Adour and Dart and has
proved to be a reliable and fairly accurate control unit.
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The Proportional Flow Control Unit (see figure 11.10.) was designed for use on
large engines with a wide range of fuel flow. The problem of accurate control over
this wide range was overcome by operating the controlling elements on a proportion
of the main flow. The proportion varies over the flow range, so that at low flows a
high proportion is used for control and at high flows, a smaller proportion. Fuel
passes into the controlling (or secondary) line through a fixed secondary orifice and
flows out through another orifice to the LP side of the pump. Secondary flow is
controlled via the proportioning valve and sensing valve, which maintains an equal
pressure drop across the throttle valve and secondary orifice. Servo pressure is
controlled by a half-ball valve operated by P1 and by secondary pressure.
Throttle Variations.
If the throttle is opened, its pressure drop is reduced and the proportioning valve
closes until the pressures across the diaphragm are equalised. Thus secondary
flow and pressure are reduced, the piston drops, the half-ball valve closes and
pump stroke increases. The increased fuel flow increases secondary pressure until
the half-ball valve resumes its sensitive position, but the proportioning valve
remains more closed than previously, taking a small proportion of the increased
flow.
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P1 Variations.
Variations in P1 will cause the capsule to expand or contract, thus altering the
position of the half-ball valve and altering fuel flow. This tends to cause rapid
changes in secondary pressure with resultant instability; damping is provided by the
sensing valve, which adjusts to control the outflow to LP, thus damping secondary
pressure fluctuations. The valve is contoured to operate only over a small range of
pressure drops so that during throttle movements it acts as a fixed orifice.
11.9.4 ACCELERATION CONTROL UNITS
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Air Switch.
Air Switch
Figure
11.12.11.12.
Figure
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Described below are typical protection devices that will override any excessive
demands made on the engine by the pilot or by the control units.
11.10.1
POWER LIMITER.
Power Limiter.
Figure 11.14.
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OVERSPEED GOVERNOR.
The engine is protected against over-speeding by a governor, which, in hydromechanical systems, is usually fitted on the fuel pump and acts by bleeding off
pump servo fuel when the governed speed is reached. On two-spool engines, the
pump is driven from the HP shaft and the LP shaft is protected by either a
mechanical governor or an electro-mechanical device, again acting through the
hydro-mechanical control system. There are two types of pump-driven governors:
11.10.3.1 Centrifugal Governor.
The centrifugal type of governor uses the centrifugal pressure of fuel in radial
drillings in the fuel pump rotor to deflect a diaphragm at maximum speed. The
diaphragm operates on a half-ball valve to reduce pump servo pressure and thus
pump stroke. The disadvantage of this type is that it needs to be reset if fuel
specific gravity changes. It is seldom used on modern engines.
Centrifugal Governor
Figure 11.15.
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Centrifugal LP
Figure 11.16.
Governor
11.10.3.2
Hydro-mechanical Governor.
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HP Hydro-Mechanical Governor.
Figure 11.17.
11.11
11.11.1
BURNERS
ATOMISER BURNERS
This type of burner presents the fuel in a finely atomised spray by forcing the fuel to
pass through a small orifice. The size of the orifice is critical because it must
atomise the fuel effectively over a wide range of fuel flows, from idling to take off
RPM.
Some engines have such a wide range of fuel flow requirements that a single orifice
is unable to perform the task effectively unless extremely high fuel pressures are
used and to combat this a burner with two different sized orifices are used. During
low fuel flow requirements, only the small or primary orifice is supplied with fuel and
at higher flow rates both primary and secondary orifices are in operation.
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Both types of atomiser burners incorporate an air shroud, which directs some of the
primary air into the burner to assist atomisation and to cool the burner head to
prevent the formation of carbon.
The usual method of atomising the fuel is to pass it through a swirl chamber where
tangentially disposed holes or slots impart swirl to the fuel by converging its
pressure energy to kinetic energy. In this state, the fuel passes through the
discharge orifice where the swirl motion is removed as the fuel atomises to form a
cone-shaped spray. The shape of the spray is an important indication of the degree
of atomisation; thus, the rate of swirl and therefore the pressure of the fuel at the
burner are important factors in good atomisation.
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A Simplex Burner.
Figure 11.19.
The Simplex burner shown in the figure 11.19. was first used on early jet engines. It
consists of a chamber, which induces a swirl into the fuel and a fixed area atomising
orifice. This burner gave good atomisation at the higher fuel flows, that is at the
higher burner pressures, but was very unsatisfactory at the low pressures required
at low engine speeds and especially at high altitudes. The reason for this is that the
Simplex burner was by the nature of its design a square law burner, that is the
flow through the burner is proportional to the square of the pressure drop across it.
This meant that if the minimum pressure for effective atomisation was 30 lbf/in 2, the
pressure needed to give maximum flow would be about 3,000 lb/in 2.
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The spray nozzle (see figure11.21.) carried a proportion of the primary combustion
air with the injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the local fuel-rich concentrations
produced by other types of burner are avoided, thus giving a reduction in both
carbon formation and exhaust smoke. An additional advantage of the spray nozzle
is that the low pressures required for atomisation of the fuel permits the use of the
comparatively lighter gear-type pump.
A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 11.21.
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VAPORISING BURNERS
This type of burner presents the fuel in the combustion system in the form of a rich
fuel vapour or gas. This is achieved by delivering the metered flow of fuel to J
shaped vaporising tubes, which protrude into the combustion chamber. The fuel
passes down the vaporising tubes in a coarse spray and mixes with the primary air
that enters concentrically to the fuel supply pipe. The fuel and air is mixed
thoroughly by pins that protrude into the primary airflow and the heat of the flame
surrounding the tube causes the mixture to vaporise before it emerges in the
combustion chamber.
The introduction of the primary air into the vaporising tubes aids the process of
vaporisation and also helps to cool the tubes to prevent the formation of carbon.
With this type of burner, the flame points towards the incoming airflow and this
helps to stabilise the flame in the vaporising tubes, preventing it being blown away
by the secondary air, thus allowing a relatively short combustion system.
b)
c)
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The addition of fuel to compressor air and the resulting continuous combustion
gives a release of heat and an increase in volume, which is converted to an
increase in velocity. In the combustion chamber the heat release (combustion
efficiency) may be as high as 99%.
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More power and efficiency result from rich mixtures, but these are limited by
maximum turbine temperatures. Therefore fuel supplies must be limited so that an
overall air/fuel ratio of about 60:1 at maximum rpm is achieved. At other rpm the
ratio will change due to changing efficiencies of turbine and compressor. The
correct mixture strength is 15:1 hence only about a quarter of the air passing
through the engine is used for combustion. (15% - 25% is the typical range).
In the flame area the ratio is about 13:1 and around the flame centre a weaker ratio
of 18:1 is used to ensure complete combustion with no carbon formation.
The flame rate at an atomising burner is 2-10 ft/sec and at a vaporiser, 60 ft/sec.
Both figures are low compared with the air velocity through the combustion zone,
hence the requirement for a low velocity zone at the burner to (a) aid ignition and (b)
maintain the flame at the burner.
Theoretically, combustion in a gas turbine is at constant pressure, ie. the pressure
along the combustion chamber does not change due to combustion but could alter
due to changes in rpm and air intake pressure.
In practice the combustion chamber shape affects the pressure and they are
designed to minimise this and a drop of 4% along its length is usual.
Flame temperature is high; a constant 2,000C at the centre. Flame size, however,
can change and the bigger the flame becomes the higher goes Turbine Entry
Temperature and Jet Pipe Temperature (TET and JPT).
Over-fuelling gives a larger flame and Under-fuelling a smaller; the significance
of these will be seen in a later note.
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Advances in gas turbine technology have demanded more precise control of engine
parameters than can be provided by hydromechanical fuel controls alone. These
demands are met by electronic engine controls, or EEC, of which there are two
types: supervisory and full-authority.
11.12.1
The first type of EEC is a supervisory control that works with a proven
hydromechanical fuel control.
The major components in the supervisory control system include the electronic
control itself, the hydromechanical fuel control on the engine, and the bleed air and
variable stator vane control. The hydromechanical element controls the basic
operation of the engine including starting, acceleration, deceleration, and
shutdown. High-pressure rotor speed (N2), compressor stator vane angles, and
engine bleed system are also controlled hydromechanically. The EEC, acting in a
supervisory capacity, modulates the engine fuel flow to maintain the designated
thrust. The pilot simply moves the throttle lever to a desired thrust setting position
such as full takeoff thrust, or maximum climb. The EEC adjusts the fuel flow as
required to maintain the thrust compensating for changes in flight and
environmental conditions. The EEC control also limits engine operating speed and
temperature, ensuring safe operation throughout the flight envelope.
If a problem develops, control automatically reverts to the hydromechanical system,
with no discontinuity in thrust. A warning signal is displayed in the cockpit, but no
immediate action is required by the pilot. The pilot can also revert to the
hydromechanical control at any time.
Electronic Engine Control
A typical example of an EEC system is that used in many of the Pratt and Whitney
100 series engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system
works, both in automatic and manual modes follows.
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FUEL CONTROL
11.12.3
GENERAL
The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is
supplied by the HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the
nozzles.
In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine
Control (EEC). This enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge
or flame out whatever the displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is
also mechanically connected to the power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case
of failure of the EEC.
Hydro-mechanical Unit (HMU)
The HMU comprises:
A stepper motor controlled by the EEC.
A lever which controls fuel shutoff.
A lever which controls the fuel flow.
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Operation
The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves:
a bypass valve
a metering valve.
The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by
the bypass valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one
bypass return flow to the pump. The position of the bypass valve is a function of the
loss of fuel pressure caused by the metering valve. The metering valve is
pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block, the reference pressure is the
HP compressor outlet pressure, P3. A controlled reduction of the P3 pressure results
in a variable Py pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves the piston
of the metering valve.
The pneumatic servo block is managed:
in normal operation by the EEC
in manual operation, by the power input lever.
Normal Operation (EEC Mode)
According to the input data (pressures, temperatures, speeds) and to the
commanded power (power lever), the EEC controls a stepper motor located in the
HMU.
The stepper motor regulates Py pressure thus modulating the fuel flow as
requested. A governor acts on the P y pressure, thus setting an NH speed limit
function of the compression of a spring by a cam (EEC cam) connected to the
power lever.
Manual Operation (Manual Mode)
Py pressure is not regulated by the stepper motor but by the simultaneous
actions of the NH speed governor and the spring, compressed by a second cam
(manual cam) connected to the power lever.
Transfer from the EEC Mode to the Manual Mode.
In normal operation the EEC manages the fuel regulation. The manual
operation is automatically connected when the operation in the EEC mode is
switched off. A solenoid in the HMU selects the manual cam instead of the EEC
cam and cancels the regulation control through the stepper motor.
Operation of the HMU in the fail mode
In case of failure of the EEC, the position of the stepper motor is "frozen".
Whatever the increase of power through the power lever, the last N H speed
remains unchanged (the load applied by the spring on the N H speed governor
increases).For any power reduction through the power lever, the N H speed
decreases according to the curve of the EEC cam (decreasing spring load).
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The supervisory control was a step toward the full-authority, fully redundant EEC. It
controls all engine functions and eliminates the need for the backup
hydromechanical control used in the supervisory system. The modern full authority
EEC is a digital electronic device called a full-authority digital electronic control, or
FADEC.
One of the basic purposes of the FADEC is to reduce flight crew workload. This is
achieved by the FADEC's control logic, which simplifies power settings for all
engine operating conditions. The throttle position is used to achieve consistent
engine settings regardless of flight or environmental conditions.
The FADEC establishes engine power through direct closed-loop control of the
engine ratio thrust-rating parameter. The required thrust is calculated as a
function of throttle lever angle, altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature.
The air data computer supplies altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature
information, and sensors provide measurements of engine temperatures,
pressures, and speeds. This data is used to provide automatic thrust control,
engine limit protection, transient control, and engine starting.
FADEC uses a pre-programmed schedule to obtain the correct thrust for the
various throttle lever angles, and it provides the correct thrust for any chosen angle
during changing flight or environmental conditions.
To get the desired thrust, the pilot has only to set the throttle lever to a position
which aligns the thrust command from the control with the reference indicator from
the aircraft thrust management computer. The control system automatically
accelerates or decelerates the engine to the desired level without the pilot having
to continually monitor the thrust gauge. Once a power setting has been selected,
the FADEC maintains it until the throttle lever position is changed.
A constant throttle lever angle setting can be used for takeoff and climb. In
addition, since the pilot sets engine thrust , and the system controls the thrust by
using a given throttle lever angle, the same thrust rating will be obtained on each
engine at the same throttle position. This eliminates throttle stagger.
The FADEC has many advantages over both the hydromechanical and supervisory
EEC. Some of these are:
It fully modulates the active clearance control (ACC) system (if fitted)
It ensures more repeatable engine transients due to the higher precision of its
digital computer
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A typical FADEC system is that used in some of the Pratt and Whitney 4000 series
engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works follows.
Fuel Distribution and Control Components (Figure 11.27.)
Components controlling and distributing the fuel to the burners include:
FADEC/EEC
Fuel injectors
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Fuel Distribution
During operation, fuel flows from the aircraft fuel tank to the fuel-pump boost-stage
inlet. The pressurised fuel from the boost stage of the engine-driven fuel pump then
leaves the pump and is delivered to the fuel/oil cooler, whose purpose is to keep the
fuel sufficiently warm to prevent ice from forming in the fuel, and at the same time,
keep the maximum temperature of the oil within the correct limits. This engine is
also equipped with an air/oil heat exchanger, which uses fan air and 2.5 bleed air to
prevent the fuel from getting too hot.
From the fuel/oil cooler, the fuel is returned to the fuel pump, where it is filtered and
sent to the main pump stage to be further pressurised before it is sent to the fuelmetering unit, which actually does the metering on the basis of information it
receives from the FADEC. The fuel-metering unit sends fuel to the fuel-flow
transmitter, and then to the fuel distribution valve. (Servo fuel, used as an actuation
pressure to some interface components, also comes from the fuel-metering unit.)
Bypass fuel not sent to the fuel distribution valve or servo supply is returned to
pump interstage flow. From the fuel distribution valve, the metered fuel flows
through the fuel manifolds to the fuel injectors.
The FADEC is the primary interface between the engine and the aircraft. The
FADEC contains two channels that are called "A" channel and "B" channel. Each
time the engine starts, alternate channels will automatically be selected. The
channels are linked together by an internal mating connector for crosstalk data
transmission. Much more is accomplished by this control than simply sending a
signal to the fuel-metering unit to establish a fuel flow to the nozzles.
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Low-speed spool (N I). There is a backup N 1 speed output from channel "B."
Flap/slat position and weight-on-wheels status is also sent to the FADEC. The
flight-control computer (FCC) acts as a backup for the air-data computer (ADC).
FADEC Interface with Engine
All data input to the FADEC is validated through a series
of comparisons and checks .For example, compressor rotor speeds are compared
to each other and checked to ensure the proper range (0 -120 percent).
Inputs to the FADEC from the engine are as follows:
N2 rpm, Power comes from the FADEC alternator and is used for limiting,
scheduling systems, and setting engine speeds.
Compressor-exit temperature (Tt 3 ), which comes from the diffuser case, is used
to calculate starting fuel flow. Exhaust-gas temperature (Tt 4.95 ), which comes
from the exhaust case, is used for indication.
Fuel temperature (Tfuel), which comes from the fuel pump, is used to schedule
the fuel heat-management system.
Oil temperature (Toil), which comes from the main gearbox, is used to schedule
the fuel heat-management system and to schedule the integrated drive generator
(IDG) oil-cooling system.
Inlet total temperature (Tt 2), which comes from the inlet cowl on the wing
engines and the bellmouth on the tail engine. It is used to calculate fuel flow and
rotor speed.
Inlet total pressure (Pt 2), which comes from the same sources as Tt 2, is used to
calculate EPR.
Exhaust gas pressure (Pt4.95), which comes from the exhaust case, is also used
to calculate EPR.
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The engine electronic control (EEC) programming plug is used to determine the
engine thrust rating and EPR correction.
Burner pressure (Pb), which comes from the diffuser case, is used for limiting and
surge detection. Ambient pressure (Pamb), which comes from the inlet cowl, is
used to validate altitude and Pt2.
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Maximum climb
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While electronic controls are highly reliable, malfunctions can occur. A hierarchy of
fault-tolerance logic will take care of any single or multiple faults. The logic also
identifies the controlling channel, and if computational capability is lost in the primary
channel, the FADEC automatically switches to the secondary channel. If a sensor is
lost in the primary channel, the secondary channel will supply the information. If data
from the secondary channel is lost, the FADEC will produce usable synthesised
information from the parameters that are available. If there is not enough data
available for synthesising, the control modes switch. For example, if EPR is lost, the
engine will be run on its N1 ratings.
In the unlikely event both channels of electronic control are lost, the torque motors
are spring-loaded to their fail-safe positions. The fuel flow will go to minimum flow,
the stator vanes will move to fully open, the air-oil cooler will open wide, and the
ACC will shut off.
The FADEC includes extensive self-test routines which are continuously actuated.
BITE, or built-in test equipment, can detect and isolate faults within the EEC and its
input and output devices. The fault words of the control are decoded into English
messages by a maintenance monitor, and they identify the faulty line-replaceable
unit (LRU). In-flight fault data is recorded so it can be recalled during shop repair.
The FADEC is able to isolate problems and indicate whether the fault is within itself
or in a sensor or actuator. In the shop, computer-aided troubleshooting can identify
a fault at the circuit-board level.
EEC Programming Plug
The EEC programming plug located on the FADEC "A" channel housing, selects the
applicable schedules within the FADEC for the following:
Variable-stator-vane schedule
The EEC programming plug data is input to the FADEC "A" channel, while the "B"
channel EEC programming-plug input is crosswired and crosstalked from the "A"
channel. During test-cell operation, the EPR/thrust relationship is compared, and the
engine gets a correct EEC programming plug. If the FADEC must be replaced, the
EEC programming plug must remain with the engine.
If the engine is started without the EEC programming plug installed, the FADEC
goes to the N1 mode. But nothing will happen with the FADEC operation if the EEC
programming plug disconnects in flight.
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Alternator.
The alternator provides the FADEC with power and an N 2 speed signal. It also
sends N2 information to the flight deck.
FADEC Alternator
Figure 11.33.
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Speed Transducer. The speed transducer supplies the FADEC "A" and "B" channels
with the N1 signal by sensing the frequency at which the 60 teeth on the lowpressure compressor/low-pressure turbine (LPC/LPT) coupling pass by them.
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Pt2/Tt2 Probe. The inlet pressure/temperature probe supplies the FADEC with
engine-inlet pressure and temperature information. The pressure sensor is a total
pressure probe that sends its signal to both FADEC channels. The temperature
sensor is a dual-element resistance type. One element sends its signal to the "A"
channel, while the other sends its signal to the "B" channel. The probe is
continuously electrically heated.
Pt2/Tt2 Probe.
Figure 11.38.
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Combined Speed and Acceleration Control with Air Bleed Control. (ALF502.)
Figure 11.46.
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Figure 11.47.
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12 AIR SYSTEMS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the working cycle and airflow section we discussed the main airflow and working
cycle of a gas turbine engine and found that a major function of the airflow through
the engine was to act as a cooling medium and that only a small proportion of the
air was used to support combustion. In fact, because of the intense heat
developed, gas turbine engines only became practical power units when it was
discovered that the airflow could be used to insulate the structural materials and
thus provide acceptable working temperatures for the materials. Many parts of the
engine, made from light alloy or ferrous metals, have to be protected from the very
high temperatures. To achieve this, an efficient and effective cooling system is
needed and this is provided by ducting cooling air from the main gas stream.
In addition to its function of cooling, the airflow is also used to pressurise oil seals
and bearings to prevent oil leakage. We thus have the two functions of cooling and
sealing to consider. In general, independent airflows are taken from the engine
compressors to provide:
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Air is taken from the low-pressure compressor outlet and ducted through the engine
to become both a sealing and cooling airflow. This airflow:
Provides cooling for the low-pressure compressor shaft, the front half of the
high-pressure compressor shaft and the turbine shaft.
This airflow is taken from an intermediate stage of the high pressure compressor
and passes through transfer ports to cool the rear half of the high pressure
compressor shaft and also the rear face of the last disc of the compressor; it then
flows outwards through tubes to mix with the by-pass airstream.
12.2.3 HIGH PRESSURE AIR
This airflow is taken from the high-pressure compressor outlet and is ducted to all
faces of the turbine discs to maintain the temperature within the required limits. The
pressure of the cooling air is greater than that of the hot gases and since the air is
directed outwards across the faces of the turbine discs, it prevents the hot exhaust
gases flowing inwards across the discs. Overheating of the turbine discs is thus
prevented.
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We know that we require high pressure cooling air at the turbine discs (to reduce
the flow of hot exhaust gases across the discs) and low-pressure air at bearing
seals (to prevent leakage of oil without undue aeration of the oil). The air at these
different pressures must be prevented from mixing and thus, becoming equalised in
pressure. This is done by inserting differential pressure seals at appropriate points
in the system; these seals are of a multi-groove rotating type.
12.3 SEALING
Air at low pressure is used to seal the main shaft bearings and prevent oil from
leaking into the engine casing. For effective sealing, the air pressure must always
by greater than that of the oil. However, it must not be too much greater, otherwise
an excessive amount of air will enter the oil system. De-aeration by means of the
de-aerator and the centrifugal breather (see lubrication) may then become difficult.
Figure 12.2. shows that the mechanical seals used in air pressure oil sealings are
designed to reduce clearance to a minimum; air is fed into the seal at the end
remote from the oil feed.
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12.4 COOLING.
Figure 12.3. illustrates the turbine cooling airflow of a typical gas turbine engine.
The outward flow of cooling air is controlled by air seals of multi-groove construction
and the arrangement is such that the turbine discs obtain the maximum possible
cooling from the airflow. Interstage seals are incorporated and they are made in
such a way that the front sections provide less restriction to the passage of air than
the rear sections do. The result is that the rate at which the cooling air flows across
the seals is sufficient to prevent any inward flow of hot gases. The front face of
each disc receives a greater airflow than the rear.
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High pressure cooling air is also directed to the engines nozzle guide vanes and
turbine blades. These components, which are externally heated by the high
temperature gas stream, are cooled by ducting air through air passages formed
inside the items themselves. After completing its task, the air is exhausted into the
engine exhaust gas flow and thence to atmosphere.
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Compressor discharge air and HP compressor air provide cooling airflow to protect
the turbine casing against rapid temperature changes.
The stationary parts in the high-pressure turbine section expand and contract more
rapidly than the rotor due to pressure and temperature changes. The rotor also has
a radial expansion due to rotational speed.
The turbine casing incorporates temperature controlled casing flanges with cooling
air passages for the passive case clearance control system. The cooling air
controls the expansion and contraction of the case to match the rotor and thus
maintain desired clearances throughout all temperature ranges and operating
conditions.
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The system provides fan discharge air for cooling the core compartment and the
low-pressure turbine case. At low altitudes the core engine requires more cooling
and the LPT case requires less cooling to prevent rub. At high altitude the core
requires less and in the LPT core requires more to close clearances.
By means of a Y manifold and two shut-off valves, cooling air can be selectively
directed to the core compartment or to the LPT case. The valves are not positively
shut, but permit a required minimum flow at all altitudes and when activated added
flow is directed. The valves are controlled by an altitude sensor which activates the
core compartment valve below 19,000 feet +5000 feet and the LPT case valve
above 19,000 feet +5000 feet.
Increased cooling airflow causes the cases to cool and shrink.
closes blade tip to case clearances producing improved efficiency.
This shrinkage
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Operation
At take-off and low altitude the valve is in its normal closed position allowing cooling
airflow to the core compartment. When an altitude of 19,000 feet +5000 feet is
reached, the altitude sensor switches to supply compressor discharge pressure to
the signal port of the valve, causing the valve piston to move to the open position,
thus allowing cooling airflow to the low pressure turbine cooling manifold.
During descent, at approximately 15,000 feet +1500 feet, the altitude sensor
switches back and cuts off the compressor discharge signal pressure to the valve
and the positioning spring in the valve returns the piston to its normal closed
position. Operation can be monitored by the electrical position indicator switch and
a disagree flightdeck light.
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External Cooling.
Figure 12.11.
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HP Air Powering a Jet Eductor to Draw Air Through a Generator at Low Speed.
Figure 12.12.
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Engines vary as to the number of external air tappings and their usage. The
following notes are taken from the Pratt and Whitney JT9D but have been simplified
to provide a more generic coverage.
12.7.1.1
Fan Air
Utilised for the pre-cooling of air conditioning air, cooling the ignition system and on
some engines, the Passive and Active tip clearance control.
12.7.1.2
Utilised for pneumatic cabin bleeds at concise RPMs on the JT9D, this can also
supply air for nose cowl anti-icing on other engines. The nose cowl anti-icing may
have a separate manifold from another compressor stage.
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Pressure Relief
Should the high pressure stage bleed valve fail in the open position, a pressure
relief valve is provided to protect the pre-cooler from over-pressure damage. The
valve normally would include a pressure switch connected to a PRESS RELIEF
warning on the pneumatics display on the flight deck. The operating pressure
would be in the region of 100 psi. If the valve opens the vented air escapes through
a spring-loaded door on the cowl (blow out panel).
12.7.1.4
Temperature Control
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Intentionally Blank
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Air Supply.
The air supply is provided from the engine compressor which must be accelerated
from rest to self sustaining rpm by means of a starter motor. In flight the engine may
be Windmilled by the forward speed of the aircraft, this has to be within an
envelope of speed, where the engine rotation is fast enough for the engine to start
and not so fast that the flame will be blown out by the airflow.
13.1.2.2
Fuel Supply.
The fuel required for starting is supplied from the normal engine fuel system. It is
usually initiated by the pilot opening the HP cock at around 10% HP Compressor
speed.
If vaporiser type burners are used, the fuel is supplied in the initial stages of starting
via a starting solenoid valve and starting atomisers. Once the fuel has been ignited
and the vaporisers are heated, the solenoid valve closes to divert the fuel to the
vaporiser tubes, normal combustion takes place and fuel supply to the starting
atomisers ceases.
13.1.2.3
Ignition.
Ignition of the air fuel mixture is provided by high energy plugs fitted in the
combustion chambers. They are positioned close to the fuel spray and operate for
a timed period during the starting cycle. HE Ignition units supply the high energy
electrical supply to the ignitor plugs.
The same ignitor plugs are used to provide relight (restarting) in the air and also as
continuous ignition for operation when rain, snow or standing water is present and
may cause the engine to flame out.
The figure 13.1. illustrates a typical starting sequence applicable to most gas
turbines.
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This usually consists of a heavy duty, compound wound, DC motor, which draws its
electrical supply from an external source. The motor works in conjunction with a
starter control panel, the sequence of events during a start being precisely
controlled. To allow the starter motor to overcome the initial inertia of the rotating
assembly, the supply to the motor is via a series of resistors, this allows the motor
to build up to full speed gradually, reducing the chance of failure within the drive
system. The drive from the starter motor to the engine is through suitable reduction
gearing and some form of clutch is fitted to disengage the drive when the engine is
running.
The start master switch does not just switch the starting system ON. On some
aircraft will prepare the aircraft electrical system for the start operation i.e. starter
motors require a very high current for starting which is usually too much for a single
Transformer rectifier (TRU), so it will parallel the DC systems. To ensure that a start
is not carried out on a single TRU, it will place all the AC power systems onto one
generator, so if it fails the start is aborted. It will also ensure that the engine gauging
systems are all powered for the start in all conditions.
13.2.2 ELECTRIC STARTER/GENERATOR
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Sources of Air Supply. The air starter can be supplied with air from one or more of
the following sources:a. Ground air starting trolley.
b. Airborne auxiliary power unit (APU).
c. Air from another engine (multi-engined aircraft).
d. Air cylinders.
13.2.4.1
Operation.
Air is supplied to the starter via an electrically operated air valve. This is controlled
by the starter control unit and is activated by pressing the starter button in the
flightdeck. The air is fed to a manifold around the turbine and then directed onto the
turbine blades by nozzles or guide vanes. The turbine revolves at very high speed
and through reduction gearing and a one way clutch (sprag) mechanism, drives the
engine compressor rotor. After a timed period of operation, the control unit closes
the air valve. The starter is often mounted on the external gearbox.
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An Air Starter
Figure 13.5.
13.2.4.2
Sprag Clutch
Sprag clutches are used to provide the disconnect mechanism between the starter
motor and the engine. The clutch will transmit drive from the starter motor, but will
disconnect the drive when the engine speed exceeds the starter. The clutch
consists of two smooth concentric drive faces and between them a cage containing
many elongated figure of eight shaped cams called sprags. All the surfaces are
hardened to reduce wear, and are lubricated by oil. The sprag are spring loaded in
contact with the starter drive so that when the shaft starts to rotate the sprags stand
up and contact the engine drive due to the cam action of their shape. See Figure
13.6. As engine RPM accelerates its drive will be faster than the starter motor and
the clutch will automatically dis-engage as sprags get pushed back to their minimum
height position.
Sprag clutches are used on most types of starter motor or in drives where one way
drive is required such as helicopter gearboxes.
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Sprag Clutch.
Figure 13.6.
13.2.4.3
Speed Switch
The speed switch can give warning of an over-speed of the starter (engine driving
starter) and/or an auto shut-down.
As the starter speeds up towards an over-speed, the ball weights centrifuge out
forcing up the bell housing breaking the micro-switch to give an over-speed signal.
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The APU, the ground connectors, or the other engine, if it is already running.
Engine start.
Engine crank.
Continuous ignition.
13.3.1.1
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115 VAC is used to energise the exciter and is controlled through the HP fuel shut
off valve lever, the ignition selector and the ignition relay.
The ignition relay is energised by 28 Vdc when the master switch is in the ARM
position and the start button is pushed.
Starting is achieved in the following manner:Set the ignition selector to A or B.
Set the master switch to ARM.
This arms the ignition circuit and closes the air conditioning system if it is open. The
amber lights in the push-to-start buttons will illuminate during this transit.
When the air conditioning valves are closed, the lights in the push-to-start buttons
extinguish and the operator can push the start button which will latch. This
increases the APU rpm to 100% to provide sufficient air for starting.
It also arms the ignition circuit and finally, provided that pneumatic power is
available, it opens the start valve and the blue OPEN light illuminates.
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When engine N2 reaches 10% the HP Fuel Shut Off Valve must be opened.
This supplies fuel to the engine and energises the ignition exciters. The engine
should light up and EGT should increase.
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When N2 reaches 45% the engine will be self-sustaining so the ignition is switched
off, the push-to-start button pops out and the APU demand goes back to normal.
Engine rpm should now increase to Ground Idle, which is approximately 65% N 2
and 24% N1.
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Basic Operation
The outline of a high energy ignition system is illustrated in the figure. Each high
energy ignition unit has a low voltage supply which is controlled by the control unit
in the starting system. Depending upon the engine and installation, the supply
voltage may be either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). If the supply is
DC, either a trembler mechanism or a transistor generator is used to convert the dc
input to low voltage ac. Thereafter, the operation is the same as that of the system
supplied with AC:
The high value alternating voltage is then rectified to provide a high value of DC
voltage which is used to charge a capacitor.
13.4.1.2
Construction
Lethal Warning
The electrical energy stored in the HE ignition unit is potentially lethal and,
even though the capacitor is discharged when the electrical supply is
disconnected, safety precautions are necessary.
Before handling the
components, the associated circuit breaker should be tripped, or the fuse
removed. Never rush in; at least one minute must be allowed between
disconnecting the power supply and touching the ignition unit, HT lead or
igniter plug.
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Transistor generator
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There are two basic types of igniter plug; the constricted or constrained air gap type
and the shunted surface discharge type. (fig. 13-15)
The air gap type is similar in operation to the conventional reciprocating engine
spark plug, but has a larger air gap between the electrode and body for the spark to
cross. A potential difference of approximately 25,000 volts is required to ionise the
gap before a spark will occur. This high voltage requires very good insulation
throughout the circuit.
The surface discharge igniter plug has the end of the insulator formed by a semiconducting pellet which permits an electrical leakage from the central high tension
electrode to the body. This ionises the surface of the pellet to provide a low
resistance path for the energy stored in the capacitor. The discharge takes the form
of a high intensity flashover from the electrode to the body and only requires a
potential difference of approximately 2000 volts for operation.
The normal spark rate of a typical ignition system is between 60 and 100 sparks per
minute. Periodic replacement of the igniter plug is necessary due to the progressive
erosion of the igniter electrodes caused by each discharge.
The igniter plug tip protrudes approximately 0.1 inch into the flame tube. During
operation the spark penetrates a further 0.75 inch. The fuel mixture is ignited in the
relatively stable boundary layer which then propagates throughout the combustion
system.
Ignitor Plugs
Figure 13.15.
13.4.3 SERVICING THE IGNITION SYSTEM
Before any servicing is carried out on an ignition system, you must read the relevant
Safety Notes together with the Maintenance Manual relating to this work. You must,
in particular, understand the lethal warning notice regarding handling high energy
ignition equipment and the safety precautions you are to observe.
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2.
3.
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ROTOR
(SYNCHRONOUS
WITH
SQUIRREL
CAGE START)
ROTOR
(MAGNET)
N
S
GENERATO
R
INDICATO
R
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MAXWELL
BRIDGE
TACHO
CIRCUIT
GAUGE
DC N
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A variation of this system uses an eddy current sensor on the fan casing that
senses the fan blades rotating (see figure 14.7.). Sensors similar to these can be
used for active tip clearance control, where it senses the gap between the casing
and the blade.
Modern speed gauges usually have an analogue type display, i.e. a pointer, and
also a digital readout below the pointer axis. A target speed indicator is usually fitted
which on a clockwork gauge is a pointer outside the numbers, and on an electronic
gauge as a coloured marker, this usually has a digital readout of its set position
within the gauge normally above the pointer axis.
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Although rpm gauges give an indication of the rotational speed of the compressor,
they do have one drawback. They do not normally indicate the thrust output or
power output of the engine. Any distress within a compressor may cause the engine
to have a reduction in thrust output. Some means must be provided, therefore, to
indicate the engine's power output. This is done by using an engine pressure ratio
system, which is commonly known as EPR.
The system consists of pitot type pressure heads located in the engine inlet, which
are averaged together and a series of pitot type pressure heads located at the
turbine exhaust which are averaged together. Both feed into a pressure ratio
transmitter. On a high bypass engine the sensed pressure at the rear of the engine
can be the by pass or cold flow or a combined input from both the hot and cold
flows.
The transmitter receives the pressure inputs from the inlet, and from the exhaust
gas pressure probes. The probes are connected in to a common manifold, thus
providing an average gas pressure. Both pressure tubes to the transmitter are
provided with water drain traps that must be drained during maintenance checks.
The formula used by the transmitter in determining the EPR
signal is:- EPR = exhaust pressure
inlet pressure
Sometimes it can be expressed by using engine station configuration numbers, i.e.
inlet PT2 or Exhaust PT7 (PT= pressure total), therefore EPR can be expressed as:PT7
PT2
As EPR is used as a thrust parameter, the flight crew must determine the maximum
EPR for the barometric/temperature conditions. Take off EPR or maximum EPR
can be determined by checking trim charts for engineers, or take off charts for flight
crew. The EPR gauge in Fig. 14.8. that there is an EPR set knob. Once the EPR
target figure has been calculated, then by turning the knob 'a reference target bug
can be set at the take off EPR setting. This indicates to the crew the maximum
amount of EPR required. Exceeding this figure could possibly overboost the
engine. Modern aircraft use aircraft sensors to make this correction and will set the
bug for the pilot if required.
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Turboprop and turboshaft engines do not provide significant thrust through their jet
pipes, so EPR would not be of any use in determining the thrust being produced by
the engine. Engine torque is used to indicate the power that is developed by these
engines, and the indicator is known as a torquemeter. The engine torque or turning
moment is proportional to the horsepower and is transmitted through the propeller
or rotor reduction gear.
A torquemeter system is shown in fig. 14.9. In this system, the axial thrust
produced by the helical gears is opposed by oil pressure acting on a number of
pistons; the pressure required to resist the axial thrust is transmitted to the indicator.
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Operation
The helical gear form used in the reduction gearbox develops an axial thrust in its
three layshaft assemblies. This thrust is proportional to the power which is being
transmitted through the reduction gearbox. The axial thrust is balanced by an
opposing oil pressure, which is therefore proportional to engine power. This oil
pressure is referred to as torquemeter pressure and is indicated on a flight deck
instrument. Each of the layshafts operates against a piston that is supplied with oil
pressure from a torquemeter pump. The torquemeter supply comes from the
pressure side of the engine lubricating system. To balance any changes in axial
thrust, or engine power changes, the oil pressure is regulated by a control valve that
is incorporated in the lower piston assembly.
The piston on the lower layshaft assembly is drilled centrally and operates over a
stationary control valve. Flats on the control valve align with radial drillings in the
piston. This is oil spill to the engine oil scavenge system as shown in Fig. 14.10.
With the engine running at a stabilised power setting the lower piston will be in a
sensitive position, allowing a constant spill of oil to engine scavenge. In this
situation oil pressure is balancing the axial thrust. With an increase in engine power
the layshaft pushes the piston further over the control valve. The oil spill is reduced,
the oil pressure then increases giving an increased thrust indication on the flight
deck instrument. With a decrease in engine power the oil pressure pushes the
piston and the layshaft rearwards. The control valve now increases the oil spill, and
the oil pressure decreases until it balances the axial thrust on the layshafts. If an
engine fails the torquemeter pressure rapidly decreases below its normal operating
range, this condition is referred to as a negative torque signal. The negative torque
signal activates a low torque switch, which will in turn could activate the automatic
feathering sequence.
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The thermocouple itself consists of two dissimilar metals joined together within the
probe body. Gas inlet holes are provided in the outer casing to allow hot gases to
circulate around the sensing elements. The most common types of dissimilar
sensing wires used are chromel and alumel.
The probes may contain more than one thermocouple to sense the temperature at
different lengths into the exhaust duct, or adjacent probes may be of different
lengths. Some engines may have more than one EGT system. One for FADEC or
for temperature limiting.
The junction of the two wires (within the probe) is known as the hot or measuring
junction; the indicator end is known as the cold or reference junction.
The operation is fairly simple, as the thermocouple is a self-generating electrical
system. Assuming that the reference end is kept at a constant temperature
(flightdeck) and the hot end is subjected to high gas temperatures, then an
electromotive force (emf), created by the dissimilar metals. The Seebeck effect
causes the indicator to move in proportion to the difference in temperature between
the two junctions.
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The immersion type thermocouple can be further divided into two categories:
stagnation type
The main difference between the two examples shown in Fig. 14.14.is the position
of the outlet holes in relation to the gas flow Inlet holes. The main reasons for these
arrangements relate to the velocity of the exhaust gases.
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The stagnation type is fitted to pure jet engines where the exhaust velocity is high,
allowing the larger inlet hole to let the gas circulate around the couple, with the
offset outlet hole reducing the outward velocity of the air. In this way the probe
receives a good sampling of the gas temperature.
Types of Thermocouple
Figure 14.14.
The rapid response type will be fitted mainly to turboprop engines where the gas
flow is not as high as the jet turbine flow. In this arrangement the inlet and outlet
holes are the same, creating no restriction, so a rapid response of EGT indication is
achieved.
Finally if we consider the EGT gauge (Fig. 14.15.) you will see that there are
similarities to the rpm indicator.
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The indicator shown in Fig. 14.15. is a fairly modern type, although you may
experience older instruments with a pointer only. Normally EGT is expressed in
degrees centigrade. A red line limit indicates the maximum permissible temperature
the engine is allowed to run at. And on some a red dot shows the maximum
overswing allowed for a very short time. Finally, in addition to the maximum red line
limits, most engines have an engine start EGT limit that is much less than the max.
limit. this lower limit protects a cold engine from thermal shock (overtemping)
during initial engine start.
TGT Gauge.
Figure 14.15.
14.5 FUEL FLOW METERING
Fuel flowmeters are fitted in aircraft to give an accurate indication of the rate at
which fuel is being used and the total amount of fuel that has been used at any
point during the flight. From the rate of fuel consumption the pilot is able to
determine the performance of his engines, and from the indication of the total fuel
consumed, can calculate the total flying hours that the aircraft can remain in the air.
There are a number of different types of fuel flowmeters in use on various aircraft
and it is beyond the scope of this publication to describe them all. Some of these
flowmeters indicate only the total fuel consumed, but the majority give indications of
both rate of flow and total fuel consumed.
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The mass flow type of flowmeter gives a reading of the mass flow rate in pounds or
kilograms per hour rather than a volumetric reading in gallons per hour. The mass
flow rate is a more useful indication for most types of aircraft. Refer to figure 14.17.
for a mass flowmeter. The mass flowmeter consists of a motor-driven impeller, a
turbine and a synchro system to transmit the data to a flightdeck gauge. In order to
give accurate readings, the impeller must be driven at a constant speed. This is
accomplished with an AC synchronous motor or a similar device. As the fuel flows
through the impeller, it is given a spin or rotation by the spinning impeller. When the
fuel leaves the impeller, it strikes the turbine, which is rotated against a restraining
spring by the spin energy of the fuel. Because a denser fuel would impart more
spin energy to the turbine the degree of rotation of the turbine is a measure of mass
flow rate. The turbine is connected to the transmitter rotor of a synchro system
which will cause the pointer on the flightdeck gauge to rotate to the proper position
to indicate the correct mass flow rate. The sensor for this and other types of
flowmeters is installed in the fuel system downstream of the fuel control device so
that the flow rate represents the fuel consumption rate for that engine.
There are other type of mass flow transmitters, that use swirl vanes to cause the
rotation and have a different type of detection system, or vane type with
complicated S.G. correction.
The flowmeter gauge will have a flow indicator and usually a fuel used indication.
The fuel used indicator is usually a digital read-out that is derived by integrating the
fuel used with time.
The gauge can be calibrated in pounds per hour of kilograms per hour.
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14.6 OIL
14.6.1 THE OIL PRESSURE INDICATOR
The oil pressure indicator has a dial normally calibrated in pounds per square inch
(psi). The indicator may have max. limit markers, but will always show the minimum
pressure that the engine is allowed to run at. The reason that some engines have
an upper limit is dependant upon the type of oil supply system. Some systems may
be regulated, therefore needing an upper limit, or be based upon flow where an
upper limit is not required.
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Oil pressure is also monitored by an oil pressure switch (figure 14.21) that puts a
light on when the oil pressure reaches a low level. The light is usually red and will
be incorporated into the aircraft warning systems to alert the pilot. On later aircraft
the pressure switch may have two pressure switched within it. A speed comparator
will decide which switch to monitor. The idea being that a low oil pressure of say 20
psi is fine at low engine speed, however at higher engine speeds the engine could
be sustaining damage due to insufficient oil pressure even though it is above 20 psi.
The second pressure element would be activated when the engine speed was
greater than say 80% and the oil pressure less than 50 psi.
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14.7 VIBRATION
A turbo-jet engine has an extremely low vibration level and a change of vibration,
due to an impending or partial failure, may pass without being noticed. Many
engines are therefore fitted with vibration indicators that continually monitor the
vibration level of the engine. The indicator is usually a milliammeter that receives
signals through an amplifier from engine mounted transmitters fig.14.25.
A vibration transmitter accelerometer is mounted on the engine casing and
electrically connected to an amplifier and indicator. The vibration sensing element
is usually an electromagnetic transducer that converts the rate of vibration into
electrical signals and these cause the indicator pointer to move proportional to the
vibration level. A warning lamp on the instrument panel is incorporated in the
system to warn the pilot if an unacceptable level of vibration is approached,
enabling the engine to be shut down and so reduce the risk of damage.
The vibration level recorded on the gauge is the sum total of vibration felt at the
pick-up. A more accurate method differentiates between the frequency ranges of
each rotating assembly and so enables the source of vibration to be isolated. This
is particularly important on multi-spool engines.(Figure 14.26. refers)
A crystal-type vibration transmitter, giving a more reliable indication of vibration, has
been developed for use on multi-spool engines. A system of filters in the electrical
circuit to the gauge makes it possible to compare the vibration obtained against a
known frequency range and so locate the vibration source. A multiple-selector
switch enables the pilot to select a specific area to obtain a reading of the level of
vibration.
14.8 WARNING LIGHTS
Warning lights are used to indicate to the pilot if a failure has occurred. These will
be red for something that requires immediate action or amber for less urgent items.
Lights are also used to indicate when a function has operated. These light are
usually white, blue or green.
Warning lights may also be provided for L.P. fuel filter blocked, low fuel supply
pressure, vibration low oil pressure and any other system the designer or the
engineering authority require.
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15 THRUST AUGMENTATION
15.1 INTRODUCTION
There are occasions when the maximum thrust from a basic gas turbine engine is
inadequate and some method of increasing the available thrust is required without
resorting to a larger engine with its concurrent penalties of increased frontal area,
weight and fuel consumption.
There are two recognised methods of augmenting this maximum thrust:
a. De-mineralised Water or water/Methanol injection to restore, or even boost, the
thrust from a gas turbine operating from hot and high altitude airfields.
b. Reheat (or afterburning) to boost the thrust at various altitudes, especially at
high speeds. This is normally for short periods only.
15.2 WATER INJECTION
15.2.1 EFFECTS ON ENGINE POWER
The power output from a gas turbine engine depends upon the weight (air density)
of the airflow and the amount that it is accelerated as it flows through the engine.
Therefore, it follows that any condition that reduces the air density will reduce also
the engine power output. The two main natural causes of reduced air pressure are:
Increased Altitude
Increased Temperature
When these two causes of reduced air density are combined at a high altitude/
tropical airfield, there is a possibility that engines may not produce sufficient power
for a safe take-off and climb out. However, in these circumstances, the engine
power can be restored and in some instances increased, by cooling the airflow to
increase its density. To date, the addition of water or a water/methanol mixture has
proved to be the cheapest practical means of restoring or increasing the power of
an engine. Methanol has anti-freezing properties and it is also a fuel; therefore
water/methanol increases the density of the airflow and provides the extra fuel
necessary to match the increased weight of air. Adjustments to the engine fuel
system are, therefore, unnecessary. The addition of water has two effects upon the
performance of the engine: the cooling effect of water increases the density of the
airflow to increase the thrust and, when the water is converted into steam, it
provides a high volumetric expansion that increases the thrust even further.
15.2.2 METHODS OF APPLYING WATER/METHANOL
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Spraying the mixture into the air intake is more effective for engines with centrifugal
compressors than it is for axial compressors. With centrifugal compressors, an
even distribution of the mixture is obtained whereas, with an axial flow compressor,
even distribution is uncertain. (Turbo propeller engines use intake injection
regardless of the type of engine in use).
Water/methanol injection into the combustion chamber used to be carried out on
older engines where the combustion chambers were relatively long and the
methanol had time to separate and burn before entering the turbine. Later engines
use water only and increase the fuel flow to gain the extra thrust.
15.2.3 COMPRESSOR INTAKE INJECTION (TURBO PROP)
When water or water/methanol mixes with the air at the compressor intakes, the
temperature of the air is reduced and, as a result, the air density, mass airflow and
thrust are increased. If water alone were to be injected, it would reduce the turbine
inlet temperature and permit an increased fuel flow to be used. When methanol is
added, the turbine inlet temperature is partially restored by burning the methanol in
the combustion chamber; this restores the engine power without adjusting the fuel
flow.
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Operation
When the system is switched ON, water/methanol mixture is pumped from the
aircraft-mounted tank to a control unit which meters the flow of mixture fed to the air
intakes ( figure 15.1.). The flow of water/methanol is controlled by a single metering
valve and a servo piston that is powered by engine oil. The flow of the engine oil to
the servo piston is controlled both by a shut-off cock and the position of a servo
valve which, in turn, is moved by a control mechanism. This control mechanism
balances propeller torque system oil pressure against atmospheric air pressure
upon a capsule assembly within the control. The oil cock is interconnected with the
throttle lever in such a manner that until the throttle is moved to the take-off position,
the oil cock remains closed and the water/methanol system is inoperative. Moving
the throttle lever to the take-off position opens the oil cock to motivate the
water/methanol system.
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Operation
Water flows from an aircraft-mounted tank to an air turbine driven water pump and
is delivered to a water flow sensing unit (see figure 15.3.). From the water sensing
unit the mixture is distributed to the burner feed arms where two jets at the base of
each arm spray the mixture on to the upstream side of the swirl vanes to cool the air
entering the combustion zone. The water pressure between the sensing unit and
the discharge jets, is sensed by the fuel system control, which automatically resets
the engine speed governor to give a higher maximum engine speed.
The water system is brought into operation when the throttle lever is moved into the
take-off position where it closes micro-switches to provide an air supply for the air
turbine-powered water pump. The water flow sensing valve opens when a correct
pressure difference exists between water pressure and compressor delivery air
pressure. The valve in the water flow sensing unit also acts as a non-return valve to
prevent air pressure feeding back from the water discharge jets and provides for the
operation of an indicator to show when water/methanol is flowing.
Fuel Control Unit Speed Governor Reset Device to Increase Fuel Flow
Figure 15.2.
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Re-heat is a system fitted to a gas turbine engine as a means of increasing the total
thrust. As much as twice the thrust can be obtained using reheat. Unfortunately it is
extravagant with fuel so is suitable for brief periods of use only; nevertheless, reheat allows flexibility in handling. The only civil aircraft to have reheat is Concorde.
Principle
The principle of re-heat is similar to that of the gas turbine engine itself i.e. thrust
is obtained as a reaction from accelerating a mass of air through the engine. Reheat obtains extra thrust from accelerating the exhaust gases in the jet pipe behind
the turbine.
The exhaust gases contain oxygen provided by the un-burnt cooling air. By adding
fuel and burning it, the exhaust gases can be re-heated to cause an increase in
velocity with a substantial gain in thrust.
A ring of fuel burners is mounted in the jet pipe and fed with fuel from the aircraft
tanks, so that the exhaust acts like a ram jet.
15.3.2 REVISION OF THRUST
As the air flows through the engine it undergoes many changes in speed, direction
and pressure. However, as we learnt in Chapter 1 of this book, the useful thrust
depends upon the mass of air passing through the engine and upon the change in
velocity between the air at the intake and that at the exit of the propelling nozzle.
For a constant mass airflow, anything that increases the difference between the
final velocity and the initial velocity will give an increase in thrust. Re-heat does just
this; by burning fuel in the exhaust system behind the turbine we are creating a ram
jet which increases the final velocity of the airflow; this in turn, increases the
effective thrust from the engine.
15.3.3 RE-HEAT AND BY-PASS ENGINES
When re-heat is fitted to a by-pass engine, much greater thrust increase can be
obtained. This is because the gas temperature before re-heat is much lower and
hence the temperature ratio is much higher. Gains in the region of 70% increase in
static thrust are readily obtained, with greater gains in thrust at high forward speeds.
The limiting factor is the temperature that the jet pipe can withstand.
15.3.4 THE ADVANTAGE OF RE-HEAT
Re-heat provides the best means of substantially increasing the thrust of an engine
for short periods. The advantages are those of improved take-off, rate of climb and
air speed. Re-heat can be selected or cancelled at will by moving the throttle lever
into or out of the re-heat position.
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Because of the additional fittings, the diameter of the re-heat jet pipe is greater than
that of a standard jet pipe for the same engine. Therefore, drag may be increased
because the overall frontal area of the engine is increased. There is also a small
weight penalty and the maximum continuous thrust is slightly reduced by the drag of
the re-heat fittings inside the pipe. Re-heat is grossly extravagant with fuel.
15.3.6 PROPELLING NOZZLES
The design of the jet pipe and nozzle area has a considerable influence upon the
overall useful thrust produced by a gas turbine engine. Generally the jet pipe and
the propelling nozzle match the gas flow characteristics of the engine so that the
final pressure and velocity of the gas produces the greatest amount of useful thrust.
Thus the area of the propelling nozzle is as important it must be designed to match
the airflow characteristics of the engine if it is to obtain the desired balance between
pressure, temperature and thrust.
A fixed area propelling nozzle, as fitted to non re-heat engines, is a compromise
designed to provide an acceptable amount of thrust without being ideal for all
engine speeds. The size of a fixed nozzle is chosen to provide its greatest
efficiency at high cruising and maximum power but, a variable area nozzle would be
more efficient.
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If re-heat was fitted to an engine with a standard sized fixed area propelling nozzle,
the expansion of gases caused by the use of re-heat would increase the pressure in
the jet pipe and reduce the pressure drop across the turbine (turbine expansion
ratio). A reduced turbine expansion ratio will slow down the turbine and
consequently lower the engine power. It would also increase the back pressure on
the rear stage of the compressor which would cause the compressor to surge. To
avoid a rise in pressure at the turbine outlet, the area of the propelling nozzle must
be enlarged when re-heat is in use. Thus the propelling nozzle of a re-heat engine
must be able to provide a nozzle area suitable for normal running without re-heat
and a larger nozzle area when re-heat is used. Re-heat can usually be selected
only after the throttle lever has passed through a normal 100% position. Therefore
the smallest nozzle area must be efficient at normal maximum power and the large
nozzle area must cater for the re-heat gas flow. If the amount of re-heat can be
varied, then the re-heat nozzle must change to match the amount of re-heat
selected.
Variable Area Nozzles
The variable propelling nozzle is suitable for use with controllable re-heat systems
because it can provide a variable nozzle area to match the amount of re-heat
selected. The circular continuity of the nozzle is maintained by a system of hinged
flaps. The nozzle area is reduced by positive mechanical means but it is enlarged
by the exhaust gas pressure acting upon the inside surface of the flaps.
Description
A ring of hinged master flaps is interleaved with a ring of hinged sealing flaps to
provide a variable area propelling nozzle. Each flap is hinged at its forward edge so
that the rear edge can move inwards to reduce the nozzle area, or outwards to
increase the nozzle area.
Actuation of the nozzle system can be hydraulic using oil or fuel as the fluid
medium, or an air motor driving screw jacks.
On selection of reheat the nozzle will move first to prevent back pressure on the
engine, when it has moved the fuel will be supplied. With any increase in reheat the
nozzle moves then the fuel follows. When reheat is reduced the opposite occurs
first the fuel reduces then the nozzle closes. This ensures the nozzle area is too
large rather than too small for any change in fuel flow.
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Description
The afterburning jet pipe is made from a heat resistant nickel alloy and requires
more insulation than the normal jet pipe to prevent the heat of combustion being
transferred to the aircraft structure. The jet pipe may be of a double skin
construction with the outer skin carrying the flight loads and the inner skin the
thermal stresses; a flow of cooling air is often induced between the inner and outer
skins. Provision is also made to accommodate expansion and contraction, and to
prevent gas leaks at the jet pipe joints.
A circular heatshield of similar material to the jet pipe is often fitted to the inner wall
of the jet pipe to improve cooling at the rear of the burner section. The heatshield
comprises a number of bands, linked by cooling corrugations, to form a single skin.
The rear of the heatshield is a series of overlapping 'tiles' riveted to the surrounding
skin. The shield also prevents combustion instability from creating excessive noise
and vibration, which in turn would cause rapid physical deterioration of the
afterburner equipment.
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Re-heat Flame
Before looking at the re-heat burners and fuel supply systems, we must consider
the problem of establishing and stabilising the re-heat flame. In the re-heat jet pipe
where the flame must burn, the gas flow has a speed of the order of 500 mph (750
ft/sec to 1200 ft/sec). In effect, we are trying to burn fuel in a wind tunnel and the
problems are a magnification of those already described in chapter 11. Any attempt
to establish a flame in the re-heat jet pipe will not succeed unless the airflow can be
slowed locally and its pressure increased. Therefore the burner system must
include some type of diffuser equipment.
15.3.8.3
The construction of the re-heat burner assembly varies from one manufacturer to
another. However, the burner assembly shown in figure 15.7. is typical of those
now in use. This assembly consists of three concentric fuel manifolds, two
concentric V section flame stabilising gutters (vapour gutters) and a number of
support struts; it is built upon a tubular centre piece. There are three long struts
interspaced with three short struts and welded to the centre tube with 60 spacing.
These struts locate and secure the burner assembly into the re-heat pipe. A modern
trend is to use vaporisers set into the vapour gutters for the main fuel flow.
Reheat Burner
Figure 15.7.
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Fuel Flow
A re-heat fuel pump receives fuel from the engine fuel supply Its operation and flow
rate are controlled by a reheat control unit. The fuel is fed to the reheat burner by
fuel pipes which run inside the burner support struts. The fuel is divided into main
fuel flow and vapour gutter/ignition flow. The ignition fuel flow is used with ignition
plugs and catalytic ignition systems. Vapour gutter flow provides a flow into the
gutters which provides a stable, slower airflow to allow the flame to stabilise behind
the gutters. Interconnectors allow the flame to spread between the vapour gutters.
The main fuel flow goes to the spray nozzles that are upstream of the vapour
gutters, and this fuel is atomised and vaporised before being ignited by the vapour
gutter flame.
15.3.8.5
Re-heat Ignition
The atomised fuel spray is fed into the re-heat jet pipe and ignited by one of three
methods:
Spark Ignition
Catalytic Ignition
a. Spark Ignition. Spark ignition for re-heat fuel is similar to normal engine ignition.
Light-up is obtained by using a pilot fuel burner and an igniter plug. The igniter
plug is fitted downstream of the pilot burner in a conical fitting that is a part of
the re-heat system. The core provides airflow conditions suitable for light-up
and when fuel is sprayed from the pilot burner, it is carried on to the igniter plug
and ignition takes place. This method has been superseded by the other
methods.
Spark ignition
Figure 15.8.
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b. Hot Streak Ignition. The hot streak ignition system is more often called hot
shot ignition. It consists of one or two fuel injectors; one sprays fuel into the
engine combustion system and the other if fitted sprays fuel aft of the turbine as
a relay system to keep the flame alight for a longer distance. Spraying
additional fuel into the main combustion area causes an elongated flame and a
hot streak flame reaches and ignites the re-heat fuel. The turbine blades are
not damaged because the hot streak flame is of short duration. This method
provides a very quick light up, however if it fails to light then reheat has to be
reselected.
c. Catalytic Ignition. Catalytic ignition is achieved by use of a platinum/rhodium
element. Atomised fuel is sprayed over the element and a chemical reaction
causes spontaneous ignition.
Catalytic Ignition
Figure 15.10.
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16 TURBO-PROP ENGINES
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The turbo-prop engine consists of a gas turbine engine driving a propeller. In the
turbo-jet engine the turbine extracts only sufficient energy from the gas flow to drive
the compressor and engine accessories, leaving the remaining energy to provide
the high velocity propulsive jet. By comparison, the turbine stages of the turbo-prop
engine absorb the majority of the gas energy because of the additional power
required to drive the propeller, leaving only a small residual jet thrust at the
propelling nozzle.
Turbo-shaft engines work on identical principles, except that all the useful gas
energy is absorbed by the turbine to produce rotary shaft power and the residual
thrust is negligible; such engines find particular applications in helicopters and
hovercraft. The lack of a significant propulsive jet means that these engines can be
mounted in any position in the airframe and this flexibility is increased by the very
compact design and layout of a modern turbo-shaft engine.
Because the propeller wastes less kinetic energy in its slipstream than a turbo-jet in
its exhaust, the turbo-prop is the most efficient method of using the gas turbine
cycle at low and medium altitudes and at speeds up to approximately 350 knots. At
higher speeds and altitudes, the efficiency of the propeller deteriorates rapidly
because of the development of shock waves on the blade tips.
16.2 TYPES OF TURBO-PROP ENGINES
Current turbo-prop engines can be categorised according to the method used to
achieve propeller drive; these categories are:
a. Coupled Power Turbine.
b. Free Power Turbine.
c. Compounded Engine.
16.2.1 COUPLED POWER TURBINE
The coupled power turbine engine is the simplest adaptation from the turbo-jet
engine. In this configuration, the gas flow is fully expanded across a turbine which
drives the compressor, the surplus power developed being transmitted to the
propeller by a common drive shaft via suitable reduction gearing. This arrangement
is shown diagrammatically in figure 16.1.
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In this arrangement, a gas turbine acts simply as a gas generator to supply highenergy gases to an independent free power turbine. The gases are expanded
across the free turbine, which is connected to the propeller drive shaft via reduction
gearing. The layout of a free power turbine engine is shown in the figure 16.2. The
free turbine arrangement is very flexible; it is easy to start due to the absence of
propeller drag and the propeller and gas producer shafts can assume their optimum
speeds independently.
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A gear train consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and driving three or
more equi-spaced gears known as Planet Pinions. These pinions are mounted on
a carrier and rotate independently on their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is
an internally toothed Annulus Gear in mesh with the Planet Pinions.
An Epicyclic Gear
TrainFigure 16.4.
If the annulus is fixed, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate
about their axes within the annulus gear, this causes the planet carrier to rotate in
the same direction as sun wheel but at a lower speed. With the propeller shaft
secured to the planet pinion carrier, a speed reduction is obtained with the turbine
shaft (input shaft) and propeller shaft (output shaft) in the same axis and rotating in
the same direction. (Fig.16.5.)
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Some turbo-props will use a gear train or a combination of gear train and epicyclic.
Garrett 331 Cut away Showing the Combined Epicyclic Gear Train.
Figure 16.7.
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The integrated control system is suitable for coupled power turbine and
compounded turbo-prop engines. In this system the propeller rpm is selected by a
power lever that simultaneously adjusts the fuel flow to ensure that the correct flow
is maintained for any selected rpm. Up to maximum rpm, the turbo-prop runs at the
selected rpm, increases in rpm demanded by the power lever being automatically
accompanied by corresponding increases in fuel flow, blade angle and hence
power. At maximum rpm, further increases in power are achieved by increasing the
fuel flow; the propeller constant speed unit (CSU) automatically increases the blade
angle to absorb the extra power and thus maintain constant speed.
16.5.2 DIRECT CONTROL OF FUEL FLOW
The direct control of fuel flow is suitable for use in a free power turbine engine. In
this system, the gas generator is controlled in the same manner as a turbo-jet and
the power available to the free turbine assembly is governed by the fuel flow.
Through reduction gearing, the free turbine turns the propeller that is maintained at
constant rpm by the CSU.
16.5.3 DIRECT CONTROL OF BLADE ANGLE (BETA CONTROL)
This control system can be used for any turbo-prop engine. In this system, the
cockpit power lever simply selects a blade angle (B) and various automatic systems
are used to maintain the propeller rpm by adjusting the fuel flow (e.g. by a governor
in the fuel control system). The Astazou engine in the Jetstream is typical of the
direct-coupled engine in which this control system is used. As the propeller blade
angle is changed, the propeller speed governor adjusts the fuel flow to maintain
constant propeller rpm (and thus constant engine rpm). The direct control of blade
angle in a free turbine system is found most commonly in helicopter turbo-shaft
engines. Here, the blade angle is selected by the collective lever and the output of
the gas generator is automatically adjusted to maintain the rotor rpm within fine
limits.
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In the normal flight range, the main control of the propeller is exercised by the
propeller control unit (PCU).
16.8.2 MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC FEATHERING CONTROLS
All turbo-prop aircraft are fitted with some form of manual feathering control. In
some cases this control is integral with the HP cock for the associated engine; in
others the feathering control is operated through the fire protection system which
also closes the HP cock. Automatic feathering control is fitted to many turbo-prop
engines to avoid excessive drag following an engine failure. The automatic system
receives signals from the engine torquemeters and reacts to unscheduled loss of
torque by feathering the appropriate propeller. On twin-engine turbo-prop aircraft,
the operation of the autofeather system on one engine automatically inhibits the
same operation on the other engine, while still allowing the latter to be feathered
manually.
16.8.2.1
Power Lever
The power lever operates in a quadrant slot labelled POWER with positions (from
rear to front) labelled MAX REV, DISC, FLT IDLE and MAX. The power lever
is connected by cables, pushrods and bellcranks to the control system and PCU of
the associated powerplant. The power lever quadrant slot has a lockout gate at the
FLT IDLE position, which is controlled by a finger latch below the power lever knob.
Raising the latch permits aft movement into the ground range.
The power lever controls power in the forward thrust range and blade angle in the
flight Beta and ground Beta ranges. The flight Beta range extends from a blade
angle of 26 to 19 (minimum in-flight blade angle). The power lever controls blade
angle from aft of FLT IDLE to MAX REV.
The spring-loaded, detented DISC position produces at 0 blade angle or flat
discing; further aft movement increases blade angle in a negative direction until at
MAX REV the blade angle is 11.5. Both of these positions will assist in slowing
the aircraft during landing.
While operating in the Beta range, the HP fuel control regulates engine power,
providing Np underspeed governing between FLT IDLE and DISC and both engine
power and blade angle control in the reverse thrust range.
When the flight control gust lock lever, labelled CONT LOCK is at the on position,
the power lever cannot be moved to the MAX position. This lever will also lock the
aircraft flight controls.
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The condition lever is connected to the PCU and HP fuel control by cables,
pushrods and bellcranks and operates in a quadrant slot labelled PROP on the
centre console. The condition lever positions are labelled (rear to front) FUEL
OFF, START & FEATHER, MIN and MAX. The range between START &
FEATHER and MIN is labelled UN-FEATHER. Inadvertent selections below MIN
and START & FEATHER are prevented by detents. The lever must be pulled out
for aft movement past these positions.
Moving the condition lever from MIN to START & FEATHER feathers the propeller
through the PCU and signals the HP fuel system to establish a fuel flow to sustain
ground idle rpm. Moving the lever forward of START & FEATHER unfeathers the
propeller when the engine is running. When the condition lever is moved from
START & FEATHER to FUEL OFF, it mechanically closes the fuel shut-off valve on
the HP fuel system and shuts down the engine. The condition lever range between
MIN and MAX sets propeller rpm for in-flight constant speed operation.
16.8.2.3
The constant speed range is defined as propeller operation from a fully fine setting
(condition lever at MAX RPM) to an increased blade angle pre-selected by a
condition lever angle (CLA) setting of a speed-sensitive, flyweight governor in the
PCU. The governor operates to obtain and maintain constant speed settings
between 900 and 1,200 propeller rpm (Np). Ground range lights indicate at 16.5
and the discing is between 1.5 and 3.0.
16.8.2.4
Beta Range
The term Beta Range is used to define propeller operation from a maximum Beta
setting (propeller blade angle 26) to a full reverse setting (propeller blade angle
11.5). The Beta range is divided operationally into two ranges by a gate on the
associated power lever which controls blade angle from 16 to 19 above the gate
and below the gate to full reverse.
Propeller blade angle at full feather is 86 + 5.
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Whilst the system previously described is rather complex, the engine of a modern,
'free power turbine' design has to have sophisticated protective measures fitted. By
comparison, the overspeed protection installed on the Rolls Royce Dart, a 'direct
coupled' drive engine designed in the 1940s, is a relatively simple system.
The pump case pressure is fed with fuel from radial tappings in the rotating pump
assembly. If the engine overspeeds, the fuel is 'centrifuged' into the pump case at a
higher pressure. This pressure is fed to a diaphragm in the overspeed governor,
which spills the servo pressure and reduces the fuel supply to the engine. This
limits the engine, which normally has a governed maximum of 15,000 R.P.M., to an
overspeed maximum of 16,400 R.P.M. The illustration below shows the basic
system showing how spilling the servo pressure reduces the pump output. Apart
from the protection mechanisms already mentioned, which have to react extremely
fast to prevent accidents, there are a number of flight deck indications which may be
in place of, or in addition to the automatic systems.
The simplest is the 'red line' on the tachometer, (revolution counter), or power,
(percentage), instrument, which must not be exceeded at any time. If the aircraft
has an electronic flight warning system, (F.W.S.) however, then warning lights,
captions and audio warnings may be used to get the attention of the flight crew.
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17 TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
17.1 INTRODUCTION.
Gas turbine engines that deliver power through a shaft to operate something other
than a propeller are referred to as turboshaft engines. In most cases the output
shaft (power takeoff), is driven by its own power turbine (free turbine), which
extracts the majority of the total power output from the engines gas generator.
Turboshaft engines with a reduction gear are used to power boats, ships,
hovercraft, trains and cars. They are also used to pump natural gas across country
and to drive various kinds of industrial equipment such as air compressors or large
electric generators (fig 17.1.)
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In aviation turboshaft engines are used to power many of the modern helicopters in
service. They are similar in design to turboprop engines and in some instances will
use the same gas generator section design. The turboshaft power takeoff may be
coupled to, and driven directly by the turbine that drives the compressor, but is more
likely to be driven by a turbine of its own. Engines using a separate turbine for
power takeoff are called free power turbine engines, and it is this type of engine that
is most commonly used in todays modern fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft.
Atypical example of a turboprop/turboshaft engine is the Pratt and Whitney PT 6.
(figure 17.2.)
The Pratt and Whitney (Canada) PT6 turboprop engine is a popular free turbine
engine that can be adapted to both turboprop and turboshaft applications.
Figure 17.2.
A free power turbine engine consists of two main units; the gas generator and the
free power turbine. In the example shown in Figure 17.2. air enters the engine and
is compressed, then heated in the combustion chamber . The resulting expansion
forces the gas at high velocity through the gas generator turbine that drives the
compressor. The remaining gas energy is then used to drive the power turbine,
which in turn drives the power output shaft.
The free power turbine is mechanically independent of the of the gas generator and
operates at virtually a constant speed. The power developed by the turbine is varied
to meet changing loads imposed on the rotor system, by increasing or decreasing
the fuel supplied to the gas generator, thus altering the gas generator speed and
the supply of gas energy to the power turbine.
As mentioned previously, the turboshaft engine is used to power many of todays
modern helicopters, and to this end we will concentrate on the application of the
turboshaft engine in the field of aviation.
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The turboshaft engine and the helicopter are ideal companions. The engine is
required to respond to frequent and sudden changes in power demands to keep the
helicopter rotor revolving at a virtually constant speed (250-300 RPM being typical).
The power required to drive the rotor is determined by the pitch angle of the main
rotor blades, this angle is being controlled by the pilot using the collective pitch
lever. The pilot changes the flight path of the aircraft by using the cyclic pitch control
lever, by tilting the rotor head. Control of the tail rotor to compensate for the torque
produced by the main rotor is via foot pedals similar to rudder pedals (fig 17.3.).
Whenever a control is activated, the resultant force is sensed by the rotor gearbox
and in turn sensed by the power output shaft of the engine which means that the
engine power must be adjusted to suit.
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The power output of a free power turbine engine can be changed rapidly because
its output speed is independent of the power produced, the latter being dependant
on the gas generator speed. The low inertia of the gas generator rotor allows its
speed to be changed very quickly, by adjusting the flow of fuel available for
combustion. This is achieved in the fuel control system invariably by a computer
(electronic or mechanical) controlling the throttling valve. The pilot selects the rotor
speed and the fuel control system automatically maintains that speed, within the
limits set by the governing characteristics of the system and the operating
limitations of the engine. As the fuel control system is automatic, the pilot is relieved
of the necessity to constantly manipulate the throttle control.
The control parameters being monitored and used for a typical turboshaft engine
would include:
Parameter
Gas generator speed (N2)
Free power turbine speed (N1)
Power turbine inlet temperature (PTIT)
Main rotor speed (Nr)
Throttle valve position
Torque
Destination
Computer and cockpit gauge
Computer and cockpit gauge
Computer and cockpit gauge
Cockpit gauge
Computer
Cockpit gauge and computer (torque
matching engines)
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Computer Signalling.
Figure 17.4.
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17.3 ARRANGEMENTS
Because of the need for turboshaft engines to be installed in a variety of aircraft,
coupled with the requirement to fit two or more engines, giving more power and
adding safety. The turboshaft engine has to be able to output its drive from a variety
of different locations. Typical examples of this ability can be seen in Figure 17.5. to
17.9.
Figure 17.5. shows the different ways in which the Rolls Royce Gem engine can be
configured to suit different aircraft designs.
Different Ways Power can be Taken From the Rolls Royce Gem Engine.
Figure 17.5.
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Finally there are a few other installations on helicopters, using turboshaft engines,
that show the flexibility in the way these engines can be mounted to suit the
designers needs. The little Hughes 500 series (fig 17.8.) has a small 400+ S.H.P.
engine, installed at an angle, driving upwards at 45 to the main gearbox.
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17.5 COUPLINGS
Because of the requirement to make maintenance tasks such as engine
removal/refit, gearbox removal/refit easier, it is necessary to have a means of
coupling the turboshafts output shaft to the helicopter main rotor gearbox input shaft
together. This coupling must possess qualities which will allow movement of both
the engine and the rotor gearbox independently of each other i.e. it must be flexible.
It must also be finely balanced to reduce vibration.
One of the most common couplings in use is the Thomas Coupling, sometimes
referred to as the engine high speed drive shaft (fig 17.12.). The engine is joined to
the main rotor gearbox by this high speed drive shaft. The shaft is belled at either
end , one end being attached to the power take off shaft by means of Thomas
flexible steel coupling. Each coupling consists of a number of steel discs, indexed
by flats to ensure correct alignment when assembled. Two different numbered discs
are used, each disc having a grain running either parallel to the flat or perpendicular
to the flat. The discs are assembled alternately with the grains at 90 to each other.
The bolts, nuts and washers securing the shaft to the engine are part of the fine
balancing of the assembly and must always be replaced in the same position.
Thomas Coupling.
Figure 17.12.
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Yet another method of coupling the engines power output to the main gearbox is
shown in Figure 17.13.
The engine front mounting is bolted with the reduction gearbox to the hub of the
air-intake case; it supports the engine in the aircraft and serves as a torque reaction
point. The mounting, which is of the gimbal type, is bolted to a gimbal ring, which is
bolted to a similar mounting on the aircraft main gearbox, thus forming a gimbal
coupling.
The engine output drive is transmitted to the aircraft main gearbox by a flanged
coupling, which is secured via a flexible laminated disc coupling (Thomas Coupling)
to a drive assembly. The drive assembly consists of an engine coupling and an
aircraft main gearbox coupling bolted together, with a flexible laminated disc
coupling (Thomas Coupling) at each end.
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Pneumatic duct pressure for air conditioning and engine starting purposes.
An APU
Figure 18.1.
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Although the APU is usually rated to run at the max cruise altitude of the aircraft it is
fitted to, its ability to take load diminishes with altitude. As the major load on any
APU is the air load it can be seen from Figure 18.2. that the APUs ability to provide
sufficient air for the aircraft is limited to 15-20,000 ft. Above this height the APU will
only provide electrical power, this may also be limited to less than the max cruise
height. Most APUs give shaft priority which means that if air and electric generators
are on the generators are given priority. Most Aircraft use constant frequency
generators, and their APUs which run at a constant 100% do not therefore require
a constant speed drive unit to maintain a constant output. If the air loads become to
high the APU will reach its max EGT and the control system will back off the fuel to
prevent damage, this would bring the APU generator off frequency and take the
generator off line. Instead the air load is reduced to maintain a constant APU
speed.
18.2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CONFIGURATION
With the configuration shown in figure 18.3. we can see that air is taken from the
compressor via the load control valve (LCV) when pneumatic power is required.
Although such an APU layout is acceptable on smaller aircraft where pneumatic
power demand is small, it is unacceptable on larger aircraft as the air being drawn
from the compressor for pneumatic purposes, reduces the air going to the turbines
for cooling purposes. This reduction of cooling air leads to an increase in exhaust
gas temperature and a reduction in the life of the turbine.
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On larger models of APU this problem of reduced turbine life has been reduced by
the inclusion of a load compressor. See figure18.4.
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A combination of the previous two examples can also be found, see figure18.6.
The location of the APU on the aircraft is generally dictated by the requirements of
the manufacturer. Because of the noise factor and the problem of hot exhaust
gases, it is located as far away from ground servicing areas as possible. The
normal place for it to be fitted is in the tail section of the aircraft, however, this may
be impracticable due to the location of a tail mounted engine or airstairs. On some
aircraft the APU may be fitted into landing gear bays, engine nacelles, forward
fuselage or wing structures. Examples of these are Hercules (U/C bay), Fokker F50
(rear of engine nacelle) and BAe ATP (wing fillet)
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Light Alloy APU Intake Duct Without an Intake Door. (BAe 146)
Figure 18.8.
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Wherever the APU is located, ducting will be required to bring air to the APU inlet.
In figure 18.9. we can see that the inlet duct connecting the inlet door to the APU
plenum chamber is divided into three parts. The plenum chamber has the APU inlet
duct bolted to its structure, thus reducing a complicated duct joint arrangement.
These ducts can be manufactured from various materials, but the most common are
aluminium, titanium, steel or composite (fibre glass/carbon). Figure 18.8. shows a
light alloy side mounted intake duct without an intake door.
When the duct length is short, steel or titanium ducts may be used. When ducts
cover a large distance an unacceptable weight problem may result. Ducts of this
length are therefore manufactured from light alloy or composite materials.
One of the main problems of APUs is the ingestion of foreign objects this can be
eliminated by fitting wire mesh grills either in the ducting, or around the APU air inlet
(figure 18.8.).
The length of the inlet ducts will depend upon the location of the APU and its
distance from the inlet. Some APU inlets are fitted with a door, these are usually
forward facing or top mounted inlets. The door will open before the APU starts and
close after a time delay on APU shut down The duct may be short or fairly long as
shown in the figure 18.9.
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Operation of the door opening and
closing is achieved by using an
electrical actuator, which receives
its signal from a command from the
flight deck APU switch.
In the event of an electrical failure
to an actuator, there is normally
incorporated into the actuator a
means of disengaging the clutch
drive mechanism. This enables the
actuator to be manually turned to
open or close the inlet door.
A proximity switch ensures that the
door is fully open before the APU
start sequence is initiated.
APU Door.
Figure 18.10.
APU inlet doors serve three functions:
They seal off the inlet duct from harmful weather conditions and foreign objects
when the APU is not in use.
They open to allow air into the APU when the start sequence is initiated.
They can be used to adjust the intake area when on ground in flight.
The variable intake door figure 18.11. is used to reduce the ram air entering the
APU intake ducting. This could effect the APU fuel system if intake pressure is not
taken into the calculation of engine fuel scheduling which is the case with most
APUs
.
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Exhaust ducts are invariably positioned to ensure that on the ground as the hot
gases are directed away from the maintenance crews and aircraft structure. This is
usually achieved by angling the exhaust duct upwards. Figure 18.12. represents a
typical duct arrangement.
The exhaust ducts are subjected to high temperatures, so the following design
features must be considered:
Leaf springs are fitted to allow for longitudinal expansion of the exhaust duct.
The flexible bellows allow for slight variations during the assembly of the duct to
the engine flange.
Flame traps may be fitted to joints to provide protection if the joint leaks.
The exhaust duct is normally insulated to prevent the heat from affecting the aircraft
structure or adjacent components. This can be a double duct with cool air being
passed between the ducts or by the use of insulation blankets.
An exhaust door may be fitted to reduce cold soak or to prevent rain or snow
entering the duct. The door must be open before the engine can start and will close
after a time delay on shut down.
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In most cases there is a design compromise made between the ideal APU for an
aircraft i.e. its ability to provide air and electricity throughout the operational
envelope of the aircraft, and it weight and size. It is usual therefore to find that air
and electricity are limited to various altitudes dependant upon the parameter
required.
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APU systems are very basic and the APU will shut down if a problem is sensed.
Most APUs will shut down for the following faults:
Fault
Comment
High EGT
849C Honeywell
Low Speed
The APU may also shut down on the ground (not in flight) for the following faults:
Fault
Fire
Comment
May cause a warning horn in the u/c bay to sound
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The upper line represents fuel flow from the pump. As pump speed increases so
does the pump output capacity.
The lower line represents APU fuel requirements.
Some means must be available to remove the excess fuel capacity.
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Such control in fact is done automatically by the APU fuel control unit.
Figure 18.17 fuel pressure is applied to the lower part of the by-pass ball valve. An
air tapping which protrudes into the compressor airstream, applies pressure to the
upper part of the by-pass valve diaphragm, thus holding the valve on its seat.
Therefore fuel pressure is limited by the air pressure.
When initial ignition takes place within the APU, there is little air pressure, so fuel
pressure cannot rise very much without pushing the valve open and allowing the
excess fuel to go to the pump inlet. Because of the size of the diaphragm and
valve, the air pressure allows the fuel pressure to rise by a proportional amount,
thus fuel and air pressure stay in step with each other.
As engine speed increases:
A minimum fuel pressure is required for good fuel atomisation at the fuel nozzle for
initial ignition. This is achieved by applying a spring pressure to the by-pass valve,
thus keeping it on its seat.
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Figure 18.18. shows a solenoid operated shut-off valve fitted between the FCU and
the fuel nozzle. Normally spring-loaded closed; it receives its open and close
signals from the APU control unit at certain speeds. On a mechanical APU it is
signalled open by the low oil pressure switch when oil pressure is sensed. In an
electronic system it is open at speeds above 10%. On receiving a closed signal, the
solenoid de-energises and the valve closes, the flow to the combustor is blocked.
The build-up in pressure in the fuel line is relieved by the by-pass valve, acting as a
pressure relief valve.
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In the flow divider, one nozzle is placed within the other and separated by a small
pressure relief valve. The flow divider is set for a slightly higher pressure than the
by-pass valve spring pressure, thus on initial light-up, fuel will only spray from the
primary nozzle.
After light-up, rising compressor pressure increases the by-pass valve setting and
the fuel pressure increases to force the flow divider off its seat. This allows fuel flow
through to the secondary nozzle as well as the primary nozzle.
During start and acceleration, the APU must produce temperatures that are within
certain limits, while at the same time allow the engine to accelerate.
Despite the fact that fuel pressure is kept in step with rising compressor pressure
(through the by-pass valve), turbine over temperature is possible during certain
acceleration phases. As a protection against over temperature, a thermostat
(known as acceleration thermostat) is connected to the air pressure line, leading to
the by-pass valve, this thermostat is normally closed (see figure 18.20).
Provided the EGT remains below the thermostat setting, it will remain fully closed.
If the EGT exceeds its setting, the thermostat will gradually open and bleed off air
pressure that is acting on top of the diaphragm of the by-pass valve.
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This reduced air pressure against the by-pass valve diaphragm will allow the fuel
pressure to lift the by-pass valve and direct excessive fuel pressure back to the inlet
of the pump. As the fuel pressure drops across the nozzles, the turbine
temperature drops until the thermostat closes at a lower safe limit.
The acceleration thermostat provides a continuous monitor to prevent the APU
engine overtemping. A second pneumatic thermostat is fitted to control the air load
valve (see figure 18.29.) which is similar to the acceleration thermostat.
The thermostat can be adjusted in two ways, shimming or vernier adjuster.
Shimming requires careful calculations to set the correct pressure on the ball. The
vernier type adjuster has indications around the top of the thermostat, when it is
unlocked the top can be twisted to make the adjustment.
A Pneumatic Thermostat.
Figure 18.21
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Because the APU is designed to run at a constant rpm, some means must be
provided to control this speed. Such a control device is known as a speed or rpm
governor (see figure 18.22).
The speed governor is linked mechanically to the APU drive. As speed increases
above 95%, the bob weights start to move outwards and begin to by-pass the fuel
back to the inlet of the pump and as speed increases up to 100% rpm, it causes
sufficient fuel to be by-passed by the governor, to maintain this rpm. Increase or
decrease in the speed setting is achieved by adjustment of the governor spring.
Note that at speeds below 95% rpm the by-pass valve controls the acceleration up
to a maximum speed of 95% rpm.
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Fuel is supplied to the pump from the aircraft fuel tank via an electrical shut off
valve which opens when start is selected and closes when the APU shuts down.
At a predetermined speed (as dictated by the low oil pressure switch), the fuel
shut-off valve opens and fuel is supplied to the combustor (5-10%).
The quantity of fuel supplied is scheduled by the by-pass valve, which senses
compressor discharge pressure.
As rpm increases, compressor discharge pressure increases, reducing the bypass flow, hence more fuel to the combustor.
If high gas temperature is sensed, the acceleration thermostat opens and vents
compressor pressure from the by-pass valve, thus reducing fuel flow to the
combustor.
As the speed approaches 100% the governor backs off the fuel flow to slow the
acceleration and to maintain 100%
During normal operation, the governor senses APU rpm and regulates the fuel
flow by bypassing some back to the pump, to maintain a constant speed.
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Electronic fuel control emulates the mechanical system, however it provides control
in a slightly different way. The electronic Control Unit (ECU) monitors the APU
speed and EGT continuously and also the low oil pressure switch.
During start the ECU knows the engine speed so will signal the fuel shut off valve to
open at 8-10%. At the same time ignition is selected on and the light up will be
sensed by the EGT system. The ECU then enters a timed acceleration schedule
where EGT and speed are monitored by the ECU.
The ECU deselects the starter at 50% and the ignition at 95%. Once up to speed
the ECU keeps the engine at 100% and will monitor the EGT and speed to maintain
operation throughout the operating envelope of the APU.
The Fuel control unit mounted on the APU gearbox is much simpler than the
mechanical FCU. It contains a fuel pump, an electronic servo valve and a pressure
drop control valve ( [delta] P valve). The electrical shut of valve and the fuel flow
divider are retained and work as they did in the mechanical system.
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The start fuel valve and ignition are energised as soon as rotation (3%) is sensed by
an Electronic Sequence Unit (ESU). At 14% and with rising EGT the main fuel
valve is opened. The acceleration rate is controlled by the acceleration schedule
adjuster, however this is modified by the differential pressure regulator which uses
compressor discharge pressure to vary the fuel flow to the engine. At 50% the
starter cuts out. When the engine reaches 85% the start fuel valve closes and the
ignition is de-energised. The engine governor then takes over and controls the
engine to 100%. As the engine passes 95% plus 3 seconds, the max fuel valve
energises open and bypasses the acceleration adjuster and full control of the
engine is given to the governor. If the engine is shut down both the Main and Max
fuel valves are closed.
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The ESU has indicators that indicate which step of the start sequence the APU is at
and the resets at 95% + 3sec to act as BITE indicators.
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A Load valve (Figure 18.29) is switched on from the flightdeck, power for the switch
is available once the APU has achieved 95% + 3 sec. This energises the switcher
valve solenoid, which vents the lower chamber (B) of the control piston and
pressurises the top chamber (A). The piston will move down and open the butterfly
valve. The bleed air will flow and the EGT will rise, at a predetermined value the
Load Thermostat will start to open which will reduce the pressure acting on the top
of the piston. This will cause the piston to move up by spring pressure and thus
back off the butterfly valve. If the EGT rise is excessive then it could close the valve.
The valve will modulate under the control of EGT. The Load thermostat is set at a
lower setting than the acceleration thermostat setting to prevent hunting of the
system.
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An electronically controlled APU uses the same principle, but the ECU controls a
servo valve in the load control valve instead of the load thermostat, see figure
18.30.
Some APU's do not use load valves, instead they have an air bleed valve which is a
simple on/off valve. A flow limiting venturi is used to limit the flow of air from the
APU
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If the APU is fitted with a load compressor either of the previous two methods are
used, but instead of controlling a butterfly valve the piston operates a set of variable
intake guide vanes for the load compressor, see figure 18.31.
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For ram air cooling, the aircraft has to be moving forward at sufficient speed to
enable the cooling air to be picked up by the air scoops in the external skin. This
cold air is ducted into the APU bay and passed onto various hot zones to provide a
cooling medium. The air is then vented overboard through exhaust ducts.
18.7.2 FAN AIR COOLING
Cooling fans are fitted to the APU gearbox to provide a supply of cooling air to the
APU when it is running. The cooling air is pumped into the APU compartment and
then vented overboard. The air from the fan is also used to cool the generator drive
oil and the exhaust duct on some APU installations.
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Air is drawn from the normal intake plenum or an external intake and is directed
along the cooling air ducts to the cooling fan shut-off valve (when fitted). The shutoff valve closes on APU shutdown to prevent air from entering the compartment to
support combustion in the event of an APU fire.
The cooling fan is linked to the APU gearbox and as long as the APU is running, the
fan is turning. Air is also used to cool the oil within the APU lubricating system (on
some APUs), however, such air is usually ducted overboard and not into the APU
compartment. Upstream of the oil cooler the cooling air is ducted into the APU bay
an/or the exhaust insulating ducting to provide general cooling.
Cooling Fan Shut-Off Valve
The cooling valve figure 18.33. is a spring-loaded closed butterfly valve with a
pneumatic actuator. When the APU is started, the compressor discharge pressure
is ported to the top of the diaphragm. The piston moves down with increasing air
pressure and opens the valve against the spring pressure. The cooling air then
flows to the compartment. On APU shutdown the air pressure is reduced and
spring pressure closes the valve.
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Overboard Venting
Figure 18.35 represents a typical APU bay overboard vent arrangement. The
cooling air is directed into the compartment and also to the oil cooler, this air is then
vented overboard along a separate duct. Compartment cooling air is vented
overboard, through a louvered door at the rear of the compartment.
Vent System
Figure 18.35.
.
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APU Mount.
Figure 18.36.
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A Shrouded APU.
Figure 18.37.
Most APUs are located in a fire proof box made of titanium. Some aircraft have the
APU shrouded in a close fitting Titanium case.
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19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION
19.1 NACELLES OR PODS
Nacelles or pods are streamlined enclosures used on multi-engine aircraft primarily
to house the engines. They are located below, or at the leading edge of the wing or
on the tail of the aircraft.
An engine nacelle or pod consists of skin, cowling, structural members, a fire-wall,
and engine mounts. Skins and cowlings cover the outside of the nacelle. Both are
usually made of sheet aluminium alloy, stainless steel, or titanium. Regardless of
the material used, the skin is usually attached to the framework by rivets.
The framework can consist of structural members similar to /those of the fuselage.
The framework would include lengthwise members, such as longerons and
stringers, and widthwise/vertical members, such as bulkheads, rings, and formers.
A nacelle or pod also contains a firewall, which separates the engine compartment
from the rest of the aircraft. This bulkhead is usually made of stainless steel, or
titanium sheet metal.
19.1.1 COWLINGS
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19.1.2 FIREWALLS
The firewall is a seal which separates the engine into two zones. Sometimes
referred as the wet zone and dry zone, but more commonly called zone one
(front) and zone two (rear). The firewall forms a barrier that prevents combustible
fumes that may form in the front section (zone 1), from passing into the rear section
(zone 2), and igniting on the hot exhaust section. Dependant upon aircraft/engine
design the fire walls design and location will differ, Figures 19.3. and 19.4. refer.
A Turbofan Firewall.
Figure 19.3.
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Turboprop Firewall.
Figure 19.4.
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19.1.3 COOLING
Turbine engines are designed to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. The
combustion process is continuous and, therefore, heat is produced. On turbine
engines, most of the cooling air must pass through the inside of the engine. If only
enough air were admitted into a turbine engine to support combustion, internal
engine temperatures would rise to more than 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit. In
practice, a typical turbine engine uses approximately 25 percent of the total inlet
airflow to support combustion. This airflow is often referred to as the engine's
primary airflow. The remaining 75 percent is used for cooling, and is referred to as
secondary airflow.
When the proper amount of air flows through a turbine engine, the outer case will
remain at a temperature between ambient and 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit depending
on the section of the engine. For example, at the compressor inlet, the outer case
temperature will remain at, or slightly above, the ambient air temperature. However,
at the front of the turbine section where internal temperatures are greatest, outer
case temperatures can easily reach 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. (Figure 19.5.)
Cooling Requirements
To properly cool each section of an engine, all turbine engines must be constructed
with a fairly intricate internal air system. This system must take ram and/or bleed air
and route it to several internal components deep within the core of the engine. In
most engines, the compressor, combustion, and turbine sections all utilise cooling
air to some degree.
For the most part, an engine's nacelle is cooled by ram air as it enters the engine.
To do this, cooling air is typically directed between the engine case and nacelle. To
properly direct the cooling air, a typical engine compartment is divided into two
sections; forward and aft. The forward section is constructed around the engine
inlet duct while the aft section encircles the engine. A seal or firewall separates the
two sections.
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In flight, ram air provides ample cooling for the two compartments. However, on the
ground, airflow is provided by the reduced pressure at the rear of the nacelle. The
low pressure area is created by the exhaust gases as they exit the exhaust nozzle.
The lower the pressure at the rear of the nozzle, the more air is drawn in through
the forward section.
Typical Nacelle Cooling Using Ram Air From the Intake Duct.
Figure 19.6.
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One method of suppressing the noise from the fan stage of a high by-pass ratio
engine is to incorporate a noise absorbent liner around the inside wall of the bypass duct. The lining comprises a porous face-sheet which acts as a resistor to the
motion of the sound waves and is placed in a position such that it senses the
maximum particle displacement in the progression of the wave. The depth of the
cavity between absorber and solid backing is the tuning device, which suppresses
the appropriate part of the noise spectrum. Figure 19.7. shows two types of noise
absorbent liner. Figure 19.8. shows the location of a liner to suppress fan noise from
a high by-pass ratio engine and also the use of a liner to suppress the noise from
the engine core. The disadvantage of using liners for reducing noise are the
addition of weight and the increase in specific fuel consumption caused by
increasing the friction of the duct walls.
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Abradable Linings are usually made of a composite material which will be abraded
away should the tip of a rotating blade touch the material. In flight the casings of an
engine are subject to large changes in ambient temperature, so they will expand or
contract. As we know the air temperature at 30,000ft is close to 50C this would
cause the casings to contract onto the rotor and the blades will then rub. To
overcome this problem abrasive materials where used on early engines to wear
down the tip of the blades, but this may cause balance problems. So most engines
now use abradable linings that maintain minimum tip clearance but do not affect
balance. They are usually found on the fan as this is the cold area of the rotating
assemblies.
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Figure 19.12. shows a typical method of mounting an engine onto a wing pylon.
The engine is usually suspended on three attachment points. The two front points
are located at the lower end of a pylon mounted yoke and engage with the mounting
bracket assemblies on the left-hand and right-hand side of the fan casing. The
assemblies differ inboard and outboard. The inboard bracket assembly takes side,
vertical and thrust loads. The outboard bracket assembly takes vertical and thrust
loads.
The rear attachment point is an engine mounted lower link assembly bolted to a
pylon mounted upper link assembly. This attachment point carries vertical loads
only and allows for engine axial expansion.
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Two crane beams in the nacelle carry the weight of the engine. The crane beams
are connected to the frames of the fuselage. Vibration isolators are on the engine
mounting Points to absorb vibration. There are three mounting points:
the trunnion
The trunnion transmits the engine thrust to the airframe. The Trunnion fits in the
trunnion housing on the forward crane bean attachment.
Between the trunnion housing and the aft beam attachment is a thrust strut, This
strut divides the engine thrust between the forward and aft beams attachment. The
shear shell between the crane beams makes the engine mounting more rigid.
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When an engine stops, fuel from the fuel manifold and combustion chamber drains
either overboard, or as is more usual into an ecology drain tank. This tank is
automatically emptied, (the fuel being fed back into the engine) next time the engine
is run. (figure 19.16.)
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Engine driven accessory drive shaft require lubrication. This will be provided by the
engine lubrication system. To ensure proper lubrication, the drive shaft bearings are
sealed to prevent loss of oil. These bearing seals are monitored for leaks, by the
engine drain system which consists of a number of shrouds, enclosing the drive
shaft bearing, and pipes leading either an overboard series of drain pipes (figure
19.17.) or a collector tank (figure 19.18.). These drains are often referred to as
witness drains or dry drains as if they exhibit signs of leakage they bear witness to
a potential drive shaft failure.
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Engine controls are very similar to flying controls, and the same types of equipment
are used, such as rods, bellcranks and cables. Most control systems use either one
or two systems to control the engine.
In a two path system the high pressure cock is controlled separately from the
throttle, in a single path system they are combined.
19.4.2 TURBOFAN ENGINE CONTROLS.
Figure 19.19. shows a typical mechanical control system for a turbofan powered
aircraft. It uses a single path system to transmit power requirements to the engine.
The thrust lever is connected to a rod that transmits the movement down below floor
level to a quadrant. The quadrant outputs to two cables which initially run under the
floor of the flightdeck and then along the roof of the passenger cabin. They then
pass through pressure seals and along the leading edge of the wing before
dropping down to a cable compensator in the top of the pylon. The output from the
compensator quadrant is a teleflex push/pull cable. This teleflex cable passes down
into the engine nacelle to a torque shaft mounted on the nose cowl assembly. The
output from the torque shaft moves a rod which provides the input to the fuel control
unit. The teleflex cable has a disconnect break mechanism in it to facilitate engine
changes.
To allow autothrottle functions the quadrants below the thrust levers can be moved
by an actuator which drive all four levers via clutches.
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Figure 19.20. shows a typical mechanical control system for a turboprop engine. It
uses a double path system to transmit power requirements to the power unit,i.e. the
power lever controls engine power in the normal operating modes and both power
and propeller blade angle in the beta mode. A condition lever controls propeller
blade angles in the normal mode, and also controls the feathering of the propeller
and the HP shutoff cock.
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Intentionally Blank
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The manufacturer delivers the engine to fit the no-2 (right) position.
Conversion from the no.2 (right) to the no.1 (left) position requires re-position of:
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Number
Item
10
20
Anti-Icing System
30
Vibration Transducer
40
Hydraulic Lines
50
Inlet Cowling
60
Hydraulic Hoses
70
80
90
100
110
Starter System,
120
Air-Starter Duct,
120A
Air-Starter Duct
130
After Cowling
140
150
Fuel Line
160
170
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Number
Item
10
Igniter Leads
20
Igniter Leads
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
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Number
10.
20.
30.
40.
50.
60.
70.
80.
90
95.
100
110
120.
130.
140.
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
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Item
Engine Mounts - Forward Isolators
Engine Mounts - Forward Frame Assy
IDG Assy
IDG Support Bracket
Pitch Control Unit and Control Rods
Lever Bracket and Interconnection Rods
Bleed Air - Low Pressure Check Valve
Electrical Harness
Bleed Air, High Pressure Bleed Valve
Heat Shield Installation
Back-up Firewall
Bleed Air - Low Pressure Off-Take
Female Flange - Exhaust
Main Fuel Supply Tube
Drain Hoses
Pipe Lines Installation for Oil Pressure Transducer & Oil Pressure
Switch
Oil-Pressure Transducer, Oil-Pressure Switch, Oil-Temperature
Detector and Fuel-Temperature Detector
Heat Exchanger
Airduct and LHS & A-Frame
Oil-Cooler Assy
Propeller
Spinner
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220
230
240
250
260
270
275
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
370A
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Item
Vertical Firewall
Bleed Air - High Pressure and Low Pressure
Fire Extinguisher Tube
Starter Motor
Hydraulic Hose Assemblies and Hydraulic Pump
Feathering Pump
Brush Block
Drain Tubes
Torque Tube Isolator
Air Intake
Engine Seal Assy
Hydraulic Pump Seal Drain
Fuel Flow Transmitter
Oil Drains
Fuel Lines on the Engine
Spray Pipe for Air Intake
Engine Mounts
Engine Mounts - Rear Isolators
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Fan
Compressor
Fuel Control
Hydraulic pump
AC generator
Fuel burners
Combustion chamber
Turbines LP & HP
Exhaust
Fire Zones.
Figure 19.28.
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All fire zones are sealed from adjacent areas. Fire resistant rubber seals are fitted to
the edges of all doors, panels and bulkhead fittings to prevent fire spreading. Each
of the zones will be ventilated to prevent the build up gases or pressure and to cool
the outer casing of the engine and accessories. Fire break in panels will be built in
to allow the use of external fire extinguishers, these may also operate as blow out
doors to prevent pressure build up in the zone.
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To prepare an aircraft for engine removal, check that the aircraft weight and balance
will not be adversely effected when the engine is removed. Most engines weigh
between 0.5 and 1 ton. Trestles may be required to stabilise the fore and aft axis of
the aircraft.
The aircraft fuel system does not have to be drained, but the LP fuel valve must
closed and a label attached to the LP Cock handle, in the flightdeck, to prevent
inadvertent operation. In addition, the aircraft should be made electrically safe
which will entail isolation of the engine starting and ignition system.
Planning is an essential part of any engine removal activity. The Supervisor and
personnel involved, should ensure that all necessary resources, such as sufficient
manpower, special tools, lifting equipment and an engine transit / storage stand, are
available.
The engine access doors and fairings will either have to be removed or supported
clear of the engine.
Due to restricted access of some engine accessories and components, it is, in some
cases, much easier to remove these items with the engine installed in the aircraft.
Once the engine has been initially prepared for removal (accessories removed etc)
the procedure of disconnecting the engine systems, at the engine/ aircraft interface,
can begin. Most engines employ quick release plugs and sockets for ease of
disconnection of the electrical systems, however some electrical systems, with
heavier duty cables, such as the starter and generator cables, may be bolted
connections. Disconnect any cable cleats going across the engine / airframe
interface.
The hydraulic pipes are usually quick release/self-sealing connections at both the
hydraulic pump and the engine / airframe interface. Air supply connections will
generally interface with a vee band type of clamp or a bolted connection.
The engine LP fuel inlet pipe must be drained, before disconnection, into a suitable
container and the waste fuel disposed off in an approved manner. With the
exception of the main engine bearers, all mechanical links must be released and
either removed or tied back to prevent fouling during the removal operation.
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Bae 146 Engine Lift Equipment. Note. The Nose Cowling is attached to the
Engine and is Removed Later.
Figure 19.29.
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If the engine is not being replaced or refitted immediately, all open pipes must be
blanked off to prevent foreign particle ingress and all electrical plugs tied back and
protected.
Once satisfied that the engine is ready for removal the lifting equipment can be
fitted in accordance with the AMM. Jet engines are installed and removed utilising
gantry cranes, mobile cranes or in many cases by use of 2,3 or 4 mini hoists.
Whatever method is used the lifting equipment must be inspected before use.
Particular attention should be paid to ensuring that the equipment has approval
documentation and is of the correct safe working load for the task. Cables should
not show evidence of twisting or fraying and end fittings should be free of damage,
corrosion etc. When mini hoists are used, the brake and clutch mechanisms of
each hoist should be functionally checked and that the correct hoist is being used
as similar units are rated at different settings.
Supervisors should double check that all the lifting equipment is serviceable and
correctly fitted prior to commencing the removal process. The supervisor should
also carry out a final check of the engine / airframe disconnect points to satisfy
himself/herself that the engine and equipment is safe for removal.
Each winch / hoist is to be manned at all times during the removal process and at
least one person who can check the engine to ensure it remains in a safe condition
during removal. The supervisor must ensure that all team members are fully aware
of the process and briefed on what is required of each individual. All instructions
should be given in a clear and unambiguous manner and where hand signals are
required, all members can see the supervisor and are aware of their meaning. Only
the supervisor of the task should issue instructions during the process and
unnecessary talk and noise (i.e. riveting operations in vicinity) minimised or
stopped.
Immediately prior to removing the engine and finally releasing the engine mounts /
attachments, the weight of the engine must be taken by the lifting equipment. This
will ensure that there is no unnecessary jerking or snatching of the cables. With
mini hoists this is achieved by winching the cable in until the clutch in the handle
breaks (Always re-engage the handle before progressing further). At this point the
effectiveness of the brake unit in the mini hoist should be checked following the
relevant manufacturers procedures. Once the supervisor is satisfied that all
procedures have been followed correctly and that all resources are in place the
engine mountings / bearers can be disconnected and the engine removed / lowered
from its housing. At all stages of the removal procedure checks should be carried
out to ensure that the engine does not become caught on the airframe structure or
components.
WARNING
NEVER WALK UNDER A SUSPENDED LOAD. EVERY EFFORT SHOULD BE
TAKEN TO MINIMISE THE TIME NECESSARY TO CARRY OUT ANY
MAINTENANCE BENEATH A SUSPENDED LOAD
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When lowering an engine using a mini hoist system, the weight of the engine should
always be taken by the winding handle and the brake should be released and held
off.
An engine stand should be positioned ready to accept the engine and any pins or
mounts, between the engine and its stand, connected prior to allowing the weight to
be removed from the winching system.
If the engine is to be replaced remove any further dress items that have not already
been removed. Complete and attach an equipment label to the engine detailing its
condition, life used, etc.
To avoid or minimise deformation on the aircraft structure due to removal of the
engine, it may be necessary to fit a component called a jury strut This requirement
will be clearly stated in the relevant procedure of the AMM.
Once removed further inspections on the engine and the nacelle will be carried out.
If the engine is to be returned to the manufacturer these will entail blanking of
exposed pipes and protection of exposed cables and components. If the engine is
to be refitted to the same aircraft then these checks, often referred to as bay
checks are more involved and are designed to ensure that the condition of the hard
to see areas of the engine and engine bay are thoroughly checked.
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19.7.2 FITTING
Prior to fit remove the label from the engine and attach it to the paperwork for
safekeeping. Check the engine over to ensure it is complete and check the label for
any tasks required before fit. Fit any dress items that need to be fitted prior to fit.
Check round the bay to ensure it is clear to fit the engine and remove the jury strut if
fitted. Check the lift gear is correctly installed and that it is serviceable.
Position the engine and correctly attach it to the lift gear (double check this).
Lifting the engine in follows the same basic rule as lowering. If using mini hoists
there is no need to operate the brake when hoisting as it ratchets. When the engine
nears the installed position the person in charge and his assistant will align the
mounts and fit the pins or bolts, this is a critical time and may require very small
movements on the lifting gear to allow the mounts to be connected. Great care and
concentration is required to prevent damage or injury. Do not use your finger to
check alignment as a very small movement of the engine could trap or sever it.
Once the mounts are made, and locked the lifting gear can be removed and the
engine systems and accessories can be reconnected which is the reverse of the
removal. Remember to fit new seals to the components.
After engine fit the electrical systems can be reset. The LP fuel valve opened and
the engine fuel system bled to remove any air. The engine oil system is then
checked and followed by an engine ground run. During the ground run leak and
performance checks are carried out to ensure that the engine is satisfactory. After
the run the chip detectors are checked and duplicate inspection is required on the
engine controls.
19.7.3 TURBO PROP ENGINE REMOVAL/FIT.
With a turboprop engine the prop would have to be removed prior to removal and
fitted after the engine is mounted. The prop would also have to be bled and
functioned prior to running to prevent damage.
19.7.4 FLIGHT TRANSIT
To allow an aircraft to return to a suitable base for an engine change, some multi
engine aircraft can be flown with one engine shut down. In the case of the BAE 146
it has sufficient power to take off and fly on 3 engines. To prevent damage to the
engine rotor locks are fitted to the LP and HP systems to prevent rotation. The
starting and ignition systems must be inhibited for that engine to prevent damage by
inadvertent selection.
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Intentionally Blank
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Give a rapid indication of condition with an audio warning for fire (bell), the audio
should have a cancellation facility and should be auto resetting.
Provide an indication that the fire is out or that the overheat condition no longer
exists.
Not automatically shut down the main power unit or operate the engine fire
extinguishers, it may however shut down the APU usually only when on the
ground.
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Resistance type firewire consists of a stainless steel tube with a centre wire
electrode, separating them is an insulating material of beads or powder. The
resistance of the insulating material decreases with an increase in temperature until,
at the warning temperature, sufficient current passes to operate the warning circuit.
The element is fed with a current from a control box that also produces the output for
the warning system.
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The operating principle is the gas law i.e. pressure increases with temperature.
As the helium in the sensor tube senses an overall temperature increase, its
pressure is proportionately raised. Then a pressure switch operates to couple an
electrical supply to the fire or overheat warning.
The sensing element is pre-pressurised with helium and this lower pressure is
monitored by another pressure switch that will if the base pressure is lost, indicate a
failure of the sensing system.
Should a localised temperature be experienced, which was of a value considerably
above that needed to activate an overall temperature warning, a central core of
titanium hydride will release hydrogen the tube. This action is sufficient to raise the
pressure and initiate the fire warnings. As the temperature reduces the central core
will re-absorb the hydrogen.
Note:
The detector is a hermetically sealed unit. Any attempt at disassemble it may cause
serious damage and is likely to render the unit inoperative.
By shutting the engine down, the fire or overheat warning should cancel as the
temperature drops.
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One continuous loop clipped round the engine cowl in the most fire vulnerable areas.
20.2.5 DUAL LOOP
This is two independent systems usually running parallel round the engine cowl in
the most fire vulnerable areas.
Each fire zone has dual sensing loops. Each loop, A or B, is independent of the
other.
On some aircraft only one system is used at a time, the other being held as a spare.
Some aircraft can use both loops at the same time, only giving a warning when both
loops sense the overheat condition. (Figure 20.5)
When the loop selector switch is selected to BOTH, loop A and loop B must detect
a fire condition before the warning system will be activated.
If only one loop detects a fire condition while the selector is at BOTH a fire warning
will not be given (some systems can give a lower grade indication of this happening).
If the selector is switched to a single loop position (A or B), full fire warnings will be
given if the selected loop senses fire conditions.
Loop Mounting.
Figure 20.4.
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Dual loop fire warning systems are used to prevent spurious warnings, they consist
of two identical systems. Both loops are required to detect the fire condition in order
to initiate the fire warning, if only one loop detects the fire condition, only a loop
light will illuminate. The following example shows the indications you would see on
an electronic instrument system (Figure 20.6.)(E.I.C.A.S. engine indication crew
alerting system), or as shown E.C.A.M. (electronic centralised monitoring system).
In the example shown, the fire detection system provides the flight deck with nacelle
temperature, loop faults, over-temperature and fire indication and warnings.
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In this system the extinguishant bottle has only one outlet from the neck and is
connected to one engine only. If the operation of that cylinder fails to suppress the
fire, nothing can be done unless another bottle is fitted as a back up.
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The extinguishant cylinder in a two shot system has two outlets from the neck and
each outlet supplies extinguishant to a different engine.
Each outlet is operated independently by a suitably marked firing button situated in
the cockpit.
When the first shot button is pressed, the relative extinguisher will discharge its
contents via a Directional Flow valve to the required fire zone.
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In this type of system, there are two separate extinguisher bottles for each engine,
each having a single outlet, to the same engine.
The system operates in the same way as the two shot system.
Figure 20.10
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20.5 EXTINGUISHERS
Extinguishers vary in construction but are normally comprised of two main
components: the steel or copper container and the discharge or operating head.
CARTRIDGE
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The safety discharge connection is capped at the inboard side of the structure with a
red indicating disk. If the temperature rises beyond a predetermined safe value, the
disk will rupture, dumping the agent overboard. A mechanical indicator is fitted to
the outlet of the overboard vent.(Fig 20.14.)
A pipe is connected between the indicator and the pressure relief outlet on the
extinguisher. When discharge occurs, the extinguishant flows along the pipe and
blows out the sealing plug and nylon disc revealing the bright red interior of the bowl.
The sealing plug prevents the ingress of moisture that could corrode the rupture disk
and cause premature leakage.
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Very dependent upon the type and size of engine installation, typical system shown
in figure 20.15.
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In most systems the extinguishant will dissipate in a few seconds. More recently a
system has been developed which will discharge in 1 to 2 seconds. This system is
known as HRD (high rate of discharge).
20.5.5 EXTINGUISHANT
Older aircraft use Methyl Bromide as the extinguishing agent, this has been replaced
by BCF (Bromochlorodifluoromethane) Halon 1301. Both of these chemicals are
CFCs and are banned under the Montreal Protocol. A recent amendment to this
document has allowed their continued use in aircraft until a suitable alternative is
found or existing stocks run out. CO 2 is sometimes used however it does form snow
when released which can cause hot metal components to explode so its use is
limited.
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Fire T Handle.
Figure 20.16.
An alarm bell control permits any one of the engine fire detection circuits to energise
the common alarm bell. After the alarm bell sounds, it can be silenced by activating
the audio cut-out switch or pressing either of the red alert flashers. The bell can still
respond to a fire signal from any of the other circuits.
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Most fire protection systems for turbine engine aircraft also include a test switches
and circuitry that permit the entire detection system to be tested.
Fire Test.
Figure 20.18.
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Mechanical in operation.
Electrical in operation.
Electrical indicators are used in several types of aircraft and consist of indicating
fuse indicators, magnetic indicators and warning lights. These are connected in the
electrical circuits of each extinguisher so that when the circuits are energised, they
provide indication that the appropriate cartridge units have been fired. In some
aircraft, pressure switches are mounted on the extinguishers and are connected to
indicator lights, which come on when the extinguisher pressure reduces to a
predetermined value. Pressure switches may also be connected in the discharge
lines to indicate actual discharge as opposed to discharge initiation at the
extinguishers.
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A fuse indicator has a pellet of coloured wax around heating element, when electrical
power is applied to the element the wax vaporises and spreads itself all over the
clear plastic indicator dome.
20.8 CARTRIDGES OR SQUIBS
These devices are the electrical detonators that fire the bottles. These detonators
are explosive devices and special precautions apply when handling and transporting
them. Prior to fit a No Volts Test must be carried out to the fire system wiring to
ensure that it will not go off when connected. When handling the cartridges do not
touch the pins as a static discharge could fire it, ensure that you are earthed and are
not wearing clothing that is generating large amounts of static. They should be
transported and stored in steel boxes and in a secure manner.
On some aircraft a squib test is provided, when pressed provides a circuit through
the cartridge with a current flow low enough to prevent firing the squib, but sufficient
to illuminate a green light if the squib is serviceable. Do not press the fire button to
do this test!
20.8.1 LIFE CONTROL OF SQUIBS
The service life of fire extinguisher discharge cartridges is calculated from the
manufacturers date stamp, which is usually placed on the face of the cartridge. The
cartridge service life recommended by the manufacturer is usually in terms of hours
below a predetermined temperature limit. Cartridges are available with a service life
of approximately 5,000 hours.
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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Diagram of Fokker 100 Aircraft showing the Engine running danger areas at idle
and full power.
Figure 21.1.
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Particular attention should be paid to the positioning of the aircraft and its ground
support equipment (GSE). The aircraft should be facing into wind and securely
chocked (possibly with the front and rear chocks tied together). The visual and free
movement of both compressor and turbine should be checked, and the engine air
intake examined for loose articles. The areas to the front and rear of the aircraft
should be checked for loose articles and spilt fuel, which could cause a hazard to
the aircraft during the run.
The technical log must be checked to ensure that no outstanding entries will
jeopardise the operation or function of other aircraft systems. Other entries may
require functional checks to be carried during the ground run, which may also
require involvement in the run of other tradesmen. Ground support equipment
should be positioned to ensure their safe operation and movement, if required,
during the start and run.
21.2 STARTING
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The person(s) operating the controls during starting and running must be familiar
with the controls, instruments and limitations associated with the engines. In
particular they should be aware of the limitations imposed upon the engines turbine
temperature during start.
If the start is to be made from the aircraft batteries, ensure they are fully charged. If
a ground power unit is to be used, it must be appropriate for the aircraft and must
be correctly connected. If the starter requires air, then the APU will be required or a
suitable air-cart attached correctly to the aircraft.
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Starting procedures will vary depending on aircraft type and installation hence, the
AMM must always be referred to. The example that follows (Fig. 21.4. refers) is
however typical and will serve as a general guide:
1. Set all controls and switches etc. as per AMM.
2. Switch on electrical power.
3. Carry out relevant flightdeck safety checks i.e. Brakes on, Engine fire warning
tests etc.
4. Low pressure fuel valve (LP) [sometimes called the LP cock] check open.
5. Contact Air Traffic Control on the radio, giving location, type of run and number
of people on board.
6. Switch on the aircraft booster pumps.
7. Confirm clear to start from safety man.
8. Select start master switch to on, the aircraft systems will be put into starting
mode.
9. Select start
At this point the starting sequence becomes semi automatic.
10. The starter begins to rotate the compressor (HP if multi shaft) to provide a flow
of air through the engine.
11. The engine ignitors are energised.
Observing the engines RPM, when this reaches a speed of approximately 10
20%, advance the high pressure fuel valve to open either by moving the throttle or
the HP cock lever (on aircraft with a separate lever) to the fuel on or ground idle
(GI) position. The engine speed will increase as the starter motor continues its
acceleration; fuel will be supplied to the atomisers and will be burnt in the
combustion chambers. Light up will occur which will be indicated by a rapid rise in
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT).
12. The rise in gas temperature will cause the air within the combustion chamber to
expand which when passed through the turbine will assist the acceleration.
13. During this phase the oil pressure should start to rise.
14. As the engine accelerates it will reach a point called the self-sustaining speed;
this is the minimum speed at which the engine can run unassisted.
15. Once above self-sustaining speed the starter and ignition will cut out
automatically, and the engine will accelerate to ground idle under the control of
the fuel system.
It is during this phase of the acceleration when there is a great risk of exceeding the
maximum starting temperature of the engine, so vigilance is required to monitor the
EGT.
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16. The engine should settle quickly at ground idle. At this point the other flight deck
indications should be checked to ensure the start was successful, i.e. the starter
and ignition should have cut out, oil pressure should be in range (fig. 21.5),
check N1,or propeller, or rotor speed.
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17. If only one engine is to be started, the Start Master Switch should be switched
Off and electric fuel pumps switched on to support the running engine.
21.3 UNSATISFACTORY STARTS
Unsatisfactory starts can be broadly categorised in the following three areas:
1. Hot starts.
These occur when the EGT exceeds the manufacturers specified limits. They
normally result from too rich a fuel/air ratio. The engine should be shut down
immediately. It is good practice to shut down before the limit is reached if possible
to prevent overswing . Improper ratio of fuel/air may be caused by a malfunction in
the fuel control unit (FCU), incorrect use of the throttle, or a restriction of the air flow
into the intake, i.e. ice, snow, cross wind etc. Manufacturers will list the degrees of
overtemperature limits in terms of time and temperature rather than stating a
specific overtemperature (fig.21.6.).
Overtemperature
Limits During Starting.
Figure 21.6.
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2. Hung Start.
After light up the engine RPM does not increase to ground idle, but remains at some
lower value. The EGT may stabilise or continue to rise (sometimes rapidly). Again
EGT must be monitored closely and the engine shut down if limits are exceeded.
Hung starts are often caused by insufficient power to the starter motor, or the starter
cutting out too soon. It could also be caused by rotational stiffness within the
rotating system, which may be caused by the engine or one of its accessories.
3. No Start.
The engine does not light up as indicated by no increase in RPM or EGT. This
could be the result of a faulty starter motor, insufficient power to the starter motor,
faulty ignition system or even a problem with the FCU, engine fuel system or
possibly the aircraft fuel system.
For any of the above, the limitations laid down in the AMM and Company
Procedures must be adhered to.
21.4 ENGINE STOPPING.
Normal shut down of a gas turbine engine is accomplished simply by closing the
throttle (and/or HP cock) to the fuel off position. This should be followed by
switching off the aircraft fuel booster pumps. There are however other factors to
consider which will depend upon the operation of the engine prior to shut down.
If the engine has been operating at high power for any length of time a three to five
minute cooling period at ground idle is usually recommended prior to shut down.
The shroud casing and turbine rotors do not cool down at the same rate after shut
down. The turbine shroud casing, cooling at a faster rate may shrink onto the still
rotating rotor and cause damage.
Run down time should be monitored in terms of the time taken to stop, the
manufacturers will give a recommended time, also check for unusual noises;
compressor rub, turbine rub and accessory drives. Assuming all is well, all controls
and switches should be positioned in accordance with the AMM and electrical
power selected off.
Remember to inform Air Traffic that the run has been completed.
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Take-off (T.O.)
Parameters
Turbojet and turbofan engines can be measured via Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
or Fan Speed (N1). Turboprop and turboshaft engine power is measured via Torque
produced.
In the majority of cases the Take-off (T.O.) rating will be a part throttle rating. This
means that T.O. thrust will be obtained at throttle settings below the full throttle
position. The reason for establishing a rating for a particular engine is quite simply
to accommodate the various atmospheric conditions under which the engine will be
operating.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR).
Figure 21.7. shows the manufacturers published tables which must be used to
establish the engine is producing its certified T.O. thrust under varying temperature
and altitude conditions.
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Full rating
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Take-off (wet)
Take-off (dry)
Maximum
Continuous This rating is the maximum thrust certified for continuous
Thrust (MCT)
use. This rating is used at the pilots discretion, to ensure
continued, safe operation of the aircraft. MCT is used as
the maximum normal thrust available throughout the
majority of the flight, and is used when a rapid climb rate
is needed (see Figure 21.9.).
Maximum Cruise (MCZ)
Ground Idle (GI)/ Flight These are not rating as such, but throttle positions that
Idle (FI)
are suitable positions for minimum power operations on
the ground or in flight. Ground idle which is usually a
fixed stop, provides a core engine RPM which will ensure
the driven accessories, electrical, hydraulic and
pneumatic, as well as providing a comfortable taxi thrust.
This applies to flight idle, but must also include the
effects of ram air and altitude as well. On approach the
engine must be capable of acceleration from flight idle to
full power within a maximum time limit of 5 seconds
without surging. The flight idle RPM is set to a value
where this requirement can be met. This can seriously
affect the airframe design, as there may be too much
thrust on the approach, so high drag devices may be
needed to keep the approach speed as low as possible.
Flight idle is a moveable stop which is usually activated
by the aircraft weight sensing system, it may also have
more than one position if the air bleed loads affect the
acceleration time.
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Engine Trend Monitoring Sheet Filled Out on Each Flight by the Crew.
Figure 21.14.
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EPR
N1
N2
TGT
Fuel Flow
Oil Pressure/Temperature
Vibration
These figures can then be transferred onto a graph that will serve to identify the
normal/abnormal trends the engine may be developing. By utilising this method of
monitoring the operator will be better able to predict the rate of deterioration in
engine performance and to instigate some form of maintenance to correct and reestablish normal performance. The graphic trend charts can of course be produced
be produced by a computer, and most modern turbine engined aircrafts engine
performance is automatically recorded during flight. The recorded data is then
downloaded and processed and then analysed either manually using charts or
automatically by computer. The common term used for this type of monitoring
system is Engine Condition Monitoring (ECM). Some airlines use this system to
monitor pilot performance when handling engines, as fuel burn and engine life are
two major costs, inappropriate operation can lead to further training and/or loss of
job! Figure 21.15. shows a trend monitoring graph for an ALF 502 engine using
data collected from the forms (fig. 21.14.)
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Inspecting and monitoring the engine for deterioration or damage is a vital part of
aircraft maintenance. The inspections can be broken down into two main areas, Air
washed and Oil washed. Many of the inspection techniques involved are non
destructive of a component/system in order to determine its serviceability.
Techniques in common use include inspection and monitoring via:
Visual inspection
Boroscope inspection
Vibration analysis
Noise analysis
Visual inspection
There are three basic routine inspections to which gas turbine engines are
subjected:
Inspection of intake, IGVs, Fan blades and First stage compressor for signs of
damage.
Inspection of exhaust unit, rear turbine stage and thrust reversers (if fitted) for
signs of damage, cracks, and discoloration etc.
Inspect inside and out of the cowlings for fuel, oil and air leakage from the
engine and its accessories.
Oil level checks are carried out with defined times after shut down and form part of
the daily inspection which also includes a more detailed inspection covering the pre
flight inspection areas.
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Inspection of fuel nozzles, combustion chambers, ignitors, exhaust unit etc for
signs of damage, cracks, leaks discoloration and burning etc.
Inspect for buckling, twisting and damage to the jet pipe and reversers, incuding
the correct functioning of moving parts.
Boroscope Inspection
Boroscope inspections involve looking at components within an engine using an
optical probe. The probes are inserted in to the engine through ports in the engine
casings, and can be rigid or flexible, the choice being dependant on the difficulty at
obtaining a satisfactory view of the required features. Some of these inspection
ports are the attachment points of other functional devices that intrude into the
engine (e.g. ignitor plugs or temperature probes) but on more modern engines there
are usually several purpose made ports for boroscope inspections.
A Rigid Boroscope.
Figure 21.16.
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In general the boroscope inspection technique saves many hours of work and can
reduce the down time of the aircraft in many cases, disassembly and reassemble of
the engine not being required. The boroscope is essentially an eyepiece connected
to a rigid or flexible tube. The tube contains fibre optic cables that carry light and
therefore visual images, even when the tube is made to bend through considerable
angles. A second fibre optic cable within the tube carries light from a bright light
source to illuminate the target. At the end of the tube there will be a viewing lens,
with a light source lens nearby. Most flexible probes have a steerable tip which
allows the operator to steer toward the target, and the lens is mounted in the tip to
view straight ahead. Rigid probes may have prisms behind the lens to allow the
probe to view at right angles or 45 to the probe.
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The operator inserts the probe into the appropriate port to view the internal
components. Some techniques require the use of guide tubes to ensure that a
steerable probe is going in the right direction. Ports are usually designed into the
compressor, turbine and combustion sections of the engine. On the viewing end of
the boroscope there will be the controls for the steerable tip (flexible probe) and to
allow the operator to focus the probe. It is more usual these days to find a video
camera attached to the eyepiece so that a recording of the inspection can be made.
The video is presented on a television screen that allows a much bigger picture and
also more than one person to view the screen. The recording is useful as
sometimes it is very difficult to find or reproduce a view that may fleetingly pass and
which gives you concern, also should a problem be observed it can be dispatched
to the manufacturer for analysis by their experts. When turning the engine careful
counting of the blades or number of turns of the hand turning point is required to
ensure that all of the blades have been viewed.
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Boroscope probes are very delicate and expensive pieces of equipment and great
care is needed when using them. It is very easy to damage a probe if it is inserted
between rotor and stator blades, even to the point of cutting the end off the probe! If
this is the technique you are using you may need to lock the rotor to prevent the risk
of damage. If the technique requires the engine to be rotated, i.e. to check the
turbine blades, then a port and probe which does not go through the blades is
required. Remember when outside very little wind can cause the rotor to move!
Interpretation of boroscope images is not always as easy as it might sound. The
viewer is very small which can make tiny cracks look like the Grand Canyon!
Equally relatively small distances can appear distant when viewed. These make it
difficult when assessing a component which is close to a limit, and may require you
to look at a similar object with the naked eye to make a proportional judgement.
Most companies require special approval for people to carry out boroscoping.
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NH Compressor Inspection.
Figure 21.24.
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Lubrication Systems
With oil washed components, any mechanical wear from contacting surfaces, gears,
bearings etc. will produce debris which will be carried within the oil circulating round
the engine. Analysis of this debris can provide a very useful method of assessing
any trends in wear from the internal engine components. Analysis can involve a
number of different methods.
Magnetic Detector Plug Debris Analysis
The magnetic chip detectors (MCDs), are small, permanent magnets installed in the
scavenge/return lines of the engine oil system. They will attract ferrous debris from
the oil. At specified intervals they are removed and visually inspected.
As a general rule, the presence of small, fuzzy particles or grey metallic paste is
considered satisfactory and the result of normal wear. Metallic chips or flakes
however are an indication of a more serious nature requiring more in depth
investigation.
Some organisations have specialised departments that, by examining debris under
a microscope can, by virtue of shape, size, colour and marks determine quite
accurately where the debris is from; ball bearing, roller bearing, gear teeth etc. They
may also utilise a Debris Tester which will provide a means of measuring
(magnetically) the mass of the debris produced. The figure gleaned can then be
transferred to a graph which will indicate the normal /abnormal amounts of debris
the engine is generating. A sudden increase in the amount of debris observed either
visually or by graphs generated from debris tester figures may result in more
frequent inspections of MCDs, or , in extreme cases, engine removal for
subsequent strip examination.
An indicating type of chip detector may be used to give a warning in the flight deck if
and when excessive debris is present. Basically the detector has two probes which
if connected by the debris act as a switch to bring on a warning.
A much newer type of chip detector is the electric pulsed chip detector, which can
discriminate between wear debris particles considered non-failure related, and large
wear debris particles, which could be an indication of a more serious nature.
Operating in a similar way to the indicating type chip detector, if the warning light
illuminates, an electrical charge can be instigated either manually or automatically
across the gap. Small wear debris particles will be burnt off and the light will
extinguish. Large wear debris particles will however not burn off and the warning
light will remain on.
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(A) In line type scavenge magnetic oil chip detector (non-indicating). (B) Chip
accumulation
of ferrous particles. (C) Comparison between standard, pulsed and
detector showing
detector
auto indicating chip
Magnetic Chip Detectors.
s.
Figure 21.25.
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Oil Spectrometer.
Figure 21.26.
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21.7.4 INSPECTIONS
Maintenance covers both the work that is required to maintain the engine and its
systems in an airworthy condition while installed in the aircraft, and the work
required to return the engine to an airworthy condition after removal from the aircraft
for overhaul. Comprehensive instructions covering the actual work to be done are
contained in the relevant sections of the aircrafts maintenance manual (AMM) for
installed engines, frequently referred to as on wing maintenance and the
component maintenance manual (CMM) for uninstalled engines. Both sources of
maintenance information are based on the manufacturers recommendations, which
in turn are approved by the appropriate airworthiness authority.
The maximum time an engine can remain on wing is limited to a fixed period
agreed between the engine manufacturer and the airworthiness authority. This
period is often referred to as the Time Between Overhaul period (TBO) and on
reaching this limit the engine must be removed for overhaul. Because the TBO is
actually determined by the life of a few major more critical assemblies within the
engine this means that other assemblies can continue in service for much longer
periods based on an on condition monitoring process. Basically this means that a
life is not declared for a total engine, but only for the more critical assemblies.
Less critical assemblies on reaching their life limit are replaced on wing or are
inspected to ascertain that they are in a condition, which will allow them to continue
in service. It is the on condition items which concern the aircraft maintenance
engineer (AME) being the checks, inspections, and examinations that are required
on wing. On wing maintenance falls into two categories, scheduled maintenance
and unscheduled maintenance.
Scheduled Maintenance Checks.
These embrace the periodic and recurring checks that have to be carried out in
accordance with the maintenance schedule and an example is shown in figure
21.27
Unscheduled Maintenance Checks.
These cover work not normally related to scheduled maintenance or time limits. Bird
strikes, lightning strikes, heavy landings will result in unscheduled checks being
carried out. Defects, trouble shooting and even manufacturers specific requirements
regarding repair, and adjustments etc. will also require unscheduled maintenance.
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Section of Maintenance Programme for BAe 146 for Oil System Components.
Figure 21.27.
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AMEs will invariably find that for most inspections the engine is divided into two
main sections, the cold section (compressor, diffuser, fan, IGVs etc.) and the hot
section (combustion chambers, burners, turbines, NGVs, exhaust unit, etc.).
Cold Section Inspections.
Damage to fan blades, IGVs and compressor blades can cause engine failure and
possible loss of the aircraft. Much of the damage to this section of the engine is
brought about by the ingestion of Foreign Objects into the intakes, hence the term
Foreign Object Damage (FOD). The quality of air close to ground level or sea level
leaves a lot to be desired. It is filled with tiny particles of dirt, soot, sand salt, oil and
other foreign matter.
The large volume of air being drawn inwards, then centrifuged outwards can result
in a coating forming on the compressor casing and stators as well as the fan and
rotors. This accumulation of dirt reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of the
compressor resulting in a deterioration of engine efficiency. Repeated ingestion can
also result in erosion of the compressor blades. It can even cause erosion and
damage to the hot section assemblies, NGVs, turbine blades, etc. If inspection
reveals an accumulation of dirt on the compressor it must be cleared. Some
maintenance schedules will schedule regular periodicitys for cleaning. An example
of this is shown in Figure 21.28.
Operating
Environment
Nature of
Wash
Recommended
Frequency
Recommended
Method
Remarks
Continuously
salt laden
Desalination
Daily
Motoring
Occassionally
salt laden
Desalination
Weekly
Motoring
Strongly
recommended.
Adjust washing frequency to
suit condition.
All
Performance
Recovery
100 to 200
hours
Motoring or
Running
Strongly recommended.
Performance recovery
required less frequently.
Adjust washing frequency to
suit engine operating
conditions as indicated by
engine condition monitoring
system. Motoring wash for
light soil and multiple
motoring or running wash
for heavy soil is
recommended.
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Two Methods of combating the effect of dirty compressors are in use. The fluid
cleaning process and the abrasive grit cleaning process.
Fluid Cleaning.
This procedure involves spraying an emulsive type surface cleaning fluid into the
compressor whilst the engine is turning either on the starter motor or at low RPM.
This is followed by a rinsing solution being applied. This process would be used to
restore engine performance as is commonly referred to as a performance recovery
wash. To remove salt deposits a water wash only may be required. This process is
termed a de-salination wash. A schematic view of equipment that might be used is
shown in figure 21.29.
Fluid Cleaning.
Figure 21.29
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Abrasive Grit.
This method of compressor cleaning involves injecting an abrasive grit into the
engine at selected power settings ( Figure 21.30.)grit used may be ground walnut
shell or apricot pits. The type and amount of material and the operational
procedures will be described in the AMM. The main advantage of this procedure is
that allows the time between cleaning to be extended because it produces a better
result. However because the grit is mostly burned up in the combustion zone of the
engine, it will not give an effective cleaning of the turbine blades and vanes as the
fluid.
Compressor Damage.
Foreign objects often enter engine air intakes either accidentally or through
carelessness. Items such as pens, pencils cigarette lighters etc. can be drawn out
of pockets and ingested by the engine. The compressor could be damaged beyond
repair. Likewise, tools left in engine intakes could be drawn in causing damage.
Prior to starting an engine therefore, the AME should ensure that all tools used in
the vicinity of the intakes are free of any foreign objects and the area in front of
intakes should be cleared of any loose stones or rubbish . Examples of the typical
types of damage to be found on compressor blades is shown in Figure 21.31. and
possible causes of damage and the terminology used in Figure 21.32.
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The majority of cold section inspections will require the use of a strong light source
and sometimes a small mirror. If however doubt exists as regard the extent of
damage, then a boroscope inspection would be instigated. Always observe the
safety precautions associated with working in the intake. Ensure that the flightdeck
is suitably placarded informing other personnel that you are in the intake. Tripping of
C/Bs may be required by the manufacturer in order to isolate the starting and
ignition circuits. A safety man may be required whos job it will be to look after your
interest. Dont get sucked in!!!
Hot Section Inspections (HSIs)
The hot section includes all components in the combustion and turbine sections of
the engine. Scheduled inspections may involve visual inspection of hot section
components, and limited dimensional checks and fits and clearances as called up in
the maintenance schedule and described in the AMM. The term hot section
inspection is usually interpreted to indicate a time related inspection of the hot
section components. It may also be required following an over-temperature
condition or hot start.
Some more in depth HSIs will require the removal of major components of the hot
section. The modular construction of most modern gas turbine engine (Figure
21.34) will enable this removal element of the task to be carried out on the wing,
thus reducing the down time. To reduce this down time figure even more, some
operators maintain a stock of hot section modules that are ready for immediate
replacement, the removed item being returned for inspection to the operators
overhaul facility.
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An Exhaust System.
Figure 21.42.
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Vibration Analysis
Gas turbine engines have extremely low levels of vibration compared to piston
engines. Changes in vibration levels could occur therefore without being noticed. To
assist the operator in identifying increasing vibration level, most engines are fitted
with vibration indicators that continually monitor the vibration level of the engine.
The indication is normally a milliammeter that receives its signals from an engine
mounted transmitter via an amplifier. Analysis of engine vibration signals is an
important tool for the detection of early failure in mechanical components.
Engine Vibration Monitoring (EVM) System.
This may take the form of a solid state circuit device utilising the piezoelectric effect.
The device consists of quartz discs with a metallic pattern deposited on them and,
arranged such that they serve as a flexible diaphragm. When subjected to pressure
changes the resultant flexing sets up an electrical polarisation in the discs, so that
electrical charges are produced relative to the amount of flexing. The electrical
charges are routed, via an amplifier to the flightdeck indicator. This is calibrated in
inches per second (IPS). On some engines there will be more than one sensor,
enabling switching if one fails. Yet another useful variation is the wide and narrow
band which means the readings can be either taken from over the whole range of
vibrations from the engine or by one or two major rotational assemblies such as N 1
and N2 spools. An example of this type is fitted to the RR Tay engine.
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The vibration transducer has two internal vibration pick-ups, a pick-up A and B.
each pick-up gives a voltage proportional to the acceleration or deceleration of the
vibration.
The vibration transducer is on the IP compressor casing. This casing is the
housing for bearings of the HP and LP shaft.
The engine vibration signal conditioner is a single unit for both engines. It
processes the output of the engine vibration transducers for indication. The
engine vibration signal conditioner gives two modes of vibration indication,
tracked and broadband.
Tracked Indication
The tracked mode shows vibration of the N 1 and N2 shaft. The engine vibration
signal conditioner tunes two filters with an input of the N 1 and N2 RPM indicator
generators. Both filters connect to one pick-up of the vibration transducer, the
other is standby. The VIB pushswitch on the ENGINE panel controls the active
pick-up of the vibration transducer.
Broadband Indication
The broadband mode is an alternative mode. Vibration of the total power plan t is
shown. In this mode the output of both pick-ups in the vibration transducer goes
through broadband filters. A semi-guarded switch selects the tracked or
broadband mode.
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The fuel used in turbine engines usually contains a small quantity of water which, if
left in the system, could cause corrosion. All the fuel should therefore be removed
and replaced with an approved inhibiting oil by one of the following methods:
Motoring Method.
This should be used on all installed engines where it is convenient to turn the
engine using the normal starting system. A header tank is used to supply inhibiting
oil through a suitable pipe to the engine. A filter and an on/off cock are incorporated
in the supply pipe, which should be connected to the low pressure inlet to the
engine fuel system and the aircraft LP cock closed. After draining the engine fuel
filter a motoring run should be carried out bleeding the high pressure pump and fuel
control unit, and operating the HP cock several times while the engine is turning.
Neat inhibiting oil will eventually be discharged through the fuel system and
combustion chamber drains. When the motoring run is complete the bleeds should
be locked, the oil supply pipe disconnected and all apertures sealed or blanked off.
Pressure Rig Method.
This may be used on an engine which is installed either in the aircraft or in an
engine stand. A special rig is used which circulates inhibiting oil through the engine
fuel system at high pressure. The fuel filter should be drained and, where
appropriate, the aircraft LP cock closed. The inlet and outlet pipes from the rig
should be connected to the high pressure fuel pump pressure tapping and the
system low pressure inlet respectively, and the rig pump turned on. While oil is
flowing through the system the components should be bled and the HP cock
operated several times. When neat inhibiting oil flows from the combustion chamber
drains the rig should be switched off and disconnected, the bleed valves locked and
all apertures sealed or blanked off.
Gravity Method.
This is used when the engine cannot be turned. A header tank similar to the one
used in the motoring method is required but in this case the feed pipe is provided
with the fittings necessary for connection at several positions in the engine fuel
system. The fuel filter should first be drained then the oil supply pipe connected to
each of the following positions in turn, inhibiting oil being allowed to flow through the
adjacent pipes and components until all fuel is expelled:
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Burner Manifold.
(d)
Components should be bled at the appropriate time and the HP cock operated
several times when inhibiting the fuel control unit. All bleeds and apertures should
be secured when the system is full of inhibiting oil.
22.1.2 PACKING.
The engine should be securely attached to its transportation stand, all blanks fitted
and apertures taped over to prevent the ingress of moisture. A compartment is
usually provided on the stand for the documents relating to the engine, and any
other information considered relevant should also be included. If the engine has
been removed because of suspected internal failure, any metal found in the filters,
broken blades or other evidence should also be packed for examination during
overhaul.
Engines are wrapped in a hermetically sealed moisture-proof bag which should be
examined before covering the engine. Any large tears or holes should be repaired
using the repair kit contained within the bag but small cuts may be repaired with
adhesive PVC tape. Sponginess of the bag material is caused by contamination
with oil or fluid and may sometimes be eliminated by washing with water. If the area
remains tacky after washing the bag should be rejected.
Some engines or components are packed into rigid containers of wood or metal
these will have a mounting frame within them. Wooden containers will require the
engine to be sealed in a moisture proof bag within the container however, metal
containers are usually sealed and pressurised to approx. 5 PSI and do not require a
bag.
Bags containing silica gel desiccant should be placed in the air intake and exhaust
unit and attached at convenient positions around the engine. Approximately 14 to
18 kg (30 to 40 lb) of desiccant will be required depending on the size of the engine
and the manufacturer may specify the use of VPI paper in addition (see Leaflet
BL/1-7). A humidity indicator should then be placed in the bag where it can be easily
seen and the bag sealed up. Where possible the humidity indicator should be
inspected at frequent intervals to ensure that the condition of the air inside the bag
is still `safe' (i.e. the colour of the indicator is blue). If an `unsafe' condition is shown
(i.e. the colour of the indicator is lilac or pink) the bag should be inspected and
repaired as necessary, and the desiccant renewed.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
22.1.3 STORAGE.
Complete engines and individual components should be kept in a clean, wellventilated store with an even temperature of 10 to 20 C. Components should be
stored in open racks in their original packing and rubber items kept away from
strong sunlight, oil, grease or heat sources. Any desiccant packs attached to stored
components should be checked frequently for moisture contamination.
With certain components (rubber seals, etc) the manufacturer may recommend that
the number of components in a stack is limited to a specific number to prevent
distortion.
Components that have a shelf life should be used in sequence, any that become
time expired being removed for overhaul, test and repacking.
Page 22-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
Intentionally Blank
Page 22-4