Unit 1

Data Communication,
OSI Reference Model

PAWA N K UM A R
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S SO R
G J US & T, H I S A R
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Contents
 Introduction to Data Communication
 Components of Data Communication
 Data representation and Data flow
 Network Uses, Services and Topologies
 OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
 Network categories
 Transmission Media – Guided, Wireless
 Switching Techniques
 Networking Devices
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Data Communication
 Communication means sharing of information or message.
 It can be
 Local (face to face) or
 Remote (over distance)
 Telecommunication (tele: far) means communication at a distance (telephone,

television, telegraphy).
 Data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data.
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Data Communication
 Data communication can be defined as “ By using the transmission media, data
or information is transmitted from one location to another is called data
communication”.
 For data communication, computers, telephones, and wireless devices that are
linked in a network are used.
 Physical transfer of data can be:
 point to point - communication connection between two nodes or end points (or)
 point to multi-point - communication which is accomplished via distinct type of one to
many connection
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Data Communication contd.
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Components of Data Communication
 Data communication mainly have five components:
 Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium (Communication Channel)
Encoder & Decoder
 Message: It is information or data that is communicated. It can be text,
images, numbers, audio, video.
 Sender: computer or device that sends the data or messages is called sender.
In data communication system, computer is usually used as a transmitter. It
is also called sender. A sender may be computer, workstation, telephone,
video camera etc.
 Receiver: Device that receives the data or messages is called receiver.
Receiver is also known as sink. The receiver can be a computer, workstation,
printer or a fax machine.
 Medium (Communication Channel): Path through which data is sent or
transmitted from one location to another is called communication channel.
 If the receiver and the sender are within a building, a wire may be the
communication channel.
 If they are located at different locations, the channel may be the telephone lines,
fibre optics, satellite.
 Encoder: Basically computer works with digital signals and communication
channels usually use analog signals. Therefore, to send data through a
communication channel, the digital signals are encoded (or converted) into
analog signals or into a form which can be transmitted through transmission
medium. This is called encoding. The device that carries out this function is
called encoder.
 Decoder: To receive data from a communication channel, the coded analog
signals or any other encoded form are converted back to digital signals. This
process is called decoding. The device that carries out this function is called
decoder.
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 Protocol: is a set of rules that governs data communications.
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Without a protocol two devices may be connected but not communicating.
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Characteristics of Data Communication
 Delivery: System must deliver data to correct destination. Data must be received
by only intended device or user.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
later are useless.
 Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio or video packets.
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Data Representation
 Numbers: represented by bit pattern (binary number)
 Text: Text can be represented as in formats:
 ASCII: 7-bit pattern(128 different symbols)
 Extended ASCII: 8-bit pattern (with an extra 0 at left from 00000000 to 0111111
 Unicode: 32 bits pattern (65,536,216) symbols, which is definitely enough to represent
any symbol in the world.
 Images : represented by matrix of pixels (picture element), small dot. The size
of pixel represent the resolution.
 Audio: represent sound by continuous (analog) signal
 Video: can be analog or digital signal
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Transmission Modes (Data Flow)
 Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two
devices connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode.
 These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of
transmission modes. They are:
 Simplex Mode
 Half duplex Mode
 Full duplex Mode
 Simplex Mode: In this transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction
i.e. communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the
sender. For e.g. - loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote,
keyboard and monitor etc. 12
 Half Duplex: Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted
in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
 For e.g. - walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are
sent in both the directions.
 Full Duplex: In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it
is bidirectional at the same time.
 For e.g.- Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same
time.
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Computer Network
 Computer Network is a collection of computer systems and other computing
devices (printer, scanner etc.) connected through some communication channels
to facilitate sharing some data or information among a range of users.
 Elements of computer networks are mainly as:
 Hardware devices
 Software (Network Operating System)
 Communication Channel (Wires)
 Protocols
 Message/ Data/ Information
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Types of Networks
 Based on the characteristics computer networks can be of different types. But
mainly it is divided in three categories:
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
 LAN: the most frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one
of the most original and one of the simplest types of networks.
 LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together across
short distances (within a building or between a group of two or three buildings
in close proximity to each other) to share information and resources.
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Types of Networks contd..
 Enterprises typically manage and
maintain LANs.
 Using routers, LANs can connect to
wide area networks to rapidly and
safely transfer data.
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 MAN: MAN networks are larger
than LANs but smaller than WANs
– and incorporate elements from
both types of networks.
 MANs span an entire geographic
area (typically a town or city, but
sometimes a campus).
 Ownership and maintenance is
handled by either a single person or
company (a local council, a large
company, etc.). 18
 WAN: Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together
across longer physical distances.
 This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to
each other over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles
apart.
 The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers
together around the world. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned
and maintained by multiple administrators or the public.
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 Some other types of Network:
 PAN (Personnel Area Network)
 WLAN (Wireless LAN)
 SAN (Storage Area Network)
 CAN (Campus Area Network)
 VPN (Virtual Private Network)
 EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
 PAN: It is smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a
wireless modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves
around one person in one building. These types of networks are typically found
in small offices or residences, and are managed by one person or organization
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from a single device.
 VPN: By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users
send and receive data as if their devices were connected to the private network –
even if they’re not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection, users can access
a private network remotely.
 EPN: These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect its various locations to share computer resources.
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Network Topology
 Network topologies describe the methods in
which all the elements of a network are
mapped. The topology term refers to both
the physical and logical layout of a network.
 Network physical topology is an actual
layout of the computer cables and other
network devices.
 Logical topology gives insight's about
network's physical design.
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Network Topology - Mesh
 In mesh topology each device is connected to
every other device on the network through a
dedicated point-to-point link.
 When we say dedicated it means that the link
only carries data for the two connected devices
only.
 Lets say we have n devices in the network then
each device must be connected with (n-1)
devices of the network. Number of links in a
mesh topology of n devices would be nC2 i.e.,
n(n-1)/2.
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 There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
 Routing
 Flooding
 Routing: In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network
requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using
the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken
links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-
configure the failed nodes.
 Flooding: In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes,
hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very
unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
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 Types of Mesh Topology:
 Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
 Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
 Advantages of Mesh topology:
 No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the
link is only available for those two devices.
 Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and
the communication between other devices on the network.
 Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is
not possible.
 Fault detection is easy.
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 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
 Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.
 It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of systems.
 It requires more space for dedicated links.
 Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is expensive to
implement.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.
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Network Topology - Star
 In this type of topology all the computers
are connected to a single device hub/ switch
through a cable. This hub/ switch is the
central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
 Features of Star Topology
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to
the hub.
 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.
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Network Topology - Star
 Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the central device fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the central device.
 Performance is based on the hub/ switch that is it depends on its capacity.
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
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Network Topology - Bus
 Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes.
 The main cable acts as a spine for the entire network.
 One of the computers in the network acts as the computer server.
 When it has two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus topology.
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Network Topology - Bus
 Features of Bus Topology
 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable.
 Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length and slower than the ring topology.
 Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.
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Network Topology - Ring
 Ring Topology: It is called ring topology because
it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to
the first.
 In this topology, exactly two neighbors for each
device.
 In this topology, one node is chosen to configure
the network and monitor other devices. Ring
topologies are half-duplex but can also be made
full-duplex. To make ring topologies full-duplex
you would need to have two connections between
network nodes to form a Dual Ring Topology.
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 The following operations takes place in ring topology
are :
 One station is known as monitor station which takes all the
responsibility to perform the operations.
 To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other
stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will
circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques : Early
token release releases the token just after the transmitting
the data and Delay token release releases the token after
the acknowledgement is received from the receiver.
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 Advantages of Ring Topology
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
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Network Topology - Tree
 It has a root node and all other nodes
are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology. It
should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy.
 Tree topologies are used to extend bus
and star topologies.
 Features of Tree Topology
 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.
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Network Topology - Tree
 Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.
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Network Topology - Hybrid
 When a topology is composed of
two or more different topologies
it is referred to as a hybrid
topology.
 Hybrid topologies are most-
commonly encountered in
larger enterprises where
individual departments have
network topologies that is
different from another topology
in the organization.
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Network Topology - Hybrid
Advantages of Hybrid topology
 We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our
concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
 Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks
with different topologies.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

 Fault detection is difficult
 Installation is difficult.
 Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.
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Computer Network Uses
 Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as
individuals. Some of its main uses are as follows −
 Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow organizations
having units which are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very
effective manner.
 It allow to access programs and software as well as sharing of hardware equipment,
like printers and scanners among varied users.
 Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks, users can retrieve
remote information on a variety of topics stored at remote databases.
 Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks provides speedy and
high volume interpersonal communication.. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively
used for sending texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe.
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Computer Network Uses
 E-Commerce − It provides way for a variety of business and commercial transactions
online, popularly called e-commerce. Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or sell
items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds electronically.
 Highly Reliable Systems − Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in
nature, by the virtue of which data is stored in multiple sources. It makes the system
highly reliable. If a failure occurs in one source, then the system will still continue to
function and data will still be available from the other sources.
 Cost–Effective Systems − Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment of
computer systems in organizations.
 VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication
systems. Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead
of the regular analog phone lines.
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Computer Network Services
 Some basic services computer network can offer are:
 Directory Service: These services are mapping between name and its value, which
can be variable value or fixed. This software system helps to store the information,
organize it, and provides various means of accessing it.
 Accounting: Provide service for large number of user’s personal information to store in
encrypted form.
 Authentication and Authorization: User ID and credentials are checked to identify users
authenticity.
 Domain Name Services: DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which
internet works. This system maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to
remember and recall than IP addresses.
 File Services: File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.
 File sharing: To sharing file among few users.
 File Transfer: To transfer file at different location.
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Computer Network Services
 Communication Services: Provides communication among users via some platform.
 Email
 Social Networking
 Internet Chat
 Discussion Board
 Remote Access
 Application Services: It also provides some network based services to the users such
as web services, database managing, and resource sharing.
 Resource Sharing: To use resources efficiently and economically.
 Databases: Another important service to store information.
 Web services: Used to connect to internet.
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OSI Reference Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
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OSI Reference Model
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OSI Reference Model
 Application Layer: It is only layer that directly interacts with data from the user.
 Software applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to
initiate communications.
 It should be made clear that client software applications are not part of the application layer.
 Application layer is responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the software
relies on to present meaningful data to the user.
 Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is
one of the protocols that enables email communications).
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OSI Reference Model
 Presentation Layer: It is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used
by the application layer.
 In other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for applications to consume.
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data.
 Two communicating devices may be using different encoding methods, so layer 6 is
responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that the application layer of the
receiving device can understand.
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OSI Reference Model
 If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is
responsible for adding the encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the
encryption on the receiver's end so that it can present the application layer with
unencrypted, readable data.
 Finally the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives
from the application layer before delivering it to layer 5. This helps improve the
speed and efficiency of communication by minimizing the amount of data that will
be transferred.
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OSI Reference Model
 Session Layer: It is responsible for opening and closing
communication between the two devices.
 The time between when the communication is opened and
closed is known as the session.
 The session layer ensures that the session stays open long
enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and then
promptly closes the session in order to avoid wasting
resources.
 Main functions of session layer includes session
establishment (establishment, maintenance, termination),
synchronization and dialog controller.
 Session layer allows two process to establishment
connection.
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OSI Reference Model
 Dialog controller - session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
 The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints to minimize errors in data
transmission.
 For example, if a 100 megabyte file is being transferred, the session layer could set a
checkpoint every 5 megabytes. In the case of a disconnect or a crash after 52 megabytes have
been transferred, the session could be resumed from the last checkpoint, meaning only 50 more
megabytes of data need to be transferred. Without the checkpoints, the entire transfer would
have to begin again from scratch.
 All the top 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
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OSI Reference Model
 Transport Layer: It is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two
devices.
 This includes taking data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks
called segments before sending it to layer 3.
 The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the
segments into data the session layer can consume.
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OSI Reference Model
 The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control.
 Flow control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender
with a fast connection doesn’t overwhelm a receiver with a slow connection.
 The transport layer performs error control on the receiving end by ensuring that the
data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
 It provides two types of services:
 Connection oriented service
 Connectionless service
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OSI Reference Model
 Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
 It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making
system calls.
 Transport layer uses following two protocols :
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
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OSI Reference Model
 Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between
two different networks.
 If the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer is
unnecessary.
 The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units, called
packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving device.
 The network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to reach its destination;
this is known as Routing.
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OSI Reference Model
 Main function of network is routing and logical addressing.
 Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
 Network layer devices are such as routers.
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OSI Reference Model
 Data Link Layer: is very similar to the network layer, except the data link layer
facilitates data transfer between two devices on the SAME network.
 The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them into
smaller pieces called frames.
 Like the network layer, the data link layer is also responsible for flow control and
error control in intra-network communication (The transport layer only does flow
control and error control for inter-network communications).
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OSI Reference Model
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
 Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
 This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively.
 Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
 This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the
Frame traffic control over the network.
 It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
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OSI Reference Model
 It is also responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
 It contains two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control Layer
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
 Media Access Control Layer
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
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OSI Reference Model
 Physical Layer: It includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer,
such as the cables and switches.
 This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a
string of 1s and 0s.
 The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that
the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.
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OSI Reference Model
 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over
network.
 Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
 It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.
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TCP/IP Reference Model
 TCP/IP model was developed prior to the
OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to
the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers:
the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical
layer.
 It was developed by the DoD (Department
of Defence) in the 1960s.
 It is named after the two main protocols that
are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP.
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TCP/IP Reference Model
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.
 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer (Physical and DLL) that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports
all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The main
protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP,
RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols defined
here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the
transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, etc.
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Service Type and Switching Techniques
 Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided:
 Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets must
be transmitted over a single route.
 Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done
individually. No added setup is required.
 Switching Techniques: Switching is the technique by which nodes control or switch
data to transmit it between specific points on a network. There are 3 common
switching techniques:
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Message Switching
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Connection Oriented Service
 A connection-oriented service is one that establishes a dedicated connection
between the communicating entities for data transmission. To use a
connection-oriented service, we follow three phases:
 Connection establishment
 Data transfer
 Connection release
 In connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver
in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender. For example – A
telephone system.
 It uses circuit switching technique is used for connection and data
transmission.
 It provides reliable data transmission.
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Connection Oriented Service – Circuit
Switching Technique
 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated
path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
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Switching Technique
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 When any user wants to send data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the
receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment,
dedicated path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
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Switching Technique
Circuit Switching technique have some pros and cons:
 Advantages of Circuit Switching
 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message
 Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
 Long set up time is required
 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen
 Line may be held up for a long time
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Connection Oriented Service
 Advantages of Connection-Oriented Services –
 This is mostly a reliable connection.
 Congestions are less frequent.
 Sequencing of data packets is guaranteed.
 Problems related to duplicate data packets are alleviated.
 Suitable for long connection.
 Disadvantages of Connection-Oriented Services –
 Resource allocation is needed before communication. This often leads to under-utilized
network resources.
 The lesser speed of connection due to the time is taken for establishing and relinquishing the
connection.
 In the case of router failures or network congestions, there are no alternative ways to continue
communication.
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Connectionless Service
A Connectionless service is a data communication between two nodes where the sender
sends data without ensuring whether the receiver is available to receive the data.
Here, each data packet (datagram) has the destination address and is routed
independently irrespective of the other packets.
Data packets may follow different paths to reach the destination. There’s no need to
setup connection before sending a message and relinquish it after the message has been
sent. The data packets in a connectionless service are usually called datagrams.
When the message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times (larger) the size of the
packet, then the network layer divides message into 4 packets and transmits each packet
to router via. few protocol. For example - Postal system.
It uses Packet switching technique for data transmission.
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Connectionless Service - Packet Switching
Technique
 Main problem with circuit switching is that it needs a dedicated line for
transmission. In packet switching, data is broken down into small packets with
each packet having source and destination addresses, travelling from one router
to the next router.
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Technique
 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but
it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
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Technique
 Advantages Of Packet Switching:
 Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary
storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
 Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching
technique provides reliable communication.
 Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to
the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence
makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
 Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
 Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.
 The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high implementation
cost.
 If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead
to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
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Connectionless Service
 Advantages of Connectionless Services-
 It has low overhead.
 It enables to broadcast and multicast messages, where the sender sends messages to multiple
recipients.
 It is simpler and has low overhead.
 It does not require any time for circuit setup.
 In case of router failures or network congestions, the data packets are routed through alternate
paths. Hence, communication is not disrupted.
 Disadvantages of Connectionless Services

 It is not a reliable connection. It does not guarantee that there will not be a loss of packets, wrong
delivery, out – of – sequence delivery or duplication of packets.
 Each data packet requires longer data fields since it should hold all the destination address and the
routing information.
 They are prone to network congestions.
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Message Switching Technique
 Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
 In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between
the sender and receiver.
 The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
 Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
 Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
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 Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
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 During communication sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of
intermediate nodes which transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its destination. Message
switched data networks are hence called hop-by-hop systems. They provide 2 distinct and important
characteristics:
 Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the entire
message to the next node.
 Hence, each node must have storage capacity. A message will only be delivered if the next hop
and the link connecting it are both available, otherwise it’ll be stored indefinitely.
 A store-and-forward switch forwards a message only if sufficient resources are available and the
next hop is accepting data. This is called the store-and-forward property.
 Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single message and
transferring it from the source to the destination node.
 Each message must have a header that contains the message routing information, including the
source and destination.
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Advantages and Disadvantages Of Message
Switching
 Advantages: Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
 Message priority can be used to manage the network.
 The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports
the data of unlimited size.
 Disadvantages: The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable
them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
 The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.
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Transmission Media
 Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
 The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in
the form of bits through some network standard, e.g. LAN(Local Area Network).
 It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
 In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
 In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
 In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the
Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
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Transmission Media
 The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
 Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless
media, signal characteristics are more important.
 Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay,
cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
 The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.
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Causes Of Transmission Impairment
 Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
 Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal.
This type of distortion is examined from different signals having different
frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they
reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
 Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted
signal is added to it which creates the noise.
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Classification of Transmission Media
 Transmission Media can be
classified mainly as guided and
unguided.
 Guided media can be of three
types wire like coaxial cable,
fibre optic and twisted pair.
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 Guided media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
 Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
 These wires has features like – High speed, secure but used for smaller distance.
 Type of Guided Media: This kind of media is classified into three types as below:
 Twisted pair cable: A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires
twisted together to form a single media.
 Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground
reference.
 The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference)
and crosstalk.
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 There are two types of twisted pair cables:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
 STP cables comes with twisted wire pair
covered in metal foil. This makes it more
indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
 UTP has seven categories, each suitable for
specific use.
 In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and
Cat-6 cables are mostly used.
 UTP cables are connected by RJ45
connectors.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):  Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable
This type of cable has the ability to block consists of a special jacket to block external
interference and does not depend on a interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
physical shield for this purpose. It is used and in voice and data channels of telephone
for telephonic applications.
lines.
Advantages:
 Least expensive  Advantages:
 Easy to install  Better performance at a higher data rate in
comparison to UTP
 High speed capacity
 Susceptible to external interference  Eliminates crosstalk
 Lower capacity and performance in  Comparitively faster
comparison to STP  Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
 Short distance transmission due to  More expensive
attenuation
 Bulky
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 Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies
in the center and it is made of solid conductor. The core is
enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is
wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn
encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic
cover.
 Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission
media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
 The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two
conductors parallel to each other.
 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair
cable.
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 The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
 The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
 Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
 Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
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Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
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 Fiber Optic works on the properties of
light. When light ray hits at critical angle it
tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property
has been used in fiber optic.
 The core of fiber optic cable is made of
high quality glass or plastic.
 From one end of it light is emitted, it
travels through it and at the other end light
detector detects light stream and converts it
to electric data.
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 Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed.
 It comes in two modes, one is single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber.
 Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable
of carrying multiple beams of light.
 Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities.
 To connect and access fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can
be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.
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 Here are some basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
 Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core,
the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
 Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
 Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.
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Advantages of fibre optic cable over copper are as follows:
 Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper.
Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
 Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre
optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
 Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared
to copper cable.
 Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
 Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
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 Unguided Media: An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
 In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow
easily.
 Main features of this media are less secure, the signal are transmitted through air, and
applicable for large distances.
 Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate
antennas.
 When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it
converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range.
 The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
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 Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
 Radio waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
 A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.
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 Radio waves: Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it
can penetrate through walls and structures alike.
 Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging
from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency).
 Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
 Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel
in straight line and bounce back.
 The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance.
 High frequency radio waves have more power.
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 Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF
bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earth’s surface.
 Radio waves of high frequencies are prone
to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles.
 They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere.
 High frequency radio waves such as HF
and VHF bands are spread upwards.
 When they reach Ionosphere, they are
refracted back to the earth.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
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Applications Of Radio waves:
 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
 Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
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Radio spectrum of frequencies is divided into bands with conventional names
International Telecommunications Union
Frequency Wavelength
(ITU) Designation IEEE bands
range range
Full name Abbreviation
Below 3 Hz >105 km Tremendously low frequency TLF N/A
3–30 Hz 105–104 km Extremely low frequency ELF N/A

30–300 Hz 104–103 km Super low frequency SLF N/A
300–3000 Hz 103–100 km Ultra low frequency ULF N/A
3–30 kHz 100–10 km Very low frequency VLF N/A
30–300 kHz 10–1 km Low frequency LF N/A
300 kHz – 3 MHz 1 km – 100 m Medium frequency MF N/A
3–30 MHz 100–10 m High frequency HF HF
30–300 MHz 10–1 m Very high frequency VHF VHF
300 MHz – 3 GHz 1 m – 10 cm Ultra high frequency UHF UHF, L, S
3–30 GHz 10–1 cm Super high frequency SHF S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka
30–300 GHz 1 cm – 1 mm Extremely high frequency EHF Ka, V, W, mm
300 GHz – 3 THz 1 mm – 0.1 mm Tremendously high frequency THF N/A
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 Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can
be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in
straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
 Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300
MHz to 300 GHz.
 Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not
penetrate wall like obstacles.
 Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.
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 Microwaves are of two types:
 Terrestrial microwave
 Satellite microwave communication.
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission: Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a
technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based
microwave transmission antenna to another.
 Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
 Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,
i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
 In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
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 It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other.
 Characteristics of Microwave:
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
Satellite Microwave Communication

 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
 Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable
and fibre optic systems.
 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
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Infrared: An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones,
TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same
closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
 It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
 Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room
cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
 An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
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Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n
input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
De-multiplexing is achieved by using a device called De-multiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals
(one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that de-multiplexing follows the one-
to-many approach.
Advantages: More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
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Multiplexing
 Why Multiplexing?
 The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided
in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.
 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
 Transmission services are very expensive.
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Classification of Multiplexing Techniques
 Multiplexing Techniques can be classified as:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM
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 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
 It is an analog technique.
 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
 Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
 The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers.
They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
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 FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
 It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they
are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.
 Advantages: FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
 Disadvantages: FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
 It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
 A Large number of modulators are required.
 It requires a high bandwidth channel.
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 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): WDM is same as FDM except that the
optical signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
 WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
 At the receiving end, de-multiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
 Multiplexing and De-multiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
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 Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
 Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., de-multiplexing the signal.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): It is a digital technique.
 In FDM Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different frequency, but in
case of TDM technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
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 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.
 There are two types of TDM:
 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM
 Synchronous TDM: A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is

preassigned to every device.
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 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time
slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
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 Asynchronous TDM: An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
 In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.
 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
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 In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source
of the data.
 The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are
fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of
the capacity of the channel.
 In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots
where m is less than n (m<n).
 The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of
input lines.
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Networking Devices
 There are a number of networking devices which are essential for establishing a
network and performing proper communication.
 Various networking devices are as follows:
 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Modem
 Gateway
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
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Networking Devices contd….
 Hub : Hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single
LAN network.
 When Hub receives the data signals from a connected device on any of its
port, except that port, it forwards those signals to all other connected devices
from the remaining ports.
 Usually, Hub has one or more uplink ports that are used to connect it with
another Hub.
 There are two types of the Hub.
 Passive Hub: - It forwards data signals in the same format in which it
receives them. It does not change the data signal in any manner.
 Active Hub: - It also works same as the passive Hub works. But before
forwarding the data signals, it amplifies them. Due to this added feature, the
active Hub is also known as the Repeater.
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 Bridge: is used to divide a large network into smaller
segments. Basic functions of the Bridge are the
following: -
 Breaking a large network into smaller segments.
 Connecting different media types. Such as connects
UTP with the fiber optic.
 Connecting different network architectures. Such as
connects Ethernet with the Token ring.
 A Bridge can connect two different types of media or
network architecture, but it cannot connect two
different types of network layer protocol such as
TCP/IP or IPX. Bridge requires the same network layer
protocol in all segments.
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 There are three types of Bridge:-
 Local Bridge: - This Bridge connects two LAN segments directly. In Ethernet Implementation,
it is known as the Transparent Bridge. In Token Ring network, it is called the Source-Routed
Bridge.
 Remote Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge over the WAN link.
 Wireless Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge without using wires. It uses radio
signals for the connectivity.
 In OSI Layers /TCP-IP networking models, the functionalities of the Bridges are defined in the
physical layer and data link layer.
 Just like Hubs, Bridge no longer used in the computer network. Bridges have been replaced by
the Switches.
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 Switch: Just like Hub and Bridge, Switch is also used to
connect the multiple devices together in a LAN segment.
Basically, a Switch is the upgraded version of the Bridge. Besides
providing all the functionalities of Bridge, it also offers several
additional features.
 The biggest advantage of Switch is that, it makes switching
decisions in hardware by using application specific integrated
circuits (ASICs).
 Unlike the generic processors that we use in our PC, ASICs are
the specialized processors built only to perform very few
particular tasks. Usually, the ASICs in the Switches have single
task and that is the switching the frames as fast as possible.
 An ASIC occupied switch performs this task blazingly fast. For
example, an entry level Catalyst Switch 2960 can process 2.7
million frames per second.
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 Modem: In simple language, a Modem is the device
that is used to connect with the Internet. Technically, it
is the device that enables the digital data to be
transmitted over the telecommunication lines.
 A Telco company uses entirely different data
transmission technology from the technology that a PC
uses for the data transmission. A modem understands
both technologies. It changes the technology that a PC
uses, in the technology which Telco Company
understands.
 It enables communication between the PC (Known as
the DTE device) and the Telecom company' office
(Known as the DCE device).
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 Gateway: Gateway is used to forward the
packets which are generated from the local
host or network but intended for the remote
network.
 If a data packet does not find its destination
address in the local network then it takes the
help of the gateway device to find the
destination address in the remote network.
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 A gateway device knows the path of the remote destination address. If require, it also
changes the encapsulation of the packet so it can travel through the other networks to
get its destination address.
 Examples of the Gateway -
 Email Gateway: - Translates SMTP e-mail in standard X.400 format before
forwarding.
 GSNW Gateway: - Allows Windows clients to access resources from the NetWare
server.
 PAD Gateway: - Provides connectivity between LAN network and X.25 network
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Router: The router connects the different
network segments.
It switches the data packets between those
networks which are either located in the
different logical segments or built with the
different network layer protocols.
When a router receives a data packet on any
of its interface, it checks the destination
address of that packet and based on that
destination address, it forwards that data
packet from the interface which is connected
with the destination address.
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To forward a data packet to its destination, router keeps the records of connected
networks. These records are maintained in a database table known as the routing
table. Routing table can be built statically or dynamically. Basically routers are
used: -
To connect different network segments.
To connect different network protocols such as IP and IPX.
To connect several smaller networks into a large network (known as the
Internetwork)
To break a large network into smaller networks (Known as the Subnets. Usually
created to improve the performance or manageability.)
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 To connect two different media types such as UTP and Fiber optical.
 To connect two different network architectures such as Token Ring and
Ethernet.
 To connect LAN network with Telco company’ office (Known as the DTE
device).
 To access DSL services (known as the DSL Router).
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Network Interface Card (NIC): In the list of the networking devices, NIC stands on
the first place.
Without this device, networking cannot be done.
It is also known as network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card.
NIC allows a networking device to communicate with the other networking device.
NIC converts the data packets between two different data transmission technologies.
A PC uses parallel data transmission technology to transmit the data between its
internal parts while the media that provides connectivity between different PCs uses
serial data transmission technology.
A NIC converts parallel data stream into the serial data stream and the serial data
stream into the parallel data stream.
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 Typically all modern PCs have the integrated NICs in the motherboards. If
additional NICs are required, they are also available as add-on devices separately.
 For desktop or server system, they are available in the adapter form which can be
plugged into the available slots of the motherboard.
 For laptop or other small size devices, they are available in the PCMCIA (Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association) card form which can be inserted
into the PCMCIA slot.
 NIC cards can be classified as:
 Media Specific: - LAN card are used according to the media type. Different types of
the NICs are used to connect the different types of media. To connect a specific
media type, we must have to use a NIC which is particularly made for that type of
media.
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 Network Design Specific: - A specific network design needs a specific LAN card. For
example FDDI, Token Ring and Ethernet have their own distinctive type of NIC cards. They
cannot use other types of NIC cards.
 Following are some common types of NICs:
 Wireless - These are NICs that use an antenna to provide wireless reception through radio
frequency waves. Wireless NICs are designed for Wi-Fi connection.
Wired - These are NICs that have input jacks made for cables. The most popular wired LAN
technology is Ethernet.
USB - These are NICs that provide network connections through a device plugged into the
USB port.
Fiber optics - These are expensive and more complex NICs that are used as a high-speed
support system for network traffic handling on server computers. This could also be
accomplished by combining multiple NICs.
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Components of network interface cards - Network interface card components include
the following:
Speed - All NICs have a speed rating in terms of Mbps that suggests the general
performance of the card when implemented in a computer network with ample
bandwidth.
If the bandwidth is lower than the NIC or multiple computers are connected with the
same controller, this will slow down the labeled speed. The average Ethernet NICs are
offered in 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps and 1 Gbps varieties.
Driver - This is the required software that passes data between the computer's operating
system (OS) and the NIC. When a NIC is installed on a computer, the corresponding
driver software is also downloaded. Drivers must stay updated and uncorrupted to ensure
optimal performance from the NIC.
126
MAC address - Unique, unchangeable MAC addresses, also known as a physical
network address, are assigned to NICs that is used to deliver Ethernet packets to the
computer.
Connectivity LED - Most NICs have an LED indicator integrated into the connector
to notify the user of when the network is connected and data is being transmitted.
Router - A router is also sometimes needed to allow communication between a
computer and other devices. In this case, the NIC connects to the router which is
connected to the internet.
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 Proxy: Proxy is used to hide the internal network from external world.
 It can be a dedicate device or can be an application software.
 Once it is configured, all communication goes through it.
 Since external devices cannot access the internal devices directly, they cannot
tamper with the internal devices.
 Proxy server is an intermediary server between client and the internet. Proxy
servers offers the following basic functionalities:
 Firewall and network data filtering.
 Network connection sharing
 Data caching
 Proxy servers allow to hide, conceal and make your network id anonymous by
hiding your IP address.
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 Transceiver: Transceiver is a small device that has the capability of receiving and
sending both types of signals; analog and digital.
 Usually, it is inbuilt in network interface card. But, it is also available as an
individual device.
 It detects the type of signal from the network wire and converts the passing signal
accordingly.
 For example, a transceiver is attached with a device that transmits signal in digital
form. Now suppose, this device is connected with the network wire that uses analog
form for data transmission.
 In this case, transceiver converts digital signals in the analog signals before placing
them in the network wire.
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References
1. Forouzan, B. A., & Mosharraf, F. (2012). Computer networks: a top-down
approach, McGraw-Hill.
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
3. https://www.slideshare.net/
4. https://www.gatevidyalay.com/
5. https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/
130
Thank You!
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Data Communication,

OSI Reference Model

 Telecommunication (tele: far) means communication at a distance (telephone,

 Advantages of Bus Topology

 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

 Disadvantages of Connectionless Services

3–30 Hz 105–104 km Extremely low frequency ELF N/A

300 GHz – 3 THz 1 mm – 0.1 mm Tremendously high frequency THF N/A

Satellite Microwave Communication

 Synchronous TDM: A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is

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