Running header: THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

The Impact of Reading Programs in K-12 Settings

Sheryl Schiefelbein
Western Oregon University
ED 633

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

Introduction
Silent reading is a common practice in many schools across the nation. There are dozens
of programs available to school districts to support, implement, and help manage silent reading
practices. There are several factors that influence the success of silent reading programs within
schools such as socio-economic status, parent involvement in reading activities, student
motivation, and implementation at school. Reading programs look differently in each classroom
depending on focus, variety and number of books available, and teacher interaction during
reading time. There are numerous programs available to districts with varying levels of teacher
involvement, from Success For All to Accelerated Reader. Nevertheless, little is known regarding
what improves reading fluency between the programs. Silent reading needs to be employed in all
schools to help students achieve reading goals and increase reading fluency.
Despite having dozens of programs available for a wide range of years, little research has
been done regarding some of the widely implemented programs that The National Reading Panel
recommends. Arkebaurer, MacDonald, & Palmer argue that many of the results in previous
studies cant be relied on to look at student growth due to the lack of a control group (as cited in
Nunnery, Ross, & McDonald, 2006, p.4). The lack of reliable results comes from testing a
reading program, but not having a similar, comparable control group that is not using the
program to compare results against. With the advancement of more rigorous standards under the
Common Core, reading instruction and assessment needs to become more of a priority. Research
should focus on best practices such as the allotment of time students read, what teachers should
do during this time, and what motivates students to read for pleasure. By recognizing the current
research, schools can implement silent reading programs more effectively to increase student
growth and achievement in reading.
The value of silent reading needs to be established and continue to be implemented in
schools, especially with the current emphasis on reading in the Common Core State Standards

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

(also known as CCSS). Teachers implementing silent reading need to have access to research on
what increases reading growth among students during their designated reading time. The focus of
this literature review is to: 1) discuss environmental factors that impact silent reading for
students, 2) discover if reading programs in schools influence student achievement, and 3)
review behaviors that increase fluency or ability to silent read.
Review of the Research
In 2004, silent reading had been implemented in as many as 65,000
schools nationwide (Nunnery, Ross, & McDonald, 2006). The key to success
in education and later in life lies in the ability to read. While students spend
most of their educational careers reading, the influence of silent reading or
independent reading has been long debated. The National Reading Panel has
found a relationship between the amount of reading a student does and
reading achievement; however, there was not enough evidence in 2000 to
determine that reading independently strengthened readers (Chua, 2008; D.
K. Foster & D. P. Foster, 2014; Reutzel, Fawson, & Smith, 2008). With so many
schools implementing programs and the rise of rigorous standards, the
ability to strengthen readers has never been more demanded. The literature
for this review includes roles of the environment has on the reader, roles of
various silent reading and scaffolded silent reading programs have on
reading achievement, and the behaviors of readers during silent reading to
determine the effectiveness of silent reading for K-12 students.
The Role of Environment in Silent Reading
The environment of the classroom plays a large role in how students
respond to instruction. In Camahalan & Wyraz (2015), two structured
programs were used within the classroom for a 90-minute reading block.

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

Burst and Daily 5 allow modeling by the teacher to occur in addition to wellestablished routines within small groups during reading instruction. Within
the small group structure, groups made significant progress according to the
study, through the ability to read short phrases. Participants at minimum
doubled their ability to read short phrases and begin working on longer,
more complex phrases to increase fluency. The structure of the reading block
allowed for aides to assist in the reading interventions and provide
instruction to small groups to reach struggling readers.
While assistance and structure in the classroom is important in reading
instruction, another contribution is time and modeling. Silent reading should
act as a pleasure activity for students that dont involve academic text. With
just 20 minutes of uninterrupted reading a day students can reap the
benefits (Chua, 2008). Over the course of a year, sixth grade students were
provided questionnaires regarding how they felt about silent reading, their
behaviors and peer behaviors during reading time, and the amount of time
spent reading. Chua (2008) found that students reading for enjoyment
increased 12% from the start of the year to the end of the year. In addition,
it was found that peer talking/distractions decreased as the year progressed
and consequently, peer engagement in silent reading time increased. The
study reveals that with structure in place, students learn to engage in
reading and therefore fine-tune their silent reading behaviors. Since reading
is a key to future success, reading during the school day will enable students
to achieve success later.

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

While time in the classroom can give students the time they need to
complete reading, they also benefit from motivation when they are away
from school. Summer vacation is notorious for academic loss, often referred
to as the summer slide. Low-income, ELL families are most likely to suffer
academic setback during the summer according to a 2010 study by Kim &
Guryan (as cited in D. K. Foster & D. P. Foster, 2014). Students read regularly
in their classes, and thus get reading practice; in addition, several schools
utilize silent reading programs or have time in the day set aside for silent
reading. In order to reduce the regression students experience, there needs
to be adequate access and support to encourage reading. Students require
time and access to books for reading achievement to be made, but it isnt
simply enough to provide 20 minutes a day and tell students it is time to
read.
A set time during the day/week for students to read that is predictable,
with as few interruptions as possible, and conferences with students are
three ways to achieve successful independent reading time (Lee, 2011). Lee
(2011) also reports that simply modeling silent reading isnt effective until
routines are established for the students, and that until that point, students
will need reminders and to have conversations about what reading behaviors
may look like during independent reading time. Conferences also allow the
teacher to engage readers in discussing their book, which may increase
comprehension; they also allow the teacher to recommend future books
based on difficulty and student preferences. Assisting struggling readers
through conferences is a safe way to engage readers in finding books that

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

are appropriate for them. It is also important to allow students to read at

their own pace and encourage them to read materials that they are
comfortable with, while encouraging them. Lees study (2011) described an
antidote of a student that struggled to read, but brought in hunting catalogs;
the student eventually transitioned to hunting magazines, and then hunting
survival stories. It didnt matter that the student wasnt reading a certain
type of text, but it was a success that the student was reading in general.
Time, patience, modeling, and conferences are a small portion of
environmental factors that play into the success of silent reading. Many
times, in addition to time and modeling, a program is implemented in schools
to assist students and teachers during independent reading time.
The Role of the Reading Program Itself
Some reading programs are very structured, such as Success for All or
Daily 5. Success for All comes with all materials needed with leveled books
and teacher scripts. Students are split based on reading levels (and frequent
reassessment) so they receive reading instruction within their Zone of
Proximal Development. The Zone of Proximal Development is a range in
which instructional materials should be presented to ensure student
comprehension and success. Daily 5 allows small group work on specific
tasks, such as read to self, listen to reading, word work, read to someone,
and work on writing. Students can choose the task so they rotate through
each task once during the week, or can be assigned by the teacher to
provide small group instruction at certain stations. There are also far less
structured programs, such as Accelerated Reader, where students choose a

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

book to read and they take a comprehension test upon finishing the book to
earn points. Points are predetermined by Renaissance Reading based on
length, level, and difficulty.
In Camahalan & Wyrazs 2015 study on intervention time using Daily 5
and BURST, significant progress was made in the small group intervention.
The small groups of Daily 5 allowed instructional assistants and the teacher
to work in small group settings to apply appropriate interventions for
students. The flexibility of having a 90-minute reading instruction block was
a critical piece of being able to have small group and meet with each group.
The other part that was crucial for success in the reading instruction was
additional adults in the classroom to help manage and direct the various
groups through their assigned tasks/work. Though the additional adults were
only in classroom for 30 of the 90 minutes, the extra assistance allowed
various interventions and focused attention for students. While structured
programs with small group instruction works in one classroom, a less
structured program may work for another school.
Accelerated Reader is a less structured program that requires less
instruction from the teacher. With the use of Accelerated Reader and the
STAR assessment, reading growth achievement can be measured over the
course of the year (Nunnery et al., 2006). STAR assessments are an optional
program made by Renaissance Reading, which also produces Accelerated
Reader; STAR assessments measure a students ability to read at a certain
level. The assessment changes difficulty based on the students answers
given to the presented texts. If an answer is correct, the next question and

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

text increases in difficulty, whereas if a question is answered incorrectly, the

next question decreases in difficulty. Nunnery et al. (2006) found that
Accelerated Reader produced reading gains in all grades studied, grades 3-6,
with more growth over the course of the year in lower grades than the upper
elementary grades. Grades 3 and 4 experienced the most growth over the
year according to the three STAR tests administered over the course of the
year. The other large benefit to the Accelerated Reader program that was
noted is that it required little change to the current classroom and was easy
to implement. Growth in reading varies for several reasons and varies on an
individual basis; students should have personal goals in Accelerated Reader
to achieve.
Students read everyday in school, and all that reading adds up to
experience and contributes to reading growth. The amount of reading growth
during an academic year amounts to about 0.8 years (D. K. Foster & D. P.
Foster, 2014); with a silent reading program, students are likely to gain 0.2
years of reading growth in a single academic year. The study suggests that
students need goals, encouragement, and reading books within their Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD); the study also indicates that 83 hours of silent
reading equates to 0.1 years of reading growth, when studying students in
grades 2-8. Even though independent reading builds reading fluency,
students are still able to gain significant ground of 0.8 years without reading
independently during school time. Though the results may hint at reading
programs not being overly effective, the 0.2 years of reading growth is
significant for struggling readers and low-achieving schools.

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

Accelerated Reader provides little guidance as to what teachers should

do during class time in comparison to other reading programs. One
alternative to Accelerated Reader is called Scaffolded Silent Reading, which
includes silent reading of leveled texts, reading logs to track progress, and
teacher interaction and monitoring. Another alternative is called GROR,
which stands for Guided Repeated Oral Reading. GROR consists of reading
through a text verbally three to five times and then receive peer feedback.
The National Reading Panel endorses the use of GROR as a means to
increase reading achievement (Reutzel, Fawson, & Smith, 2008). These two
models of reading were used to see the effectiveness of each in high
poverty, low performing schools (Reutzel et al., 2008). This study focused on
3rd grade students and used Dibels testing to track growth and progress
between Scaffolded Silent Reading (referred to as ScSR now) students and
the GROR students. Students in the ScSR group rotated through different
genres of books and had group discussions about what a fluent reader looked
and sounded like; students also had 5-minute conferences with teachers to
track progress. The GROR group students modeled and held discussions on
good reading and fluency practices. The grade level text was read aloud
using various oral techniques and students also had opportunities to use
whisper phones for oral reading. After implementation of the two programs,
there was a 21% decrease in error, 20% growth in expression, and 43%
growth in comprehension on the Dibels test, but no difference between the
two programs in those three categories. There was no discrepancy in results

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

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between the two programs; therefore the results indicate that structured
reading practice is effective to achieve reading growth.
Though programs make implementing independent reading easier for
teacher, the benefits for students are mixed based on the type of program as
well as the grade level. High structured programs allow for interventions and
leveled instruction to occur within the classroom, while low structured
programs similar to Accelerated Reader require little change to the current
classroom set up and have varied effects on students reading achievement.
While programs assist teachers and students in knowing what independent
reading looks like in the classroom, the behavior of readers is another
important aspect to evaluate.
The Role of Student Behaviors During Reading
The behavior of students during independent reading time is a critical
component to analyze because it can impede their reading as well, as well as
peers reading. Vygotskys theory on learning and development is dependent
upon cultural awareness and acquired previous knowledge is well integrated
into multiple studies on reading growth. Since the theory looks at previously
acquired knowledge to grow and develop, this pattern of previous exposure
transfers easily into educational settings. Based on current knowledge,
young readers begin reading by reading aloud and transition to silent reading
practices, as they become more experienced readers.
Young children comprehend text better when they are read aloud to as
opposed to reading a text silently (Prior & Welling, 2001); in addition,
struggling readers of any age comprehend text better when read aloud
rather than silently. Prior & Welling (2001) studied students in grades 2-4

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looking at reading behaviors. The aim of the study was to look at the effect
of silent and oral reading and look at comprehension based on the two types
of reading. Two readings were given to students to read and they were
informed that one had to be read aloud and the other silently, with the
student able to choose which to read aloud. Following each text,
comprehension questions were asked verbally to the student. The results in
grade 2 were low, with 50% comprehension, suggesting that reading skills
are still being developed, when compared to 3rd and 4th grade comprehension
scores. The intriguing result in the study was that 4th grade students
performed better on the oral text than silent text comprehension questions.
Researchers suggested that this could have been due to the larger jump in
difficulty in text from 3rd to 4th grade compared to the difficulty between 2nd
and 3rd. While elementary students are still working on reading skills and
may not be proficient at reading silently, they are still using previous skills to
work on reading and comprehension. At one point, likely in secondary school,
students will comprehend most text verbally and transition to working on
silent reading comprehension. This transition to silent reading is incredibly
important in students reading development.
Studying students behaviors has proven that there is a continuum of
reading skills, much in line with Vygotskys theory. Whispering, movement of
the lips, and mumbling are all behaviors that readers use during independent
reading (Gilliam, Dykes, Gerla, & Wright, 2011). Silent reading is a typical
part of the school day as students read academic text and books for
pleasure, and furthermore silent reading is a necessary skill for later in life. A

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

12

study by Gilliam et al. (2011) looked at such behaviors in students in grades

6-11. Behaviors during reading that were analyzed in the study included
silent reading, lip movement, mumbling, whispering, and oral reading and
changes between those behaviors. 95 students participated in reading texts,
and less than 50% read silently the entire time. In addition, 40 students
changed their reading behaviors while reading and was nonspecific among
gender. Furthermore, students of both genders changed among multiple
behaviors during the reading. The researchers suggested that this aligns with
Vygotskian theory of oral reading, mixed reading-using mumbling,
whispering or other sub-vocal behaviors, and silent reading. Silent reading is
a complex task that requires practice and that teachers should assist
students in transitioning to silent reading by encouraging the use of one subvocal behavior at a time until they can read silently. This allows the reader to
improve their reading skills while not hindering comprehension of the text.
Student behavior also lies in their values; students may act out if they
find that their values dont align with the reading values of the classroom or
school. Siah & Kwows 2010 study into the value of reading showed that
students with a high value for reading had higher tendencies to revise
homework and read books for pleasure. Two groups were studied based on
the results of a questionnaire that looked at associations between students
reading values, parents reading activities, engagement in silent reading
activities, and their opinions of silent reading activities. The high value
reading group also reported they participated in activities with their parents
that involved reading and 89% of them felt self-motivated to read a book

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

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during silent reading time. However, the low value reading group had only
71% that felt self-motivated to read a book during silent reading time. Value
of reading had an impact on students work ethic during silent reading time
during the school day as well as students work ethic to revise schoolwork.
The ability to read silently and value reading are two key factors in the
success of independent reading in schools.
Conclusion
The focus of this literature review was to look at the relationship
between silent reading and reading achievement. In addition, the review
analyzed the use of silent reading programs and reader behavior and their
impacts on reading achievement in the K-12 setting. Some results indicated
that reading programs were beneficial in elementary grades to increase basic
reading skills (Prior & Welling, 2001). Multiple studies suggested that
behaviors while reading such as mumbling, whispering, or reading parts of
text aloud meant that readers had not transitioned or acquired adequate
silent reading skills (Prior & Welling, 2001; Gilliam et al., 2011) and
comprehension can be impeded.
Thousands of students silent read everyday in school under the
direction of their teachers. While the research shows that lower grades
benefit more from structured reading programs than older grades (Nunnery
et al., 2006), reading programs are used in K-8 and even in high school
grades. Structured programs allow for students to master basic reading skills
and are beneficial in the elementary grades. Even without reading
programs, students achieve reading growth through reading academic texts
everyday (D. K. Foster & D. P. Foster, 2014); therefore benefits of spending

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14

money and time on implementing an independent reading program could be

seen as a waste. Further research should include reading growth using
reading programs at all levels could assist in attaining adequate reading
programs in schools or fazing out unneeded reading programs. The behaviors
and attitudes of students during reading instruction also contribute to the
success of a reading program in a classroom or school. When students are
engaged, the curriculum has a better chance of being successful. Siah &
Kwow (2010) showed that high value of reading equaled more likely to revise
homework as well as read for pleasure outside of school. Struggling readers
need additional help as well in order to succeed; struggling readers may not
currently have a high value of reading that can be changed by persistence
and patience by the teacher or family involvement in reading activities.
Allowing readers to read leveled, interesting materials, conferencing with
students, and encouraging them to use a consistent, appropriate sub-vocal
behavior to become a more fluent reader are just a few ways to encourage
struggling readers in the classroom.
Future research should focus on ways to engage families in reading
activities to increase students value of reading, continued research on small
group interventions in reading within the general education classroom, and
reading programs in grades 6-8. The research of Siah & Kwow (2010) is a
starting point for how the value of reading corresponds to other academic
skills; if educators and researchers want to know the drive behind academic
skills and literacy, they should delve into the early years of literacy exposure
and find correlations. Small group interventions can be extremely helpful to

THE IMPACT OF READING PROGRAMS IN K-12 SETTINGS

15

struggling students when it comes to academics and more research could

provide enough leverage to gain instructional assistants, aides, and
specialists during reading instruction within the general education classroom.
Camahalan & Wyraz (2015) demonstrated a small percent of what can be
done in small group interventions when specialists can interact with the
small groups within the normal classroom reading instruction. In addition,
small group instruction can find gaps in student knowledge that would
otherwise go unnoticed due to a lack of adult supervision during some
activities. Research should continue to study reading achievement at all
grade levels and show how gains are made at elementary versus secondary
grade levels.

References
Camahalan, F. M. G., & Wyraz, A. (2015). Using additional literacy time and variety of reading
programs. Reading Improvement 52 (1), 19-26.
Chua, S. P. (2008). The effects of the sustained silent reading program on cultivating students
habits and attitudes in reading books for leisure. The Clearing House, 81(4), 180-184.
Foster, D. K., Foster, D. P. (2014). Estimating reading growth attributable to accelerated reader at
one American school in the Caribbean. Reading Psychology, 35(6), 529-547.

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Gilliam, B. K., Dykes, F., Gerla, J. K., & Wright, G. L. (2011). Silent manifestations of
adolescent struggling readers. Reading Improvement 48(3), 118-127.
Lee, Valerie. (2011). Becoming the reading mentors our adolescents deserve: Developing a
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(3), 209-218.
Nunnery, J.A., Ross, S. M., McDonald, A. (2006). A randomized experimental evaluation of the
impact of accelerated reader/reading renaissance implementation on reading achievement
in grades 3 to 6. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 11(1), 1-18.
Prior, S. M. & Welling, K. A. (2001). Read in your head: A Vygotskian analysis of the
transition from oral reading to silent reading. Reading Psychology 22, 1-15.
Reutzel, D. R., Fawson, P. C., & Smith, J. A. (2008). Reconsidering silent sustained reading: An
exploratory study of scaffolded silent reading. The Journal of Educational Research, 102
(1), 37-50.
Siah, P. & Kwok, W. (2010). The value of reading and the effectiveness of sustained silent
reading. The Clearing House. 83, 168-174.