Networking Basics

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•Network Communication

•OSI Reference Model

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What is Networking?

 Networking is the Sharing of information and

services .

 Networking is possible when individuals or groups

have information or abilities that they wish to share
with others .

Computer Networking provides the

communication tools to allow computers to SHARE
information and abilities .

eg., Postal Services , Courier Services , Computer

Networks
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Why Use Networks?

 Network: group of computers and other devices that are

connected by some type of transmission media

 Advantages of using networks over standalone computers:

 Networks enable multiple users to share the network’s
resources (devices and data)
 Networks allow you to manage, or administer, resources
on multiple computers from a central location

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 Suppose two individuals have some ideas to share

Russian French

For Communication THREE essentials factors required

At least TWO Individuals who A Russian & A
have something to share French have ideas
to share
Pathway for connecting each Suppose -
other Telephone
Rules for Communication May be -
English

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 Three basic elements of Computer Network

Something to Share Network Services

A Pathway for Communication Transmission Media

Rules for Communication Protocols

Connected

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Sharing of Resources in Computer Network

In a Computer Network ,sharing may be

….

 Hard-disk

 Printer

 Modem

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 Signals

 A signal is an electric quantity (voltage or current or

field strength) whose modulation represents coded
information about the source from which it comes.

 A detectable impulse by which information is

communicated through electronic or optical means
or over wire, cable, microwave, laser beams, etc.

 A signal is an electric quantity typically composed of

voltage and current traveling on a conductor (wire)
to convey information, data, or commands; has two
main characteristics: namely, amplitude and time
base

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Protocols

 A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to

connect and transmit data to one another.
Protocols determine how data are transmitted
between computing devices and over networks.

 In computing, a protocol is a convention or

standard that controls or enables the
connection, communication, and data transfer
between two computing endpoints. Protocols
may be implemented by hardware, software, or
a combination of the two. At the lowest level, a
protocol defines a hardware connection.

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Complexity of a Protocol

 In some cases, a protocol is simply a code—such as a

pattern of electrical voltages—that defines the binary
value of a bit of data: 0 or 1.

 More complicated networking protocols can provide a

variety of services, including the following:

 Packet acknowledgment
 Segmentation
 Flow control
 Error detection
 Error correction
 Data compression
 Data encryption

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Protocol Interaction

 The protocols operating at the various OSI layers

are often referred to as a protocol stack.

 The networking protocols running on a computer

form a layered stack, with each protocol providing
services to the protocol operating at the layer
above or below it, depending on the direction of
data flow.

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 Types of Computer Network

Classified on Size , Distance covered or Structure

•LAN - Local Area Network: confined to a relatively

small space, such as a building or an office

•MAN - Metropolitan Area Network: larger than a LAN;

connects clients and servers from multiple buildings

•WAN - Wide Area Network: connects two or more

geographically distinct LANs or MANs

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 LAN

1. Maximum distance < = 10 Kms

2. Normally one type of Transmission
Media
3. Normally within a Building or Campus

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 Layout of LAN

Within a Building or Campus

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 MAN

•Maximum Distance > 10 Kms < = 100 Kms

•Transmission Media may be more than one type

•Within a city

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 Layout of MAN

Building A Building B

Within a City

MAN Link
Network A
Network B

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 WAN

Inter City
or
Inter Country

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 Layout of WAN

WAN Link
City A City B

DELHI

CHENNAI

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Case Study - I

MoneyMaker is a bank having its registered office at

Delhi. It has branches at Mumbai, Chennai,
Hyderabad and Bangalore. The operating departments
in the bank are Finance, Insurance, Loan, IT,
Marketing, Customer Service and HR. MoneyMaker
bank uses LAN as their computer network for each
department. All the branches of the bank from different
cities are connected through WAN. The bank is
expanding and decided to open its branches at
different locations in the city.

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Problem

Determine which type of network to be used within a

city

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Suggested Solution

Use LAN computer network for each department in the

new branch. MAN can be used for connecting the
different branches of the bank within the city

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Transmission Basics

 In data networking, transmit means to issue

signals to the network medium

 Transmission refers to either the process of

transmitting or the progress of signals after they
have been transmitted

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Analog and Digital Signals

 Information transmitted via analog or digital signals

 Signal strength proportional to voltage

 In analog signals, voltage varies continuously and appears

as a wavy line when graphed over time
 Wave’s amplitude is a measure of its strength
 Frequency: number of times wave’s amplitude cycles
from starting point, through highest amplitude and
lowest amplitude, back to starting point over a fixed
period of time
 Measured in Hz
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Analog and Digital Signals (continued)

 Wavelength: distance between corresponding points on a

wave’s cycle
 Phase: progress of a wave over time in relationship to a
fixed point
 Analog transmission susceptible to transmission flaws such
as noise
 Digital signals composed of pulses of precise, positive
voltages and zero voltages
 Positive voltage represents 1
 Zero voltage represents 0

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Analog and Digital Signals (continued)

 Binary system: uses 1s and 0s to represent information

 Easy to convert between binary and decimal
 Bit: a single binary signal
 Byte: 8 bits
 Typically represents one piece of information
 Overhead: describes non-data information that must
accompany data for a signal to be properly routed and
interpreted

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Data Modulation

Figure : A carrier wave modified through frequency

modulation
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Transmission Direction:
Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Duplex

 Simplex transmission: signals may travel in only one

direction

 Half-duplex transmission: signals may travel in both

directions over a medium
 Only one direction at a time

 Full-duplex or duplex: signals free to travel in both

directions over a medium simultaneously
 Used on data networks
 Channel: distinct communication path between nodes
 May be separated logically or physically

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Simplex Communication

 A data processing device or protocol capable of

transmitting or receiving but not both.

 A radio technology that allows only one-way

communication. The FM radio in your car, or your
TV set, could be viewed as simplex devices.

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 Half Duplex Commnuication

 A communications channel allowing alternating transmission

in two directions, but not in both directions simultaneously.

 Alternating the transmission and reception of information

between users. Sometimes also referred to as "Ping-Pong"
operation.

 This is the basic mode of operation of most TDD and TDMA

systems, where transmission and reception are separate in
time.

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Full-Duplex Communications

 Operating a channel in one direction only with no

ability to operate in the other direction.

 An asynchronous communications protocol

allowing a communications channel to send and
receive data at the same time. For example, a
telephone is a full-duplex device because both
parties can talk at once.

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Transmission Direction: Multiplexing

 Multiplexing: transmission form allowing multiple signals to

travel simultaneously over one medium
 Channel logically separated into sub channels

 Multiplexer (mux): combines multiple signals

 Sending end of channel

 Demultiplexer (demux): separates combined signals and

regenerates them in original form
 Receiving end of channel

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Relationships Between Nodes

Figure : Point-to-point versus broadcast transmission

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Throughput and Bandwidth

 Throughput: measure of amount of data transmitted

during given time period

 Bandwidth: difference between highest and lowest

frequencies that a medium can transmit

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Baseband and Broadband

 Baseband: digital signals sent through direct current (DC)

pulses applied to a wire
 Requires exclusive use of wire’s capacity
 Baseband systems can transmit one signal at a time
 Ethernet

 Broadband: signals modulated as radiofrequency (RF)

analog waves that use different frequency ranges
 Does not encode information as digital pulses

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Baseband Communication

 Baseband is the name given to a transmission method

in which the entire bandwidth (the rate at which
information travels through a network connection) is
used to transmit just one signal.

 Baseband is a cheaper method than broadband and is

typically used for shorter distances of transmission.

 A prime signal such as composite video, component

video and audio having its own path and that is not
modulated onto a carrier signal or combined with other
signals on a path.

 For instance, the voice baseband extends from 300 Hz-

3400Hz.

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Broadband Communication

 Broadband comes from the words "broad bandwidth"

and is used to describe a high-capacity, two-way link
between an end user and access network suppliers
capable of supporting full-motion, interactive video
applications.

 A transmission medium capable of supporting a wide

range of frequencies, typically from audio up to video
frequencies. It can carry multiple signals by dividing the
total capacity of the medium into multiple, independent
bandwidth channels, where each channel operates only
on a specific range of frequencies.

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Segments and Backbones

 The term segment is sometimes used synonymously with

LAN or network to refer to any collection of networked
computers, but in this context it refers to a LAN composed
of user workstations and other end-user devices, such as
printers.

 The backbone exists primarily as a conduit that enables the

segments to communicate with each other. One common
configuration for an office building with multiple floors calls
for a horizontal segment connecting all of the workstations
on each floor and a backbone running vertically from the
top of the building to the bottom, connecting all of the
segments.

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Transmission Flaws: Noise

 electromagnetic interference (EMI): waves emanating from

electrical devices or cables

 radiofrequency interference (RFI): electromagnetic

interference caused by radio waves

 Crosstalk: signal traveling on a wire or cable infringes on

signal traveling over adjacent wire or cable

 Certain amount of signal noise is unavoidable

 All forms of noise measured in decibels (dB)

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Attenuation

Figure : An analog signal distorted by noise and then amplified

Figure : A digital signal distorted by noise and then repeated

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Latency

 Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal

 Many possible causes:
 Cable length
 Intervening connectivity device (e.g., modems and
routers)

 Round trip time (RTT): Time for packets to go from sender

to receiver and back

 Cabling rated for maximum number of connected network

segments

 Transmission methods assigned maximum segment lengths

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Common Media Characteristics: Throughput

 Probably most significant factor in choosing transmission

method

 Limited by signaling and multiplexing techniques used in

given transmission method

 Transmission methods using fiber-optic cables achieve

faster throughput than those using copper or wireless
connections

 Noise and devices connected to transmission medium can

limit throughput

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Cost
 Many variables can influence final cost of implementing
specific type of media:
 Cost of installation

 Cost of new infrastructure versus reusing existing

infrastructure

 Cost of maintenance and support

 Cost of a lower transmission rate affecting productivity

 Cost of obsolescence
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Size and Scalability

 Three specifications determine size and scalability of

networking media:
 Maximum nodes per segment
 Depends on attenuation and latency

 Maximum segment length

 Depends on attenuation, latency, and segment type
 Populated segment contains end nodes

 Maximum network length

 Sum of network’s segment lengths
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Connectors and Media Converters

 Connectors: pieces of hardware connecting wire to network

device
 Every networking medium requires specific kind of connector

 Media converter: hardware enabling networks or segments

running on different media to interconnect and exchange
signals
 Type of transceiver
 Device that transmits and receives signals

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Noise Immunity

 Some types of media are more susceptible to noise than

others
 Fiber-optic cable least susceptible

 Install cabling away from powerful electromagnetic forces

 May need to use metal conduit to contain and protect
cabling

 Possible to use antinoise algorithms

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Entities of Computer Network

•Service Provider

•Service Requester

•Peers

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 Entities of Computer Network

•A Service Provider provides Network Services . E.g.,

SERVERS

•A Service Requester requests Network Services. E.g.,

CLIENTS

• Peers may do both concurrently .

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 Types Computer Network Classified on Network Entities

Peer to Peer
Per-to-Peer Networks allow any entity to both Request and
Provide Network Services .

Server Centric
Server Centric Networks involve strictly defined roles of entities
( either as a Server or Client ) .

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 Advantages of Server- Based Networks

1. Strong central security

2. Central file storage, which allows all users to work from the
same set of data and provides easy backup of critical data

3. Ability of servers to pool available hardware and software,

lowering overall costs

4 Ability to share expensive equipment, such as laser printers

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 Advantages of Server-Based Networks(
Networks Cont… )

5. Optimized dedicated servers, which are faster than peers at

sharing net-work resources

6. Less intrusive security, since a single password allows

access to all shared resources on the network

7. Freeing of users from the task of managing the sharing of

resources

8. Easy manageability of a large number of users

9. Central organization, which keeps data from getting lost

among computers
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 Disadvantages of Server-Based Networks

1. Expensive dedicated hardware

2. Expensive network operating system

software and client licenses

3. A dedicated network administrator

(usually required)

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 Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

1. No extra investment in server hardware or software is

required

2. Easy setup

3. No network administrator required

4. Ability of users to control resources sharing

5. No reliance on other computers for their operation

6. Lower cost for small networks

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 Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

1. Additional load on computers because of resource sharing

2. Inability of peers to handle as many network connections

as servers

3. Lack of central organization, which can make data hard to

find

4. No central point of storage for file archiving

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 Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

5. Requirement that users administer their own

computers

6. Weak and intrusive security

7. Lack of central management, which makes large

peer networks hard to work with

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 Hybrid Network
( based on Network Entities )

Hybrid networks have all three types ( Server, Client &

Peers ) of computers operating on them and generally have
active domains and workgroups.

This means that while most shared resources are located

on servers, network users still have access to any resources
being shared by peers in the workgroup.

It also means network users do not have to log on to the

domain controller to access workgroup resources being
shared by peers.

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 A Hybrid Network
( based on Network Entities )

Domain - XYZ

Workgroup - ABC
Server
Based
Network

Peer-to-Peer
Network

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Networking Standards Organizations

 Standards: documented agreements containing technical

specifications or other precise criteria stipulating how
particular products or services should be designed or
performed
 Define minimum acceptable performance

 Many different organizations have evolved to oversee

computer industry’s standards

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ANSI

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

 Composed of more than a thousand representatives
from industry and government
 Represents United States in setting international
standards

 ANSI standards documents available:

 ANSI’s Web site (www.ansi.org)
 At university or public libraries

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EIA and TIA

 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): Trade

organization composed of representatives from
electronics manufacturing firms across US
 Sets standards for its members
 Helps write ANSI standards
 Lobbies for legislation favorable to growth of
computer and electronics industries

 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA):

Focuses on standards for information technology
(IT), wireless, satellite, fiber optics, and
telephone equipment

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IEEE

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

 International society composed of engineering professionals

 Goals are to promote development and education in

electrical engineering and computer science

 IEEE technical papers and standards are highly respected in

the networking profession
 Can purchase IEEE documents online from IEEE’s Web
site (www.ieee.org)
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ISO

 International Organization for Standardization

 Collection of organization standards representing 146

countries

 Goal is to establish international technological standards to

facilitate global exchange of information and barrier-free
trade

 Fewer than 300 of ISO’s more than 14,250 standards apply

to computer-related products and functions

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ITU

 International Telecommunication Union

 Regulates international telecommunications:

 Radio and TV frequencies
 Satellite and telephony specifications
 Networking infrastructure
 Tariffs applied to global communications

 Typically, documents pertain more to global

telecommunications issues than to industry technical
specifications
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ISOC

 Internet Society

 Professional membership society that helps to establish

technical standards for the Internet

 Oversees groups with specific missions:

 Internet Architecture Board (IAB): Technical advisory

group of researchers and professionals
 Interested in overseeing Internet’s design and
management
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Sets standards
for how systems communicate over the Internet
 How protocols operate and interact

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IANA and ICANN

 Internet Protocol (IP) addresses: Addresses used to identify

computers on the Internet and other TCP/IP-based
networks
 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA): Used to keep
records of available and reserved IP addresses and
determines how addresses were doled out
 In 1997, coordinated efforts with three Regional
Internet Registries (RIRs)
 Not-for-profit agency that manages distribution of IP
addresses to private and public entities

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IANA and ICANN (continued)

 In late 1990s U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC)

overhauled IP addressing and domain name management

 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN): Ultimately responsible for IP addressing and
domain name management
 IANA still performs system administration

 Individuals and businesses lease addresses from Internet

Service Provider (ISP)
 Business providing access to Internet and other services

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The OSI Model
 In 1983, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and what is now the
Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T)
published a document called "The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection."

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model: divides

network communications into seven layers:
 Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application
 Protocols perform services unique to layer
 Protocols interact with protocols in layers directly above
and below
 Protocol: set of instructions to perform a function or group
of functions
 Written by a programmer
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The OSI Model (continued)

 Theoretical representation of what happens between two

nodes communicating on a network
 Does not prescribe type of hardware or software that should
support each layer
 Does not describe how software programs interact with other
software programs or how software programs interact with
humans

 Each layer communicates with same layer from one

computer to another

 Model is imperfect

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The OSI Model (continued)

Figure : Flow of data through the OSI Model

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Application Layer

 Services facilitate communication between software and

lower-layer network services
 Helps software applications negotiate formatting,
procedural, security, synchronization, and other
requirements with network

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): formats and sends

requests from client’s browser to server
 Also formats and sends Web server’s response back to
client’s browser

 Application program interface (API): set of routines that

make up part of a software application

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Presentation Layer

 Protocols accept Application layer data and

format it
 So that one type of application and host can
understand data from another type of
application and host
 e.g., translation and conversion between
graphics file types

 Manages data encryption and decryption

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Session Layer

 Protocols coordinate and maintain communications between

two network nodes
 Establish and maintain communications link for duration
of session
 Keep communication secure
 Synchronize dialogue between two nodes
 Determine if communications have been cut off
 Determine where to restart transmission
 Terminate communications

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Session Layer (continued)

 Sets terms of communication

 Decides which node will communicate first
 Decides how long a node can communicate

 Monitors identification of session participants

 Ensures that only authorized nodes have
access

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Transport Layer

 Protocols accept data from Session layer and manage end-

to-end delivery of data
 Ensure data transferred reliably, in correct sequence,
and without errors
 Protocols also handle flow control
 Gauging appropriate rate of transmission based on how
fast recipient can accept data
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Takes care of reliably
transmitting HTTP requests from client to server and vice
versa

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Transport Layer (continued)

 Connection-oriented protocols: ensure that data arrives

exactly as it was sent
 Establish connection before transmitting data
 TCP is connection-oriented
 Client’s TCP protocol first sends synchronization
(SYN) packet request to server
 Server responds with synchronization-
acknowledgment (SYN-ACK) packet
 Client responds with own acknowledgment (ACK)

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Transport Layer (continued)

 Acknowledgments also used to ensure that data was

properly delivered
 For every data unit sent, connection-oriented protocol
expects acknowledgment from recipient
 If no acknowledgment, data retransmitted
 Connection-oriented protocols use a checksum
 Unique character string allowing receiving node to
determine if arriving data unit exactly matches data unit
sent by source

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Transport Layer (continued)

 Connectionless protocols do not establish connection before

transmitting
 No effort to ensure data delivered error-free

 Transport layer protocols break large data units received

from Session layer into smaller segments (segmentation)

 Maximum transmission unit (MTU): largest data unit a

given network will carry

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Transport Layer (continued)

 Reassembly: process of reconstructing segmented data

units

 Sequencing: method of identifying segments that belong to

same group of subdivided data
 Indicates where unit of data begins
 Indicates order in which groups of data were issued
 Transport layer protocols of two nodes must synchronize
timing and agree on starting point for the transmission

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Transport Layer (continued)

Figure 2-2: Segmentation and Reassembly

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Transport Layer (continued)

Figure : A TCP segment

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Network Layer

 Primary functions of protocols:

 Translate network addresses into physical
counterparts
 Decide how to route data from sender to
receiver
 Each node has two types of addresses:
 Network address: follows hierarchical
addressing scheme
 Can be assigned through OS software
 Network layer addresses, logical addresses,
or virtual addresses
 Physical address

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Network Layer (continued)

 Network layer protocols accept Transport layer segments

and add logical addressing information in network header
 Network layer handles routing
 Determining best network path
 IP: Network layer protocol that underlies most Internet
traffic
 Fragmentation: Network layer protocol subdivides
segments it receives from Transport layer into smaller
packets

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Network Layer (continued)

Figure : An IP packet

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Data Link Layer

 Protocols divide received data into distinct frames

 Can then be transmitted by Physical layer

 Frame: structured package for moving data

 Raw data
 “payload”
 Sender’s and receiver’s network addresses
 Error checking and control information

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Data Link Layer (continued)

 Error checking accomplished by 4-byte Frame Check

Sequence (FCS) field
 Ensures data at destination exactly matches data issued
from source
 When source node transmits data, performs Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) to get FCS
 Destination node’s Data Link layer services unscramble
FCS via same CRC algorithm

 Data Link layer divided into two sub-layers:

 Logical Link Control
 Media Access Control

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Data Link Layer (continued)

Figure : The Data Link layer and its sublayers

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Data Link Layer (continued)

 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer:

 Provides interface to Network layer protocols
 Manages flow control
 Issues requests for transmission for data that has
suffered errors
 Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer:
 Manages access to physical layer
 Appends destination computer’s physical address
onto data frame (MAC address, Data Link layer
address, or hardware address)

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Data Link Layer (continued)

Figure : A NIC’s MAC address

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Data Link Layer (continued)

 MAC addresses contain two parts:

 Block ID: six-character sequence unique
to vendor
 Device ID: six-character sequence
based on NIC’s model and manufacture
date

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Physical Layer
 Protocols accept frames from Data Link layer and
generate voltage to transmit signals

 When receiving data, protocols detect voltage and

accept signals

 Protocols also set data transmission rate and

monitor data error rates
 Cannot perform error correction

 NICs operate at both Physical layer and Data Link

layer

 Network administrators mostly concerned with

bottom four layers of OSI Model
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Applying the OSI Model

Table : Functions of the OSI layers

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Communication Between Two Systems

Figure : Data transformation through the OSI Model

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Frame Specifications

 The two major categories of frame types:

 Ethernet
 Four types of Ethernet frames
 Most popular form characterized by unique way in
which devices share a common transmission channel
(described in IEEE 802.3 standard)
 Token Ring: relies on direct links between nodes and a
ring topology
 Nodes pass around tokens (control frames that
indicate to network when a node is about to transmit
data)
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IEEE Networking Specifications

 Apply to connectivity, networking media, error

checking algorithms, encryption, emerging
technologies, and more

 Specifications fall under IEEE’s “Project 802”

 Effort to standardize physical and logical
elements of a network

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IEEE Networking Specifications (continued)

Table : IEEE 802 standards

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IEEE Networking Specifications (continued)

Table : IEEE 802 standards

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Data Encapsulation

 The primary interaction between the protocols operating

at the various layers of the OSI model takes the form of
each protocol adding headers (and in one case, a footer)
to the information it receives from the layer above it.

 Data encapsulation is the process by which the protocols

add their headers and footer to the request generated by
the application.

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Summary
 Standards are documented agreements
containing precise criteria that are used as
guidelines to ensure that materials, products,
processes, and services suit their purpose

 ISO’s OSI Model divides networking architecture

into seven layers

 Each OSI layer has its own set of functions and

interacts with the layers directly above and below
it.

 Application layer protocols enable software to

negotiate their formatting, procedural, security,
and synchronization with the network
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Summary (continued)

 Presentation layer protocols serve as translators

between the application and the network
 Session layer protocols coordinate and maintain
links between two devices for the duration of
their communication
 Transport layer protocols oversee end-to-end
data delivery
 Network layer protocols manage logical
addressing and determine routes based on
addressing, patterns of usage, and availability
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Summary (continued)

 Data Link layer protocols organize data they

receive from the Network layer into frames that
contain error checking routines and can then be
transmitted by the Physical layer
 Physical layer protocols generate and detect
voltage to transmit and receive signals carrying
data over a network medium
 Data frames are small blocks of data with control,
addressing, and handling information attached to
them
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THANK YOU

Confidential