Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Computer Networks
INFO-3201
Components
Data Representation
One device will always transmit and the other will always
receive
Such as, Keyboard can only input and monitor can only accept
output
Both devices can transmit and receive BUT not at the same
time
When one transmits, other has to wait till it finishes its transmission
Such as, communication over telephone, both can talk and listen at the
same time
Control station
based
processing
Distributed
processing
another
Response time
Throughput
how long it takes for a bit of data to travel across the network
Security
Security includes protecting data from
unauthorized access
Damage
Development & implementing policies for recovery from
breaches and data losses
Advantages:
Dedicated channel ensures reliable
delivery as opposed to shared channel
Robust and fail safe: If one link is
down data may still be exchanged
between a pair of nodes through other
available paths since multiple paths exists
between nodes
Privacy & security: since message uses
dedicated line for an intended receiver so
only receiver can see it
Easy identification and isolation of
faults since point-point link exists
Disadvantages:
Huge amount of cabling is required
Hardware required to connect each link
(I/O ports etc. ) is expensive
Digital subscriber
line (DSL, originally digital
subscriber loop) is a
family of technologies that
provide Internet access by
transmitting digital data
over the wires of a
local telephone network.
A Brief History
Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by private switching
stations called peering points.
Local Internet Service Providers :Local Internet service providers provide direct
service to the end users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to
national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local ISPs.
List of govt. & privately owned list of ISPs in India (national & regional)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_internet_service_providers_in_India
NAP: Network
Access Point
The point from
which an
Internet service
provider (ISP)
drops down its
lines and
establishes a
peering
arrangement to
provide Internet
connectivity to
customers.
Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Protocols & Standards
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in
different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or
receiving information. However, two entities can not simply
send bit streams to each other and expect to be
understood.
For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
A protocol defines
what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are
syntax,
semantics, and
timing.
The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and
standardize new technologies.
The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable
communications.
The FCC has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to communications.
Internet Standard
An Internet draft is a working document (a work in progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime. Upon
recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC).
Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties. RFCs go through maturity
levels and are categorized according to their requirement level.
Network
Models
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Reference models
OSI & TCP/IP reference model
& comparative study
Hierarchy
Services
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Functions of Layers
Summary of Layers
• Physical addressing (address of the connecting device that connects the next
network)
•In Figure 2.8 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87.
•The two nodes are connected by a link.
•At the data link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header.
These are the only addresses needed.
•The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. The
trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection
• Routing
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
The MAC address is only significant on the LAN to which a device is connected,
and it is not used or retained in the data stream once packets leave that network.
Internet routers move the packets from the source network to the destination
network and then to the LAN on which the destination device is connected. That
local network translates the IP address to a MAC address, adds the MAC address
to the data stream and sends the data to the right device.
• connection control
• flow control
• error control
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Figure 2.12 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Data coming from the upper layers have port addresses j and k (j is the
address of the sending process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can handle, the data are
split into two packets, each packet retaining the port addresses (j and k).
In the network layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each packet.
A comparison
Multiple
Access
Source: https://slidetodoc.com/multiple-access-techniques-
by-dr-r-bharathi-apece/
The problem of controlling the access to the medium is similar to the rules of
speaking in an assembly.
The procedures guarantee that the right to speak is upheld and ensure that
two people do not speak at the same time,
do not interrupt each other,
do not monopolize the discussion
The formula for TB depends on the implementation. One common formula is the binary
exponential back-off.
Note that in this procedure, the range of the random numbers increases after each
collision.
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Propagation delay (Tp)is defined as the amount of time it takes for a certain number of
bytes to be transferred over a medium. Propagation delay is the distance between the two
routers divided by the propagation speed.
Transmission delay is a function of the packet's length and has nothing to do with the
distance between the two nodes. This delay is proportional to the packet's length in bits,
It is given by the following formula:
DT = N / R
where
DT is the transmission delay
N is the number of bits, and
R is the rate of transmission (say in bits per second)
Note that all packets have the same length because the
throughput of ALOHA systems is maximized by having a
uniform packet size.
Let G the average number of frames generated by the system during one
frame transmission time. Then it can be proved that the
average number of successful transmissions for pure ALOHA is S
= G x e -2G.
Smax is 0.184, for G = 1/2.
If one frame is generated during two frame transmission times, then 18.4
percent of these frames reach their destination successfully.
there is still the possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the
beginning of the same time slot. However, the vulnerable time is now
reduced to one-half, equal to Tfr
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Throughput & Vulnerable Time in
slotted ALOHA
The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp. This is the
time needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the medium to the
other.
When a station sends a frame, and any other station tries to send a frame
during this time, a collision will result.
But if the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium, every station
will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending.
When a station sends a frame, and any other station tries to send a frame during this
time, a collision will result. But if the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium,
every station will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending.
The leftmost station A sends a frame at time t 1, which reaches the rightmost station D at
time t 1 + Tp. The gray area shows the vulnerable area in time and space.
We can say that the level of energy in a channel can have three values: zero,
normal, and abnormal. At the zero level, the channel is idle. At the normal
level, a station has successfully captured the channel and is sending its frame.
At the abnormal level, there
is a collision and the level of the energy is twice the normal level.
A station that has a frame to send or is sending a frame needs to monitor the
energy level to determine if the channel is idle, busy, or in collision mode.
Reservation
Polling
Token Passing
Solution
The inner product of each code by itself is N. This is shown for code C; you
can prove for yourself that it holds true for the other codes.
C . C =
B . C =
Solution
The inner product of each code by its complement is N. This is shown for
code C; you can prove for yourself that it holds true for the other codes.
C . (C ) =
B . (C ) =