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18.02 Multivariable Calculus

Fall 2007

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18.02 Lecture 1. Thu, Sept 6, 2007

Handouts: syllabus; PS1; ashcards.

Goal of multivariable calculus: tools to handle problems with several parameters functions of
several variables.
) has a direction, and a length (|A
|). It is represented by
Vectors. A vector (notation: A
=
a directed line segment. In a coordinate system its expressed by components: in space, A

a1 , a2 , a3 = a1 + a2j + a3 k. (Recall in space x-axis points to the lower-left, y to the right, z up).
Scalar multiplication
Formula for length? Showedpicture of 3, 2, 1 and used ashcards to ask for its length. Most
students got the right answer ( 14).

| = a2 + a2 + a2 by reducing to the Pythagorean theorem in the

You can explain why |A
1
2
3
and its projection to the xy-plane, then derived |A
| from length
plane (Draw a picture, showing A
of projection + Pythagorean theorem).
+B
by head-to-tail addition: Draw a picture in a parallelogram (showed how
Vector addition: A

A
); addition works componentwise, and it is true that
the diagonals are A + B and B
on the displayed example.
= 3 + 2j + k
A
Dot product.

B
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (a scalar, not a vector).
Denition: A
B
= |A
||B
| cos .

Theorem: geometrically, A
A
= |A
|2 cos 0 = |A
|2 is consistent with the denition.
Explained the theorem as follows: rst, A
, B
, C
= A
B
. Then the law of cosines gives |C
|2 =
Next, consider a triangle with sides A
|2 + |B
|2 2|A
||B
| cos , while we get
|A
|2 = C
C
= (A
B
) (A
B
) = |A
|2 + |B|
2 2A
B.

|C
Hence the theorem is a vector formulation of the law of cosines.
B

A
Applications. 1) computing lengths and angles: cos =
.
||B
|
|A
Example: triangle in space with vertices P = (1, 0, 0), Q = (0, 1, 0), R = (0, 0, 2), nd angle at P :

1
PQ PR
1, 1, 0 1, 0, 2

= ,
cos = =
71.5 .
2
5
10
|P Q ||P R |
Note the sign of dot product: positive if angle less than 90 , negative if angle more than 90 ,
zero if perpendicular.
2) detecting orthogonality.
Example: what is the set of points where x + 2y + 3z = 0? (possible answers: empty set, a point,
a line, a plane, a sphere, none of the above, I dont know).
= 1, 2, 3,
Answer: plane; can see by hand, but more geometrically use dot product: call A

OP = x + 2y + 3z = 0 |A||
OP | cos = 0 = /2 A

OP . So we
P = (x, y, z), then A
.
get the plane through O with normal vector A

18.02 Lecture 2. Fri, Sept 7, 2007

Weve seen two applications of dot product: nding lengths/angles, and detecting orthogonality.
u
| cos is the component
= |A
is a unit vector, A
A third one: nding components of a vector. If u
along the direction of u
= component of A
along x-axis.
. E.g., A
of A
Example: pendulum making an angle with vertical, force = weight of pendulum F pointing
downwards: then the physically important quantities are the components of F along tangential
direction (causes pendulums motion), and along normal direction (causes string tension).
Area. E.g. of a polygon in plane: break into triangles. Area of triangle = 21 base height =
1
2 |A||B | sin (= 1/2 area of parallelogram). Could get sin using dot product to compute cos and
sin2 + cos2 = 1, but it gives an ugly formula. Instead, reduce to complementary angle = /2
= A
rotated 90 counterclockwise (drew a picture). Then area of parallelogram
by considering A
||B
| sin = |A
||B
| cos = A
B
.
= |A
= a1 , a2 , then what is A
? (showed picture, used ashcards). Answer: A
= a2 , a1 .
Q: if A
(explained on picture). So area of parallelogram is b1 , b2 a2 , a1 = a1 b2 a2 b1 .

a1 a2

= a1 b2 a2 b1 .
Determinant. Denition: det(A, B) =
b1 b2

a1 a2

= area of parallelogram.

Geometrically:

b1 b2

,
is counterclockwise
or clockwise from A
The sign of 2D determinant has to do with whether B
without details.

a1 a2 a3
b1 b2
b2 b3
b1 b3

b
b
b
Determinant in space: det(A, B, C) = 1 2 3 = a1

a
+a
c2 c3
2
c1 c3
3
c1 c2

c1 c2 c3

B,
C)
= volume of parallelepiped. Referred to the notes for more about
Geometrically: det(A,
determinants.
Cross-product. (only for 2 vectors in space); gives a vector, not a scalar (unlike dot-product).

j k

a2 a3
a1 a3
a1 a2

B
=
a1 a2 a3 =

Denition:
A

b2 b3
j

b1 b3
+ k
b1 b2
.

b1 b2 b3
(the 3x3 determinant is a symbolic notation, the actual formula is the expansion).
B
| = area of space parallelogram with sides A
, B
; direction = normal to
Geometrically: |A
and B
.
the plane containing A
How to decide between the two perpendicular directions = right-hand rule. 1) extend right hand
; 2) curl ngers towards direction of B
; 3) thumb points in same direction as A
B
.
in direction of A
, checked both by geometric description and by
Flashcard Question: j =? (answer: k
calculation).
C
| (A
n
Triple product: volume of parallelepiped = area(base) height = |B
), where n
=

B C/|B C |. So volume = A (B C ) = det(A, B, C). The latter identity can also be checked
directly using components.