Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physical Geology - Laboratory Manual 4th Ed by Karen M. Woods (OCR) PDF
Physical Geology - Laboratory Manual 4th Ed by Karen M. Woods (OCR) PDF
GEOLOGY
LABORATORY
MANUAL
Fourth Edition
Karen M. Woods
Lamar University
Contributing Authors
Margaret S. Stevens
James B. Stevens
Roger W. Cooper
Donald E. Owen
James Westgate
Jim L. Jordan
Bennetta Schmidt
KENDALL/HUNT
4050
Westmark
Drive
PUBLISHING
Dubuque,
COMPANY
Iowa
52002
ISBN: 978-0-7575-6114-6
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Preface v
Chapter 1 Minerals 1
Introduction 1
Minerals 1
Identification of Mineral Unknowns 12
Mineral Property List 15
Mineral Uses 19
Chapter 2 Rocks 31
Igneous Rocks 31
Sedimentary Rocks 43
Metamorphic Rocks 53
Rock Property List 63
Uses for Common Rocks 67
Chapter 3 Tectonics, Structure, and Soils 69
The Earth (Zones and Characteristics) 69
Continental Drift 71
Plate Tectonics 71
Plate Boundaries 71
Structural Geology 79
Soils 97
Chapter 4 Topographic Maps 107
Elevation 107
Contours 107
Coordinate Systems and Map Locations 121
iv
Physical Geology is the first introductory course in the field of Geology. The faculty and staff
of Lamar University, Department of Earth and Space Sciences have collaborated to produce
a laboratory manual that is informative and easily understood. It has been customized to
present the concepts and ideas the faculty feel are most important in Physical Geology. It is
intended to supplement the main lecture course by exposing the student to conceptual
exercises and hands-on experience of the subjects introduced in lecture.
INTRODUCTION
Geology deals with the physical and historical aspects of the Earth. Physical geology is the
study of the composition, behavior, and processes that affect the Earth's lithosphere. The
science of geology also provides the means to discover and utilize the Earth's natural resources (coal, gas, petroleum, minerals, etc.). Geologists also study the Earth and its
processes so that they can better understand and predict potentially dangerous geologic
situations (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, etc.), which results in the saving of
lives. Historical geology, the second introductory course, deals with geology as it relates to
the Earth's history.
This laboratory manual begins with the study of common Earth materials, minerals,
and rocks that make up the lithosphere, and proceeds to the kinds of forces and situations
that can alter (build up or tear down) the surface of the planet.
MINERALS
Minerals are the basic building blocks of nearly all Earth materials for most geological
purposes. A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid, inorganic combination (compound)
of one or more elements, whose atoms are arranged in an orderly fashion (crystallinity),
and has an established chemical composition that can vary slightly within specific limits.
Minerals also have a set of physical properties (hardness, color, etc.) that distinguish them
from each other. "Inorganic" means that the compound was not the result of organic
processes.
Natural compounds are not "pure" in the pharmaceutical sense, particularly if modern analytical methods are used. Most chemical elements can be shown to consist of several "isotopes," atoms of different atomic weights that have a closely similar set of
chemical properties. Minerals as natural compounds are fairly complicated. They consist
of one or more elements that consist of one or more isotopes, are not absolutely "pure"
compounds, and show some variation, even within materials called by the same mineral
name. The guideline geologists have agreed on to define a particular mineral is the nature
of the internal geometric arrangement (the crystallinity) of the atoms. This arrangement
is usually called the crystal structure (technically, the term "crystal structure" is
redundantthe word "crystal" by itself is sufficient). Materials such as glass and opal have
no particular geometric arrangement of their atoms, and are not true minerals because they
lack crystallinity. The term "mineraloid" is used for these materials, and some mineraloids
are simply called rocks (natural glass, obsidian, is a kind of volcanic rock).
1
Common Minerals
Many of the minerals studied in the laboratory (Table 1.1) are familiar to nongeologists.
Some elemental materials (sulfur, graphite, and diamond) are classified as minerals when
found in large, natural cohesive quantities. Quartz (Si0 2 , silicon dioxide) is the most commonly known mineral. Varieties of quartz include: rose quartz, milky quartz, chert (in
many different colors), flint, agate, rock crystal (clear), amethyst (purple), aventurine
(green), jasper (red), etc. Halite (NaCl, sodium chloride) is probably the most commonly
used mineral and is found in most spice cabinets as table salt. Minerals have many unexpected uses and a list of some of these uses is found at the end of this chapter.
Crystal Form
Crystal form is the geometric arrangement of plane ("flat") surfaces on the outside of a
mineral that reflect the internal crystallinity of the mineral (Fig. 1.1a and Fig. 1.1b). Crystal faces develop only when the crystal has enough room to grow without interference. The
planar (flat) sides of a cube, for example, are called faces. A cube is a crystal form that has
six faces (flat sides) (Fig. 1.1a). Halite and fluorite often have cubic ciystal form, while garnet and pyrite have more complicated crystal forms that are variations on the cube. Corundum, quartz, and calcite show different variations on the hexagonal (six-sided) ciystal form
(Fig. 1.1b). The hexagonal form of calcite (Fig 1.1b) is the most difficult of these to see,
but a calcite crystal will have one or two sharp points, and if one looks along the line between these two points, the visible outline is hexagonal. Minerals without an external crystal form are referred to as massive (chert, limonite, etc.).
TABLE 1.1
Chemical Class
Chemical Composition
Mineral/Mineraloid
Natives
Only one kind of element present,
"naturally pure"
Sulfur
Graphite/diamond (not available)
Oxides
Si0 2
(Silicon dioxide)
Fe 2 0 3
Fe 2 0 3
FeO(OH)
Fe 2 0 3 nH 2 0
Fe 3 0 4
A1203
Al 2 0 3 nH 2 0
(Iron oxide)
(Iron oxide)
(Hydrous iron oxide)
(Hydrous iron oxide)
(Iron oxide)
(Aluminum oxide)
(Hydrous Al oxide)
Sulphides
(A metal bonds directly with sulfur
as the nonmetal)
Pyrite
Galena
Sphalerite
FeS2
PbS
ZnS
(Iron sulfide)
(Lead sulfide)
(Zinc sulfide)
Sulfates
(A metal bonds with the S 0 4
complex ion acting as a nonmetal)
Carbonates
(A metal bonds with the C 0 3
complex ion acting as a nonmetal)
Calcite
Dolomite
GaC0 3
MgCaC0 3
(Calcium carbonate)
(Calcium-magnesium
carbonate)
Halides
(A metal bonds with a halogen [CI,
F, Br or I] as the nonmetal)
Halite
Fluorite
NaCl
CaF 2
(Sodium chloride)
(Calcium fluoride)
(Sulfur)
(Carbon)
Silicates (A metal bonds with the Si0 4 complex ion as the nonmetal)
Nesosilicates (island silicates)
Garnet
Hornblende
Augite
Muscovite
Biotite
Chlorite
Talc
Kaolinite
OH, K, Al silicate
(Hydrous potassium-aluminum
silicate)
OH, K, Mg, Fe, Al silicate
OH, Mg, Fe, Al silicate
OH, Mg silicate
OH, Al silicate
Orthoclase
Plagioclase (Albite, Labradorite)
Quartz
K, Al silicate
Ca, Na, Al silicate
SiQ2
Olivine
Chapter 1
Minerals
Crystal Systems
Crystal systems are groups of crystals based on the symmetry of crystal faces. There are six
crystal systems and within these systems there are the thirty-two classes of minerals. The
six crystal systems are cubic (isometric), hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic (Fig. 1.1a and Fig. L i b ) .
The cubic (isometric) crystal system consists of three equal-length axes intersecting
at 90 angles from one another. The hexagonal crystal system consists of three equallength axes that intersect at 120 angles to one another and a fourth axis perpendicular the
first three axes. The tetragonal crystal system consists of two equal-length axes and a third
axes of a different length, all at 90 angles to one another. The orthorhombic crystal
system consists of three axes of different lengths that intersect at 90 angles to one another.
The monoclinic crystal system consists of two unequal-length axes that intersect at 90
angles and a third that intersects obliquely. The triclinic crystal system consists of three
unequal-length axes that intersect obliquely. Crystal systems are studied in more detail in
the upper-level Mineralogy course.
Galena
Monoclinic Crystal System Two unequal-length axes that intersect at 90 angles on the same plane, and a third that intersects obliquely.
Typical Minerals
Orthodase
Gypsum
Plagioclase
Feldspar
Typical Minerals
Plagioclase Feldspar
Corundum
Hexagonal Crystal System Three unequal-length axes that
intersect at 120 angles on the same plane, and a fourth that is
perpendicular to the other three.
Calcite
Apatite
Quartz
Typical Minerals
Quartz
Corundum
Apatite
Calcite
Chapter 1
Minerals
Cleavage
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break in a systematic (regular, ordered) way, along
planes of weakness determined by the type and strength of the chemical bonds (see lecture
book) between the atoms that make up the mineral (Fig. 1.2a and Fig. 1.2b). The cleavages
(planes of weakness) represent layers between rows or sets of planar atoms where the
atomic bonds are weaker. Some minerals (micas and gypsum) have one direction of cleavage (Fig. 1.2a) but most minerals have multiple cleavage directions. Not all specimens of a
given mineral will have readily identifiable cleavage planes, although it is a useful identifying
feature when present. Even when cleavage planes are not visible on a particular hand specimen, it does not mean that the mineral lacks cleavage. Look at other examples of the same
mineral. Some cleavage surfaces are microscopic and therefore invisible to the naked eye.
Since many minerals do not have cleavage or have microscopic cleavage (not visible to the
naked eye), you can use the presence of visible cleavage to eliminate those minerals that do
not have cleavage. Some minerals always demonstrate cleavage, such as muscovite and
biotite, which have cleavage in one direction. Muscovite and biotite easily cleave (split) into
flat, flexible sheets.
Unfortunately, cleavage and crystal form are easily confused. They both result in flat
planes, but for different reasons. Some minerals have both crystal form and cleavage
(halite, fluorite, calcite, etc.), some only have cleavage (muscovite), and some only have
crystal form (quartz). Minerals with cleavage will break in the same direction or set of directions
every time and form flat planes or a stair-step pattern on the mineral face. A mineral with only
crystal form will break in no particular direction and develop irregular (uneven) surfaces
when broken.
Fracture
Fracture is the nonsystematic and irregular way some minerals break. The fracture surface
is rough or uneven, unlike cleavage planes, which are smooth and flat. Conchoidal
fracture is a special kind of breakage that results in a curved parting surface. When a bullet
passes through glass, a curved or listric surface is produced (conchoidal fracture).
Conchoidal fracture is characteristic of homogenous materials that lack planes of weakness, thus the material is about equally strong in all directions (e.g., glass). Quartz
commonly shows conchoidal fracture.
NOTE: Some minerals display both fracture and cleavage. Albite, for example, has two
directions of cleavage (two flat sides) and two opposing sides with fracture (rough
sides).
Striations
Striations are very fine, parallel lines visible on the cleavage planes or crystal faces of
some minerals due to their crystal structure and growth patterns. Albite and labradorite,
both plagioclase feldspars, commonly exhibit striations on one cleavage plane. The
striations on plagioclase become increasingly obvious as the calcium content of the
feldspar increases. Striations may also be visible on the crystal faces of other minerals
such as pyrite, quartz, and garnet. Striations become more visible when the mineral is
slightly rotated back and forth in the light. As the mineral is turned, the striations reflect
the light.
Cleavage: Cleavage is the tendency of certain minerals to split (cleave) along planes of
weakness, between layers of weak bonds that unite the atoms of which the mineral is
made, when the mineral is broken. Some minerals cleave in only one direction, others
have two, three, four, or even six directions of cleavage. Examples are shown below.
CAUTION: Beginning geology students often confuse the smooth cleavages surfaces
with the smooth crystal faces of minerals crystals, and thus often believe that
cleavage "chunks" are crystals. Crystal faces are produced when minerals "grow" as
invisible "atoms" of various elements within a solution and bond together in a given
geometric framework called crystallinity. The cleavage surfaces of cleavage "chunks"
form when the mineral breaks.
One Direction of Cleavage Certain minerals, when broken, break only along one plane.
Typical Minerals
Biotite
Muscovite
Chlorite
Talc
Selenite Gypsum
One dimensional
cleavage sheet.
Biotite or Muscovite
Two Directions of Cleavage Certain minerals, when broken, break along two plane surfaces that intersect at a 90
angle to each other.
Typical Minerals
Orthoclase Feldspar
Plagioclase Feldspar
Cleaved chunk
removed
Halite
Galena
Chapter 1
Minerals
Cleaved chunk
removed
Three Directions of Cleavage Certain minerals when broken, break along three planer surfaces that intersect obliquely
to each other.
Typical Minerals
Calcite
Typical Minerals
Fluorite
Typical Minerals
Sphalerite
Tenacity
Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breakage. Some minerals are very hard to break,
whereas others are easily broken. Terms used to describe tenacity include brittle, elastic,
and malleable. Gold, a soft mineral, is malleable and easily deformed when hit. Diamond,
the hardest known mineral, is very brittle and will shatter when hit. Do not test the tenacity of mineral specimens unless instructed to do so.
TABLE 1.2 Mohs' Scale of Hardness
Btssititsisisssijsiaswswm^!^
10
Diamond
Corundum
Topaz
Quartz
Orthoclase
Feldspar
Apatite
Fluorite
Calcite
Gypsum
Talc
.,:,<
Hardness
Hardness is a mineral's resistance to being scratched. Some minerals are soft enough that they can be scratched with a fingernail,
while others are hard enough to scratch glass. The relative hardness
of a mineral is determined with the use of Mohs Scale of Hardness.
The hardness scale is named after Freidrich Mohs (1773-1839), the
German mineralogist who developed it. Mohs arranged common or
certain
unique minerals in order of their increasing relative hard5.5 Steel
ness
to
provide
a standard (or scale) to which all other minerals can
Nail/Knife
be
compared.
Mohs
chose talc to represent the softest mineral and
Glass
diamond
to
represent
the hardest mineral (Table 1.2). Some comPlate
mon everyday materials also fit conveniently into the Mohs scale.
These include fingernails, copper pennies, steel nails and knives,
3.5 Copper
and glass plates.
Penny
The best way to determine hardness is to find the softest mate2.5 Fingernail
rial that will scratch the mineral being tested. For example, a fingernail cannot scratch calcite but a copper penny can; therefore the
hardness of calcite is between that of a fingernail and that of a penny
(2.5-3.5). Since calcite is one of the minerals on the Mohs scale its
exact hardness is known (3). For minerals that aren't included on the Mohs scale, the student should use the smallest hardness range possible. The Mineral Property List at the end
of the chapter lists the hardness or hardness range of each mineral. You do not have to
memorize the exact hardness of every mineral, although you should learn those that are on
the Mohs scale. In general, minerals can be separated into two groups, those that are harder
than the glass plate (scratch the glass) and those that are softer than the glass plate (do not
scratch the glass). The student can then begin the process of identification of mineral unknowns by separating the minerals into hardness groups. Then determine the other physical properties (crystal form, cleavage, fracture, etc.) to identify the unknown minerals.
Chapter 1
Minerals
Color
Color is a function of how the surface of a mineral reflects or absorbs white light. It is one
of the least helpful physical properties of minerals because very few have a consistent color.
The mineral sulfur is an exceptionit is always bright yellowas is pyrite, which is a
brassy yellow. Both calcite and quartz are good examples of how color is varies within a
mineral. They can be green, yellow, red, brown, blue, clear, etc. There are three general
causes of color variation in minerals.
1. Impurities within the mineral change the color.
2. The disturbance of the crystallinity of the mineral can cause variations in color.
3. The size of the mineral pieces can affect color. Thin pieces usually are lighter in color
than thicker pieces (one of the most common causes of color variation).
Although minerals can be grouped into groups of darker and lighter hues, do not
count on color alone to identify unknown minerals.
Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral's powder (or the color of the mineral when the crystals are
very small). The streak is obtained by rubbing the mineral on an unglazed ceramic or
porcelain plate. Gently shake or blow off as much as possible of the powdered mineral
formed in this way. The color of the powder that sticks to the streak plate is the actual streak. The
mineral hematite illustrates the importance of streak in mineral identification. Varieties of
hematite often have a visibly different color from one another (specular hematite is silvery
and oolitic hematite is reddish brown), yet both have a red-brown streak.
Luster
Luster is the way that a mineral reflects light. It is described as either metallic (like fresh,
untarnished metal) or nonmetallic (pearly, waxy, greasy, vitreous [like glass], earthy,
rusty, etc.).
Magnetism
Magnetism is the attraction of a magnet to the mineral. Minerals vary from nonmagnetic
(most minerals) to weakly magnetic (some hematite) to strongly magnetic (magnetite).
10
Density
Density is mass per unit volume. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a given material to the density of an equal volume of water (at 4 C). Minerals that have a high specific gravity, such as galena, feel unusually heavy for their size, whereas those with low
specific gravity feel lightweight.
Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity refers to how and to what extent light is transmitted through a mineral. A
thin section is a 0.03-mm slice of a mineral that is thin enough to allow light to pass
through it. Although diaphaneity is usually applied to thin sections, we will apply the
same terms to the hand samples seen in the laboratory. The diaphaneity for each mineral
is determined simply by looking at it.
1. Transparent: light passes easily through the mineral, thus images can be clearly seen
through it. Clear quartz is an example.
2. Translucent: some light passes through the mineral but the light is diffused and
absorbed internally by the mineral, thus images cannot be seen clearly. Translucency is, in part, a matter of the thickness and purity of the mineral. Hematite is
usually thought of as opaque, but extremely small, pure crystals are translucent.
Although pure quartz is clear and colorless, the presence of large numbers of very
small bubbles (milky or vein quartz) can make it translucent. Disturbance of the
crystal by radiation from decaying radioactive elements can make quartz gray,
brown, or black, and the crystal, particularly if thick, may be translucent, or nearly
opaque (see below).
3. Opaque: the mineral allows no light to pass, thus images cannot be seen through the
mineral. Opacity ("opaqueness") is, in part, a matter of the thickness and purity of
the crystal. Very pure minerals with metallic or submetallic luster (pyrite, magnetite)
are opaque even in very thin slices (thin sections). Luster and opacity are tied
together by the extreme ability of these minerals to bend light.
Double Refraction
Double refraction is the doubling of a single image seen through a transparent mineral.
Minerals, except the cubic ones (such as fluorite, halite, and diamond), split light rays into
two parts that follow different paths as they pass through the crystal. Optical quality calcite crystals are the best example of this because the two parts of the light follow very different paths. To see double refraction, place an example of optical quality calcite on this
page and look at the words. Special microscopes and specially prepared specimens are
used in serious work with double refraction, but geologists frequently make use of this
property in hand specimen mineral identification.
Chapter 1
Minerals
11
Mineral pictures can be found on the Earth & Space Sciences website
(http://ess.lamar.edu/). Click on People, Staff, Woods, Karen M., Teaching, Physical Geology Lab, Minerals.
[Hardness >5J
\
/
[No Cleavage)
[Cleavage]
Alb'ne
(Plagioclase
Feldspar)
Labrador! te
(Plagioclase
Corundum
Alabaster Gypsum
Cheri
Milky Quartz
Rock Crystal Quartz.
Feldspar)
Rose Quartz
Orthoclase
Feldspar
Augiie
[Hardness <5j
/
\
[ Cleavage 1
[No Cleavage]
Calcite
Halite
Kaolinite
Dolomite
Muscovite
Fluortte
Selenite Gypsum
Sulfur
*Tale
Smokey Quartz
Labradoite
(Plagioclase
Feldspar)
Chert
Corundum
Garnet
Hornblende
Limonite
**Magnetite
Biotite
Bauxite
Fluorite
()olitJC H e m a t i ( e
,.,. .
Olivine
Smokey Quartz
Calcite
Chlorite
"'Sphalerite
"'Magnetite
Pyrite
Galena
Specular Hematite
Graphite
12
*Goethite
*Talc
ROSE
QUARTZ
ROCK CRYSTAL
QUARTZ
CHERT
FLINT
(Black)
MILKY
QUARTZ
ALETTE &
*LABRADORITE
JASPER
(Ret,> SMOKY
QUARTZ
CHALCEDONY
(Banded)
(Plagioclase
Feldspar)
KA0L1NITE
ORTHOCLASE
FELDSPAR
CORUNDUM
MUSCOVITE
GARNET J Dodecahedral
crystal
*CALCITE
ALABASTER
GYPSUM
DOLOMITE
Won't scratch glass}
\Will scratch a penny
Color varies
"
SATINSPAR
GYPSUM
:'
''Cubic Cleavage,
Feels slippery
Luster-glassy /Feels"Soapy'
SELENITE
GYPSUM
HALITE
TALC
SULFUR
Chapter 1
Minerals
13
Chapter 1
Minerals
15
16
Chapter 1
Minerals
17
18
MINERAL USES
AugiteMost augite is only of interest to mineral collectors. Clear varieties are
occasionally used as gemstones. Name derivation: from Greek augities, meaning
"brightness" or "luster."
BauxiteBauxite is a mineraloid, not a true mineral. It is important as an
aluminum ore, the source material for aluminum as metal. Bauxite forms by the
concentration of hydrated aluminum oxides in the soils of humid tropical regions.
Bauxite is a heterogeneous mixture of the minerals gibbsite [AlO(OH) 3 ], boehmite,
and diaspore [both AlO(OH)]. Hematite and/or limonite may be present in small
amounts. Name derivation: for occurrence near Baux, France.
BiotiteBiotite has no economic use but is of interest to collectors. Name
derivation: for French physicist, J. B. Biot.
CalciteCalcite has many uses: lime (Ca oxide) is a fertilizer, the raw material from
which Portland cement (for making concrete) is made, and is used as a building
stone (limestone and marble). Name derivation: from Latin calx, meaning "burnt
lime."
ChloriteChlorite has no commercial value, but is a natural green pigment often
found in marbles, etc. Name derivation: from Greek chloros, meaning "green."
CorundumBecause of its great hardness (9), corundum is used as an abrasive
("black" sandpaper), or for emery wheels for the grinding of metal. Rubies (if red)
and sapphires (if blue, pink or yellow) are transparent varieties. Name derivation:
kauruntakIndian (Hindu) name for corundum.
DolomiteBecause dolomite contains magnesium, it is a source of this element for
magnesium-deficient diets. It is also used as a building stone or as road gravel.
Name derivation: after French scientist D. de Dolomieu.
FluoriteFluorite is a source of fluorine, used to fluoridate drinking water or added
to toothpaste to increase the hardness of dental enamel; is used in the manufacture of
hydrofluoric acid (the only acid that will dissolve glass); as a flux in steel making, etc.
Name derivation: Latin fluere, meaning "to flow." Refers to the ease at which fluorite
melts when heated, compared to other minerals.
GalenaGalena is a source of lead as metal when refined, is used in glass making
(leaded crystal), and is used in radiation-shielding material. Name derivation: Latin
galenaoriginal name for lead ore.
GarnetGarnet is slightly harder than quartz and thus is a good abrasive ("red"
sandpaper). It is used as a sandblasting medium and as a grit and powder for optical
grinding and polishing. When transparent and without internal fractures, garnet is
also a semiprecious gem. Name derivation: Latin granatus, meaning "like a grain."
GoethiteGoethite is an ore of iron. Name derivation: after J. W. Goethe, a German
poet and scientist.
GraphiteGraphite is the "lead" in pencils, a dry lubricant, and is used in the steel
industry. Name derivation: Greekgraphein, meaning "to write."
GypsumWhen the H 2 0 is driven off by heat, gypsum becomes anhydrite, and
when ground to a powder, it becomes plaster of Paris. Gypsum is used in the
manufacture of sheet rock, plaster, plaster casts, as a fertilizer, etc. The alabaster
variety is used to make statuary, and satin spar is used as ornamental decoration.
Name derivation: Arabic jibs, meaning "plaster."
HaliteUsed as table salt, a food preservative, for tanning leather, and as a source of
sodium and chlorine, etc. Name derivation: Greek halos, meaning "salt."
HematiteHematite is an ore of iron, the material from which, through the
smelting process, iron is extracted as pure metal. Hematite ores can run up to about
70 percent (by weight) iron. It is also used as a red pigment in paint. Name
derivation: Greek haimatos, meaning "blood" for the "blood" red streak color.
Chapter 1
Minerals
19
20
EXERCISE 1: IDENTIFICATION
OF MINERAL UNKNOWNS AND THEIR
PROPERTIES
Identify the mineral specimens supplied using the properties discussed in the lecture. You will be supplied with the
following materials:
Glass plate
Streak plates
Paper towels
Magnet
Steel nail
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Penny
SAFETY INFORMATION
The identification of minerals utilizes materials that may cause minor injury if used improperly. The following
instructions are intended to familiarize the student with proper laboratory procedures.
Glass Plate
The purpose of the glass plate is to determine whether or not a mineral is harder than the glass plate (>5.5) or softer
than the glass plate (<5.5). The correct and safe way to use the glass plate is to press it firmly against the table while
you scratch the mineral across it.
Do no hold the glass plate in your hand while pressing the mineral against it The glass may break and cause injury.
Streak Plate
The purpose of the streak plate is to determine the color of a mineral's powder. If the mineral has a hardness less
than that of the streak plate (5.75) then a powder will be left behind. The correct and safe way to use the streak plate
is to press it firmly against the table while you scratch the mineral against it.
Don't hold the streak plate in your hand while pressing a mineral against it
The porcelain may break and cause injury.
Hydrochloric Acid
The purpose of the hydrochloric acid (HC1) is to determine to what extent a mineral or its powder effervesces
(fizzes). When applying acid to mineral samples, use common sense. DO N O T squirt acid on the samples. It may
splash and get on clothing, bare skin, or in the eye. One drop will suffice.
Hydrochloric acid can irritate the skin on contact If this happens, immediately wash the area with
plenty of water. If you get acid in your eyes call for help immediately and
the lab instructor will assist you to the closest rinse station.
All students must wear safety glasses when using HC1 acid.
Chapter 1
Minerals
21
^ ~ ^ - ^ ^ ^ Mineral
Properties^^la
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HCI Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
^""---^^^ Mineral
Properties ' " " ^ m e
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HC1 Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
>U-'
*&>
iL
~a) K^Jt
^ - - ^ ^ ^ Mineral
Properties
~-~^[ame
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HCI Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
^^^Jr
in
Imi
vet
"*
^ ^ ^ Mineral
Properties"""""-" Njime
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HC1 Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
-w^
I III
I'II
sL^'
twin
,,
"Ii i
--
^"''-"-
''
'
.1
..
. H
,1
.1 .
"^^^.^^ Mineral
Properties^^^^-^ 3 ^
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HCI Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
-^
NL^'
-~^IJ
L-*'
||_^
^^-~~-~^^^
Properties
Mineral
>~^Iarne
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HC1 Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
s|_^
<^J %^T
~ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Mineral
Properties^^^^-^l 3 6
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HCI Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
? if Present, X if Not
List one Use
[
r
JLJJ
^~-~^^^^ Mineral
Properties^"""-N^ame
Chemical Formula
Hardness Range
Exact if on Mohs' Scale
Luster
? if Metallic
Describe if nonmetallic
Streak (color)
Diaphanaeity
Transparent,
Translucent or Opaque
Magnetism
? if Magnetic
X if Nonmagnetic
Crystal Form
Describe if Visible
X if Not Visible
Specific Gravity
? if Heavy,
N if Normal, X if Light
Cleavage
# of Planes if Visible,
X if None Visible
Fracture
Yes, No,
? if Conchoidal
Reaction to HCI Acid
Describe Reaction
Color of Mineral
Striations
?ifPresent,XifNot
List one Use
l.._ >
s_r*
^^^
\i^j)
Rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are the solids produced by the cooling and crystallization of molten silicate
material initially formed beneath the Earth's surface. Crystallization occurs when cooling
allows for the growth of mineral crystal grains. The cooling rate and space available determine the size of the crystals that form. Large crystals form when magma, molten silicate
material below ground, is insulated by the surrounding country rock (rock that has been
intruded by the magma), and therefore cools very slowly. When magma solidifies underground, it forms intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks. The shape and position of emplacement
differentiate plutonic igneous rock bodies. A dike is a pluton that cuts across pre-existing
rock (strata). (Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships: a rock body must already exist in order for
it to be cut by another). A sill is a two-dimensional pluton that is placed parallel to and
between layers (strata) of existing rock. Batholiths are very large, three-dimensional plutons,
usually the result of multiple intrusions of magma, hundreds of miles in length and width,
which cool and crystallize very slowly beneath the Earth's surface. A laccolith is a smaller
three-dimensional pluton with a convex roof and a flat floor.
Volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks form on or above the surface of the Earth by the
cooling of lava (molten silicate flows on the surface), or by the deposition of violently
ejected pyroclastic (pyro = fire, dast = fragment) material such as volcanic ash. Lava cools
31
faster than magma because it is exposed to environments that allow for the rapid dissipation of heat and therefore prevent the formation of large crystals. In general, most extrusive igneous rocks develop crystals that are too small to be seen without the aid of a
microscope. There are different types of basaltic lava. Aa is blocky, sharp-edged lava that
moves very slowly and pahoehoe is ropy, "smooth" lava. Volcanic glass (obsidian) forms
when lava is cooled too rapidly for crystals to develop.
Quartz
Muscovite
Sheet Silicate
Microcline
Orthoclase
#
3-D Silicates
9
^
.c
4?
Biotite
/\
Sheet Silicate A , b t e
Amphlbole (Hornblende) Ohgoclase
Double Chain Silicate
Andesinc
Pyroxene (Augite)
Single Chain Silicate
Olivine
y
Island Silicate
FIGURE 2.1 Bowen's Reaction Series.
32
Physical Geology L a b o r a t o r y M a n u a l
'
Qj
r
t-
<S>
\
Labrador! te
x
High Temperature
Bytowmle
High Pressure
> ,; ., Deeper
AnorthUe
... \ or Deep
Underground
continuously modified as ions are exchanged with the magma during cooling.
Calcium-rich (Ca) plagioclase crystals
(anorthite, CaAl2Si208) first begin to form
when the magma has cooled to 1400 to
1200C. As cooling continues (1200 to
1000C), the crystals exchange Ca and aluminum (Al) ions for sodium (Na) and silicon (Si) ions from the magma, to form
crystals that are more sodium and siliconrich. Calcium-rich plagioclase crystals also
form directly from the magma at this temperature range. If the temperature of the
magma continues to decrease very slowly
so that equilibrium is approximately maintained, plagioclase feldspars will continue
to exchange ions in this manner until the
magma solidifies. If there is sufficient
sodium, Ca plagioclases disappear completely, but in many magmas all of the Na
and Al becomes bonded early and is lost
from the system. Thus this process which
can proceed successively from anorthite
(Ca-rich), to bytownite, labradorite, andesine, oligoclase, and albite (Na-rich)in
practice produces a variety of different minerals, depending on the original composition of the magma and the rate of cooling.
Silicate minerals of the discontinuous
series have a variety of different structures
of increasing complication that appear
and disappear successively and predictably, as conditions (mainly temperature) in magmas change. The following FIGURE 2.2 Silicate Structures.
discussion is primarily concerned with decreasing temperature, but the effects of pressure are generally similar. Olivine
(1400-1200C) is the first mineral (stable silicate or structure) to appear. The olivine crystal consists of individual tetrahedra (plural of "tetrahedron;" four oxygen and a much
smaller silicon hidden in the center; Fig. 2.2a) tied together by bivalent iron [Fe++] and magnesium [Mg++] ions in a three-dimensional network. Olivine crystals become unstable
when the melt cools to about 1200 to 1000C, the temperature range in which pyroxene becomes stable. Augite is an example of a common mineral in the pyroxene family. Olivine
crystals suspended in the magma react to form the more complex single chain (pyroxene,
augite, Fig. 2.2b) silicate structure. Amphibole (another family of silicate minerals, of which
hornblende is a common example) becomes stable at approximately 1000 to 800C. Again
the earlier-formed (pyroxene, augite) crystals react with the melt and form double chain
(Fig. 2.2c) amphibole (hornblende) crystal structures. If sufficient magma and silica (Si0 2 )
are still available, the hornblende will react with it and will begin to change to biotite, a
sheet silicate (Fig. 2.2d). Orthoclase and microcline (both three-dimensional covalently
bonded structures with metal ions), muscovite (sheet structure), and quartz (three-dimensional structure) will form last if enough magma is left.
Rocks
33
1. Felsic (sialic) igneous rocks are composed mainly of potassic and sodic feldspars
(light-colored minerals) that formed under low-temperature and low-pressure
conditions (Bowen's Reaction Series). Felsic rocks include syenite, trachyte, granite,
rhyolite, granodiorite, dacite, and some obsidian.
2. Intermediate igneous rocks have subequal amounts of light and dark minerals.
Intermediate rocks include andesite (named for the Andes Mountains), and diorite.
3. Mafic igneous rocks have a large percentage of darker and strongly colored minerals
rich in ferromagnesian components and calcic plagioclase feldspars. These are
minerals that form under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions (Bowens
Reaction Series). Mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro, and some obsidian.
4. Ultramafic igneous rocks often contain 70 to 90 percent olivine, other dark and
strongly colored ferromagnesian minerals, the most calcic plagioclases, and very
minor, if any, percentages of silica. These minerals form under very high-temperature
and high-pressure conditions (Bowen's Reaction Series). Ultramafic rocks include
peridotite and komatiite. Ultramafic rocks are not common at or near the Earth's
surface, but form in the asthenosphere and mantle.
34
country rock. A chilled (rapidly cooled) margin is a thin zone of rapidly cooled
igneous rock that forms a rind on the pluton, and can be aphanitic, glassy, or
vitrophyric.
2. Aphanitic is the textural term used to describe igneous rocks that have crystals that
are approximately uniform and small in size. "Small" means that the crystals are not
distinguishable by the unaided eye ( 1 millimeter); both microcrystalline (crystals
visible only under the microscope) and cryptocrystalline (crystals too small to be
clearly distinguished with the ordinary microscope) textures are included.
3. Phaneritic is the textural term used to describe igneous rocks that have crystals large
enough to be seen without magnification ( ~1 mm) and less than 1 inch (2.54 cm,
medium size). The rock is "megascopically crystalline."
4. Pegmatitic is the textural term applied to igneous rocks in which the crystals are
large or very large. "Large" means very coarsely crystalline; crystals in a pegmatite
may be a few centimeters (1 inch = 2.54 cm) or several meters (100 cm, or =39
and 1/3 in/m) in length.
5. Porphyritic texture is the term used when the crystals in a rock fall into two distinct
size groups (small versus large). When a rock has this combination of crystal sizes,
porphyritic is usually appended to the rock name. Porphyritic basalt is an example.
A vitrophyre is a special kind of porphyritic rock. The smaller aphanitic crystals and
glass, if present, form what is called the matrix or groundmass matrix of the rock.
The matrix, if aphanitic or partly glassy, contains minerals that formed at low
temperatures and pressures. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts. Phenocrysts
are commonly early-formed, slow-growing minerals that crystallize at higher
temperatures and pressures. As a result, phenocrysts are more likely to have better
formed crystal faces (be euhedral) than crystals that form later. Crystals that form
late, quartz in a granite for instance, do not develop crystal faces (are anhedral).
The rock is probably volcanic or part of a very shallow intrusion (plumbing of a
volcano) if the groundmass is aphanitic.
6. Vesicular texture describes volcanic igneous rock with bubbles (holes). The bubbles
form when pressure is released during eruption and volatile components of a
magma exsolve (come out of solution). Water (H 2 0) and carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) are
the two most abundant volatile components.
Bubbles are most commonly found in volcanic rocks, but sometimes occur in the
uppermost parts of dikes that were part of the plumbing for an eruptive center. Expansion
of the gasses formed the bubbles, and the expansion helps to cool the magma/lava.
Bubbles range in size from very small (small fractions of a mm) to more than a meter,
although very large vesicles are uncommon. The rate of cooling and the viscosity of
the magma/lava control the size of the bubbles. Most of the terms arising trom vesicular
textures are associated with abundance of vesicles as well as size. Rocks with widely
spaced and clearly visible vesicles are referred to as vesicular. Vesicular basalt is a
common volcanic igneous rock.
Rocks with closely spaced bubbles that are on the order of 1 to 2 mm in diameter or
larger may be referred to as scoria. Scoriaceous basalt identifies the tops of basalt flows.
Contact with oxygen in the air oxidizes iron in the glass to produce tiny crystals of
hematite, and a reddish color in many scorias. Scoria has a very low density for a rock,
but usually does not float on water. Most scoriaceous rocks are mafic in composition.
Rocks with microscopic bubbles (less than a mm, usually) may be referred to as
pumice. Most pumiceous rocks are felsic. Pumice often has a density so low that the rock
will float on water. Scoria and pumice both have vesicular texture, yet they are both
forms of obsidian, volcanic glass. The release of gases creates a frothy or vesicular texture
in the obsidian.
Vesicles later filled with solid material (secondary minerals) are called amygdules.
Amygdaloidal basalt is basalt with filled vesicles. Common vesicle-filling minerals include quartz crystals, chalcedony, agate, and calcite. Large chalcedony or agate-filled
Chapter 2
Rocks
35
amygdules can be handsomely colored and have some value to collectors. Large, partially
hollow amygdules are sometimes referred to as "geodes," though technically geodes form
in sedimentary rocks.
36
i Mill I I III ll
III
NAME
If with substantial quartz
Phaneritic
Aphanitic
RHYOLITE
Glassy
"*~ OBSIDIAN
Vesicular
-; Volcanic
(Extrusive)
* PUMICE
PORPHYRITIC
*" RHYOLITE
>- LLANITE
Plutonic
(Intrusive)
- GRANITE
Dual Origin
Porphyritic
DIORITE
^
.+.
__
+ - PORPHYRITIC
PORPHYRITICDIORITE
DIORITE**\ .
Plutonic
(Intrusive)
_
Aphanitic
, _ . .
Dual On gin
Volcanic
(Extrusive)
*- ANDESITE
Glassy
Porphyritic
_^ AMYGDALOIDAL
BASALT
SCORIA
^r
Phaneritic
Volcanic
(Extrusive)
PORPHOR1TIC BASALT
Plutonic
(Intrusive)
GABBRO
- VESICULAR BASALT.
PERIDOTITE
Dual Origin
Plutonic
(Intrusive)
1.1
CO
PUMICE
<?
and
Felsic (sialic)
Examples:
1.
2..
Intermediate
Examples:
1.
Mafic
Examples:
1.
Ultramafic
Examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Vocabulary
1. Magma
2. Lava
3. Plutonic (intrusive),
4. Volcanic (extrusive)
5. Sill
6. Dike
7. Batholith
8. Laccolith
Chapter 2
Rocks
39
/
/
.2
/ 0>
'c/3
/ '
o
ex
w
o
PLI
o
rS
x!
<
o
u
OH
1
a
Description
P*
"V if Intrusive
X if Extrusive
% Plagioclase
Feldspar
0)
o
% Orthoclase
Feldspar
For each rock, list the composition, texture, percentage of each mineral in the rock, and environment of formation,
and provide a brief description.
o-
41
4*
^"\^
Rock
\Name
Properties'*-^
Composition
Texture
% Amphibole
%Biotite
% Olivine
% Orthoclase
Feldspar
% Plagioclase
Feldspar
% Pyroxene
% Quartz
V if Intaisive
X if Extrusive
Description
2) o c
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sediments are particles that settle to the bottom of a basin of deposition such as a lake,
river, sea, etc. Although many sedimentary rocks form as the result of the erosion (picking up), transportation (carrying away), deposition (laying down), and lithification (compaction and/or cementation) of sediments (mechanical processes), some are the result of
chemical processes, and some are the result of the accumulation and lithification of organic material (plants or shells). Weathering (rock and mineral destruction) operates continuously at the Earth's surface. The by-products of weathering include the generation of
silicate clastic particles (large to small fragments of preexisting rocks), clays, soluble silica, soluble salts (K, Na, Ca, Mg, bicarbonates, etc.), and/or iron oxides.
There are two main ways that unconsolidated sediments are lithified (turned to stone)
compaction and cementation. Compaction results when the pore spaces between dasts
(grains) are reduced, due to the weight of the overlying sediments (overburden). Shale is
a very fine-grained rock with a tendency to part or break in a direction at right angles to
the direction of the weight that caused the compaction. If there is no preferred direction
of breakage (thus has a conchoidal fracture), the very fine-grained, soft rock is called claystone. Cementation results when mineral-bearing groundwater ("hard" water) moves
through the pore spaces of the sediment and deposits dissolved mineral material in the
pores. The added mineral, with time, "glues" the grains together. Calcite, silica, and iron
oxides are common cementing agents.
Sedimentary rocks are described and named according to their texture, composition,
and internal structures directly related to their mode of formation.
Sedimentary particles originate in three general ways. These basic modes of origin
follow:
1. Terrigenous, those derived from the land.
2. Evaporite, crystalline precipitate, those crystallized from an aqueous solution.
3. Biogenic, (biologic) origin, those derived from living matter (plant or animal).
Terrigenous is the term used to describe material derived from the land. A "clastic"
texture is the term used to describe a sediment or sedimentary rock made up of bits and
pieces of minerals, rocks, or shells (Fig. 2.4), etc. The clastic sedimentary rocks that have
had a terrigenous, extrabasinal origin because of the mechanical or partial chemical
weathering of silicate precursors produce rock fragments, large to small, that are here
called silicate clastic sediments. Extrabasinal sediments (pebbles, sand, silt, and clay) are
those that originated outside the basin of deposition (lake, pond, ocean, etc.). Intrabasinal sediments originate within the basin of deposition. These include both evaporitic and
biogenic material. Since biogenic sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces derived from
once-living organisms, they have a bioclastic texture.
Chapter 2
Rocks
43
BOULDER
CONGLOMERATE
Ferrugeneous - To contain substantial amounts
of hematite-limonite (iron oxides); a coloring that
maked fine-grained sedimentary rocks
(usually shale or sandstone) yellow, orange, or red.
MEDIUM
CONGLOMERATE
MEDIUM BRECCIA
CARBONACEOUS
SHALE
SHALE
FINE
CONGLOMERATE
CLASTIC
SEDIMENTS,
TERRIGENOUS
ORIGIN
COARSE
SANDSTONE
SILTSTON
Carbonaceous - To contain
substantial amounts of organic debris,
carbonaceous material; a coloring that
maked fine-grained sedimentary rocks
(usually shale or limestone) grey or black
S3UIJ
MEDIUM
SANDSTONE
FINE
SANDSTONE
that influences roundness is the hardness and tenacity of the material being abraded.
A coarse sedimentary rock with rounded (even slightly rounded) clasts is called conglomerate, but if the clasts remain angular, the rock is called breccia. Breccias can be composed
of either igneous or sedimentary rock fragments.
Sedimentary Structures
The deposition of sediments results in features, sedimentary structures, that are useful in
the interpretation of the rock's environment of origin. Horizontal layering is a large-scale
primary structure that can be seen in cross sections (such as in the walls of a canyon) of
any material deposited under the influence of gravity. Within given layers, sedimentary
rocks often have thinner layers inclined to the overall horizontal layering. This is called
cross-bedding.
Cross-bedded deposits can be marine (deposited in the ocean), aeolian (deposited by
wind action), or fluvial (deposited by stream action) in origin. Small-scale cross-bedding
is made by the movement of sediment ripple marks (>1 to a few inches high). A ripple
mark is a ridge-and-trough set that is formed by the action of wind or water. These can either be symmetrical (nonbreaking waves) or asymmetrical (breaking waves, currents) and
are developed in aeolian, marine, fluvial or lacustrine (lake) environments. If a ripple
mark is asymmetrical, the flow direction (paleocurrent) of the water can be determined.
The less steep (stoss) side points upstream. The movement of dunes from one to many tens
of feet high produces larger-scale cross-bedding that, except for size, often looks similar to
that produced by the movement of ripples. A decrease in the grain size of a deposit, from
the bottom to the top, is called graded bedding.
Composition
The composition of sedimentary rocks is based on the chemical composition of the clasts
or materials of which they are made (silicate clastic sedimentary rocks), the CaC0 3 of
Chapter 2
Rocks
45
CAVE FORMATIONS
(CAVE ONYX)
ROCK GYPSUM
(ALABASTER)
OOLITIC
LIMESTONE
SATIN SPAR
GYPSUM
(Fracture Fillings)
SELENITE GYPSUM
(Fracture Fillings: Along
bedding planes)
SOME
DOLOSTONE
CHERT (QUARTZ)
FIGURE 2.5 Evaporites (Chemical Precipitates).
<*
II
LIMESTONE
il.l
.IIIIIH,
COQUINA
LIMESTONE
FOSSILIFEROUS
LIMESTONE
SOME
DOLOSTONE
MICRITE
CHALIv
^J
limestones (biogenic), the carbon content of coals (biogenic), the minerals within the
evaporites (CaS04, CaMgC0 3 ), and the compositions of the cementing agent(s).
48
medium particles?
What is conglomerate?
What is sandstone?
What is siltstone?
What is shale?
Define compaction.
Define cementation.
What are the common agents of cementation?
and
Define biogenic.
Name the two major kinds of biogenic sedimentary rocks (based on composition).
and
Define bioclastic.
Chapter 2
Rocks
49
.2'u
0
Mode of Origin
T if Terrigenous
B if Biogenic
E if Evaporitic
'fS
*S5
a,
E
Texture
Clastic (specify)
Biociastic (specify)
Evaporitic (specify)
tW
a / g
/
OH/
/
/
*
o
&
Chapter 2
Rocks
51
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the reaction of preexisting rocks to new (younger)
conditions of heat or pressure (or both) and/or to the presence of hot chemical fluids that
move through the rocks. The word metamorphic is derived from the Greek words "meta,"
which means change, and "morph," which means form. Any preexisting rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or older metamorphic) can be metamorphosed. Metamorphic rocks are
classified on the basis of their composition and texture.
Composition
The composition of metamorphic rocks is dependent upon the composition of the
precursor rock, the conditions of metamorphism, and the content of any migrating
fluids. The precursor rock is the original nonmetamorphosed or lower metamorphosed
rock, also referred to as the parent rock or protolith. Metamorphism changes precursors in
three ways:
1. Compaction and Reduced Porosity: The rock generally becomes less porous than
the precursor, and if the precursor is sedimentary, the rock may become harder.
2. Change in Mineralogy: New minerals form during metamorphism as a readjustment to new conditions by a recombination of the original elements (kinds of
atoms) in the precursor. Also, hot fluids bearing exotic new elements, injected into
the precursor rocks may result in the formation of exotic, new minerals.
3. Recrystallization: The atoms of various elements in the rock rearrange themselves
and the rock recrystallizes or becomes crystalline, crystals grow, and the rock "flows."
If pressure is an important part of the cause of recrystallization, and if the pressure is
not equal from all directions, sheet and chain silicate minerals will grow in the
direction of least resistance, perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. If the
precursor is a silicate clastic, constituent grains will rotate and be deformed
(squashed). If the pressure is equal from all directions, three-dimensional minerals,
such as feldspars and quartz, will be favored. Lithostatic pressure occurs early as a
result of subduction or due to lateral compression associated with mountain
building. Hydrostatic pressure is the consequence of deep subduction.
Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of the mineral content of the precursor
(parent rock, protolith) and/or on the kind of texture the metamorphosed rock develops.
Table 2.1 illustrates some common metamorphic rocks, based on texture and composition.
Texture (Foliated)
The texture of metamorphic rocks refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the
minerals within them. When the minerals of a metamorphic rock are arranged in a nearly
planar (parallel) orientation, not necessarily flat, but wavy, they have a foliated texture.
The following foliated textures are a result of the reaction of fine-grained material (clays
and silt) to increasing heat and pressure.
1. Slaty cleavage refers to the breakage characteristics of slates parallel to the alignment
of fine-grained materials in a planar and parallel fashion. Slaty cleavage is a low-grade
metamorphic texture. Shale or fine-grained rhyolite, etc., may metamorphose into
slate.
2. Phyllitic texture refers to a slightly wavy to subparallel arrangement of submicroscopic sheet silicate minerals, mostly very fine-grained chlorite and/or muscovite.
Rocks with this texture commonly have a pearly or satiny luster. Phyllitic texture is
the result of low- to medium-grade metamorphism. Slate may metamorphose into
phyllite.
3. Schistose texture refers to parallel to subparallel orientation of macroscopic sheet
silicate minerals in metamorphic rocks. Biotite, muscovite, and chlorite, if present,
Chapter 2
Rocks
53
TABLE 2.1
Texture
High-Grade
Metamorphism
Phyllite to
Schist
Greenschist Facies
(Chlorite, green
amphihole, quartz, &
feldspar)
Amphibolite Facies
(Plagioclase, amphibole,
& possibly garnet &
mica)
Granulite Facies
Gabbro
"Gabbro"
"Gabbro"
Gabbro Gneiss
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite Coal
(nonfoliated)
Graphite Schist
Granite
"Granite"
"Granite"
Limestone
Altered Limestone
Marble
Dolostone
Dolostone
Marble
Quartz Sandstone
"Quartz Sandstone"
Quartzite
Peridotite
Serpentinite
Amphibolite
Basalt
Nonfoliated
Medium-Grade
Metamorphism
Slate
Shale
Foliated
Low-Grade
Metamorphism
Gneiss
Basalt Gneiss
Granite Gneiss
Texture (Nonfoliated)
When the minerals in a metamorphic rock are randomly oriented, they have a nonfoliated texture. Nonfoliated rocks that appear granular or "sugary" are described as having
a crystalline texture. If all the crustals in the rock are all the same size (equigranular) the
texture is referred to as granoblastic. Metamorphic rocks can also have a glassy texture
(anthracite coal). The precursors may have had grain sizes quite different from and commonly smaller than those of the metamorphic rock. Many nonfoliated metamorphic rocks
come from precursors with a simple mineralogy, thus pressure or heat cannot rearrange
the limited kinds of elements into new minerals. Rocks such as marble usually do not give
much information about whether the forces involved in metamorphism were balanced
(equal in all directions) or unbalanced. Common nonfoliated metamorphic rocks include
marble, quartzite, anthracite coal, hornfels, and skarn.
Types of Metamorphism
Types of metamorphism are defined by the dominance of the conditions producing the
change (metamorphism). Contact metamorphism refers to the alteration of rock adjacent to and surrounding a magma intrusion where heat and sometimes fluids from a "wet"
magma or superheated groundwater play a major roll in the metamorphism. The heat and
54
fluids (if any) produce a zone of "baked" (dry conditions) and/or otherwise altered (wet
conditions) rock adjacent to the magma (Fig. 2.7). This zone, called the "contact aureole"
or halo, is confined to the immediate area of the emplaced (intruded) igneous body
responsible for the heat. In Figure 2.7, the contact aureole extends furthest into the sandstone because the porosity and permeability of the sandstone allows the greater lateral
migration of hot fluids through the rock. Immediately adjacent to the intrusion, hornfels,
a contact metamorphic rock, may form from shales even under dry conditions. Garnet
and pyroxene, amphibole, epidote, chlorite, and serpentine (in order of increasing
distance from the heat source) are mineral phases that may form in shale. Limestone will
metamorphose into marble at medium-grade metamorphic conditions and melt at higher
temperatures nearest the intrusion. Quartz sandstone metamorphoses into quartzite
at medium-grade metamorphism and will also melt at the higher temperatures closest to
the intrusion.
Regional metamorphism is the large-scale alteration of the parent (precursor or
"country") rock of an area subjected to tectonic pressures (plate collisions) and heat
(usually a result of subduction, deep burial). The characteristic silicate mineral groups, and
ultimately feldspars, reflect the variations in conditions of the metamorphism of huge
volumes of rock.
Metamorphic Grades
The metamorphic changes in precursors reflect the grade of metamorphism and the progressive sequence of imposed pressure and temperature conditions they were subjected to.
The types and grades of regional metamorphism (Fig. 2.8) are indicated by what is called
metamorphic facies. Metamorphic facies are the assemblage of minerals that form as a
result of different conditions of metamorphism.
1. Very-low-grade metamorphism takes place under conditions of low temperature
and high lithostatic pressure (pressure imposed by the weight of the overlying
material), and results in the formation of minerals that make up what is called the
zeolite and prenhite-pumpellyite facies (Fig. 2.8). The minerals of the zeolite and
prenhite-pumpellyite facies tend to be laumontite or wairakite (zeolites), or albite,
and prehnite, pumpellyite, calcite, and quartz.
Chapter 2
Rocks
55
600
1000 C
800
i i i i r i i i i i i r
it
iii
i 11 i i
i i 11 I I
11 i i i 11 i i i i Contact i i 111
Low Pressure - High Temperature
I I I
i 1 1 1 1 I I t~i
i 11 11 I I
"f
10
'Medium
Grade
10
20
High;
Grade
\vx
15
30
20
Conditions
Not Realized
Normal
Partial Melting
Geothermal
or Fusion
Gradient
May Occur
15-20' C/kra
Grades of Metamorphism
Very Low Grade = Zeolite &
Prehnite/Pumpellyite Facies
Low Grade = Greenschist Facies
56
Chapter 2
Rocks
57
2.
3.
metamorphism
2.
metamorphism
List the metamorphic grades, the associated temperatures and pressures, and facies associated with each.
1.
Temperature/Pressure
Temperature/Pressure
Metamorphic facies
2.
Metamorphic facies
3.
Temperature
Metamorphic facies
4.
Temperature
Metamorphic facies
List the two main textures and subtextures and give one example for each.
1. Foliated Metamorphic Texture
Subtexture
Rock Name
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Nonfoliated Metamorphic Texture
Subtexture
Rock Name
a.
b.
c.
Chapter 2
Rocks
59
Foliation Microscopic
*" SLATE
Phyllitic Texture
Foliated
(Recrystallized minerals are
arranged in an orderly fashion)
Foliation Submicroscopic
*" PHYLLITE
Schistose Texture
+ SCHIST
Foliation Macroscopic
Nonfoliated
(Recrystallized minerals are
not arranged in an orderly fashion)
GNEISS
HORNFELS
1
*SKARN
contain garnets
If hard, "Sugary," does not react to acid
7ZL"*
QUARTZITE
Texture
If a metamorphosed conglomerate
METACONGLOMERATE
Crystalline
ANTHRACITE COAL
'w
1)
C5
T3
2P
jb/)
j*j>
hi)
2 2}
1 3f
*-<
Texture
(be specific)
Recognizeable
Minerals
Precursors
Igneous,
Sedimentary, & Metamorphic
//
*p
U
C3
a-/ z
/
/
//
-*
^*
*"^
^
61
^ v . Properties
Rock N a m e ^ .
Texture
(be specific)
Recognizeable
Minerals
Precursors
Igneous,
Sedimentary, & Metamorphic
Description
Ig:
Sed:
Meta:
Ig:
Sed:
Meta:
Ig:
Sed:
Meta:
Ig:
Sed:
Meta:
Ig:
Sed:
Meta:
*g:
Sed:
Meta:
I B
Chapter 2
Rocks
63
shore marine environments. The cement that holds the clasts together can be silica,
calcite, or iron oxides. Conglomerate is similar in appearance to concrete, a man-made
equivalent.
CoquinaCoquina is a biogenic, bioclastic-coarse-grained sedimentary rock.
Coquina is a variety of limestone composed of broken pieces of shell material (shell
hash). Coquina reacts strongly to dilute HC1 acid, and hand specimens resemble
"granola bars."
DioriteDiorite is light to dark gray and has a phaneritic or porphyritic texture. The
composition of diorite is intermediate. Diorites are intrusive (plutonic) igneous
rocks that are composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar with lesser amounts of
biotite, hornblende and pyroxene (augite).
DolostoneDolostone is a marine chemical precipitate and has a crystalline texture.
Most dolostones will react to dilute HC1 if it is powdered.
Fossiliferous LimestoneFossiliferous limestone has a biogenic origin and is a
bioclastic-coarse-grained sedimentary rock. Fossiliferous limestone is composed of
fine-grained lime (calcareous) mud that contains large visible fossils, and is
generally light in color. The rock usually develops in marine environments and
reacts strongly with dilute HC1 acid.
GabbroGabbro is a dark green-gray to blue-black, phaneritic (medium grained),
intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock and is mafic in composition.
GraniteGranite is a light-colored, intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock with a felsic
composition and a phaneritic texture. Granite is composed of orthoclase feldspar,
quartz, mica, amphibole, and/or low-temperature plagioclase feldspar.
Pink Granite Pink granite owes its color to the presence of "pink" orthoclase.
White graniteWhite granite owes its color to the presence of white feldspars
(orthoclase and/or microcline).
Granite GneissGneiss is a foliated textural term used to describe metamorphic
rocks with alternating bands of light and dark minerals. Gneiss develops as the result
of high-grade regional metamorphism of precursor rocks. The name is modified on
the basis of the actual precursor, if known (i.e., granite gneiss, gabbro gneiss, etc.).
HornfelsHornfels (hornfelses, plural) is a contact metamorphic rock with
a *granoblastic, nonfoliated texture. The precurser to hornfels is clay, shale, or basalt.
Hornfels is light to dark gray in color and may display spots.
MarbleMarble is a metamorphic rock with a granular or crystalline, nonfoliated
texture. Marble develops as the result of medium-grade regional or contact
metamorphism of a limestone or dolostone precursor. Marble can be any color and
resembles quartzite, but is softer and will react strongly to dilute HC1 acid.
MetaconglomerateMetaconglomerate is a metamorphic rock with a nonfoliated
texture developed as the result of very-low to low-grade regional metamorphism.
The precursor of metaconglomerate is conglomerate.
MicriteMicrite is a biogenic sedimentary rock with a bioclastic-very-fine to finegrained or cryptocrystalline texture, and conchoidal fracture. Micrite tends to resemble
chert, but is softer and can be easily distinguished by its reaction to dilute HC1 acid.
Micrite results from compaction of fine lime mud in marine environments.
ObsidianObsidian is an extrusive igneous rock. Obsidian has a glassy texture due
to rapid cooling, and conchoidal fracture. Most obsidian is felsic in composition,
but intermediate to mafic obsidian is known.
PumicePumice is "puffed" obsidian with a microscopic vesicular texture.
Pumice is derived from the explosive release of vapors and gases from erupted
felsic (viscous) lava that creates very small vesicles (holes) between glass fibers.
Pdiyolites are commonly pumiceous. Pumice is light in color and so lightweight
64
Chapter 2
Rocks
65
metamorphic
rocks
with
66
Sedimentary Rocks
Rock SaltRock salt is used to melt ice and snow on roadways. Pure rock salt
(halite) is used in food preparation, as a preservative, and as a flavor enhancer.
LimestoneSome limestones are used decorative stone in homes and businesses.
ChertChert has historically been used to make arrowheads. It is also used as
jewelry and as decorative material.
PeatPeat is composed of plant remains and is used as fuel when abundant
(Wicander & Monroe, 2002).
LigniteLignite is a low-grade brownish coal used as fuel.
Bituminous coalBituminous coal is a medium-grade coal (50-80 percent carbon)
used for fuel.
Metamorphic Rocks
Anthracite coalAnthracite coal is a high-grade coal (greater than 90 percent
carbon) used for fuel.
MarbleMarble is used as decorative floor tiles, wall tiles, and counter tops.
QuartziteQuartzite is used as construction material.
SlateSlate is used for chalkboards and as roofing material.
Chapter 2
Rocks
67
NOTES
ALABASTER GYPSUM
WaS04r?2H70
I
|
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3Olo)(OH)2
"CHERT (Quartz)
Si02
DOLOMITE
CORUNDUM
A1 2 0 3
" Hexagonal
crystal form
CaMg(C0 3 ) 2
FLUORITE
CaF 2
GALENA
PbS
LABRADORITE
agioclase Feldspar)
Note Striations
Labradorescence
(Ca,Na)AlSi 3 0 8
MUSCOVITE
mutr-r-m KAl2(AlSi3)Oio(OH)2
LIMONITE
FeO(OH)
ORTHOCLASE
FELDSPAR
KAlSi 3 0 8
PYRITE
'
F
----. >
FeS 2
SELENITE
GYPSUM
SaS0 4 n2H 2 0
SULFUR
V
S (Sulfur)
BASALT
Composition:
Mafic
Aphanitic
Texture
DIORITE
Phaneritic
Texture
Phaneritic Texture
Composition: Felsic
Composition:
Intermediate
GAE
Composition
Mafic
Composition: Felsic
Phaneritic
Texture
Porphyritic Texture i
PORPHYRITIC BASALT
'orphyriti'
Texture
Composition: Mafic
Composition: Ultramafic
Phaneritic Texture
SCORIA
RHYOLITE
Texture:
Aphanitic or
Porphyritic
Comnosition: Felsic
Vesicular Texture
Composition: Usually Mafic
Orthoclase crystal
v "6" inches across
QUARTZ-ORTHOCLASE PEGMATITE
CHALK
BRECCIA
>'^y':
'
.
r
<3:
- ' -?'" -,
S*'v'v-.
i'
' \jk
Bioclastic:
Fine Texture
f^fc'
.*'''V
if
00*
o
3
LIGNITE
Biogenic
Origin
Bioclastic:
Coarse Texture
MICRITE
ioclastic:
Very Fine
Texture
Biogenic Origin
SANDSTONE
m
%
3g. Terrigenous
Origin
WmX '
M
Clastic: Medium Texture
ANTHRACITE
COAL
A> *
- -*
CHLORITE SCHIST
Foliated,
Schistose Texture
"SPOTTED"
HORNFELS
Nonfoliated,
Granoblastic
Texture
Foliated,
Gneissic
Texture
MUSCOVITE SCHIST
Nonfoliated,
Crystalline
Texture
Foliated, Schistose
Texture
Foliated,
D
hyllitic
Texture
QUARTZITE
| Nonfoliated,
Crystalline
Texture
Nonfoliated,
Granoblastic Texture
00
CONGLOMERATE-
-*
BRECCIA
SANDSTONE
Lithified silt
*- SILTSTONE
-*-
SHALE
LIGNITE
*-
BITUMINOUS COAL
'2 ?*.
iCO
O C
CHALK
CD
PQ
-o
FOSSILIFEROUS
LIMESTONE
COQUINA
o
o
.He*
(Evaporitic in origin?
If banded
If it contains ooids
oa
> <u
WE
-5
CO
C/0
Chemical precipitate
_^ CHERT
-+- DOLOSTONE
*- GYPSUM
-^ ROCK SALT
CAVE ONYX
^
OOLITIC
LIMESTONE
^CONGLOMERATE - Conglomerates are true sedimentary^
rocks composed of stones (pebbles, etc.) that have been
rounded by flowing water.
BRECCIA- A breccia is any kind of rock (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic) that has been crushed,
and the angular fragments of which the rock is made
have been recemented together.
COASTAL FEATURES
National
Foreshore flat
County 01 _ H tiivalent
Abandoned
Under construction
State o r '
>rial
Incorporated-city or equivalent .
Exposed wreck
Small park.
Railroad in street
Juxtaposition
Seawall
L^
BATHYMETRIC FEATURES
Channel
Sunken rock
Section line
Location doubtful
Underground oil or gas pipeline
Found section corner; found closing corner
CONTOURS
Intermittent stream
Topographic:
Other land surveys:
Intermediate
Disappearing stream
Index
Section line
Perennial stream
Supplementary
;Fence
Intermittent river
..
Depression
line
Perennial river
CSB>>
Cut; fill
Bathy metric:
ROADS AND RELATED FEATURES
Intermediate
Primary '
'way
Index
Secondb..
.ighway
Primary
..
Index Primary .
Unimproved road
Supplementary
Masonry dam
Trail
MINES AND CAVES
Dual highway
Underpass; overpass
Bridge
.Drawbridge
Mine dump
Dry lake
IS?
Tailings
Tunnel
Narrow wash
Wide wash
Canal, flume, or aqueduct with lock .
SURFACE FEATURES
Levee
Aqueduct tunnel
School; church
Racetrack
Tailings pond
&#?<$
Aifport
SUBMERGED AREAS AND BOGS
Landing strip
VEGETATION
Woods
Scrub
Marsh or swamp
Submerged marsh or swamp
Wooded marsh or swamp
Orchard
Coverec
Vineyard
voir
Gaging station
Mangrove
Landmark object
Campground; picnic area
Cemetery: small; large
iCem
...
Rice field
rnn
5 MILES
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
TOPOGRAPHIC
MAP INFORMATION AND SYMBOLS
MARCH 1978
Scale
1 inch represents
1 centimeter
represents
Standard
quadrangle size
(latitude-longitude)
Quadrangle
area
(square miles)
1 24,000
1 25,000
1 20,000
1 62,500
1 63,360
1 100,000
1 250,000
1 1,000,000
1 250,000
1 500.000
2,000 feet
about 2,083 feet
about 1,667 feet
nearly 1 mile
1 mile
nearly 1.6 miles
nearly 4 miles
nearly 16 miles
nearly 4 miles
nearly 8 miles
240 meters
250 meters
200 meters
625 meters
nearly 634 meters
1 kilometer
2.5 kilometers
10 kilometers
2.5 kilometers
5 kilometers
TAXTA min.
TAX 15 min.
TAXTA min.
15X 15 min.
15X20 to 36 min.
30X60 min.
1X2 or 3
4X6
1X3 to 15
2x TA
49 to 70
98 to 140
71
197 to 282
207 to 281
1568 to 2240
4,580 to 8,669
73,734 to 102./59
4,089 to 8,336
28,174 to 30 4&
000 02
000 St
31VOS l O O d
000 01
ooos
0005
Material
Fresh Water, 68 F
0.997
1.025
Ice (Pure)
0.9175
Earth (Ave.)
5.517
Crust (Ave.)
2.85
Continental Crust
2.7-2.8
Hematite: 5-6
Granite: 2.8
Quartz: 2.65
Orthoclase: 2.55-2.63
Andesine: 2.65-2.68
Calcite: 2.72-2.94
Continued
69
Material
Oceanic Crust
=3.1
Mantle-Upper
3.3
=5.6
=10-12
= 12-12.5
70
Iron7.875
Nickel8.912
Gold19.282
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The theory of continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s. He based
his theory on ideas previously proposed by Eduard Suess (Levin, 1999). Wegener's theory of
continental drift was an effort to explain the matching coastlines of South America and
Africa (like pieces of a puzzle). Other evidence supporting the theory of continental drift is
the alignment of structural trends and glacial deposits as well as the correlation of rock types,
rock ages, and fossils between South America and Africa. Wegener thought that the continents of today had to originally have been part of a single supercontinent at some time in
the past. He named this supercontinent Pangea. Approximately 180 million years ago,
Pangea began to break apart. It initially separated into two subcontinents. The northernmost
subcontinent he called Laurasia and the southernmost he called Gondwanaland (Suess's
name for a supercontinent). These subcontinents, in turn, fragmented into the continents we
see today. Continental "drift" is still occurring. The rates of movement documented vary
from 2 to 17 cm/yr (1-7 in./yr). The North Atlantic Ocean, for instance, is getting wider at a
rate of about 2 cm/yr. At this rate the Atlantic Ocean today is approximately 10 meters (32
feet) wider than when Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492.
Paleomagnetism, the study of the ancient magnetic orientation of the Earth, also
indicates that the continents have drifted with respect to time. As magma/lava with ironbearing minerals cools and crystallizes, the minerals align to the magnetic north. This
orientation will not alter once the magma/lava has solidified. The movement and/or
rotation of the continents have disaligned the iron-bearing minerals from the paleomagnetic north direction of ancient rocks relative to the present magnetic north direction.
Paleomagnetism seems to confirm the theory of continental drift.
The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be the result of circulation in the Earth's liquid
outer core (Chernikoff, 1995). When lines of magnetic force leave the Earth at the south
magnetic pole and reenter near the north magnetic pole, as they do now, it is referred to
as normal magnetism. A compass needle points toward the north magnetic pole.
Reverse magnetism occurs when the polarity of the Earth's magnetic field reverses
(flip-flops). During times of reverse magnetism, compass needles would point toward the
south magnetic pole instead of the north magnetic pole. The last magnetic reversal
occurred approximately 780,000 years ago (Chernikoff, 1995) when the Earth's polarity
returned to the present orientation.
PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics was a theory proposed in the 1950s to explain the mechanisms of continental drift. The theory states that the Earth's crust is composed of segments of lithosphere
that "float" upon the asthenosphere and move in different directions at different rates of
speed away from spreading centers. It is thought that the driving force of plate movement
is convection currents (circulating motions) within the asthenosphere and lower mantle.
Convection is the upward movement of hotter and usually less dense material, and the
adjacent sinking of cooler denser material. A good visual example of convection can be
seen in a pot of boiling oatmeal. The hottest oatmeal rises in the middle of the pot and the
cooler oatmeal sinks along the edges.
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Plate motion is currently measured with the use of navigation satellites. The edges of plates
are recognized as areas of frequent earthquakes and volcanism. The edge of the Pacific plate
is sometimes referred to as the "Ring of Fire" because it is surrounded by converging and
diverging boundaries that result in numerous episodes of volcanism. The plates collide
with each other (converge), pull apart from each other (diverge), or slide horizontally
past each other (transform). The plates of the world are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Chapter 3
71
FIGURE 3.2 Tectonic Plates of the World, modified from Chernikoff, 1995.
Chapter 3
73
On December 26, 2004, a "Great Earthquake" with a magnitude of 9.0 (sources vary)
occurred off the coast of Indonesia in the Indian Ocean basin along the convergent plate
boundary between the Indian and Burma plates. The quaking lasted for several minutes
(most quakes last less than a minute) and spawned a massive tsunami that killed over
200,000 people and devastated the coastal areas. A tsunami, the result of a disturbance of
the seafloor by earthquakes or volcanism, radiated outward from the area of disturbance.
The waves increase in height and speed as they approach the land and cause massive
damage.
On Good Friday, 1964, near Anchorage, Alaska, a 9.2-magnitude earthquake also
spawned a tsunami. The Pacific Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate. The
ground shook for approximately five minutes. Although the "Good Friday Earthquake"
was a more powerful earthquake than the one that struck Indonesia and surrounding areas
on December 26, 2004, the loss of life was low due to the lower population density in
Alaska.
The largest magnitude earthquake was 9.5 on the Richter scale and occurred on May 22,
1960, in Chile, South America. Many of the dead, approximately 2,000, died as a result of
the tsunami generated by the earthquake, not from the earthquake itself. The city of Valdiva,
Chile, was heavily damaged and has since been rebuilt. The tsunami traveled as far away as
Flawaii, killing sixty-one people (Atwater et al., 1999).
74
Earthquake Intensity
TABLE 3.2
Description
Magnitude
The Richter scale of earthquake intensity rates the
Detected but not felt
2.0-2.9
magnitude (amount of energy released) of earthquakes
Barely felt
3.0-2.9
(Table 3.2) by evaluating the
Minor earthquake
4.0-4.9
amount of ground motion.
The energy released by earthSlight damage occurs
5.0-5.9
quakes is increased by a factor of ten as the magnitude
Destructive earthquake
6.0-6.9
increases. An earthquake of
Major earthquake
7.0-7.9
magnitude 2 is ten times
more powerful than a magniGreat earthquake
>8.0
tude 1 earthquake.
Another way to rank
earthquakes is to use the Modified Mercalli Earthquake Intensity Scale (Table 3.3). This
scale rates earthquakes on the basis of the effects that are readily observable, such as damage to the area affected and the descriptions and sensations of people who lived through
an earthquake.
TABLE 3.3
Modified Mercalli Earthquake Intensity Scale (modified from the FEMA website)
II
Felt by few people that are not moving, liquid sloshes, animals uneasy, chandeliers swing gently.
III
rv
VI
VII
VIII
Some difficulty steering vehicles, broken tree limbs, water levels change in wells and springs.
DC
XI
XII
Almost total destruction, objects thrown into air, ground moves in waves.
Chapter 3
75
Plate 2
Plate 2
Plate 2
4. Where (specifically) is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge located? What kind of plate boundary it it?
6. If you look at a world map or globe, what visual evidence suggests that the continents of South America and
Africa were once part of the same land mass.
Chapter 3
77
7. Alfred Wegener suggested that the continents of today were once part of a supercontinent that broke apart and drifted to their present positions. On what (not who) did he
base his theory for continental drift, other than the apparent fit of South America and
Africa?
a.
b.
c.
d.
78
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology is the study of the changes in the position, or attitude (tilting,
bending, stretching, breaking), of bodies of rock achieved by the application of unbalanced (not "hydrostatic"not equal from all directions) pressures, and varying
amounts of heat, after the rock was formed. "Formation" in this sense encompasses the
processes of origin of the rock body, such as deposition and lithification (sedimentary
rocks), extrusion and solidification (volcanic rocks), magma emplacement and crystallization (plutonic rocks), and even metamorphism (metamorphic rocks). Change in
attitude is commonly called "deformation," and the important point is that the conditions needed for deformation are basically those needed to achieve metamorphism.
Deformed rocks are, to a greater or lesser degree, metamorphosed. Some deformed
rocks are not noticeably metamorphosed, while others are very much changed in
texture, mineralogy, and arrangement of their minerals.
Pressure on rocks is of two kinds that act at the same time. "Burial pressure" (lithostatic
pressure) is imposed by the weight of overlying rocks. Burial pressure acts nearly vertically, and
is approximately predictable by depth below the Earth's surface. Burial pressure generally
builds up and acts slowly and continuously. The second kind of pressure (hydrostatic pressure) experienced by rocks underground is provided by tectonic stresses. At small scales, this
kind of pressure can act in any direction, though at large (regional, continental, or global)
scale it can often be treated as acting nearly horizontally (a sort of average of all the minor
components). Tectonically induced pressures commonly build up and act rapidly. "Rapid
action" in geologic terms means that if we look very closely and measure carefully, we can
notice the changes over a few years or tens of years.
If pressure is applied gradually and continuously, and the temperature is high enough,
the rock will bend (flow; behave in a plastic or ductile fashion) because the strength of the
rocks is exceeded. Strength is the tendency of the rock to avoid being deformed, and varies
with the temperature and composition of the rock. If pressure is applied rapidly, or
temperature is low, or both, and strength is exceeded, the rock will behave in a brittle
mannerit will break. Before it breaks the rock will indeed deform (bend), but much of
this deformation disappears after the breakage by means of what is called "elastic rebound." "Elastic rebound" means that pieces of the rock snap back into their original
form (nearly), so that they could be fitted together to make a body of rock of the original
geometry. This kind of deformation is said to be "recovered" because the energy used to
bend the rock was stored in the rock rather than being used to cause recrystallization and
flow (metamorphism). Elastic deformation and the "snap back" recovery of form produce
earthquakes. The energy of an earthquake measured on the Richter scale is the energy
stored in the rock by elastic deformation (Table 3.2). At depths of about 700 km (435
miles) the combination of pressure and temperature appears to make brittle behavior
impossible, and rock flows (plastic behavior).
If large situations are considered (so that local variationsin the kinds of rocks, and
the temperatures and pressurespretty much cancel each other out), it is possible
for pressures from all sources and directions to balance each other. This situation is
uncommon, at least if time, measured in millions of years, is considered. The idea is useful because it provides the concept of "confining pressure." Any pressure exerted in
excess of this balanced or confining pressure will produce deformation of the rocks. The
unbalanced part of the pressure usually arises from tectonic stresses, and so the study of
structural geology is closely related to the study of plate tectonics. The unbalanced
pressures can tend to compress the body of rock (wad up the rocks; compression), or
extend the rocks (pull the rocks out like taffy; extension). It may seem odd to think of
pressure this way, so maybe it is easier to recognize that pressure is force applied over an
area, as in the common expression "pounds [of force] per square inch." The force could
be cramming rocks together, or stretching them out (ductile plastic deformation). In a
brittle sense, the rocks could break because they are being crushed, or because they are
stretched too much.
Chapter 3
79
80
Line A is oriented along the North-South line. Therefore the strike of line A is North
(south is assumed), Strikes are read as degrees east or west of North.
The top of tine B is m the NW quadrant. The angle AB is 10 degrees.. Therefore the
strike of line Bis N10nW.
The top of line C is in the NW quadrant, The angle AC is 80 degrees. Therefore the
strike of line B is N80*W
Line l> is oriented due West of north, Therefore the strike of fine l> is West (east is
assumed).
The top of line E is in the NE quadrant. The angle AE is 45 degrees. Therefore the
strike of line E is N45E.
The top of line F is in the NE quadrant. The angle AF is 75 degrees. Therefore the
strike of line F is N75E.
Line G is oriented due East of north. Therefore the strike of line G is East (west is
assumed).
FIGURE 3.4 Strike Angle and Strike Direction.
Chapter 3
81
__
83
Dip Direction
84
Strike
Strike
Strike
Strike
Strike
Dip
Dip
Strike
Strike
Strife
Dip
nil
Dip
Chapter 3
85
Study the drawings lettered D, H, and F Estimate the strike direction in degrees of each
lettered line. Use the proper formal discussed earlier in the chapter,
Study the drawings lettered G, H, and I. Estimate die strike direction in degrees of each
lettered line Use the proper format discussed earlier in the chapter Here yon will need to
reposition your four cardinal directions.
G-Strike _ ~ _ * * *
86
H~Strike
KScrike
Block Diagrams
The structure of subsurface strata can be visualized with the use of three-dimensional
representations called block diagrams (Fig. 3.5). The block diagram shows a map view (the
surface) and two cross sections (the transverse or east-west cross section and the longitudinal or north-south cross section), vertical slices through the Earth, viewed obliquely at the
same time. The map view and the age of the strata allow the geologist to interpret underground geologic structures. An outcrop pattern is a recognizable arrangement (pattern) of
strata that is seen if the vegetation and soil are considered to have been removed from the
surface. A contact, the boundary between two (or more) strata, is shown on the map and
cross-sectional views by a thin black line separating the strata.
Geologic Structures
The Earth's crust changes dynamically with time. Rocks originally deposited in horizontal
layers can become folded or faulted by compressional, tensional, or shear stress. Examples
of structures that are formed by geologic processes include:
1. Horizontal strata (Fig 3.6) are (almost always) layers or strata that have not been
deformed (or only very gently) since they were deposited (sedimentary) or extruded
(volcanic). Horizontal rocks do not have a strike or a dip component (i.e., an absence of
structure). Only a single stratum, the youngest, is seen on the map view. Cross-sectional
views show horizontal and parallel contacts between the beds.
2. Inclined (tilted) strata (Fig. 3.7) are layers of strata that are tilted from the horizontal, up to but not exceeding 90 degrees. The strike of the tilted rocks is parallel to the
contacts of the "stripes" seen on the map view. The "stripes" are nonrepeating (all of
different ages). The pattern the beds make on the map view is called the outcrop pattern. Tilted strata dip in the direction of the youngest bed unless the rocks have been
overturned. None of the structural situations in this manual concern overturned beds.
Chapter 3
87
3. Vertical strata (Fig. 3.8) are layers of strata that dip 90 degrees from the horizontal
(standing on edge). Vertical strata have a strike that is parallel to the contacts between
the layers, and a dip of 90 degrees, but no dip direction. Parallel nonrepeating stripes
(outcrop pattern) are seen on the map view.
4. Nonplunging folds (anticlinal and synclinal) are layers of strata that are bent or
crumpled. Folds result when compressional forces act on portions of the Earth's crust.
The compression causes the crust to arch, bend upward, or bend downward (form
troughs). The resulting arches or troughs are called folds. An upward arch is called an
anticline, and a trough is called a syncline.
The axis of a fold is the line at which the dip angle changes direction. Folds have
axial planes, "invisible" planes that bisect the fold. Symmetrical folds (Fig. 3.11) have
vertical axial planes, and thus the same degree of dip on both sides of the axis. Each
side is a mirror image of the other. An asymmetrical fold (Fig. 3.12) has a tilted axial
plane, and thus has different dip angles on either side of the axis. Each side is not a mirror image of the other so the width of the outcrop "stripes" seen on the map view are
different on either side of the axis. The strike of individual layers within anticlines and
synclines parallel the stripes on the map view. The stripes are only seen after erosion has
removed the uppermost part of the anticline and syncline structures (Fig. 3.9 and Fig. 3.10).
a. Anticlines (Fig. 3.9) are arch-shaped folds and the limbs dip away from the axis. When
anticlines are eroded, the map view shows parallel repealing stripes. The axis is located in
the center, the "oldest stripe." The transverse cross section shows the strata arched and the
longitudinal cross section shows level, parallel, horizontal beds.
b. Synclines (Fig. 3.10) are downwardly bent strata (troughs). The limbs dip inward toward the axis. When synclines are eroded, their map views also show an outcrop pattern of parallel repeating stripes, but the axis runs through the "youngest,"
(centermost) stripe. The transverse cross section shows a trough and longitudinal cross
section shows level, parallel, horizontal beds.
5. Plunging folds (anticlinal [Fig. 3.13] and synclinal [Fig. 3.14]) are folds that are themselves inclined or tilted; in other words, their axial planes are tilted and plunge into the
Earth. Converging or diverging symmetrical repetition of strata in the map view indicate the presence of plunging folds. Chevrons (U- or S-shaped) patterns are seen on the
map view as given strata wind back and forth on the surface. Figure 3.15 illustrates a set
of plunging anticlines and their associated syncline.
a. Plunging anticlines (Fig. 3.13). The direction of convergence of the stripes, seen on
the map view, will point in the direction of the plunge of the fold (toward the nose,
the pointy end of the chevron). The transverse cross section shows the strata arched
and the longitudinal cross section shows parallel, tilted beds. The beds tilt in the same
direction as the plunge.
b. Plunging syncline (Fig. 3.14). The direction of divergence of the stripes, seen on the
map view, is in direction of the plunge (away from the nose, the wider part of the
chevron). The transverse cross section shows a downwardly bent fold and the longitudinal cross section shows parallel, tilted beds. The beds tilt in the same direction as the
plunge. Anticlines and synclines alternate (Fig 3.14), and plunging folds are the most
common.
88
Chapter 3
89
mmgmt
6. Doubly plunging folds (domes [Fig. 3.16] or quaquaversal anticlines, and basins,
[Fig 3.17]) are arch-shaped and downwardly bent structures, respectively. If the strata
form "rings" or "bevels" in map view, either a dome or a basin is present underground.
Domes and basins are called doubly-plunging folds because all cross sections look like
"anticlines" or "synclines."
a. Domes (Fig. 3.16) are identified by concentric, irregularly shaped ellipses or rings
on the map view, with the oldest ring located in the center of the structure. All cross
sections are anticlinal, arch-shaped.
b. Basins (Fig. 3.17) are identified by concentric, irregularly shaped ellipses or rings
on the map view with the youngest ring located in the center of the structure. All
cross sections are synclinal, downwardly folded.
Map Symbols
The identification of structures, man-made and natural (roads, strata), on maps is accomplished with the use of standardized symbols. The map symbols used in this section to indicate the geologic structures of the Earth's crust are illustrated in Figure 3.18.
91
Faults
A fault is a fracture (evidence of brittle failure or breakage) in the Earth's crust along which
measurable relative movement has occurred. Earthquakes are the result of the sudden release of stress elastically stored in a rock body, and usually indicate movement (slippage)
along fault lines. The subsurface point where the movement that generated the earthquake
occurred is called the focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface of the Earth
is the epicenter.
Faults can have either vertical (Fig.3.19a) or inclined (Fig. 3.19b) fault planes (plane of
slippage). For faults with inclined fault planes, the hanging wall of a fault is the side that
would hang over your head if you could walk within or along the fault zone. The footwall
of the fault is the side that you would walk upon. The side of the fault that moves upward
is the upthrown block and the side that moves downward is the downthrown block. We
will discuss Five kinds of faults (Fig. 3.19).
1. Vertical faults (Fig. 3.19a) are generally caused by tectonic extensional stresses, at
depth. Although uncommon, they may develop in near-surface situations, as adjustments to deep-seated tectonic stress. The fault plane is vertical and a hanging wall and
a footwall does not develop.
2. Normal faults (Fig. 3.19b) are the result of tensional stress at or near the Earth's
surface, where pressures are too low to allow rocks to stretch without breaking, and
they have inclined fault planes. The rock breaks and gravity causes the hanging wall to
move down the dip of the fault plane or zone relative to the footwall (dip-slip
motion). Normal faults are associated with divergent plate boundaries (spreading
centers), rifts, and areas of extension and thinning of the Earth's crust, such as in the
Great Basin.
3. Reverse faults are the result of compressional stress. The hanging wall is forced up relative to the footwall (Figure 3.19c). Reverse faults are most commonly found at convergent plate boundaries. A thrust fault is a low-angle reverse fault.
4. Strike-slip (transform) faults are the result of horizontal movement along a plane
and are the result of shear stress. The strike-slip fault is named because the motion is
92
parallel to the strike of the fault. Fault planes may be inclined but are more commonly
near vertical, and there is no cross-sectional offsetting of strata because the opposite
sides of the fault slide horizontally past one another (Figure 3.19d). In a right lateral
strike-slip fault, the same strata or feature on the opposite side of the fault has moved
to the right as you face the fault. The opposite is true for a left lateral strike slip-fault.
Strike-slip faults are located at the junction of shear plate boundaries such as the San
Andreas Fault system, and along zones within plates where unequal motions of different parts of plates are accommodated (e.g., Trans-Pecos [far west] Texas).
Scissors faults (Figure 3.19e). Faults as well as other geologic phenomena, such as
dikes and sills, will eventually terminate. When a fault terminates, it is referred to as a
scissors fault.
Contacts
There are two types of contacts between strata. A
conformable contact is a boundary between rock
units where there is no record of time lost through
erosion or lack of deposition. An unconformable
contact is a boundary between rock units where
time has gone unrecorded due to either erosion or
nondeposition; the rock units below the unconformable surface are substantially different in age
than the rock units above. These contacts, when
buried, are called unconformities. Unconformities in cross sections are shown as wavy lines.
There is no map symbol for an unconformity.
Unconformities
1. Disconformity (Fig. 3.20a) refers to situations where the strata above and below the
surface of erosion belong to the same rock
family and are at the same attitude to one another. The unconformable surface shows relief because of erosion.
2. Nonconformity (Fig. 3.20b) refers to situations where the strata above the erosional
surface are layered sedimentary or volcanic
rock and those below are older plutonic
igneous and/or metamorphic rock.
3. Angular unconformity (Fig. 3.20c) refers to situations where the strata above and below the
unconformable surface meet at an angle; the
older strata below are tilted, bent, or faulted and
the younger strata above the unconformable
surface are horizontal (unless the rocks have
been secondarily tilted or overturned).
4. Paraconformity (Fig. 3.20d) refers to an unconformity that is the result of an interval of
nondeposition. The strata above and below
FIGURE 3.20 Unconformities.
unconformable surface are at the same attitude (parallel to one another) but of different
ages. Other evidence (usually fossils that establish age), must be used to determine
that time has passed between the deposition of the layers since no obvious erosion occurred between the episodes of deposition.
Chapter 3
93
EXERCISE 3.6
On the figures provided, label the following features:
Upthrown block (U), Downthrown Block (D) (on the map view) Hanging Wall (H), Footwall (F) (on the crosssection)
Draw arrows in the correct places to indicate the direction of relative movement (cross-section) and the
direction of the fault plane (map view) ON EACH FIGURE.
Chapter 3
95
96
SOILS
A soil is the result of alteration (weathering) of sediment or any other material that has
been exposed to the atmosphere for a period of time. Weathering includes physical and
chemical processes that alter or breakdown preexisting rocks and/or minerals in the
exposed rocks. Weathering products include clastic particles large to small, clay minerals,
soluble salts, and insoluble iron oxides. Weathering of preexisting materials and concentrations of the altered materials and new minerals commonly take place at fairly predictable levels within the developing soil, forming soil horizons that are characteristic of
the climate and stage of development, and the original (parent) materials. Soils, by definition, are unconsolidated. Soil orders in southeast Texas include:
1. Entisol: An immature soil that is composed mainly or entirely of little-altered minerals and lacks distinct soil horizons. Entisols may have a more- or less-noticeable surface horizon showing the beginnings of leaching, or human activities (agriculture, or
road building, for instance). Other horizons are poorly formed because of lack of time,
inert parent material, formation over slowly soluble rock, occurrence on steep, actively
eroding slopes, or recent mechanical mixing. Many areas mapped as entisols are sediments that have recently arrived by fluvial, or beach deposition, or dump truck. In
southeast Texas, entisols are found in coastal areas and along modern streams and
rivers.
2. Inceptisol: A soil order (Figure 3.21) with one or more horizons in which materials
other than carbonates or amorphous silica have been altered or removed (eluviated)
but not accumulated (illuviated) to a significant degree. Inceptisols are dominated by
unstable (weatherable) minerals and do not have horizons of accumulation. Inceptisols commonly have a light-colored (or slightly darker) surface horizon low in organic
material overlying a zone of leaching (mineral destruction and eluviation), usually
marked by a red or pronounced gray color, where destruction of minerals has begun.
A fragipan, a dense, impermeable, and when dry, fairly hard, subsurface layer whose
characteristics result from compaction, rather than cementation (hardpan), or clay illuviation (claypan) is often present. Inceptisols are rare in southeast Texas, but do occur locally along some streams and rivers.
3. Mollisol: A soil order characterized by a dark carbon-bearing upper surface horizon
(mollic epipedon) with little or no coherent organic debris. Mollisols characteristically form as dark-colored prairie soils under grass in climates that have a moderate to
severe seasonal moisture deficit. They are most extensive in midlatitude regions with
climates intermediate between arid (andisols) and humid (spodosols or alfisols).
Many are very productive agricultural soils. Mollisols occur in Jefferson and Chambers
counties, Texas. Mollisols have an underlying horizon that is at least moderately saturated with potentially soluble metal ions (not including Al, Si). Oxides and carbon are
not concentrated below the surface (illuviated), clay is, and calcium is commonly the
most important potentially soluble ion in the horizon of concentration. In drier climates, gypsum or caliche (petrocalcic horizon) may form.
4. Alfisol: A soil order (Figure 3.21) with light-colored (or locally slightly darker) surface
horizon low in organic material. Alfisols have moderate amounts of readily soluble
metal ions in the surface horizon, and a subsurface horizon of clay accumulation
(illuviation), that is moderate to rich in readily soluble metal ions. Alfisols retain
water well for a growing season of three months or more. Because these soils have
water and available metal ions, they are widely used for agriculture, though they are
not suitable for all crops. Alfisols occur with mollisols in Jefferson, Orange, and
Chambers counties, Texas.
5. Ultisol: A soil order characterized by the presence of a subsurface horizon of clay
accumulation (illuviation), and a poor supply of readily soluble metal ions, particularly
at depth. They form at mid- to low latitudes in intermediate to warm humid climates
with enough excess seasonal precipitation to remove soluble metal ions released by
Chapter 3
97
chemical weathering. Metal ions are most available in the surface horizon where they
are retained by plant recycling. Ultisols have a low native fertility, but, because they
are warm and moist, they can be highly productive with added commercial fertilizers.
Ultisols are widespread in Jasper, Newton, Hardin, and Tyler counties, Texas.
8. Vertisols: A soil order that contains at least 30 percent clay, usually a swelling clay
(smectite, possibly montmorillonite). It is found in regions where soil moisture
changes rapidly from wet to dry, and has large changes in volume with changes
in moisture content, and develops deep, wide cracks and high density between the
cracks when dry. Gilgai (small-scale compressional structures and associated surface
relief) and slickensides (smooth, polished surfaces on exposed microfault planes)
show the movement of these shrink-swell soils, which can be destructive to the foundations of buildings. Vertisols occur in southern Jefferson County, central Chambers
County, and extreme southern parts of Hardin, Jasper, and Newton counties, Texas.
Regolith is a term best used to describe broken, unconsolidated surface material
essentially devoid of living matter (as on the surface of the Moon or Mars). These surface
materials are not soil as described herein. Glacial till is the best example of regolith on
Earth.
Geologic structures can be found on the Earth & Space Sciences website
(http://ess.lamar.edu/). Click on People, Staff, Woods, Karen M., Teaching, Physical Geology Lab, Geologic Structures.
98
3. What is a regolith?
Chapter 3
99
FIGURE 3.21 Examples of a soil almost without zones (inceptisol) and a soil in which
there has been sufficient slope stability for weathering to produce zones (Alfisol).
Chapter 3
101
Chapter 3
103
Create the geologic maps that would fti the geology underground Tor the four diagrams
below {C D* E, F), Place the correct geologic symbol ($) on the structures (on the
map views). Label the formations using the letters/numbers provided.
104
NOTES
Topographic Maps
Everyone is familiar with road maps, which show the location of roads, cities, major rivers,
etc. A topographic map is a two-dimensional (flat) representation of a three-dimensional
surface that shows the location of every natural and man-made object or feature within the
map's area. Topographic maps are not only useful to geologists. Hunters, hikers, engineers,
contractors, foresters, architects, and so on also use topographic maps because of their
accuracy. Hills, valleys, ridges, depressions, other features, and different kinds of manmade structures such as roads, buildings, and so on are depicted by use of special symbols.
A key to the symbols used on topographic maps is located at the end of the color section
of this manual.
ELEVATION
Elevation is the height of the land above mean sea level (0 feet) (depths below sea level
are labeled with a negative sign in front of number (-200) to indicate the depth below sea
level). The arithmetic difference in elevation between any two elevations on a topographic
map is called relief. Relief can be expressed as total/maximum relief, the difference in
elevation between the highest and lowest elevations on the map, or as local relief, the
difference in elevation between a hilltop and its adjacent valley.
The United States Department of the Interior, Coasts and Geodetic Survey, National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the United States Geological
Survey (USGS), and other agencies and organizations are instrumental in the very accurate
measurement of specific locations in the United States. Permanent brass markers are set in
the ground at various locations. The plates, called bench marks, are engraved with the
exact elevation or a reference code for that location. Bench marks are indicated on maps
by the letters BM, followed by a number indicating the elevation of that spot. Spot elevations are elevations that have been surveyed into a given place in the map area but are not
marked by permanent markers. Spot elevations are indicated on maps with an "x"
followed by the elevation (x250).
CONTOURS
Contours are lines on topographic maps that represent equal elevations above a datum
point, usually near sea level (0 feet). Contours represent three-dimensional features such
as hills, valleys, ridges, and so on as lines on paper. The difference in elevation between
any two adjacent contour lines is the contour interval. The contour interval on a specific
map, once determined, will remain constant throughout the map. For example, contour
107
lines on a map with a contour interval of 10 (feet or meters) would have values that
are multiples of 10 (0, 10, 20, ... 110, 120, 130, etc.). The contour interval selected for a
particular area is dependent on how flat or hilly (mountainous) the area is. The more
mountainous the terrain, the larger the contour interval, and vice versa. Contour lines
labeled with the elevation and drawn thicker on topographic maps are called index contours. In general, every fifth contour line on a map is an index contour line. If the contour interval were 10 feet, the index contour interval would be 50 feet (multiply the
contour interval [10] by 5).
108
If the contour "Wag" terminates as a pointed V, the valley has a V-shaped transverse
profile, typical of streams in the youthful stage of the cycle of erosion
Ridge
If the contour "Wag" terminus is rounded, the valley has a U-shaped transverse
profile, and a glacial valley is indicated.
history of landscapes (Fig. 4.2). A v-shaped valley is typical of a stream in the youthful
stage of the cycle of erosion. U-shaped valleys are the result of erosion by glaciers, and
squared-off valleys are in the mature stage of the cycle of erosion. The spacing of contour
lines also indicates important information about an area. The closer the lines are drawn to
one another, the steeper the slope of the land, and vice versa.
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
109
Drawing Contours
.5
.5
The purpose of drawing contour lines is to
5
.20
tablish spot elevations as accurately as
.25
possible. The elevations and coordinate
positions of a network of high and low
25
.25
points would be plotted as a base map.
30
Another member of the team, usually an
30
30
artist, would draw in the contour lines
.
30
around the surveyed spot elevations relative to a given contour interval. This manual will provide the spot elevations. Think
of yourself as the artist.
One problem of drawing contours is
that the spot elevations are chosen because
of their aerial distribution, and because
they provide information about maximum, minimum, and average elevations in
the area of the proposed map. You, as the
"artist" in lab, cannot actually see the landscape topography. The first step is to consider the contour interval (CI), the
difference in the elevation of two adjacent
contour lines. The particular contour interval chosen depends on the amount of relief
and the amount of detail required.
To accurately place contour lines, the
"artist" must use his or her best interpretation (best guess) of the location the contour line should be drawn at. This is called FIGURE 4.3 Beginning Contours.
interpolation. For example, if the contour
interval is 10 feet and you are given spot elevations at 11 foot and 9 foot, you would draw the 10-foot contour line midway between
them. Art comes into play later, when the map is almost done, when the student has gained
insight into the nature of the lay of the land. Of course actual mapmakers draw contour lines
while in the field, thus they can see the hills, and so on. You, in lab, will be at a disadvantage. Be imaginative. Once the contour interval is chosen for a map, the "artist" must draw
the contour lines. Figure 4.3 shows two examples of simple contour maps labeled with surveyed spot elevations. The contour interval is 5 feet. Try to contour the maps by yourself.
Contouring Rules
When drawing contour lines, some basic rules should be followed:
1. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation, as defined by the contour interval.
2. Contour lines never divide or split.
3. Contour lines never just end. They will continue and join up with a contour line on
an adjacent map (if the contour interval is compatible).
4. A contour line will never intersect another contour line. (There are exceptions, such as
in the case of an overhanging cliff, but they will not occur in this lab manual).
110
FIGURE 4.4 Repeating Contour Lines A. On the slope of a hill B. On a volcanic peak C.
A depression on level ground. 1-4 represent the number of times a contour line will
repeat in the direction the arrows indicate.
5. Contour lines will bend and point uphill when crossing a valley. The bend will be either
v-shaped (youthful), squared (mature), or U-shaped (glacial), at the head of the valley.
6. Contour lines representing ridges will bend and point toward the lower elevations.
7. Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slopes. Closely spaced contour lines
indicate steep slopes.
8. Concentric circles (contour "rings") indicate hills or mountain peaks.
9. Concentric circles (contour "rings") with hachure marks indicate depressions.
10. Contour lines can repeat in certain instances (a depression on a hill, or a volcanic
peak with a crater). Figure 4.4 illustrates these situations.
Topographic Profile
A topographic profile (Fig. 4.5) is a cross-sectional representation of the lay of the land
as if hills and valleys are seen from a distance. To draw a topographic profile, the "artist"
must first contour the map, then select a desired cross section, such as A-A' (Fig. 4.4). After
a cross section has been chosen, the elevation of each contour line that crosses the A-A'
line are transferred to the vertical scale of the cross section determined by the maximum
and minimum elevations that cross the A-A' line. To transfer the points, take a piece of
blank paper and line it up with the cross-section line on the contour map. Make marks on
the blank paper template where the contours cross the A-A' line and at each end of the section line. Record the representative elevations at the marks. Now move your paper template down to the cross section. Using the same spacing, make a dot on the cross section
in accordance with the elevations on the vertical scale. Once all the points are marked, connect the dots with a "smooth" (not jerky) line. Be on the "lookout" for typical topographic
features such as hills, valleys, depressions, and so on. Draw the hills with an arch shape to
indicate that it is a hill. A distinct notch can be used to indicate the position of a stream.
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
111
FIGURE 4.5 Topographic Profile. The topographic profile (A-A') illustrates repetition of contours at hills and
depressions. This is a profile of a vocano. Note the contour lines "V" (point) in the uphill direction as they
cross the rivers.
112
Vertical Exaggeration
The vertical exaggeration of a topographic profile is the amount the profile has been
"stretched" vertically relative to the horizontal A-A' distance. It is necessary to exaggerate the vertical scale in order to emphasize the shape of hills and valleys. Vertical
exaggeration is a ratio of the horizontal scale, of the map (in feet/inches), divided by
the amount of feet in one measured inch on the vertical scale. For example, if the
horizontal (map) scale is 1 inch equals 500 feet and one measured inch on the vertical
scale equals 250 feet, then divide 500 feet/inch by 250 feet/inch. The units (feet/inch)
will cancel and the vertical exaggeration will be 2x (two times). Vertical exaggeration
must be greater than one. It is essential for the map scale and the vertical scale to have
the same units.
Look at Fig. 4.5. The map (horizontal) scale is 1 inch equals 1,000 feet. The number
of feet in one measured inch on the vertical scale is 110' - 70' = 40 feet. Therefore the vertical exaggeration equals 25x (1,000 feet/inch divided by 40 feet/inch).
Map Scales
All maps have one or more scales that are used to determine distances from point to point.
The ratio scale is a ratio of a given measure on the map to the number of equivalent measures on the ground that covers the same distance. The ratio 1:62500 means that every inch
on the map equals 62,500 inches on the ground (a little less than a mile). A ratio scale of
1:24,000 means that every measured inch on the map equals 24,000 inches on the ground
(one-third of a mile).
The ratio scale (inches per inches) is usually converted to feet per inch, a more familiar
scale. Therefore, the ratio 1:24,000 converts to 1 inch is equal to 2,000 feet (24,000 inches/
12 inches per foot = 2,000 feet/inch) on the ground.
A second type of map scale is the graphic or bar scale. It illustrated by graduated bars
in miles, feet, and kilometers. Look at the bar scale labeled miles on the 7.5-minute series
map provided. There is a total of 2 miles represented on this scale.
From the zero to the end of the solid bar on the right is exactly 1 mile. The part of
the scale to the left of the 0 is subdivided into 10 increments, each representing one-tenth of
a mile. The feet scale is divided into five 100-foot intervals to the left of zero, and thousandfoot intervals to the right. The kilometer scale is subdivided into tenths of a kilometer on the
left of zero and into one kilometer (solid bar) to the right of zero. Remember, to correctly
use these scales, zero is the starting point.
A third type of map scale is called the verbal scale. The verbal scale is simply an
expression of the scale in words. For example, the verbal conversion of 1:24,000 would be
expressed as "one inch on the map is equal to twenty-four thousand inches on the ground,
about one-third of a mile," and that 1:62500 is expressed as 1 inch on the map is equal to
about a mile on the ground.
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
113
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
115
116
mxtamwttm*
12
25
*38
28
x29
x
'
\
0
25
20 x
x
/18
s
x
T^S
If 0
xl5
x27
fJ
30
19
x 23
m
x
ll
x
X4 y
32
x21
Gulf
15
/0
lOx
x
824
774
820
X
822
775
810
Chapter 4
T o p o g r a p h i c Maps
117
lit"
Using the contour lines shown, determine how many different lines (and elevations) must you
consider for this map. Then fill in the elevations on the vertical scale below in the spaces
provided. Next, draw, as accurately as you can, the topographic profile along the line A-A\
Remember, the surface of a lake is horizontal, and ridges bow upward and valleys bow
downward when drawn as profiles.
Elevations
xl70
xl85
/xl24
/l50
xl60
x!40
Ll40
)
^cllO
N
xl41
A
\\r
160
T7
11
138
xl22
N^IO
\99
S
x
HO
80 >
xlOl
A'
\x90
X
170
122
105
x
138
x95
>s 79x
xllO
I
" S *' , , ^5
x 185
90
xllO
xl40
xlOO
80x
V50
Scale l"=320'
Contour Interval 20 feet
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
119
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
121
Quadrangle
to
North
6.
4/%.
Publisher
Title
Series
&
,<$
cs
&
d^c
r-1
o
c
w
09,
5-
Latitude Line
CO
UJ
O
5b
<
-6
5
Latitude
Coordinate
Quadrangle to South
II
Misc. Map
Information
^o 3&
<
o
Ratio Scale
Bar Scales
Contour Interval
Publication Date
Revision Date
flat. Since the Earth is not flat, TSR coordinates established in different regions do not meet
very closely.
Range lines are initially approximately parallel to longitudes, but diverge markedly
as one goes north or south from the place where they started to be calibrated and measured from due to the curvature of the Earth's surface. Townships drawn in relation to a
base line that is established by law rather than reality are initially approximately parallel
to latitude, but diverge east and west from the area where the TSR system for a given
region was initiated. A section is a parcel of land one-mile square. Each township/range
is divided into thirty-six sections. The number of sections in a township, and their shape
and areas become confused where interregional adjustments must be made, because of
the necessity to readjust to the Earth's curvature. A typical county is composed of thirtysix townships.
122
Map Directions
Maps are oriented in relation to true north. There are actually three different "north" directions that are designated on topographic maps. True or geographic north is defined by the
North Star (Polaris). Grid north always points in a northerly direction, parallel to the
longitude lines. Magnetic north is the direction a compass needle points to, a magnetic
anomaly in the Earth itself, and not to true north. The angle or error formed between the
direction of true or geographic north and magnetic north is called magnetic declination,
and it changes as one moves west (or east). Magnetic declination has both an angle and a
direction. The direction is determined by the location of the mapped area. If the mapped area
is west of where magnetic north lines up with true north, it has an east direction, and if it is
east, it has a west direction.
Simple Conversions
Maps are produced using either the metric system (centimeters, meters, and kilometers) or
the English system (inches, feet, and miles). Conversions from one to another are commonly necessary when using topographic maps. The following is a short list of commonly
used conversions.
12 inches = 1 foot
1.6 kilometers = 1 mile
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
123
124
EXERCISE 4.5
Answer the following questions for the map provided.
General Questions
What is the latitude coordinate at the top of the map?
How many degrees, minutes, and seconds are represented between the eastern and western boundaries
of the map?
How many degrees, minutes, and seconds are represented between the northern and southern boundaries
of the map?
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
125
How many inches is the northern boundary (the width) of the map?
How many inches is the western boundary (the length) of the map?
What is the name of this map? Where did you find this answer?
What is the name of the quadrangle map to the north of this map?
The east?
The west?
The south?
The northeast?
What is the elevation of the hill south of the K in the word Kingstown, near the center ol the map?
126
In the northeast corner of the map in the town of Kingston, directly south of Kingston Road is a church.
What is the elevation of the church?
What is the local relief between the top of Great Neck Hill, and Worden Pond?
What direction does Whitehorn Brook flow? (Near Larkin Pond in upper center of map.)
Chapter 4
Topographic Maps
127
Revision Date
Ratio Scale
Verbal Scale
Contour Interval
Square kilometers?
What are the latitude and longitude coordinates for the following places? (estimate as close as possible)
Plummer Building at Lamar University
Latitude
Longitude
Latitude
Longitude
West?
What is the magnetic declination of this map? (angle and direction are required)
What is the distance in kilometers between the Plummer building and St. Anthony's School?.
What is the distance in feet between BMx22 (bottom, middle of map) and the screen of the Old Drive-in
Theater near Twin Lakes?
Draw the following map symbols.
Oil Well
School
Church
Look at the bar scales of this map. Why is the 0 (zero) not placed at the end of the bars?
128
Sandpit
129
The beginning of a river is called the headwaters. A rivers flows from its headwaters
downhill to its mouth, the lowest part of the river, in a valley that, in most instances, the
river has carved by erosion. Side streams that join a given river are tributaries. Side streams
that diverge from a river are distributaries (associated with rivers at or near base level).
The total combined area drained by a river and all its tributaries is called a drainage basin
or watershed. The high ground that separates one river system from another or one
drainage basin from another is called a divide. The North American continental divide
extends irregularly through the Rocky Mountains from Alaska through Mexico, and separates the United States into two main drainage basins, each of which has several smaller
drainage basins within it. Water that falls as precipitation west of the continental divide
has potential to flow into the Pacific Ocean, while precipitation that falls east of the continental divide in the United States has potential to flow into the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. Streams can be perennial, those that flow all the time, or intermittent, those
that only flow part of the time. Perennial streams are also referred to as permanent
streams and are illustrated on maps by solid blue lines. Intermittent streams are illustrated on maps by blue dashes and dots (see Topographic Map Symbols, end of color section). Streams that abruptly end on a map in reality disappear into the ground and are
called disappearing streams. Most disappearing streams are associated with karst topography (see next chapter). Gradient is the relief between the headwaters and mouth of a
stream divided by the length of the stream in miles. A river that loses half a foot per mile
has a low gradient, whereas a river that loses 50 feet per mile has a very high gradient.
130
close to the river. The resulting thicker deposits that are immediately parallel to the channel are called natural levees (Fig.
5.3). Natural levees allow a meandering river to build up the
central part of the flood plain, until the river is actually flowing
at an elevation that is higher than its flood plain itself. Levees
can be and have been breached during floods. Man-made levees
are commonly built along streams that flood frequently in
hopes of containing them in their channels. The development of
natural levees can hinder tributaries from joining the main river.
This often results in the tributary flowing parallel to the main
stream along the outside of the natural levee until it can breech
the levee and unite with the main stream. The parallel stream is
called a yazoo tributary (4) (Fig. 5.3), named for the Yazoo
River in west-central Mississippi. The Yazoo River is a tributary
of the Mississippi River that flows parallel to the larger Mississippi for about 175 miles before Finally joining with it.
A flood plain is a comparatively flat area parallel to the
stream where the stream stores sediment between floods. ThereFIGURE 5.3 Stream Features Flood Plain,
fore, flood plains (Fig. 5.3) are called that for the simple reason
Nature Levee, and Yazoo Tributary.
that when the river overflows its banks it may top or break
through natural levees and flood large areas of low land between
the levees and the valley walls. For most of the length of a river, the flood plain can be regarded as a temporary storage reservoir for sediment in transit, even if it may take hundreds of years for the river to pick it up again. Nevertheless, fluvial (river deposited)
sediments are sometimes preserved, particularly those deposited near a coast, and are an
important source for many kinds of animal and plant fossils.
Flowing water has two properties that are important to the erosion and deposition of
sediment, capacity and competence. Capacity is the total amount of sediment a stream
can carry at any given time. Competence is the maximum size of grains or clasts that a
stream can carry at any given time. Speed of flow (velocity) is the most important factor
for determining both capacity and competence. When the gradient of a stream or river decreases rapidly, both the capacity and the competency decrease and there is deposition.
The first sediments deposited are the coarser sediments (gravel or sand), which then grade
into the finer sand and silt-sized sediments. The water has to be nearly or completely
unmoving (quiet) to deposit clay-sized particles. Natural levees are composed of coarser
sediments than those deposited further from the stream on the flood plain. However,
the most striking examples of deposition occur when a river comes out of mountainous
terrain into flatlands, to deposit an alluvial fan. Alluvial fans are easily recognized on topographic maps. The contour lines tend to develop a scalloped shape. When a river enters a
standing body of water such as a lake or an ocean the sediments form a delta. These bodies
of sediment tend to be triangular in longitudinal cross sections and fan-shaped cones in
map views, but the alluvial fans have more steeply sloping surfaces than deltas (2-5 degees
for alluvial fans, compared to a fraction of a degree for most deltas), and very much coarser
sediments.
Chapter 5
131
streams, and streams into rivers. If the gradient is sufficient enough, the flowing water will
have enough velocity to create a new gully. Erosion is enhanced if there is not much vegetation to slow the water by friction, and if soil is friable (loose). Sand and silt are sediment
sizes that fall within the competence range of many streams, and are easy to move.
Most gullies begin forming by simple down-cutting. If erosion is very rapid, or if the
tops of the gully walls are protected by vegetation, or are armored by sediments too coarse
or too clayey for new streams to erode, the down-cutting will continue for some time.
Gorges are small canyons with near vertical sides, and a box canyon or rincon is a canyon
with a closed upper end. Usually the walls of the gully have rivulets running down into it,
and in cross section the gully has a V-shape. V-shaped valleys are characteristic of streams
and rivers that are down-cutting fairly rapidly, but, at the same time, they gradually get
wider. If the stream encounters alternatively hard and softer layers as it cuts down, the "V"
will be stair-stepped. This is called differential erosion. The harder layers (hard to erode)
make breaks in the slopethe slope of the valley side is more gentle above the harder layers, steeper where the layer has been cut through, and gentler again below the hard layer.
When downward erosion slows, either because the river has encountered an especially
hard layer that it can not erode, has met a temporary base level, or because the stream no
longer has enough capacity to do more than move sediment supplied by the tributaries,
the stream will start to build a flood plain. The original V-shaped valley develops a flat
bottom. Contour line "V's" point in the upstream direction as they cross the stream in a
V-shaped valley, but as a flood plain develops, the contour lines that cross a flood plain are
squared.
The erosive power of streams can be immense. Streams eventually cut through all kinds
of solid rock. The Colorado River cut the mile-deep Grand Canyon of Arizona, in the last
3 million years, through limestone, sandstone, shale, granite, gneiss, and schist. As the
Kaibab Plateau slowly uplifted and faulted, the Colorado River, initially fault-controlled,
cut deeper and deeper into the relatively horizontal underlying rock. The erosional process
of the river formed cliffs (breaks in slope for harder layers) and slopes along the (steep)
valley walls as it cut downward. Sandstone and limestone, relatively hard rocks compared
to shale, form cliffs in the Grand Canyon walls. The shale beds form gentler slopes between
the harder beds of sediment. Another example of the awesome power of streams is the
"Flood of 1993" along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. An unusually high rate of precipitation in the Midwest and man-made levees along the rivers banks
contributed to the magnitude of the flood. The residents of the threatened areas attempted
to prevent the spread of water over their lands and into their homes as the water levels rose,
but many homes, farms, and businesses were destroyed when the levees were breached.
Approximately fifty people died, and damage was estimated to be more than 10 billion
dollars (Mairson, 1994).
The scouring action of slow-flowing valley glaciers will erode a U-shaped valley because
the ice can scrape high along the valley walls. One can tell how thick (deep) the glacier was
by the height where the rounding stops on the sides of the valley.
132
in youth, and thus begins to meander (has a more sinuous channel). The stream erodes a cutbank on the outside of each meander, deposits point bars on the inside of each meander, and
builds a narrow flood plain as the meanders migrate as a wave
downstream. There are no waterfalls but the stream may have
rapids produced by irregularities in the bottom of the stream that
produces turbulent flow. The uplands are all in slope, and the divides between one drainage basin and another tend to be ridges
(sometimes called hogbacks). The land has its maximum relief
and no natural lakes or swamps occur. All the land is drained.
Streams can be in a stage that is transitional between youth and
maturity (Fig. 5.4b). Such streams have increased length due to
headward erosion, gentler gradients, more tributaries, sinuous
channels (the beginnings of meandering), and have developed a
more complicated drainage basin, but the valley remains relatively straight and V-shaped. The uplands are narrower and better drained when in youth but lakes and marshes still persist.
Streams in the old stage (Fig. 5.4e) have their maximum
length and the fewest number of tributaries. They meander extensively because they flow across an essentially level flood
plain. When a stream cuts off meanders during floods, oxbow
lakes form. The land in old age is relatively flat, near base level,
and is poorly drained. Swamps and oxbow lakes are common,
and the divides that separate one stream from another are low.
The transitional stages between maturity and old age (Fig. 5.4d)
have flat, terraced areas between the divides, and the streams
have broad flood plains.
Stream Rejuvenation
Rejuvenated streams are streams or rivers that have been
forced back one or more stagesliterally, "made youthful
again." Rejuvenated streams are the result of an increase in the
erosive power of the stream, possibly caused by uplift of the areas over which they flow, by eustatic (worldwide) sea level fall,
or by an increase of capacity (from increased rainfall that increases runoff due to climate change). An entrenched (deeply
dug in) stream is the result of slow rejuvenation in which uplift
of the land occurred at the same rate as downward erosion.
FIGURE 5.4 Stream Stages.
Topography, the ups and downs of the land, is determined by the same factors that control
the stages of development for stream and river erosion: amount of time the land has been
exposed to the ravages of climate, composition of the materials being eroded, and regional
tectonic activities. Landscape features are identifiable in the field and are recognizable on
topographic maps.
Youthful landscapes (Fig. 5.5a) are characterized by the presence of a few streams contained in separate and distinct valleys, and by broad, perhaps somewhat flat-topped uplands (divides) between the streams. The rivers are in the youthful stage of development.
Mature landscapes (Fig. 5.5b) are characterized by eroded divides. All the land is in
slope and the rivers begin to meander and develop flood plains (youth stage to early
maturity stage).
Late maturity landscapes are characterized by the presence of wide, flat lowlands
(flood plains) that develop along rivers. The rivers are also in the mature stage of development, and are highly sinuous with well-developed flood plains.
Chapter 5
133
When streams are viewed from the air they make distinct patterns on the Earth's surface called drainage patterns. If there is
no structural control (no underground "opinion"), the aerial
pattern produced by rivulets joining creeks, creeks joining
streams, and streams joining rivers will resemble the branching
of trees, and is called a dendritic drainage pattern (Fig. 5.6a).
The dendritic drainage pattern is usually found in areas that
have flat-laying and/or homogeneous rock or soil (especially
glacial till) underlying the region. Trellis and rectangular
drainage patterns are very similar in appearance, but they are
the result of different processes and location characteristics. The
trellis drainage pattern (Fig. 5.6b) is usually structurally controlled by folded or thrust-faulted, parallel ridges. The rectangular drainage pattern (Fig. 5.6c) is fracture-controlled (faults
and joints), and commonly occurs in flat-lying sedimentary
rock layers. Annular drainage patterns (Fig. 5.6d) are ringshaped patterns developed on eroded domes and basins. The
rivers of the radial drainage pattern (Fig. 5.6e) "radiate" downward, in all directions away from the mountain peaks.
134
EXERCISE 5.1
Answer the following questions for each map.
2. Locate a dam on this map. Where is it located on the map? What is it called?
4. Does Ladder River have a flood plain? If yes, where is it located? (in relation to the river)
7. What direction does the stream in Burris Draw flow? (Hint: Note contours crossing river.)
8. What do the circular contour lines with hachures indicate? (lower left quadrant)
10. What is the relief of Morgan Draw? The gradient? (show work)
Chapter 5
135
1. What are Binion Brake, Clear Lake, and the strangely shaped marsh above Amity Church?
2. Are Big Ridge Slough and Thompson Slough (bottom left) perennial streams or intermittent streams?
5. Define intermittent stream. Are there any intermittent streams on this map?
6. In what stage of development is the landscape on this map? (Hint: Look at the elevations of the land compared
to the elevation of the river.)
1. What is the morphology of the Red River? At what stage of development is the Red River?
2. In what stage of development is the stream in the upper left corner of the map?
5. What is the drainage/stream pattern of the stream in the upper left of the map?
6. What is the relief of Wolf Hollow Creek? The gradient? (show work)
136
2. In what stage of development is the landscape in the upper portion of the map?
3. What stream drainage pattern is be seen in the upper portion of the map? (Hint: mountainous region)
1. What feature of meandering rivers are Lake Goodnough and McCook Lake?
3. Does the Missouri River have a flood plain? If yes, where is it?
4. What is the morphology of the Sioux River? In what stage of development is the Sioux River?
6. In what stage of development is the landscape in the Big Springs area (upper right of map)?
Chapter 5
137
Groundwater, Karst
Topography, and Subsidence
GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is the small percentage of precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) that seeps intc
(infiltrates) the ground, and is an important source of fresh water. The National Geographu
Special Edition: Water, November 1993, illustrates the percentage of the Earth's water witr
a gallon jug. With all the Earth's water in the jug, only one tablespoon is fresh water
Ninety-seven percent is salt water, 2 percent is glacial ice, and the remaining percentage i;
in rivers, lakes, water vapor in the air, dampness in soil, and as groundwater.
Groundwater resources in many regions are being depleted faster than the aquifers
underground storage reservoirs for groundwater, and can be naturally replaced because o
the excessive pumping for municipal water supplies and irrigation. Pumping treated wate:
back into an aquifer is an artificial way of recharging them. Humans are accidentall)
and/or irresponsibly contaminating groundwater reserves by introducing toxic material!
(untreated human and animal wastes, chemicals, and occasionally nuclear wastes anc
bacteria) into them.
Surface waste sites for permanent storage of dangerous or slowly degraded waste;
requires careful planning, monitoring, and protection from natural disaster, such as flood
ing. Thorough geologic examination of any proposed disposal site is necessary in order tc
avoid locating the disposal site on fault lines or other geologically unsuitable areas. Ever
given great care, this kind of disposal is probably a danger to groundwater supplies because
of seepage. Many older waste sites leak because the proper steps were not taken to deter
mine the safety and durability of the site. Even modern sites must be watched carefully anc
continuously to guard against leaks. Municipal landfills, another form of waste disposal
are also a source of toxic material that can be introduced into groundwater. All landfill;
must be sealed with an impermeable layer of clay to prevent the migration (leaching) o
poisonous materials such as insecticides, used motor oil, household chemicals, and othe:
contaminants into groundwater systems.
139
describes the ease with which water or other fluids, such as air or oil, can pass from poreto-pore through a material such as sandstone.
With respect to groundwater, subsurface material is described by the extent to which
pores are filled with water. Unless one is standing in water or on saturated ground, the
ground beneath one's feet has pore spaces filled with air enriched by carbon dioxide and perhaps some methane because of organic decomposition. This is the zone of aeration or vadose zone. At some depth, which varies with the kinds of rock and the amount of rainfall,
there is a saturated or phreatic zone in which all pores are completely filled with water. The
boundary between the aerated and the phreatic zone is called the water table. Despite its
name, the water table is not level, but instead undulateshigher under hills and lower across
and under valleys. Springs and margins (shores) of lakes and permanent rivers or streams
mark the position where the land surface penetrates the water table. There is a transitional
zone above the water table in the base of the vadose zone where water rises by capillary action (the force resulting from the surface tension of water) a distance above the water table
that depends on the size and shape of the pores. Some of the pores are filled with water.
FIGURE 6.1 Water Table Aquifer (A) and Confined Aquifer (B).
140
decreasing the water quality of the Gulf Coast Aquifer System because as the fresh water is
removed, saltwater percolates in and replaces it. The problem of increased saltwater intrusion must be dealt with in the future.
A confining bed is an impermeable (very low permeability) rock or sediment layer
that prevents the movements of fluids. The most common confining beds are clays or
shales, which have low porosity.
Aquifers with confining beds below the groundwater are called water table aquifers
(Fig. 6.1). Aquifers with impermeable confining units both above and below the groundwater are called confined aquifers. Artesian flows occur naturally on the surface in the
form of springs or natural water fountains as a result of the high pressure of confined
aquifers. The pressure allows water to flow at ground level naturally without pumping. If
the pressure is high enough, a fountain of water will shoot up into the air if the aquifer is
penetrated. The fountain will continue to flow as long as the pressure is high enough. Over
time, the pressure in the aquifer will drop to a point where it becomes necessary to pump
the water to the surface. The most common type of water wells are dug or drilled into
groundwater reservoirs and water is recovered by mechanical pumping. Local aquifers, in
desert regions, that follow a stream underground, are called perched aquifers.
KARST TOPOGRAPHY
The name "karst" is derived from the Karso region of Dalmatia in the Dinaric Alps, southern Croatia, in Eastern Europe. Another very famous karst region is the upland area in the
Yunnan and Guizhou provinces, south-central China. The strange vertical topography is
often represented in traditional Chinese paintings and drawings.
Karst topography is a descriptive term for regions where the surface landscape has
been modified to a large extent by dissolution of underlying soluble rock, usually limestone, but sometimes gypsum. The development of karst topography can be more rapid
and effective than surface erosion. One of the requirements for the development of karst
topography includes the presence of soluble rock (e.g., limestone, or gypsum) within the
upper part of the water table. The principal component of limestone is calcite (CaC0 3 ),
which is quite soluble in even slightly acidic waters. Dolomite [Mg, Ca(C0 3 ) 2 ], another
rock-forming carbonate mineral, is much less soluble. Gypsum is an evaporite mineral
Chapter 6
141
(rock) that is soluble in any water except heavy brine. Another requisite feature of the rock, in
addition to solubility is permeability. Limestones often have little primary permeability
because the calcareous material cements together firmly. The Texas Hill Country, from
Georgetown to Kerrville, while not strictly a karst region (there is too much dolomite), has
local patches of karstic features. The many fractures that resulted from movement along the
Balcones Fault Zone that borders the eastern margin of the Hill Country has given the limestones a good secondary permeability because faulting has fractured the rock.
Karst Features
l-'nconi
Landscapes in limestone regions dotted with undrained depressions are karst landscapes.
Karst topography is easy to recognize on the landscape and is distinctive on topographic
maps. Sinkholes are depressions in the Earth's surface formed when cave ceilings collapse.
When enough of the supporting rock in a cave is dissolved, the ceiling will collapse because of gravity. If the cave is "active" and is completely filled with water, the water will
help to hold up the cave ceiling. Thus most sinkhole collapses occur when the water table
is lowered by drought, long-term climate change, diversion of infiltrating water due to increased urbanization, excessive removal of ground water by wells, or all of these factors
combined. The development of sinkholes on the surface can involve a series of small collapses, or one large one. Sinkholes are recognized on topographic maps by circular contour lines that bear hachures. Central Florida is an area with a high water table, and an
underlying permeable (young) and fairly pure limestone (little dolomite). In Florida sinkholes can appear abruptly and without warning, to swallow cars, homes, and sometimes
people unlucky enough to be in the area at the time of the collapse. If a sinkhole drops below the water table, it will become a lake.
When several sinkholes join together they form solution valleys,
also known as uvalas. A solution valley (uvala) is a valley-like depression that forms in a linear fashion along a fault or a set of joints. Disappearing streams are streams that flow into a sinkhole and disappear
underground abruptly. The streams seep into cracks or crevices enlarged by dissolution and continue to flow underground through cave
systems. Some disappearing streams reappear further downslope if the
water table is higher than the slope of the topography. Most karst features that develop on land can also be found offshore. The movement
of groundwater can form fresh water caves below the ocean floor. If the
ceiling of the cave collapses, fresh water sinkholes will develop beneath
the saltwater of the ocean. The fresh water and saltwater will mix together near the top of the sinkhole, but some fresh water can be found
near the bottom of the sinkhole.
142
The topographic features associated with karst areas indicate the relative amount of time the area has been exposed to the processes of
dissolution. The stages of karst topography, like stream stages, are described in relative order.
The pre-karst stage is characterized by the presence of surface
streams, an external drainage, and little or no subsidence evident in
the region. Pre-karst topography is hard to recognize on a topographic map, unless the observer is familiar with the existence of soluble rock underground and the presence of subsurface water.
Early-age karst topography (Fig. 6.2a) is characterized by the appearance of a few sinkholes, and disappearing streams, but most
streams exit the area.
Middle-age karst topography (Fig. 6.2b) is characterized by the
presence of numerous sinkholes, disappearing streams, solution
valleys, and an extensive internal drainage system. Few streams are able to exit the area.
When the groundwater is near the surface and sinkholes form, sinkhole lakes are common.
In late-age karst topography (Fig. 6.2c), the dissolution of the underlying rock is mostly
completed. The region is redeveloping an external drainage. Very little of the original
limestone is left and an unconformable surface between the rock originally overlying the
limestone and the rock originally underlying the limestone has been formed. A few monadnocks remain, supported by the remnants of the limestone that still remain.
SUBSIDENCE
Landscapes change continually due to natural processes of erosion, tectonics, animals,
plants, and human intervention. Land will subside or submerge (sink) in areas due to a
variety of causes. Natural causes include the dissolution of the underlying rock, the lowering of groundwater levels resulting from climatic changes, tectonic processes, and by
compaction (collapse of por e spaces) due to the weight of the overburden. Mud and clay
often have an original porosity that approaches 80 percent. The area in and around the
Mississippi delta is subsiding under its own weight because of the compaction of the riverdeposited mud. If groundwater is withdrawn at a rate greater than the recharge rate, local
subsidence may occur. Subsidence is also caused by the withdrawal of petroleum, natural
gas, sulfur, and salt. The removal of oil, gas, and sulfur from the Spindletop Dome,
Beaumont, Texas, has caused enough subsidence to make a shallow lake (approximately
10 feet deep) in an area that was originally one of the highest regions of the area. Parts of
the NASA complex, Pasadena, Texas, and parts of Baytown, Texas, are currently subsiding
at rates approaching 2 cm/yr as a result of compaction of underlying sediments enhanced
by excessive withdrawal of groundwater by wells. This is producing a local transgression,
and areas that were once dry, yet not very high, are now under marine water. Natural
subsidence cannot be avoided or controlled. One solution for man-made subsidence is to
pump treated water back into some aquifer systems.
Chapter 6
143
EXERCISE 6.1
Answer the following questions:
1. What are Lake Wales, Lake Mabel, and Lake Starr? How did they form?
2. In general, what do circular hachured contours indicate? What do they represent in a karstic region?
3. Is Lake Effie most likely an old sinkhole? What evidence supports your answer?
4. In what stage of development is the landscape on this quadrangle? What evidence supports your answer?
7. Can you locate any caves on this map? (Remember what caves are and where they are found.)
8. What kind of streams might you find, if present, associated with karst topography?
Chapter 6
145
General Questions
2. Can aquifers run out of accessible water? If so, how or why can this happen?
10. Is it a good idea to build a home or business in a known karstic area without a subsurface survey? Why or why not?
146
Stream
Contour
Chapter 6
147
148
Shorelines
A shoreline is a boundary between land and water. Shorelines can be classified as emergent, where dry land is gradually appearing as the seas withdraw, the result of uplifts of the
land (regression), or submergent, where the shoreline is, or has recently been, advancing
inland, the result of subsidence (transgression). Broadly speaking, emergent shorelines
have fewer inlets and bays than submergent shorelines. Shorelines in areas recently heavily
affected by valley glaciation (fjord shorelines) are extensively digitated (fingerlike) even though they can be either
emergent or submergent.
GENERAL SHORELINE
FEATURES
149
A spit that extends completely across the mouth of a bay is referred to as a baymouth bar.
The former bay, now a lagoon, has been separated from the ocean except for a shallow tidal
inlet or pass. Lagoons also develop when barrier islands form along coastlines, such as Laguna Madre along the Texas Gulf Coast. Tied islands are islands that act as breakwaters to
slow the longshore current, and consequently are attached to the coast by sediments deposited by the current. Coastal environments with low amounts of wind and wave action
are the areas where tied islands would most likely form. A tombolo is the sand bar that
"ties" an island to the shore.
The shoreline features found on modern coasts were formed in the geologic past and can
be recognized in the stratigraphic record. Recognition of these ancient features in subsurface
sedimentary rock allows the geologist to pinpoint areas most likely to be sources of oil, gas,
and fresh water. Some shorelines are rocky and have steep promontories (headlands), and
some have masses of collected sediment (usually sand) called beaches. Rocky shorelines,
generally in areas of rugged topography and where water depth increases rapidly offshore,
change very slowly because rocks resist erosion. Rocky and steep shorelines occur in areas of
erosion, while beaches represent areas of (at least temporary) deposition. For beaches,
position (relative to some fixed referent such as a beach highway), appearance, and shape
can shift subtly on a daily basis. Weather and tidal variations influence wave action and
sediment transportation, but most beaches show little if any net change over periods of years.
It might seem that violent storms, such as hurricanes, which commonly cause extensive
beach erosion and change the beach substantially in a matter of hours, might provide an
exception to the preceding statement. But such changes, even though they may remove the
beach highway ("fixed referents"), within a few months will be unnoticeable as the beach
will look very much as it did before the storm. Of course, some fundamental change in the
frequency of violent storms over a long period of time would produce net changes in the
general position of the beach and the shoreline by changing the wave energy (how hard and
how frequently waves hit the shore) and the force and extent of the longshore currents. Longshore currents control the transfer (migration) and deposition of sediments along shorelines
to an even greater extent than the tides do, in many areas.
Beach drifting is the down-current movement of sand accompanying the longshore
current. Wave fronts are bent to become more nearly parallel to the shore (wave-travel
direction is bent to become more nearly perpendicular to the beach) as the waves near the
shore and where the water shallows to about one-half the wavelength. However, the bending, called refraction, is rarely complete, with the result that the wave energy strikes the
beach at a slight angle to the backwash, and water and sediment are forced to slip sideways
in a given direction along the beach.
Conditions of emergence and submergence depend on the balance between sets of
operations (Fig. 7.2). Many are commonly working at the same time, and some would,
by themselves, produce emergence; others may be working in the opposite "direction"
(submergence). Following are some of the possible factors, arranged in order of the scope
of the effects.
150
Emergence (Regression)
Submergence (Transgression)
Worldwide (Eustatic) Sea Level Changes
G. Climatic changes (increased temperature)
resulting in an decrease in the size of
the worlds Icecaps
Regional to Local Sea Level Changes
H. Downwarping of land area
I. Decrease in rate of deposition
J. Decrease in amount of sediment
brought in area
Shorelines
151
152
Submergence by Erosion
Submergence by erosion has the effect of simplifying, straightening, or rounding the
shoreline, and making it steeper. When a river avulses, abandoning an old delta to build a
Chapter 7
Shorelines
153
new one, the old delta, both because it no longer receives sediment and because sediment
already deposited continues to compact under its own weight, is rapidly eroded and
submerged. Slow eustatic rise in sea level or tectonic downwarping, if unaccompanied by
sufficient increase in sediment transfer, will produce the same effect on a regional basis
(and of course, eustatic rise in sea level affects shorelines globally). Regionally, differences
in the durability of materials being eroded may lead to complication in the shape of the
shoreline, but nevertheless, where erosion is dominant, simplification is the general rule.
Usually in areas of regional submergence, erosion does round or straighten shorelines in
promontory or headland areas.
154
EXERCISE 7.1
Answer the following questions using the topographic maps indicated.
3. How was the source material transported to the oceans? Along the beaches?
7. List all the shoreline features seen on this map (man-made as well as natural).
2. What direction does the longshore current flow on the northern side? Western side? (Hint: Look at the shape
of the area.)
Chapter 7
Shorelines
155
7. Are there any sandbars on this map other than those under the water? If yes, where?
Cordova, Alaska
1. What feature of shorelines are Egg Islands, Copper Sands, and Strawberry Reef? What are they made of?
2. What feature of shorelines are Porpoise Rocks, Seal Rocks, and Schooner Rocks (far left near bottom)?
3. Where does the source of sediment for the Gulf of Alaska originate?
4. What direction does the longshore current flow in the Gulf of Alaska?
8. What type of river is the Copper River, south of Miles Lake? (Refer to Chapter 5).
9. What depositional stream feature is found at the mouth of the Copper River?
General Question
What are the white areas on this map?
156
NOTES
Allen, John R. L. (1984). Sedimentary Structures: Their Character and Physical Basis.
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Anders, R. B., McAdoo, G. D., and Alexander, W. H., Jr. (1968). Ground-Water Resources
of Liberty County, Texas. Texas Water Development Board Report 72, 140 pp.
Atwater, B. E, Cisternas V. M., Bourgeois, J., Dudley, W C., Hendley II, I. W, and Stauffer,
R H. Surviving a TsunamiLessons from Chile, Hawaii, and Japan. United States
Geological Survey Circular 1187, (1999). (http://pubs.usgs.gOv/circ/cll87/#debris).
Baker, E. T, Jr. (1964). Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Hardin County, Texas.
Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6406, 179 pp.
Baker, E. T, Jr. (1986). Hydrology of the Jasper Aquifer in the Southeast Texas Coastal
Plain. Texas Water Development Board Report 295, 64 pp.
Bell, P., and Wright, D. (1985). Rocks and Minerals. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company.
Blatt, H., Tracey, R. J., and Owens, B. E. (2006). Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and
Metamorphic. New York: W H. Freeman and Company.
Castillo, Suzanne. Physical Geology Lab Lecture Guide. K. M. Woods, Ed. Lamar
University, Department of Geology. Unpublished manuscript.
Chernikoff, Stanley. (1995). Geology: An Introduction to Physical Geology. New York: Worth
Publishers, Inc.
Cooper, R. W Physical Geology Lecture Outline. Lamar University, Department of
Geology. Unpublished manuscript.
Encyclopedia Britannica, S. v. "Mount Saint Helens."
Encyclopedia Britannica, S. v. "Crater Lake."
Encyclopedia Britannica Annual (1990), p. 170.
Federal Emergency Management Agency. Accessed 12/21/2005 at
http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazards/earthquakes/nehrp/fema-253_unit3b.pdf
Foster, Robert J. (1980). Geology. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.
Levin, Harold L. (1999). The Earth through Time. USA: Saunders College Publishing,
p. 163.
Mairson, Alan. (1994, January). The Great Flood of'93. National Geographic, Vol. 185,
No. 1, pp. 42-81.
Monroe, J. S., and Wicander, R. (1995). Physical Geology, Exploring the Earth. Minneapolis:
West Publishing Company.
Montgomery, Carla W. (1993). Physical Geology. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Mottana, A., Crepsi, R., and Liborio, G. (1978). Simon and Schuster's Guide to Rocks and
Minerals. New York: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Parfit, Michael. (1993, November). Sharing the Wealth of Water. In Water: The Power,
Promise and Turmoil of North America's Fresh Water, National Geographic Special
Edition, pp. 20-36.
Pirsson, Louis V. (1906). Rocks and Rock Minerals. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Schumn, Stanley A. (1977). The Fluvial System. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Tennissen, A. C. (1974). Nature of Earth Materials. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Wesselman, J. B. (1965). Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Orange County, Texas.
Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6516, 112 pp.
160