Practical Design to Eurocode 2

Week 5 - Foundations

Eurocode 7
Eurocode 7 has two parts:
Part 1: General Rules
Part 2: Ground Investigation and testing

Limit States
The following ultimate limit states apply to foundation
design:
EQU: Loss of equilibrium of the structure
STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the
structure or structural member
GEO: Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground
UPL: Loss of equilibrium due to uplift by water pressure
HYD: Failure caused by hydraulic gradients

Categories of Structures
Category Description

Risk of
geotechnical
failure

Examples from
EC7

Small and relatively

simple structures

Negligible

None given

Conventional types of
structure no difficult
ground

No exceptional
risk

Spread
foundations

All other structures

Abnormal risks

Large or
unusual
structures

EC7 ULS Design

EC7 provides for three Design Approaches

UK National Annex - Use Design Approach 1 DA1

For DA1 (except piles and anchorage design) there are

two sets of combinations to use for the STR and GEO limit
states.
Combination 1 generally governs structural resistance
Combination 2 generally governs sizing of foundations

STR/GEO ULS

Actions partial factors

Permanent Actions
Unfavourable

Favourable

Leading
variable
action

Accompanying variable
actions

Exp 6.10

1.35Gk

1.0Gk

1.5Qk

Exp 6.10a

1.35Gk

1.0Gk

Exp 6.10b

1.25Gk

1.0Gk

1.5Qk

1.50,iQk

1.0Gk

1.0Gk

1.3Qk

1.30,iQk

Main

Others

Combination 1
1.50,iQk
1.50,1Qk

1.50,iQk

Combination 2
Exp 6.10

Notes:
If the variation in permanent action is significant, use Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf
If the action if favourable, Q,i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored

Factors for EQU, UPL and HYD

EQU

Permanent Actions

Variable Actions

Unfavourable

Favourable

Unfavourable

Favourable

1.1

0.9

1.5

UPL

1.1

0.9

1.5

HYD

1.335

0.9

1.5

Partial factors

material properties

Symbol

Combination 1

Combination 2

Angle of shearing
resistance

1.0

1.25

Effective cohesion

1.0

1.25

Undrained shear
strength

cu

1.0

1.4

Unconfined strength

qu

1.0

1.4

Bulk density

1.0

1.0

Spread Foundations
EC7 Section 6
Three methods for design:
Direct method check all limit states
Indirect method experience and testing used to
determine SLS parameters that also satisfy ULS
Prescriptive methods use presumed bearing
resistance (BS8004 quoted in NA)

Pressure distributions

EQU : 0.9 Gk + 1.5 Qk (assuming variable action is

destabilising e.g. wind, and permanent action is
stabilizing)

STR : 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk (6.10)

(6.10a or 6.10b could be used)

Strip and Pad Footings

(12.9.3) Plain concrete

hF
a

a
bF

0,85 hF
(3gd/fctd,pl)
a
gd is the design value of the ground pressure
as a simplification hf/a 2 may be used

Strip and Pad footings

Plain concrete

allowable
pressure gd
50
100
150
200
250

70
140
210
280
350

C16/20

C20/25

C25/30

C30/37

hF /a

hF /a

hF/a

hF /a

0.65
0.92
1.12
1.29
1.45

0.60
0.85
1.04
1.21
1.35

0.55
0.78
0.95
1.10
1.23

0.52
0.74
0.90
1.04
1.17
hF
a

a
bF

Reinforced Bases
Check critical bending moment at column face
Check beam shear and punching shear
For punching shear
the ground reaction
within the perimeter
may be deducted
from the column load

Worked Example
Design a square pad footing for a 350 350 mm column
carrying Gk = 600 kN and Qk = 505 kN. The presumed
allowable bearing pressure of the non-aggressive soil is
200 kN/m2.
Category 2, using prescriptive methods
Base size: (600 + 505)/200 = 5.525m2
=> 2.4 x 2.4 base x .5m (say) deep.

Worked Example
Use C30/37
Loading = 1.35 x 600 + 1.5 x 505
= 1567.5kN
ULS bearing pressure =
1567.5/2.42
= 272kN/m2
Critical section at face of column
MEd = 272 x 2.4 x 1.0252 / 2
= 343kNm
d = 500 50 16 = 434mm
K = 343 x 106 / (2400 x 4342 x 30)
= 0.025

Worked Example
z = 0.95d

= 0.95 x 434 = 412mm

As = MEd/fydz

= 343 x 106 / (435 x 412) = 1914mm2

Provide H16 @ 250 c/c (1930mm2)

Beam shear
Check critical section d away from column face
VEd = 272 x (1.025 0.434) = 161kN/m
vEd = 161 / 434 = 0.37MPa
vRd,c (from table) = 0.41MPa => beam shear ok.

Worked Example
Punching shear
Basic control perimeter at 2d from face of column
vEd = VEd / uid < vRd,c
= 1, ui = (350 x 4 + 434 x 2 x 2 x ) = 6854mm
VEd = load minus net upward force within the area of the
control perimeter)
= 1567.5 272 x (0.352 + x .8682 + .868 x .35 x 4)
= 560kN
vEd = 0.188MPa; vRd,c = 0.41 (as before) => ok

Workshop Problem 1
Pad foundation for a 300mm square column taking
Gk = 600kN, Qk = 350kN.
Permissible bearing stress = 225kPa.
Concrete for base C30/37.

Work out
size of base,
tension reinforcement and
any shear reinforcement.

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Workshop Problem 1
Category 2, using prescriptive methods
Base size: (Gk + Qk)/bearing stress = ______m2
____ x ____ base x ____mm deep (choose size of pad)
Use C__/___ (choose concrete strength)
Loading = g x Gk + q x Qk = _____kN
ULS bearing pressure = ____/____2 = _____kN/m2
Critical section at face of column
MEd = ____ x ____ x _____2 / 2 = _____kNm
d = ___ cover assumed = _____mm
K = M/bd2fck= ______

Workshop Problem 1
z = ____d

= ____ x ____= ____mm

As = MEd/fydz = _____mm2
Provide H__ @ ____ c/c (_____mm2)
Check minimum steel
100As,prov/bd = _____
For C__/__ concrete As,min = ____ OK/not OK
Beam shear
Check critical section d away from column face
VEd = ___ x _____= _____kN/m
vEd = VEd / d = _____MPa
vRd,c (from table) = ____MPa

beam shear OK/not OK.

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Workshop Problem 1
Punching shear
Basic control perimeter at 2d from face of column
vEd = VEd / uid < vRd,c
= 1, ui =

= _____mm

VEd = load minus net upward force within the area of the control
perimeter)
= _____ ____ x (

= _____kN
vEd = _____MPa; vRd,c = ______ (as before) => ok/not ok

Retaining Walls

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Ultimate Limit States

for the design of
retaining walls

Calculation Model A

Model applies if bh ha tan (45 - d/2)

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General expressions

Ws = b sH k,c
Wb = tbB k,c
bh = B b s b t
b
L s = bt + s
2
B
Lb =
2

For Calculation Model A

h = tb + H + bh tan
b tan

Wf = bh H + h
k,f
2

b
L f bt + bs + h
2
=
L vp = B

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Calculation Model B

15

Partial factors

Material properties

Symbol

Combination 1

Combination 2

Angle of shearing
resistance

1.0

1.25

Effective cohesion

1.0

1.25

Undrained shear
strength

cu

1.0

1.4

Unconfined strength

qu

1.0

1.4

Bulk density

1.0

1.0

Overall design
procedure

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Initial sizing
bs tb h/10 to h/15
B 0.5h to 0.7h
bt B/4 to B/3

Overall design
procedure

17

Figure 6 for overall

design procedure

Panel 2

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Overall design
procedure

Design against
sliding
(Figure 7)

19

Overall design
procedure

20

Design against Toppling

(Figure 9)

Overall design
procedure

21

Design against bearing failure

(Figure 10)

Panel 4 Expressions for bearing resistance

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Overall design
procedure

Figure 13 Structural design

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Piles

Flexural and axial resistance of

piles
Uncertainties related to the cross-section of cast in place piles and
concreting procedures shall be allowed for in design
In the absence of other provisions, the design diameter of cast in place
piles without permanent casing is less than the nominal diameter Dnom:
Dd = Dnom 20 mm for Dnom < 400 mm
Dd = 0.95 Dnom for 400 Dnom 1000 mm
Dd = Dnom 50 mm for Dnom > 1000 mm
ICE SPERW B1.10.2 states The dimensions of a constructed pile or wall
element shall not be less than the specified dimensions. A tolerance of 5%
on auger diameter, casing diameter, and grab length and width is
permissible.

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Flexural and axial resistance of

piles
The partial factor for concrete, c, should be multiplied by a
factor, kf, for calculation of design resistance of cast in place
piles without permanent casing.
The UK value of kf = 1.1, therefore c,pile = 1.65
If the width of the compression zone decreases in the direction
of the extreme compression fibre, the value fcd should be
reduced by 10%

Bored piles
Reinforcement should be detailed for free flow of
concrete
Minimum diameter of long. reinforcement = 16mm
Minimum number of longitudinal bars = 6
BUT BS EN 1536 Execution of special geotechnical work
Bored Piles says 12 mm and 4 bars!
Pile cross
section: Ac
Ac 0.5 m2
0.5

m2<

Ac 1.0

Ac > 1.0

m2

m2

Min area of long.

rebar, As,bpmin

Pile
diameters

0.5% Ac

< 800 mm

2500

mm2

0.25% Ac

>1130 mm

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Minimum area of reinforcement,

As,bpmin (mm2)

Minimum reinforcement
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Pile diameter, mm

Strut & Tie

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What is Strut and Tie?

A structure can be divided into:

B (or beam or Bernoulli) regions in which plane sections remain plane and
design is based on normal beam theory,

and

D (or disturbed) regions in which plane sections do not remain plane; so

normal beam theory may be considered inappropriate and Strut & Tie
may be used

D
regions

56

What is strut and tie?

Strut-and-tie models (STM) are
trusses consisting of struts, ties
and nodes.
a) Modelling
Imagine or draw stress
paths which show the
elastic flow of forces
through the structure
b) STM

A deep beam

Replace stress paths with

polygons of forces to
provide equilibrium.
Conventionally, struts are
drawn as dashed lines, ties
as full lines and nodes
numbered.
57

27

At failure which is bigger P1 or P2?

P1

P2

Concept by R
Whittle, drawn by
I Feltham. Used
with permission

At failure which is bigger P1 or P2?

P1

P2 2P1

Concept by R
Whittle, drawn by
I Feltham. Used
with permission

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What is strut and tie?

Strut and tie models are based on the lower bound
theorem of plasticity which states that any distribution of
stresses resisting an applied load is safe providing:

Equilibrium is maintained
and

Stresses do not exceed yield

What is strut and tie?

In strut and tie models trusses are used with the following components:
Struts (concrete)
Ties (reinforcement)
Nodes (intersections of struts and ties)
Eurocode 2 gives guidance for each of these.

In principle - where non-linear strain distribution exists, strut and tie models
may be used. e.g
Supports
Concentrated loads
Openings

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Struts
Where there is no transverse tension
Rd,max = fcd
= 0.85 fck /1.5
= 0.57 fck
Otherwise, where there is transverse tension

Rd,max

= 0.6 fcd

Where:
= 1-fck/250

Rd,max

= 0.6 x (1-fck/250) x 1.0 x fck /1.5

= 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck

Bi-axial Strength of Concrete

compressive strength of
concrete with transverse
tension

fcu

fcu

fct

tensile stress in concrete

fct

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Biaxial stress relationship

z

Reduction in
compression
strength

tension

Strut & Tie Models

31

Struts
Dimensions of the strut are determined by dimensions of
the nodes and assumptions made there.
The stress in struts is rarely critical but the stress where
struts abut nodes is (see later).
However . . . . .

Discontinuities in struts
Areas of non-linear strain distribution are referred to as
discontinuities
Partial discontinuity

Full discontinuity
Curved
compression
trajectories lead
to tensile forces

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Partial discontinuity
Tension in the reinforcement is T
When b H/2
T = [(b a )/b] F
Reinforcement ties to resist

the transverse force T may be

discrete or can be smeared
over the length of tension zone

arising from the compression

stress trajectories

Full discontinuity
When b > H/2
T = (1 0.7a /h) F
Reinforcement ties to resist the
transverse force T may be
discrete or can be smeared
over the length of tension zone
arising from the compression stress
trajectories

T
T

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Ties
Design strength, fyd = fyk/1.15
Reinforcement should be anchored into nodes

Nodes
Nodes are typically classified as:

CCC Three compressive struts

CCT Two compressive struts and one tie

CTT One compressive strut and two ties

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CCC nodes
The maximum stress at the edge of the node:

Rd,max = k1 fcd
Where:
k1

= 1.0

= 1-fck/250

Rd,max = (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck

The stresses c0 & Rd,2 etc are all the same.

CCT nodes
The maximum compressive stress is:

Rd,max = k2 fcd
Where:
k2 = 0.85
= 1-fck/250

Rd,max = 0.85 (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck
(based on the more critical of the two struts)

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CTT nodes
The maximum compressive stress is:

Rd,max = k2 fcd
Where:
k2

= 0.75

= 1-fck/250

Rd,max

= 0.75 (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.43 (1-fck/250) fck

Pile-cap example
Using a strut and tie model, what tension reinforcement is required
for a pile cap supporting a 500 mm square column carrying 2 500 kN
(ULS), and itself supported by two-piles of 600 mm diameter. fck = 30
MPa
2 500 kN (ULS)

1400

Breadth =
900 mm

150
2700

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Pile-cap example
STM

tan-1(900/1300)

Angle of strut

Width of strut*

= 250/cos 34.7

2 500 kN (ULS)

= 304 mm

1400

= 34.7

34.7o 34.7o

Force per strut = 1250/cos 34.7

866 kN

Force in tie

100

= 1520 kN
= 1250 tan 34.7
1800

= 866 kN
500/2 = 250

1 250 kN
(ULS)

1 250 kN
(ULS)

Strut angle

* Conventional but simplistic - see later

Pile-cap example
Check forces in truss
Stress in strut

=1520x103/(304 x 500)
=10.0 MPa

Strength of strut:

Rd,max

= 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck

866 kN

= 10.6 MPa
Area of steel required:
As

866 x 103/435
1991 mm2

Use 5 H25s

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Pile-cap example
Nodes: bottom

From above

Rd,2

= 10.0 MPa

Rd,1

= 1250 x 103/( 3002)

= 4.4 MPa

1038 kN

Rd,max (for CCT node)

= 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck

= 1250 kN

= 12.7 MPa
OK

Pile-cap example
2500 kN

Nodes: top

From before

Rd,2

= 10.0 MPa

Rd,3

= 10.0 MPa

Rd,1

= 2500 x 103/(5002)

1520 kN

1520 kN

1520 kN

1520 kN

= 10.0 MPa

Rd,max (for CCC node)

= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck
= 15.0 MPa

2500 kN
79

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Pile-cap example
Detailing
Detailed checks are also required for the following:

Small piles

Determine local tie steel across struts (if reqd)

Detailing of reinforcement anchorage (large radius bends may

be required)

Anchorage starts
from here

Strut dimensions
RE previous statement that calculated strut dimensions
were Conventional but simplistic - see later
For the CCT node:

Not used in previous calcs.

Hence struts themselves
rarely critical.

Similarly for the CCC node

81

39

Pile-cap example
Comparison: design using bending theory
MEd =2500 x 1.800/4 = 1125 kNm
Assume:
25 mm for tension reinforcement
12 mm link
= h cnom - link - 0.5

= 1400 75 - 12 13
= 1300 mm

Worked example

K ' = 0.208
M Ed
K =
bd 2f ck

0.95 0.195

1125 10
900 13002 30
= 0.025 < K '
6

0.90 0.182

z =
=

[1 +
2

1.00 0.208

1 3.53K

0.85 0.168
0.80 0.153
0.75 0.137

0.70 0.120

1300
1 + 1 3.53 0.025 = 1270 mm
2

As = 1125 x 106 / (435 x 1270) = 2036 mm2

Use 5 H25 (2454 mm2)
c.f. using S&T 1991 mm2 reqd and 5H25 provided

40

Workshop problem 2
Using a strut and tie model, what tension reinforcement is required
for a pile cap supporting a 650 mm square column carrying 4 000 kN
(ULS), and itself supported by two-piles of 750 mm diameter. fck = 30
MPa
4 000 kN (ULS)

1800

Breadth =
1050 mm

150
3300

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Angle of strut

= tan-1(____/_____)
4 000 kN (ULS)

= _____

1800

Width of strut (?) = ____/cos ____

= ____ mm
Force per strut

= _____/cos ____
= _____ kN
= ____ tan _____
= _____ kN

100

Force in tie

2000 kN
(ULS)

2000 kN
(ULS)

325
Strut angle

2250

(?)

41

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Check forces in truss
Stress in strut

= _____x103/(____x650)
= _____ MPa

Strength of strut:

Rd,max

= 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck

= _____ MPa

Area of steel required:

____ x 103/435

As

______ mm2
Use

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Nodes: bottom

From above

Rd,2

= _____ MPa as before

Rd,1

= 2000 x 103/(3752 )
= _____ MPa

______ kN

Rd,max = 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck

= _____ MPa

2000 kN

42

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Nodes: top
2398 kN

2398 kN

From above

Rd,2

= ____ MPa

Rd,3

= ____ MPa

Rd,1

= 4000 x 103/(6502)

4000 kN

= _____ MPa

Rd,max
= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck
= _____ MPa

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Design using bending theory

MEd =4000 x 2.250/4 = _____ kNm

Assume:
25 mm for tension reinforcement
12 mm link
d = h cnom - link - 0.5
= ______ mm

43

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

K = ______

1.00 0.208

K=M/bd2fck
K= ______

0.95 0.195
0.90 0.182
0.85 0.168

z= ______ x d
z = ______ mm

0.80 0.153
0.75 0.137

As = MEd/fydz
As = ______/ (____ x _____) = _____mm2
Use __ H____ (_____ mm2)

0.70 0.120

End
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