dr. Susianti, M.

Sc

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The

respiratory system includes the

lungs, airways (pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi) and associated
structures.
Specialized for gaseous exchange
between blood and air, including the
uptake of oxygen and release of
carbon dioxide.

A. COMPONENTS OF
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Functionally divisible into 3 major
part:
1. Ventilating mechanism
Creates pressure differences that move
air into (inspiration) and out of
(expiration) the lungs.
Includes:diaphragm, rib cage,
intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles
lower the floor of the thorac cavity

2. Conducting Portion
The wall is specialized to carry air to
and from the site of gas exchange
Conditioning the air, warming,
moistening, and cleaning it to
enhance gas exchange
Includes: nasal cavity, nasopharynx,
larynx, trache, bronchi, bronchioles,
terminal bronchioles

3. Respiratory portion
Distinguished by alveoli:small,
saccular structures, whose thin
walls enable the gas exchange
between air and blood.
Bronchial tree: respiratory
brochioles, alveolar ducts, and atrial
and alveolar sacs

Structure of the Respiratory System

B. WALL STRUCTURE
Tube

lining epithelium derives from

endoderm
Wall layers: epithelium, lamina
propria, smooth muscles, adventitia
Each layer undergoes gradual
changes: nasal cavity alveoli

1. Respiratory epithelium
General features: Most epithelium is
ciliated pseudostratified collumnar
with goblet cells
Epithelial cell types:

Ciliated columnar cell

Mucous goblet
Brush cells
Small granule cells

2. Lamina Propria
Loose connective tissue
Skeletal connective tissue,
gradually decreases-disappears at
the level of the bronchioles.
3. Smooth Muscle
Begin in the trachea, joins the open
ends of the tracheal cartilages
Gradually decrease-disappears at
the level of the alveolar ducts

NASAL CAVITY
The

cavity is divided by the nasal

septum into 2 bilaterally symmetric
cavities, open through the nares
(nostrils)
Each cavity consists of:
Vestibule
Nasal

fossa

Nasal Mucosa

A. VESTIBULE
Smaller,

wider, and more anterior

chamber, lies behind nares
Medial septum and lateral walls are
supported by cartilage, and the
epithelial lining is a continuation of the
epidermis (sebaceous and sweat
glands, thick short hairs called
vibrissae)
Deeper: nonkeratinized epithelium

B. NASAL FOSSA
Larger,

narrower, and more posterior

Septum and lateral walls are lined by
respiratory epithelium
Supported by bone and contain
mucous glands and venous sinuses in
the lamina propria
Three curved bony shelves, termed
conchae (turbinate bones)
Venous plexuses (swell bodies)

Nasal Cavity

PARANASAL SINUSES
They

are dilated cavities in the

frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and
sphenoid bones
Thin respiratory epithelial, has few
goblet cells
Lamina propria contains a few small
mucous glands

NASOPHARYNX
The

upper part of pharynx

Single cavity overlying the
soft palate
Anteriorly: nassal fossae
Inferiorly: oral part of the
pharynx (oropharynx)
The wall lined by
respiratory epithelium are
supported by bone and

LARYNX
Lies

in the neck
During swallowing, its opening is
protected by epiglottis
Its walls, supported by several
laryngeal cartilages in the lamina
propria, contain skeletal muscle and
house the vocal apparatus

A. EPIGLOTTIS
The

flap of the tissue extends toward

the oropharynx from the anterior
border of the larynx
Superior surface: Nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
Inferior surface: Respiratory epithelium
Lamina propria: A few mucous glands
and small plate of elastic cartilage

B. LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES
Several

frame the laryngeal lumen

The larger: Thyroid, cricoid, and the
most of the paired arytenoid cartilage
are hyaline
The smaller: The paired of the
cuneiform and corniculate, the
epiglottic, and the tips of the
arytenoids are elastic

C. VOCAL APPARATUS
Two bilaterally symmetric pairs of mucosal
folds
1. False vocal cords (Vestibular folds)

The upper
Covered by respiratory epithelium and
contain serous glands

2. True vocal cords

The lower
Covered by stratified squamous epithelium
2 major structure: vocal ligament and
vocalis muscle

TRACHEA
Tube:

10 cm long, between larynx and

primary bronchi
Lined by respiratory epithelium
Lamina propria: mixed seromucous
glands
Characteristic: 16-20 C-shape cartilage
rings
Fibroelastic ligament

TRACHEA

Trachea

BRONCHIAL TREE
A. PRIMARY BRONCHI
Two

primary bronchi, entering each

lung
Similar to the trachea, but cartilage
rings and spiral bands of smooth
muscle completely encircle their
respective lumens
Right primary bronchi: more vertical
than that of the left

Bronchus

Primary Bronchus

B. SECONDARY BRONCHI
Lobar

bronchi
Primary bronchus give rise:
Right

primary bronchus: 3 secondary

bronchi
Left primary bronchus: 2 secondary
bronchi
Histologic

structure= primary
bronchi, except that their supporting
cartilages are arranged as irregular
plates or islands

C. TERTIARY BRONCHI
Segmental

bronchi
Supplies one bronchopulmonary
segment (pulmonary lobule)
Histologic appearance is identical to
that of secondary bronchi
Branch several times to form smaller
branches

Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus

D. BRONCHIOLES
Branches

of the smallest bronchi

Largest bronchioles differ from the
smallest bronchi: absence of the cartilage
and glands in their walls
Large bronchioles:typical respiratory
epithelium
Further: epithelial height and complexity
decrease to simple ciliated columnar or
cuboidal
Each bronchiole gives rise to 5-7 terminal

Bronchiolus

Vein

M : Smooth muscle layer

Terminal bronchiole

Alveolar walls

Respiratory
bronchiole

E. TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
The

smallest components of the

conducting portion
Lined by ciliated cuboidal or columnar
epithelium, have few or no goblet
cells
Lining also: dome-shaped cilia-free
Clara cells
Each terminal bronchiole branches to
form 2 or more respiratory
bronchioles

F. RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
The

first part of respiratory portion

Lined by cuboidal epithelial
Interrupted by thin-walled saccular
evaginations called alveoli
As the alveoli increase in number,
the cilia decrease untill they
disappear. Goblet cells are absent

G. ALVEOLAR DUCTS
The

distal extensions of the

respiratory bronchiole where the
alveoli are so dense
The alveolar duct can thus be likened
to a long hallway with so many
doorways leading to small rooms
(alveoli) that the hallway (alveolar
duct) appears almost to lack walls.

H. ATRIA AND ALVEOLAR SACS

Atria:

the distal termination of

alveolarducts
Long hallway (alveolar duct) leading
to a rounded foyer (atrium). The
foyer has small doorways leading to
some small Rooms (alveoli), but has
2 or more larger doorways leading
into short, dead-end hallways
(alveolar sacs)

Terminal Portion of the Respiratory Tree

ALVEOLI
A. INTERALVEOLAR SEPTA
Specialized

for gas exchange, are

critical to respiratory function.
Consist of 2 simple squamous
epithelial layers with the interstitium
sandwiche between them, that
consist of continous capillaries
embedded in n elastic connective
tissue

Gas exchange: Between the air in the

alveolar
lumen and the blood in the interstitial
capillaries
1. Blood- air barrier

Structure that oxygen and CO2 must

exchanged
0.1-0.5 m in thickness
Includes: - Pulmonary surfactant
- type I alveolar cells
- Basal laminae??

2. Alveolar Pores

B. ALVEOLAR CELL TYPES

1. Type I cells

Called type I alveolar cells, type I

pneumocytes,squamous alveolar cells
Squamous epithelial cells: 97% alveolar
surface
Very thin (25 nm) gas permeable
components

2. Type II cells

Called type II alveolar cells, type II

pneumocytes, great alveolar cells, alveolar
septal cells

3. Alveolar macrophages

Called dust cells

Mononuclear phagocyte system on the
surface of the alveolar septa and in the
intersitium

Alveoli

Three-dimensional schematic diagram of pulmonary alveoli showing the

interalveolar septum and its structure. Observe the capillaries, connective
tissue, and macrophages. These can also be seen in or passing into the
alveolar lumens. Alveolar pores are numerous. Type II cells are identified by
their abundant apical microvilli. The alveoli are lined by a continuous

C. PULMONARY SURFACTANT
Continously

synthesized and
secreted by type II alveolar cells onto
the alveolar surface
2 Function:
Reduce

surface tension in the alveoli

Have some bactericidal effects
2

layer:

Aqueous

basal layer (hypophase)

Monomolecular fill of phospholipid
(dipalmitoyl lecithin)

PULMONARY CIRCULATION
A. BLOOD SUPPLY
1. Functional circulation
a.
b.

Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins

2. Systemic circulation
a.
b.

Bronchial arteries
Bronchial veins

B. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
Divided

into superficial and deep

networks
Vessels of the superficial network
which have many valves, are found
in the visceral pleura
Lymphatic vessels are notably absent
from interalveolar septa

INNERVATION
Autonomic

motor and general

sensory nerves penetrate the
pulmonary root
Sensory nerves: localized pain
sensations, monitor irritants in the
airway and are involved in the cough
reflex
Parasymphatic motor fibers

PLEURA
Serous

membrane
2 layers:
Covering

the lungs (visceral pleura)

Covering the internal wall of the thoracic
cavity (parietal pleura)
Consist

of thin squamous
mesothelium, thin layer of
connective tissue
Pleural cavity: between visceral and
parietal pleura, contain lubricating

Visceral Pleura