Chemistry

Preliminary Exam Notes

Atchaya senthilkumar

The Chemical Earth

The particle theory states that all matter consists of particles, which are constantly moving.
Element: pure substances cannot be decomposed into simpler substances
Compounds: pure substances that can be decomposed into simpler substances, example: elements
Mixtures: Variable in composition, classified as homogenous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (nonuniform in composition)
Biosphere

All living things

Atmosphere

Gases of the Earth

Lithosphere

Rocks, land and crust of Earth

Hydrosphere

Waters of the Earth

Mixture separated

Method of separation

Mixture: blood
Compounds: sugars
Elements: present in living things
Mixture: Air
Compounds: Water
Elements: Nitrogen
Mixture: Metal Ores
Compounds: Quartz (sand)
Element: O2
Mixture: Sea water
Compounds: CO2
Elements: H2
Property used in separation

Solids of different sizes

Sieving

Particles of different sizes

Solids and liquids

Filtration

Particles of different sizes

Dissolved solids in liquids

Crystallisation

Liquid has a lower boiling point

than solid

Solids and Liquid

Sedimentation and Decantation

Liquids

Distillation/Fractional

Liquids

Decantation (separating funnel)

Solid and liquid, liquid slowly

poured off leaving solid
Large/Small difference in boiling
points
Immiscible liquids

Gases

Fractional Distillation

Small difference in boiling points

Gravimetric Analysis
Gravimetric analysis is an analytical method used by chemists. It involves separating the components of the
material and accurately determining their mass. The percentage composition of the material can then be calculated.
It can be used to determine the:

Percentage by weight of ingredients (sugar, fat, fibre) in food.

Purity and composition of alloys used for building construction
Extent of heavy metal pollution in river water and human food
Percentage composition of new compounds produced by chemical and medical research.

Combined or Uncombined
The higher the reactivity, the less likely it is to exist as an Uncombined element. Less reactive elements include the
noble gases (stable outer shell no reaction).
Highly reactive elements include the alkali metals (Group 1)
The less electrons it has in it's outer shell, the more reactive it is
Classification
Physical Properties

Metals

Semi-metals

Non-metals

Lustre

Lustrous

Lustrous

Dull

Malleability

Malleable

Malleable

Non-malleable

Electrical and Heat

Conductivity
Ductility
Hardness
State (25C)

Conductive

Non-conductive

Non-conductive

Ductile
Hard
Solid (except Mercury)

Ductile
Hard
Solid

Non-ductile
Soft
Gas

Melting and boiling points

High

High

Low

Uses
Metals
1. Mercury - Used in thermometers liquid state
expands when heated
2. Iron used in building construction and carmaking high tensile strength and hardness
3. Copper Good conductors for domestic
appliances

Non-metals
1. Carbon Good conductors used in batteries
2. Oxygen - for medical purposes to help with
breathing
3. Argon - gas for filling light bulbs

Energy levels for Electrons

Exists in discrete energy levels
Energy increases as levels increase
Electron configuration: the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus
Formation of Ions
Anions:

Cation:

Group 1metals tend to lose one electron and therefore positive ions: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+.
Group 6 (non-metals) gain two electrons and thus negative ions: O2, S2, Se2, Te2.
Transition metals all lose electrons to form positive ions (Fe2+, Cu2+, Ag+, Zn2+)

Lewis Dot Diagram

For molecules/atoms such as HCL, NH3, H2 all normal dot diagram
For Ions such as K+, O2-, F- these need brackets and the dots
Molecules as particles move independently
Molecules are particles that may move independently of each other. The forces that hold the molecules
together are known as intermolecular forces. If these forces are weak the molecules may move
independently of each other. However if these forces are extremely strong the molecules maybe tightly
bound and their movement maybe restricted to just vibrations.
Physical Properties

Ionic Bonding
(metal with non-m)

Covalent Molecular
(b/w non metals)

Covalent Network

Metallic
High because of
strong bonds
between atom and
delocalised
electrons.
High because of
strong bonds
between atom and
delocalised
electrons.

Melting Point

High because of
strong bonds.

Low because of
weak bonds.

Very high melting

points because of
very strong bonds.

Boiling Point

High because of
strong bonds.

Low because of
weak bonds.

Very high boiling

points because of
very strong bonds.

Poor conductors
because there are no
moving
electrons/ions.

Graphite is the only

conductor of
electricity because
of it extra electrons.

Non-malleable.

Depends on the
substance. Eg.
Diamond is brittle;
others are not.

Malleable due to the

ability of ions to
slide over each other
even when stress is
applied.
Lustrous because of
the delocalised
electron's ability to
reflect light.
Conducts heat.

Electrical
Conductivity

Malleability

Free moving ions in

aqueos form allows
electrical
conductivity. Solid
form is nonconductive.
Brittle because slight
movement causes
the anions to be in
line with each other
and they repel.

Lustre

Some are lustrous;

others are not.

Quite dull.

Depends on
network. Graphite =
dull. Diamond =
shiny.

Other

Can be dissolved in
water

Mainly insoluble
and easy to
decompose.

Insoluble in water.

Physical Changes: not lead to the formation of new

substances
Filtration, evaporation and distillation
do not cause the formation of a new
substance(s)
cutting, hammering and rolling
change of state
are easily reversible
require relatively small energy changes

Good conductors
because of the sea of
delocalised electrons
moving about.

Chemical Changes: leads to the formation of at least

one new substance.

Effervescence
Odour
Heat
Colour change
Precipitate
Large input of energy or output of energy
Difficult to reverse

Boiling and electrolysis of water

1.
2.
3.
4.

Boiling
Does not produce any new substances,
just a conversion of a liquid to gas
Easily reversed by cooling the vapour
Requires less energy
Does not alter the actual particles, it just
separates them from one another

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process by which an
electric current produces a chemical
change
Produces two new substances, hydrogen
and oxygen gases i.e. H2 and O2
Difficult to reverse
Requires much more energy for the two
gases to be decomposed
Breaks the particles up into H2 and O2

Decomposition reactions
Reactions which involve the breakdown of substances into simpler constituent elements
Thermal, light and electrolytic
Thermal decomposition of gold oxide
When a sample of brown gold (III) oxide is heated over a Bunsen burner flame in a test tube, it readily
decomposes to produce a sample of lustrous gold.
Light decomposition (photolysis) of silver bromide
Silver bromide is decomposed by light in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. The white crystals darken as
black grains of silver metal form. Bromine vapour is released in the process. 
Electrolytic decomposition of molten lead (II) bromide
Lead (II)bromide crystals melt form a clear, colourless liquid. The liquid is heated to 400 C and
electrolysed using inert electrodes. A brown vapour of bromine is evolved at the positive electrode and
silvery globules of lead form at the surface of the negative electrode and sinks to the bottom of the vessel.
Synthesis Reactions:
the formation of a compound from its elements or a more complex compound from simpler compounds.
Rusting of iron, photosynthesis.
Energy Changes
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is required to break the compound
into atoms. Alternatively, the stronger the chemical bonding in a compound the more energy is released
when the compound is formed from its atoms

Empirical Formula is the lowest ratio formula. It does not tell you the number of atoms present
For example, NaCl means that for every 1 Na there is 1 Cl (not the exact amount of each element)
The empirical formula is used for ionic compounds because the size of the lattice is unknown
therefore a ratio must be used
Another example is glucose
C6H12O6 is its molecular formula, whereas its empirical formula (lowest ratio) is CH2O

Metals
Metals through history
The Copper Age was 3200BC to 2300BC. It is the period that archaeological records indicate that copper was the
first metal to be extracted from its ore. Copper was heated with charcoal and globules of copper formed. Molten
copper was used to make ornaments and domestic utensils.
The Bronze Age was 2300BC to 1200BC. It was later discovered that heating copper with tin produces an alloy,
bronze. Bronze was harder than copper and more easily melted to be molded due to its low melting point. Bronze
was used for tools and weapons.
The Iron Age was 1200BC to 1AD. Iron is more reactive than copper, so it need a higher temperature to melt.
Hematite was mixed with charcoal in primitive furnaces by blowing air and obtaining a sufficiently high
temperature. By 1000BC, iron had replaced bronze for tools and weapons because it was harder and had hard
tensile strength.
The Modern Age is 1Ad to present. There had been more extraction and uses of other metals such as aluminium,
chromium and metal alloys. Iron is the most widely used metal today. Many other metals have come into common
use due to the advancement in extraction technology.
Alloys homogenous mixture of metal with one or more other elements
Alloys
Brass (50-60% copper with
zinc)

Properties
Lustrous gold appearance
Hard but easily machined

Bronze (80-90% copper with

tin)

Hard
Resists corrosion
Easily cast
Low melting point
Adheres firmly to other metals
when molten
Soft, malleable

Solder (30-60% tin with lead)

Steels
Mild Steel

Uses
Plumbing fittings
Musical instruments
Decorations
Ships propellers
Casting statues
Joining metals together in
plumbing and electronics
Car bodies, pipes, nuts and
bolts, roofing

Structural Steel

Hard, high tensile strength

Beams and girders, railways,

concrete reinforcement

High carbon Steel

Very hard

Knives and tools such as drill

bits, chisels, hammers

Stainless Steel

Hard, resists corrosion, lustrous

appearance

Food processing machinery,

kitchen sinks and appliances,
cutlery, surgical instruments

Energy Input
Energy such as electricity and heat is required to extract a metal from its ore in order to break the chemical bonds
within the compounds. There is the release and absorption of heat in a form of energy.
Absorption:
Extracting copper from sulfide ores liberates heat
Extracting aluminium from alumina absorbs heat
However the energy involved in the extraction reaction is only one part of the total energy budget of extraction
processes. Energy has to be supplied
To mine the ore
Purify or concentrate the ore
Maintain high temp needed to make extraction reactions
Purify the raw metal or to form it into alloys such as steel
Why more metals are able to extracted now
Many metals have been available for use to due lower cost of generating electricity and more advanced in
commercial extraction techniques. Two hundred years ago, there was a lack of extraction technology and
scarcity of metals and resulted in only a limited amount of metals being able to be extracted and used. Some metal
ores have very high melting points and it would have been difficult to reach a very high melting point two
hundred years ago with the lack of technology.
Reactivity of Metals
The Reactivity series is reactivity of metals with oxygen, water and dilute acids in order of decreasing reactivity.
It lists in order of decreasing ease of losing electrons: Oxidation
K, Na, Li, Ba are more easily oxidized than Cu, Ag, Pt, Au
It lists in order of increasing ease of gaining electrons: Reduction
Ag+, Cu+ ions are easily reduced while Na+, Al3+, Zn2+ are difficult to reduce
The most reactive metals react with cold water to form hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas. K, Na, Ca
Then highly reactive metals burn in the presence of oxygen. K. Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe
The vigorousness with which metals react with dilute acids can be sued to compare. K, Na, Ca, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb
As metals atomic size increases,
Atomic radii increases (distance between nucleus and the valence electron increases)
Electrostatic forces decreases (attraction between nucleus and the valence electron decreases)
Electropositivty increases (ease with which metals are able to lose electrons and become charged ions)
Energy required to remove the electron from the valence shell decreases (easier to remove electrons)
Thus, reactivity of metals increases!

Generally
The most reactive metals are found in Group I, increases down the group because they will react with other
elements in order to lose electrons
Moderately reactive metals are in transition elements
Least reactive are in lower central region of transition metals

Metals are used for different purposed depending on many factors such as abundance, ease of extraction, hardness,
and reactivity.
Magnesium is a highly reactive metal, used in the cathodic protection of less reactive metals to protect
them from corrosion. Magnesium is called a sacrificial anode. Also use in fireworks due to its high
reactivity and fact that it burns bright when heated with oxygen
Calcium is highly reactive, is added to steels to remove any remaining traces of oxygen, sulfur and
phosphorus.
The reactivity of zinc makes it suitable for use in batteries such as dry cells and button batteries. In these
cells the zinc is oxidized and the electrons it loses travel through an external circuit producing as electric
current.
Aluminium: lack of reactivity means it can be used as drink cans, food wraps, aircraft bodies, in
automobiles and in window frames
Titanium: used as artificial joints, aircraft and ship bodies, pipes. Its relevant properties are a low
reactivity, stable, resistance to corrosion and chemically inert nature in the human body
Ionisation energy:
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove the electron from a gaseous atom
of the element.
Energy is required in order to overcome the attractive force that binds electrons to the nucleus of an atom.
The energy required to remove the loosely bound electron is called the first ionisation energy
Ionisation energies reflects the position of electrons in their shells
Ionisation energy increases as you move inwards- as the inner shells are closer the nucleus. The electrostatic
attraction increases thus, harder to remove the electrons. Electrons in the outermost shells are further away from
the attraction of the nucleus hence, easier to remove electrons.
Model of Atom
Bohrs model: The nucleus is central part of the atoms which contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons
move through a relatively large space outside the nucleus. The electrons are kept moving around the nucleus by
attractive electrostatic forces between positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons.
Periodic table history
In the 1800s, 30 naturally occurring chemical elements were known.
French chemist, Antoine Lavoiser classified the elements into two groups, metals and non metals based on their
physical properties.
In 1829, a German chemist, Dobereiner recognized the similarities of several groups of three elements in which he
called the triads.
In 1864, an Englishman, John Newlands, proposed the law of octaves where the elements were ordered according
to their atomic weight.
In 1869, Mendeleev proposed the periodic law where the properties of the elements vary periodically with their
atomic weight. He arranged the elements with increasing atomic weight and grouped them with elements with
similar properties. Mendeleev knew that there were still more elements to be discovered and left spaces in his
periodic table.
In 1914, a British chemist, Henry Moseley, proposed a modified periodic law where the properties of the elements
vary periodically with their atomic numbers.

Trends in periodic table

Mole
amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of
carbon of Carbon 12. Chemists have determined that the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon 12 is 6.02
x 10!"
Percentage composition of a particular element within a substance, use the following formula:
In the compound of formula AwByCz:

%A=

w x (atomic weight of A) x 100

________________________
molecular weight of AwByCz

Calculate percentage composition of iron in common ore, hematite, Fe2O3. Atomic weights are Fe=55.9 and
O=10.0
One mole of Fe2O3 is 2x55.9+3x16 = 159.8g
One Fe2O3 contains 2 atoms of iron. Hence one mole of Fe2O3 has 2 moles of iron. 2x55.9= 111.8g
Fraction of Fe2O3 which is Fe= 111.8/159.8
= 0.700g
% iron in Fe2O3 = 70.0%
Law of mass of conservation: In a chemical change there is no gain or loss of mass
The total mass of the system remains constant in a chemical reaction. When metals react with oxygen in
the air, they generally form metal oxides. The oxygen combines with the metal and adds mass to the
original metal.

Gay- Lussac: Law of combining Volume

When measured at constant temperature and pressure, volume of gases exist in simple whole number ratios
Avogadros contribution:
Equal number molecules of different gases occupy the same volume at the same temperature and pressure.
Every mole of gas will occupy the same volume
Empirical formula
Expresses the ratio in which the atoms are
present. It is only the formula for ionic and
covalent lattice compounds
NaCl, Na2CO3m MgSO4, K2O

Molecular Formula
Expresses how many of each type of atom
are present in the molecule. It is used for
molecular compounds only- molecular
formula implies the structure of the molecule
H2O, CH4, N2O

Minerals and ores

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances, usually compounds with a particular chemical composition
and a definite crystal structure. Examples of minerals include hematite, magnetite, gibbsite, boehmite, malachite
and chalcopyrite.
Ores are naturally occurring deposits that are mixtures of minerals from which a substance, usually a metal can be
economically extracted (commercial metal). Examples of ores include bauxite and iron ore.
Yield of metal - Is the mass of metal that can be obtained from a particular mass of the mineral or ore.
Calculate the theoretical yield of iron from 1000t of iron ore that contains 80% hematite (Fe2O3)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
80% x 1000t = 800t
n(Fe2O3) = 5.009moles
From equation Fe2O3 : Fe = 1:2
n(Fe) = 10.019moles
Thus, mass(Fe) = 559.5t
Commercial prices
The commercial price of metals depends on a few factors including their relative abundances and the cost of
production.
The greater the abundance of a metal the lower the commercial price of the metal would be.
The cost of production of the metals depends on where it is located and the amount of energy input. If the location
of the ore is located in a high population zone, the mining procedure would be difficult because there would be
damages done to the environment and increase the cost of production.
If an ore is located in remote places, then the cost of production would increase because it would cost money to
transport the raw materials to refinery plants.
The more reactive the metal is, then the higher the energy input is needed for extraction and it would increase the
cost of extraction.

Ores: non-renewable resource

Ores are deposits of naturally occurring minerals which were formed during the evolution of the universe and the
planets; therefore they are non renewable resources.
Extraction of copper from its ores
1. Mining, crushing and grinding (physical change)
The mined ore (containing ammonium of 6.5% of copper by weight) us placed in a crusher and converted to
pebbles. The pebbles are then grounded in a grinding mill to liberate the mineral crystals from the rock
2. Froth Floatation
Using froth flotation, 30% of the copper is obtained by weight.
3. Roasting and smelting
The copper is roasting in the air.
2CuFeS!! + 4O!! Cu! S! + 2FeO! + 3SO!!
The mixture is then heated to a sufficiently high temperature to produce material from which the required metal
can be obtained.
The mixture of Copper (I) sulfide and Iron oxide with sand is heated to a sufficient high temperature where it
produces two immiscible liquids.
FeO! + SiO!! FeSiO!!
The liquid FeSiO! is removed. The copper (I) sulfide is then heated on its own to a higher temperature while air
is bubbled through it. This reduces sulfide to copper metal and sulfur dioxide is produced.
CuS! + O!! 2Cu! + SO!!
4. Electrolytic refining (99.9% pure)
Anode
Cathode

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2eCu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

Recycling of Aluminium

Collect the used products from homes, shopping centres and factories
Transport the collected material to a central processing plant
Separate the required metal from the impurities by chemically cleaning (use acid)
Pieces are compressed in block forms to reduce aluminum exposed to oxygen hence minimizing reactivity
Re melt the metal into stock ingots
Consider the issue of H2 being dissolved as reacted with Al from the air during the melting phase, hence
reacted with Cl H2 + Cl2 2HCL
The aluminium is extremely brittle thus additives are added such as Mg, Cu, Zn to make alloys
Let it set into the shapes and molds desired
And transport them to product manufacturers

Justify need for increasing recycling in terms of energy

Recycling

Processing Ores

1.Collecting scraps (energy of transporting waste

products)

1.Finding the ores (energy of transportation)

2.Melting scrap (heat energy used to melt the scrap

metal in furnace)

2.Mining ores (energy of mining equipment)

3.Light Purification (almost 0, negligible energy

involved in cleaning and purifying with metals with
acids)

3.Extracting materials (heat energy from the 5 steps of

extraction and purification of ore)

4.Pouring into ingots for shaping (negligible energy)

4.Purifying (highest electrical energy consumed by

electrolysis)
5.Pouring into ingots (negligible energy)

Solving limiting reagents

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Write balanced equation

Convert the quantities of the reactants given into moles
Determine the number of moles of reach reactant required using ratios
The limiting reagent will be present in insufficient amounts
Use number of moles of limiting reagent to determine number of moles of unknown using ratios
Convert number of moles to mass, volume or number of molecules required

Hydrogen gas can be produced by reaction of Zinc with HCL. If 2.74g of HCL in solution is added to 3.27g of
Zinc, calculate the mass of H2 prodcued
Zn(s) + 2HCL(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
n(Zn) = 0.050moles
n(HCL) = 0.075moles
Ratio of Zn:HCL = 1:2
Therefore, HCL is present in insufficient amounts and is the limiting reagents
Ratio HCL:H2 = 2:1
n(H2) = 0.0375moles
thus, m(H2) = 0.076g

Water
Role of water
-Necessity for all living matter in the form of
Raw material that is used in chemical
reactions that constitute life
Solvent in which life processes occur
Transport medium - Cells and
metabolism: water transports nutrients to
and wastes away from cells; metabolic water
is produced by respiration; water is needed
for photosynthesis
Thermal regulator - Temperature
moderator: water can absorb large amounts
of heat without causing a significant change
in temp, which benefits ectothermic aquatic
life

Sphere of Earth
Hydrosphere
Biosphere

Lithosphere

Atmosphere

Agent of weathering: Rain and waves

physically wear away rocks, freezing water
creates ice wedging; minerals are dissolved
by groundwater
-Natural resource for humans
Drinking, food prep
Irrigation
Fluid in electricity generating stations and as
coolant
Hydro-electricity
As reactant, solvent and cleaning agent and
for waste disposal
Mode of transport such as ships
Recreational purposes such as swimming

Physical state
Solid: polar ice caps, glaciers
Liquid: Oceans, rivers, seas
Liquid: Cells, internal transport
systems
Gas: Water vapour in cells and
organs
Solid: frozen soil, hydrated
minerals
Liquid: aquifers. Groundwater
Solid: ice crystals, hail
Liquid: water droplets in clouds
Gas: Water vapour

Solute is the substance dissolved in a solution.

Solvent is the substance, which does the dissolving.
Solution is a homogenous mixture in which the
dispersed particles are so small (molecules or ions)
that they never settle out.

%
95-99
60-95

<10

0.5-5

Saturated no more solute will dissolve in current

conditions
Unsaturated more solute is able to be dissolved in
current conditions / does not contain maximum
amount of solute

Expansion on freezing
Large open spaces between water molecules in ice increases the volume and so decreases the density, since
mass remains unchanged allowing to expand.
High temp = larger volume, lower density
Low temp = smaller volume, higher density
Density = mass
Volume

Number of Electron
Groups
2

Electron-Group
Geometry
linear

trigonal-planar

tetrahedral

Number of
Lone Pairs
1

Molecular Geometry

Examples
BeH2
CO2

NH3

O3
BCl3

CH4

Tetrahedral
1

H3O+

H2O

Intramolecular: (Within) Chemical bonds

Covalent bonds
Ionic bonds
Metallic

Intermolecular: (between) physical force

Dispersion / van der vaal forces
Hydrogen bonding
Dipole-dipole

Types of intermolecular bonding

Intermolecular forces exist between molecules, they strengthen the binding force between molecules and contribute
to the increase in strength of physical features
Dispersion Forces
Weakest
Every molecule has dispersion forces
Due to very rare temporary instabilities in
electrostatic forces
Hydrogen Bonding
Strongest
Between H and FON (chemistry if FON)some of the most electronegative (ability to
become negative, gain electrons) atoms
Attraction that arises from the significant
disparity between electronegativity of the
hydrogen atom and FON

Dipole-Dipole
Exists between polar molecules which have a
net dipole
Negative attracts positive end
Polar molecular have net dipole which arises
from significant imbalance in electrostatic
attraction between the atoms of that molecule
More reactive molecule: - (electronegative more)
Less reactive molecule: + (electropositive more)

Impact of intermolecular forces

Melting and boiling point
Mass crucial factor in strength of intermolecular forces, dispersions forces
size, mass increases, surface area increases, intermolecular forces increases, dispersion forces increase, melting
and boiling point increases
waters MP and BP are considerably higher due to H-bond
Surface tension: waters ability to resist an increase in surface area
Since H2O possesses relatively strong intermolecular forces, because of this, when certain parts on water
are exposed and unsupported by a structure, there will be an imbalance in attractive forces
In the container/water droplet:
The stronger attractive forces between molecules near the center (core) of the structure pulls, as the
exposed water molecules are drawn inwards
an imbalance of attractive forces is created, this imbalance forms the resistant against an increase in
surface area.
A film like structure is formed at the exposed surface
Viscosity: the cause of which molecules can be poured or flowed (measure of liquids resistance to flow)
Complexity of molecule
Size
when complexity increases, size increases, intermolecular forces increases viscosity increases

When a soluble ionic compound (such as sodium chloride) interacts with water, they break up into positive and
negative ions (dissociation). These ions interact with ion-dipole interactions between slightly positive hydrogen
atom and negative ion and the slightly negative oxygen atom and the positive ion.
When a soluble molecular compound (such as sucrose) interacts with water, the crystals of the solid break up and
disperse throughout the solvent (water) and they break down to the molecular level.
When a soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound (such as iodine, oxygen or hydrogen
chloride) interacts with water, the solvent-solute interactions are weak dispersion forces and this is why the
solubilities of such substances are quite low.
When a covalent network structure substance (such as silicon dioxide) interacts with water, nothing happens
because water is not able to break the strong covalent bonds between the particles (atoms) in these lattice solids.
When a substance with large molecules (such as cellulose or polyethylene) interacts with water, nothing happens
because water is not able to break the strong covalent bonds between the particles (molecules) in these solids.
However some large molecules such as amylose and glycogen are soluble in water as it contains F, O or N atoms
which form hydrogen bonding with the water.
When acids dissolve in water they form hydronium ion (H3O+ which is acidic) and hydroxide ion (OH+ which is
alkaline)
Rule: Like dissolves Like
Dissolution of salts
when solvent dissolves a solute the intermolecular forces that hold together solvent (H2O) >
intermolecular forces of the solute
solute dissolves- breaks up into smaller particles as the physical attractive forces of solute have been
overcome.
Equilibrium exists between
Ions in solid lattices dissolving and
Ions in solution precipitating

Forward reaction: precipitation (ions in solution

precipitate into solids)
Backward reaction: dissolution (solids break away
into ions)

Dynamic balance between dissolution and precipitation; both are occurring simultaneously, but at equal rates so
there is no overall chance in concentration in solution ----- DYNAMIC EQUILBRIUM
GENERALLY SOLUBLE
All group I
Ammonium NH4+
Nitrates NO3Sulphates SO42-

Chloride Cl-

Bromine BrIodine I-

EXCEPTIONS (ions)
All

GENERALLY INSOLUBLE
Carbonates CO32-

EXCEPTIONS
All solubles

Sr, Ba, Pb ions

insoluble
Ca, Ag slightly soluble
Ag insoluble
Pb slightly soluble

Phosphates PO43-

All solubles

Oxides O2-

All solubles , Ba soluble

Ca slightly soluble

Ag insoluble
Pb slightly soluble
Ag, Pb insoluble

Hydroxides OH-

All solubles , Ba soluble

Ca slightly soluble

Concentration measures
Mass % = Weight of solute X100
Weight of solution
Mass-volume % = Weight of solute x100
Volume of solution
Volume-Volume % = Volume of solute X100
Volume of solution
ppm (parts per million) = weight of solute (mg) or (mg)
weight of solution (L) or (Kg)

Specific Heat capacity:

amount of energy required to increase the temperature of 1g of substance by 1OC/Kelvin
High MP and BP, stronger H-bonds high specific heat capacity

Exothermic

Endothermic

Energy is released

Energy is absorbed (from surroundings)

Decrease in enthalpy of system (-)

Increase in enthalpy of system (+)

Increase in surrounding temp

Decrease in surrounding temp

Combustion reactions heat + light released

Photosynthesis, thermal decomp

Dissolution energy release

NaCl Na+ + ClH<0
1. Breaking of bonds between NaCl (endothermic- absorbs energy)
2. Formation of bonds between ions and water (exothermic- releases energy)
3. Breaking bonds between atoms of water molecules (endothermic- absorbs energy)
if energy released in step 3 is greater than energy absorbed in steps 1 & 2, the dissolution will be exothermic and
increase the surrounding temp
if energy released in step 3 is less than energy absorbed in steps 1 & 2, the dissolution will be endothermic and
decrease surrounding temp

Importance of water high specific heat capacity

Temp remain fairly constant (high specific heat capacity)
Land located near large masses of water will experience cooling cycle (high thermal conductivity)
Given that most living things are composed of high % of water, it also means their cells and bodies do not
increase in temp too much when exposed to high temps
Thermal Pollution: discharge into river or lake quantities of hot water that are large enough to increase
significantly the temp of water body
If increase in temp 3-5 degrees Celsius, then solubility of gases decreases
Lower dissolved oxygen concentration by 10-15%
Lower concentration of dissolved CO2
o Affecting lifeforms that rely on photosynthesis for energy
o If these suffocate and die, it will further affect the food chain
Affects organisms metabolic rates
Affects organisms breeding cycles, migration and spawning cycles
Calorimetry: limitations
Unavoidable loss of heat energy to surrounding
o Thus, use of Styrofoam cups to trap heat
o Thus, stirring so heat is dispersed more evenly
Non-homogenous change in temp
o Use better insulation
o Stir water
o Use digital thermometer
Inaccurate measurements
o Use digital thermometer
o Use more accurate devices

Energy
Role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy
Photosynthesis: process that plants use in order to generate glucose for energy
Raw materials
o
o

Glucose
O2

CO2
Light

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

Light energy transformed into glucose

H= +2803kJ/mol (endothermic)

Role of production of high-energy carbohydrates from CO2

Carbohydrates produced are glucose molecules
o
o
o
o

However, chlorophyll from plant leaves are required to convert the light energy into chemical energy
(glucose)
The glucose produced provides energy to cells of photosynthetic organisms as well as those that consume
them. The glucose is converted into CO2 and H2O through exothermic process called respiration
Plants convert excess glucose into polymers such as starch and cellulose
Animals convert excess glucose and store as glycogen

C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)

H= -2803kJ/mol (exothermic)
Light energy -----cholorphyll-------> Chemical Energy
Photosynthetic origins of fossil fuels
o

When organisms die out they undergo 2 processes in decomposition (by decomposers- bacteria)

1.Complete Decay
o
o
o
o

Rot, scattered throughout soil

Energy now forms in the state of fertilisation compost
Plants reuse this energy as sustenance for growth and continued photosynthesis
Thus, energy cycle repeats

2.Trasnformation into fossil fuels

High temp + high pressure
Decayed organisms become compressed and form solid stores of energy (coal, fossil fuels)

Composition of fossil fuels

Hydrocarbons
However many also comprise of impurities such as sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen depending on source of fossil
fuel
Coal (pure-raw source)
Mainly impurities siliceous material) and carbon
Petroleum
Mainly hydrocarbons
Some impurities
Natural gas
o Light hydrocarbons

Allotropes of carbons
o
o

Different physical form/structure of the same elements

Also possess different physical properties

Diamond
Infinite crystal lattice, covalent network
Hard (covalent network atoms are tightly bonded by covalent forces) , shiny (high refractive index)
Non-malleable
Thermal conductivity: Excellent
o In covalent network structure the transfer of heat energy is extremely high
o Atoms are also closely compressed together
o Heat energy readily spreads throughout the structure
Electrical conductivity: Bad
o Because no free moving delocalised electrons to transfer the electrical energy throughout the
covalent network
BP/MP = high
Graphite
o Not hard, quite brittle
o Not compressed and tightly bonded as diamond
o Intermolecular forces are weaker as they are not compresses and spaced out
o Dull, lack of shine
o Thermal conductivity: Good
o Regardless, vibrations of atoms would allow a similar transfer of heat energy throughout the
graphite molecule to occur
o Electrical conductivity: High
o Pretence of free moving delocalised electrons between the individual graphite layers
o Each carbon is only attached to 3 other carbons thus valence shell is not filled with 4 electrons to
satiate carbon
o

one free moving unpaired electron for every carbon present

free moving carbon electrons move to the conduction bond (space between each layer)

electrical energy/ electricity can be transferred through different layers

Alkanes
Single bonds
o Relatively stable

Alkenes
Double bonds
o up, large bond Pi bond
(stronger)
o down, small bond Sigma
bond (weaker)
o Difference in strength
between molecules create
instability
o More reactive (volatile)
o Greater tendency to react
with other substances

Alkynes
Triple bonds
o More reactive then the
alkenes due to increased
instability

Saturated molecules (no free bonds

for one carbon atom)

Unsaturated

Unsaturated

CnH2n+2

CnH2n

CnH2n-2

Isomers
o Sets of different compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula (condensed
formula)
Fractional distillation
Separation based on the substances boiling points
Petroleum is heated to 350oC and is passed into base of fractioning column
Vapours move up the column, and begin to cool and condense
Then they are collected in trays at different positions through the column
Since boiling point increases as molecular weight increases, the separation is roughly in order of increasing
molecular weights
The least volatile (highest BP and highest molecular weight) condense near the bottom
The most volatile do not condense until they reach the top of column
Fraction

Boiling Point (C)

Gases

Less than 30

Carbon atoms per

molecule
1 to 4

Major uses

Petroleum ether
Gasoline
Kerosene

30 80
70 200
175 250

5 to 6
6 to 12
12 to 16

Industrial solvents
Motor fuel
Jet fuel, domestic heating

Gas oil

250 350

15 to 18

Diesel fuel, industrial and

domestic heating

Lubricating oil
Greases
Asphalt and tar

Greater than 350

Greater than 350
Residue

18 to 25
Greater than 20
Greater than 25

Motor oils
Lubrication
Road-making, roofing

Liquefied petroleum gas

(LPG)

In terms of molecular structure

Non-polar covalent bonds (C C is non-polar, C H is slightly polar but geometry (shape) tends to cancel
it out).
Only intermolecular forces are dispersion forces.
Dispersion forces increase as molecular weight (no. of C atoms) increases.
These bonds explain the following properties
Melting and Boiling Point
Melting & boiling point increases as number
of C atoms increases (as molecular weight
increases, dispersion forces increase)
Melting & boiling points of the alkanes are
higher than the corresponding alkene (lower
molecular weight of alkene lower
dispersion forces)
Solubility
Insoluble in water (non-polar), soluble in
non-polar solvents

Volatility
Volatility is the ease at which a substance
becomes gaseous or be converted to vapour
Volatility decrease, intermolecular forces
increase (Molecular weight increases
dispersion forces increases)

Other
Density < 1 g/cm3 (ie. floats on water)
Do not conduct electricity (no free electrons)
Generally unreactive (except combustion)

Homologous series:
Family of compounds that can be represented by one/same general formula
Common functional group
Similar structures & chemical properties
Gradation in physical properties based on order of molecular weight (eg. boiling point)
Safety precautions:
Most of the fuels we employ in everyday life are small fuels
extremely volatile- may ignite and explode
Fuels may be carcinogenic and toxic when gaseous and breathed in, can cause harm
Alkanes are non-polar molecules dissolve non-polar substances such as plastic (cannot be stored in
plastic containers)
Modes of storage:
o Well-maintained cylinders and fittings for gaseous hydrocarbons (high pressure metal containers- keeps
fuel liquefied and mitigates issue of volatility)
o Well ventilated to prevent respiratory issues and accumulation of explosive gaseous fuels
o Added odours for early detection of leaks
o Sturdy containers for liquids
o Minimise the quantity in everyday use
o Keep alkanes/hydrocarbons away from naked flames or sparks
o Erect warning signs
o Do not handle these liquids in confined places
o Use fume hoods
Indicators of chemical reactions:
Gas evolved
Precipitate formed
Significant temperature rise/ release of
energy

New substance formed

Odour produced
Light produced
Colour change

Combustion reaction
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction because it releases heat and new products are formed. It is
a self-sustaining chemical reaction that occurs at temp above surroundings. Burning and explosions are
forms of combustion.
Process of chemical reaction
Bond Breaking (H>0 endothermic)
o Energy is applied to break the initial
molecules and transform them into
different/distinct products
o Intramolecular (covalent, ionic) bonds are
broken
o Application of energy = the systems initial
molecules are absorbing energy from
surrounding environment (enthalpy is +)
o Eg: Cool pack

Bond formation (H<0 exothermic)

o Energy is released when new substance is
formed
o During the formation process, reactants
broken up are destabilised
o The energy absorbed makes them excited

need to become stabilized in order to form

new stable products
New intramolecular bonds are formed during
the reaction as energy is released to
surrounding environment (enthalpy is -)
Eg: heat pack

The state of the net reaction will determine the overall enthalpy of a system
If bond breaking energy > bond formation energy (rxn is exothermic)
If bond breaking energy < bond formation energy (rxn is endothermic)
Activation energy
o Regardless of whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic, it will always require an input of energy,
to initiate the reaction
o All molecules need to overcome an energy barrier in order for the reaction to start
o ie: reach state whereby the molecules are excited and are destabilised
o

greater frequency of collisions increases and likelihood of collisions increases

Combustion reactions: burning of fuel in presence of oxygen

Complete combustion- presence of excess of oxygen
Fuel + Oxygen H20 + CO2
Incomplete combustion- presence of insufficient supply of oxygen (results in pollution)
Fuel + Oxygen H20 + C
Fuel + oxygen CO

Ignition temperature
o the minimum amount of energy required to ignite a potion of fuel
o

A substance with high activation energy high ignition energy

Combustion reactions are self-sustaining once ignition occurs, it will trigger combustions (will burn until
all fuel is consumed assuming complete combustion)

Pollution from Combustion

CO2
o Greenhouse has that causes global warming
o Causes toxic to humans, respiratory issues when consumed at high quantities
CO
o
o
o
o

Toxic and harmful to respiratory system

CO is similar to O2
Haemoglobin in the blood system/stream has high affinity to CO2 (attaches easily to CO2) causing blood
poisoning
Acid rain C02(g) + H20(l) H2CO3(aq)

Internal combustion of an engine: NO2

o Respiratory problems
o H20 + NO2 HNO3 + HNO2
o Acid rain
nitric acid + nitrous acid
S02 smelting iron/copper ore
o S + O2 SO2 (burning of sulphur impurities from ore)
o O2 + 2SO2 2SO3 (burning of SO2 to form SO3)
o SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (formations of sulphuric acid rain)