Professional Documents
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Model of Instructional
Model of Instructional
VIEW OF LEARNING
Knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active
discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through
consistent repetition, or to goad them into learning through carefully employed
rewards and punishments. Rather, the role of the teacher is to facilitate discovery by
providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as they attempt to
assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new.
Teachers must thus take into account the knowledge that the learner currently
possesses when deciding how to construct the curriculum and to present, sequence,
and structure new material.
conditioning
and
that
learning
produces
behavior
(Corey,
Cognitive theory (CT) claims faulty and maladaptive thinking causes psychological
disturbances (Corey, 2009). If the thinking can be corrected, so can the resultant
disturbance. Cognitive processes determine how people emotionally experience and
react to their environment. Ward (2011) wrote that Ellis believed individuals "have a
tendency towards becoming aware of (their) irrationality and working steadily
towards rationality" (p. 106). In cognitive therapy, clients learn new and more
effective ways of thinking (Corey, 2009).
Cognitive theory takes into consideration the client's early childhood history but
believes behaviors continue to be reinforced throughout the lifespan because of
patterned thought processes. In therapy, clients explore maladaptive thoughts and
learn to replace them with new rational and appropriate thinking (Corey, 2009). The
primary difference between these two theories is the emphasis on overt behavior in
behavioral theory and in cognitive theory, the focus is on cognition or individual
thought processes (Corey, 2009).
Behavioral learning theorists believe that learning has occurred when you can see
changes in behavior. The behavioral learning model learning is the result of
conditioning. The basis of conditioning is that a reward following a desirable
response acts as a reinforcer and increases the likelihood that the desirable
response will be repeated. Reinforcement is the core of the behaviorist approach.
Continuous reinforcement in every instance of desirable behavior is useful when a
behavior is being introduced. Once a desired behavior is established, intermittent
reinforcement maintains the behavior. Behaviorist theory approaches are frequently
used in weight loss, smoking cessation, assertiveness training, and anxiety-reduction
programs. The importance of regularly and consistently rewarding desired behavior
immediately and not rewarding undesirable behavior is crucial to the success of a
behaviorist approach to learning. Learning is broken down into small steps so that
the person can be successful. The nurse provides reinforcement at each step of the
process
Cognitive learning theorists believe that learning is an internal process in which
information is integrated or internalized into ones cognitive or intellectual structure.
Learning occurs through internal processing of information. From the cognitive
viewpoint, how new information is presented is important. In the first, or cognitive
phase of learning, the patient learns the overall picture of what the task is and the
sequences involved. In the second, or fixation learning phase, the learner begins to
gain skill in performing the task. Whether a physical task is learned as a whole or
part by part depends on its complexity.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Teaching strategies refer to methods used to help students learn the desired course
contents and be able to develop achievable goals in the future. Teaching
strategies identify the different available learning methods to enable them to develop
the right strategy to deal with the target group identified.
FIGURE 1.1
Cognitive learning is commonly described using a model similar to the one presented
in Figure 1.1. From the above figure we can see that stimuli from the environment
enter sensory memory, the part of our cognitive system that briefly holds information
until we attend to it (Mayer, 1998). For instance, when we read, we briefly retain the
words at the beginning of a sentence in sensory memory until we have read the
entire sentence. If this remembering didnt occur, we wouldnt be able to make sense
of the sentence, because the words at the beginning would have been lost before we
could make sense of it.
We then select some of the information that enters sensory memory by attending to
it, perceiving the meaning, and transferring it to working memory. Working memory
is the conscious, thinking part of our cognitive learning system, and this is where
new information is organized and encoded.
Finally, we retrieve some information from long term memory, which is our
permanent information store, and we integrate the retrieved information with the
information we have in working memory (Mayer, 1998). This process of integrating
new and old information is how learning is made meaningful.
FOR LEARNING
Teaching is far more than simply transferring information, it is the engaging of minds
to seek out answers. Strong, silver and Robinson (1995) put forward the acronym
SCORE to suggest a model of student engagement. This model should be applied to
teachers first:
S: The Success of mastery of the subject that you teach.
C: The Curiosity that every teacher should have entrenched in their teaching. A
teacher who is not curious has lost a critical portion of the passion for learning.
O: Originality a teacher who is passionate about the teaching process will be
creative; will be constantly seeking new ways of engaging and challenging students.
R: Relationships are central to the effective classroom and teachers are crucial in the
nurturing of opportunities for students to engage with subjects that at senior levels
can lead to a life-long interaction with the subject.
E: To maintain this process the teacher needs Energy. This a something that schools
do not always provide, and teachers in general need the time to reflect; to reenergise and to regenerate their focus on the learning process.
influence the outcome. A teacher must be able to identify the ebbs and flows of each
class and work with the students to create the learning environment. Teachers need
to be prepared to test what is going on in the class, for example, through feedback
questionnaires on what they doing. In reflecting on this feedback and on the
classroom activity of a year, a teacher could identify specific exercises and
techniques that engaged the students. It takes patience and persistence to have the
classes work cooperatively, to carry out independent research, and to report back to
small groups and to the whole class the goal is that through the teachers
endeavours, the learning will become the students own learning. The activities need
to be part of their learning regime and not something that is imposed. This is an area
that requires planning, reflection and preparation. This is clearly a central issue in
this aspect of the learning environment: it is a very self-conscious action on the part
of the teacher. The activities that are used in the class to engage the students must
be reviewed, revisited and refocused so that they are constantly drawing the
students into an effective interaction with the subject. Effective Teaching is not a
passive action.
3) ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
THROUGH EXPERIENCE
THAT
ENCOURAGE
LEARNING
The effective classroom is one were the students actively seek feedback as they
will know that their own learning will become part of the feedback process. The
nature of interplay of learning and teaching in the activities of the effective classroom
adds to the value of the feedback in such an environment. Alton Lee (2003)
highlights the value of feedback but warns that too much can be as detrimental as
too little. This then provides another key aspect of the effective teacher. Feedback
that is appropriate and meaningful to the learner will be a central part of the effective
learning environment.
In a further step the feedback that a teacher gets from the students is essential to
the creation of a learning environment. The more feedback that a teacher can obtain
from students, and the more the teacher can act on that feedback, the better the
learning environment will be that is created.
are passionate about learning ... create an infectious classroom environment (p.59).
The effective environment will allow students the time to learn. This is something that
is mentioned frequently in the literature. This last factor is essential in creating an
ethos of learning that will allow students to feel comfortable in the classroom. The
working environment that is generated by the interaction and the enthusiasm of the
teacher will remove the stigma of working and turn the learning process into
something that is rewarding and therefore to strive towards. In effect, the creation of
an effective learning environment would generate a positive learning atmosphere
throughout a school.
TEACHING MODELS
DEFINITION
There are several definitions of Teaching models given by different educationalist.
ALLEN AND RYAN (1969); Modeling is an individual demonstrating particular
pattern which the trainee through imitation.
B.K.PASSI L.C.SINGH AND D.N.SANSANWAL (1991); A model of teaching consist
of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. Model of
teaching is a plan that can also be utilized to shape courses of studies, to design
instructional material and to guide instruction.
JOYCE AND WEIL (1972); Teaching of model is a pattern or plan, which can be a
curriculum or courses to select instructional materials and to guide a teachers
actions
Nelson L Bossing (1970, p.72) Teaching models is pattern or plan, which can be
used to shape a curriculum or course, to select instructional materials and to guide a
teachers action. It consist guidelines for designing educational activities and
environment. It specifies was teaching and learning that are intended to achieving
certain kind of goals.
According to Morse, Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to
accomplish particular instructional goals. The prescriptive also can be used as
guides for curriculum design or for choosing and constructing instructional materials
and used during teacher do planning, implementing and assessment stages of
instruction.
According to Fiburt Highet, It is a set of inter-related components arranged in a
sequence which provide guidance to realize specific goals.
Role of instructor
families.
STUDENT BENEFITS
Promotes student awareness of how they will be taught and what changes are
necessary.
TEACHER BENEFITS
Explicit use of teaching models can accelerate rate of learning, capacity and
facility in learning.
EDUCATIONAL GOALS
Educational goals are typically divided into three families or domains:
Cognitive skills in the class room
Cognition is more than just learning information. Instead, it's the ability to think about
new information, process it and speak about it. In addition, cognition involves the
application of this new information to other, previously acquired information.
As children mature, for example, they develop the ability to think on higher levels and
critical thinking. They can process information more skillfully and make connections
to other information more easily. In other words, their thinking skills get progressively
better.
Children should be able to improve their ability to focus, to remember
information and think more critically as they age. Cognitive skills allow children to
understand the relationships between ideas, to grasp the process of cause and
effect and to improve their analytical skills.
All in all, cognitive skill development not only can benefit the child in the classroom
but outside of class as well.
Nevertheless, given the nature of teaching, it is clear that whatever set of general
skills is chosen to focus on, the overlap and interplay between them will be marked,
and a good case can always be made by others for focusing on a different set.
There are 9 teaching skills were identified by D.E Paul.
Teacher
characteristi
cs
Questioning
Review
And
Closure
Communicat
ion
Organization
Essent
ial
Teachi
ng
Skills
Monitoring
Instructional
Alignment
Focus
Feedback
1. TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS
There are many characteristics, techniques, etc. that make for a successful
teacher. These may be as varied as the teachers themselves. However, there are
certain time-tested attributes, characteristics, and practices which contribute
immensely to teacher success. There are four teacher characteristics:
Teaching Efficacy
teachers' beliefs in their abilities to organize and
execute courses of action necessary to bring about
desired results (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy, &
Hoy, 1998)
Modeling
Caring
teachers' abilities to emphathize with and invest in the
protection and development of young people.
Positive expectations
Teachers make about the future behavior, academic
achievement, or attitudes of their students.
Emotional support more eye contact and smiles
Precise Terminology
explanation
Teachers
define ideas clearly and answers to
students questions
Questioning call on more often
Feedback and evaluation more praise; less criticism
Connected
discourse
2. COMMUNICATIONS
Transition signals
communication
can be classified
into four elements:
idea is ending
and another
is beginning.
Emphasis
3. ORGANIZATION
Organizing a classroom can be a daunting task. Effective teachers approach
organization with a distinct plan focusing on increased student performance.
Following are some considerations that help when preparing for classroom
management and organization.
Time Management: Keep a calendar and a to-do list. Set goals for yourself,
prioritize your tasks, and learn shortcuts from veteran teachers. Be prepared for
lessons, surprises, and for the needs of your students.
Materials: Organize everything. Create files for yourself and use them.
Develop a system for collecting and returning student work, for assigning and
collecting make-up work, and for keeping the essentials, such as grades, lesson
plans, seating charts, emergency plans, and substitute teacher information.
Space: Arrange your room so that you are able to walk next to every student
desk. Make decisions regarding the view from the windows, wall decorations, and
posted information that will either detract from or enhance student concentration.
Remember that the lighting, temperature, and scent of the classroom also affect
student learning.
4. INSTRUCTIONAL ALIGNMENT
Instructional alignment is ensuring your learning objectives, the assessments of
those learning objectives, and the instructional strategies are aligned. It also refers to
the match between objectives and learning activities. Instructional alignment is more
sophisticated and subtle than it appears.
5. FEEDBACK
Giving effective feedback can build a students confidence, transform their
understanding and motivation and also help them develop key critical skills.
Feedback, especially when linked to formative assessment, tutorials or seminars
should focus on looking forward and on how to enhance learning. The following
well-known acronym, CORBS, gives a good structure for feedback:
Clear: know what you want to say and say it (or write it) clearly and concisely.
Dont try and cover everything: focus on the most important aspects.
Owned: be clear that it is your opinion you are giving. So using I believe
instead of you are. If its not an opinion: e.g. incorrect use of dangerous
equipment say so.
Regular: regular feedback reinforces the message; it also enables a feedback
rapport to be established. Feedback needs to be given as close to the event
as possible so that students have time to act on your suggestions and apply it
in time for the next piece of work..
Balanced: feedback should be a balance of positives and negatives and focus
on constructive criticism.
Specific: after receiving feedback, students should be clear what they need to
do differently and also what to continue to do well. So: thats fine or 50%
with no comments are not helpful.
6. QUESTIONING
Questioning skills are essential to good teaching. Teachers often use questions to
ensure that students are attentive and engaged, and to assess students
understanding. What is important to note is that in addition to the intent of the
question, the question itself matters. For instance, to ensure that students are
attentive, a teacher could ask the students Are you listening? To assess if the
students have understood, the teacher could ask Do you follow me?
However, students may say Yes, I am listening or Yes, I have understood simply
to avoid embarrassment. Compare these simple questions with those that ask
students to summarize what was discussed or ask the students for their opinions on
what was said. The difference is that although the intent of the questions remains the
same as before, the indirect, open-ended questions allow for divergent thinking.
Such questions enable the teacher to more accurately evaluate if the students truly
were attentive and if they understand the material. In addition, open-ended questions
motivate students to share their ideas, thereby allowing active, collaborative learning
to take place. This illustrates the need to be able to ask the right sort of questions to
engage students.
Frequen
cy
Equitabl
e
Distribu
tion
Prompti
ng
Waittime
7. FOCUS
Focus is the process teachers use to attract and maintain attention throughout
the lesson. Focus exists in two forms: introductory and sensory. Introductory focus is
the setoff teacher actions designed to attract students attention and provide an
umbrella for the rest of the lesson. While sensory focus is the use of stimuli
concrete objects, pictures, models, materials displayed on the overhead and even
information written on the chalkboard to maintain attention.
8. MONITORING
Monitoring is a classroom management technique loosely defined as listening to
the learners for their accuracy and fluency, or checking to see whether activities are
going to plan and that the learners are 'on task'. However, monitoring is often carried
out as a vague listening and looking exercise by the teacher, and sometimes not
done at all, whereas in fact effective monitoring is a skill that needs to be developed
if learners are to benefit fully from activities, particularly those of the information gap
and group interactive types. Monitoring goes on all the time, but particularly during
speaking activities when the teacher is concerned with the general assessment of
learners' performance in relation to general progress or recent language and skills
development. Monitoring of individual learners takes place during written practice
exercises, when the aim is to point out errors and encourage self-correction. Guided
practice activities, particularly of the pair work format, are monitored for accuracy,
while less guided group work activities are monitored for task achievement and
fluency. Monitoring may be general or multipurpose, focusing on one or more of the
following aims.
material you are supposed to cover, then your instruction will lack authority.
Secondary students are quick to spot teachers who do not have a good command of
content and they are justified in having no patience with such teachers.
Quickly get to know your students. When you are familiar with your students,
you will be better able to establish the kind of rapport with them that you need in
order to be a better teacher. Successful teachers have a sound working knowledge
of adolescent behavior in general and of their own students in particular.
Dont rely on punishment to control of your classes. Instead, learn as much as
you can about the various disciplinary practices that are available to you. Knowing
the actions that can prevent or minimize potential discipline problems will help you
establish a productive, positive classroom environment.
Present yourself to your students and to your colleagues as a professional
educator. That means doing all of the things excellent teachers domaintain order,
organize your time and materials, teach innovative lessons, and inspire student by
being the adult role model they need.
CRITICAL THINKING
DEFINITION
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication, as a guide to belief and action. According statement written in 1987
by Michael Scriven and Richard Paul, National Council for Excellence in Critical
Thinking, an organization promoting critical thinking in the US.
The essence of critical thinking is suspended judgment; and the essence of this
suspense is inquiry to determine the nature of the problem before proceeding to
attempts at its solution. This, more than any other thing, transforms mere inference
into tested inference, suggested conclusions into proof. Dewey (1910) How We
Think, p74.
Critical thinking is the disciplined mental activity of evaluating arguments
[information] or propositions and making judgments that can guide the development
of beliefs and taking action. Ennis (1992)
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to
believe. It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.
Critical thinking is more complex and sophisticated. Someone with critical thinking
skills is able to do the following:
Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of
other people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and
bad reasoning, critical thinking can also play an important role in cooperative
reasoning and constructive tasks. Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge,
improve our theories, and strengthen arguments. We can use critical thinking to
enhance work processes and improve social institutions.
Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires
following the rules of logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules.
This is a misconception. Critical thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-thebox", challenging consensus and pursuing less popular approaches. If anything,
critical thinking is an essential part of creativity because we need critical thinking to
evaluate and improve our creative ideas.
The global knowledge economy is driven by information and technology. One has to
be able to deal with changes quickly and effectively. The new economy places
increasing demands on flexible intellectual skills, and the ability to analyzed
information and integrate various sources of knowledge in solving problems. Good
critical thinking promotes such thinking skills, and is very important in the fastchanging workplace. The future now belongs to societies that organize themselves
for learning... nations that want high incomes and full employment must develop
policies that emphasize the acquisition of knowledge and [thinking] skills by
everyone, not just a select few.
Ray Marshall & Marc Tucker, Thinking For A Living: Education And The Wealth of
Nations, Basic Books. New York. 1992
Critical thinking enhances language and presentation skills.
Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In
learning how to analyses the logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves
comprehension abilities.
Critical thinking promotes creativity.
To come up with a creative solution to a problem involves not just having new ideas.
It must also be the case that the new ideas being generated are useful and relevant
to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in evaluating new ideas,
selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary
Critical thinking is crucial for self-reflection.
In order to live a meaningful life and to structure our lives accordingly, we need to
justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical thinking provides the tools for
this process of self-evaluation.
Good critical thinking is the foundation of science and democracy.
Science requires the critical use of reason in experimentation and theory
confirmation. The proper functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can
think critically about social issues to inform their judgments about proper governance
and to overcome biases and prejudice.
Avoid falling for scams and making foolish decisions from ignorance
In the workplace:
Be a better problem-solver
The bottom two levels are factual questions and not considered critical thinking. The
upper
levels
of
the
triangle
represent
critical
thinking.
Knowledge
and