Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
F.E.M.
SECTION I
3rd EDITION
REVISED
1.001
1998.10.01
Booklet 1
1.1.
PREFACE.............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.
1.4
SCOPE .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.1. PREFACE
The Rules for the Design of Hoisting Appliances set up by the Technical Committee of the Section I
of the F.E.M., which have been published so far in two Editions, the first one in 1962 and the
second in 1970, have been increasingly widely used in many countries all over the world.
Taking accourt of this enlarged audience, Section I of the FEM decided to change the format of
these Design Rules and to facilitate updating by abandoning the single volume form and dividing
the work into a number of separate booklets as follows :
Booklet 1 - Object and Scope
Booklet 2 - Classification and loading on structures and mechanisms
Booklet 3 - Calculating the stresses in the structure
Booklet 4 - Checking for fatigue and choice of mechanism components
Booklet 5 - Electrical equipment
Booklet 6 - Stability and safety against movement by the wind
Booklet 7 - Safety rules
Booklet 8 - Test loads and tolerances
Although not directly a part of these Design Rules, the opportunity is taken to draw attention to the
new Terminology of Section I.
1-2
1.2. INTRODUCTION
To facilitate the use of these Rules by the purchasers, manufacturers and safety organizations
concerned, it is necessary to give some explanation in regard to the two following questions.
1. How should these Rules be applied in practice to the different types of appliance whose
construction they cover ?
2. How should a purchaser use these Rules to define this requirements in relation to an
appliance which he desires to order and what conditions should he specify in this enquiry to
ensure that the manufacturers can submit a proposal in accordance with tris requirements ?
1. It is necessary first to recognize the great variety of appliances covered by the Design Rules. It
is obvious that a crane having very high speeds and a rapid working cycle is not designed in the
same manner as a small overhead crane for infrequent duty. For such a machine there can be
no question of making all the verifications which would appear to be required, from reading
through the Rules, because one would clearly finish with a volume of calculations which would
be totally out of proportion to the objective in view. The manufacturer must therefore decide in
each particular case which parts of the machine, which he is designing, should be analysed and
those for which calculation is unnecessary, not because he must accept that the results for the
latter would not be in accordance with the requirements of the Rules, but because on the
contrary he is certain in advance that the calculations for the latter would only confirm a
favourable outcome. This may be because a standard compornent is being used which has
been verified once and for all or because it has been established that some of the verifications
imposed by the Rules cannot in certain cases have an unfavourable result and therefore serve
no purpose.
If one takes, for exemple, the fatigue calculations, it is very easy to see that certain verifications
are unnecessary for appliances of light or moderate duty because they always lead to the
conclusions that the most unfavourable cases are those resulting from checking safety in
relation to the elastic limit.
These considerations show that calculations made in accordance with the Rules can take a very
different form according to the type of appliance which is being considered, and may in the case
of a simple machine or a machine embodying standard components be in the form of a brief
summary without prejudicing the compliance of the machine with the principles set out by the
Design Rules.
2. As far as the second question is concerned, some explanation is first desirable for the
purchaser, who may be somewhat bewildered by the extent of the document and confused
when faced with the variety of choice which it presents, a variety which is, however, necessary if
one wishes to take account of the great diversity of problems to be resolved.
1-3
In fact, the only important matter for the purchaser is to define the duty which he expects from his
appliance and if possible to give some indication of the duty of the various motions.
As regards the service to be performed by the appliance, two factors must be specified, i.e. :
- the class of utilization, as defined in 2.1.2.2 ;
- the load spectrum, as defined in 2.1.2.3.
In order to arrive at the number of hoisting cycles determining the class of utilization, the purchaser
may, for instance, find the product of :
- the number of hoisting cycles which the appliance will have to average each day on which it is
used ;
- the average number of days of use per year ;
- the number of years after which the appliance may be considered as having to be replaced.
Similarly, the load spectrum may be calculated by means of the simplified formula set out in the
above mentioned paragraph.
In neither case do the calculations call for a high degree of accuracy, being more in the nature of
estimates than of precise calculations. Moreover, the numbers of hoisting cycles determining the
classes of utilization do not constitute guaranteed values : they are merely guide values, serving as
a basis for the fatigue calculations and corresponding to an average life which can be expected
with a reasonable degree of safety, provided the appliance, designed in accordance with the
present design rules, is used under the conditions specified by the customer in his call for tender
and also that it is operated and maintained regularly in compliance with the manufacturer's
instructions.
If he is unable to determine the class of utilization and the load spectrum, the purchaser may
confine himself to stating the group in which the appliance is to be classified. A guide as to the
choice of group is provided by Table 2.1.2.5., which is not binding but gives simple exemples
which, by way of comparison, may facilitate selection.
In the case of mecanisms, the following should also be specified :
- the class of utilization, as specified in 2.1.3.2. :
- the load spectrum, as defined in 2.1.3.3. :
the same observation apply as were made concerning the appliance as a whole.
1-4
The tables in Appendix A.2.1.1. may be used to facilitate determination of the class of utilization.
On the basis of the class of utilization of the appliance, they make it possible to determine a total
number of working hours for the mechanism, according to the average duration of a working cycle
and the ratio between the operating time of the mechanism and the duration of the complete cycle.
Table T.2.1.3.5. may be used as a guide by a purchaser wishing simply to choose a group for each
of the mechanisms with which the appliance he wants to order is to be fitted.
As a general rule, the purchaser has no other information to supply in connection with the design of
the appliance, except in certain cases :
- the area of hoisted loads presented to the wind, if this area is larger than those defined in
2.2.4.1.2. ;
- the value of the out-of-service wind, where local conditions are considered to necessitate
design for an out-of-service wind greater than that defined in 2.2.4.1.2.
1-5
1.4
SCOPE
The Rules apply to the design of lifting appliances or parts of lifting appliances which appear in the
illustrated terminology for cranes and heavy lifting appliances of Section I of the FEM.
Appliances not covered by Section I
1) Lifting appliances included in Section V, for exemple :
- mobile jib cranes on pneumatic or solid rubber tyres, crawler tracks, lorries, trailers and
brackets.
2) Lifting equipment which according to the internal regulations of FEM, are included in Section IX,
that is to say :
- various items of series lifting equipment,
- electric hoists,
- pneumatic hoists,
- accessories for lifting,
- hand operated chain blocks,
- elevating platforms, work platforms, dock levellers,
- winches,
- jacks, tripods, combined apparatus for pulling and lifting,
- stacker cranes.
For series lifting equipment, those chapters of the Design Rules of Section I which have been
accepted by Section IX should be used.
These rules comprise eight booklets. In addition some booklets contain appendices which give
further information on the method of application.
1-6
Unit
Dsignation
Paragraphe
m2
2.2.4.1.
3.1
A1 A8
Crane groups
2.1.2
Ae
m2
2.2.4.1.4
mm
Wheelbase of crane :
Dimension of lattice in wind load calculation :
Length of strip of plate in buckling calculation :
Size of fillet weld in notch case 2.33
2.2.2.3
2.2.4.1.4
A-3.4
T.A.3.6.-2.33
m/s2
Acceleration
5.8.3.1
3.1.1.2
mm
2.2.4.1.4
B0 B10
2.1.4.2
mm
2.2.4.1.4
3.1.1.2
A-3.4
4.2.4.1
Influence of cold :
Coefficient used to calculate the tightening torque of bolts :
Selection coefficient for choice of running steel wire ropes
3.1.1.3
A-3.2.2.2.2.3
4.2.2.1.3.1
Cf
2 2.4.1.4
c, c'
4.1.3.5
c1, c1max
4.2.4.1
c2, c2max
4.2.4.1
cos
Power factor
5.2.3.3.2
T.A.3.6
2.2.4.1.4
mm
4.2.3.1
4.2.4.1
A-4.1.3
1-7
Dt
mm
3.2.2.2.1
mm
d2
mm
2.2.4.1.4
A-3.2 .2 .2 .3
4.2.2.1.3
A-4.1.3
3.2.2.2.1
dc
5.8.1.4
di
5.8.1.4
dmin
mm
A-4.2.2
dt
mm
3.2.2.2.1
A-3.4
E1 E8
Groups of components
2.1.4.1
ED
Duty factor
5.8.1.4
mm
A-3.4
T.A-3.6-2.31
e1, e2
mm
A-3.4
Wind force :
Horizontal force during acceleration :
Tensile load in bolts :
Compressive force on member in crippling calculation
2.2.4.1.2
A-2.2.3
3.2.2.2.2
A-3.3
F0
4.2.2.1.2
F1
3.2.2.2.1
Fc
A-2.2.3
Fcm
A-2.2.3
Fcmax
Maximum value of Fc
A-2.2.3
4.2.2.1.3
5.8.1.4
fcy
g
m/s2
A-2.2.3
4.2.3.1.1
A-2.2.3.-3
kgm2
1-8
I 1, I 2
mm4
A-3.4
ID
5.2.3.3.2
IN
5.2.3.3.1
Itot
5.2.3.3.2
IZ
mm4
A-3.4
Ii
kgm2
A-2.2.3
Im
kgm2
A-2.2.3.-2.1
JM
kgm2
5.8.1.4
4.1.3.6
j0
m/s2
A-2.2.3.-2.2
jm
m/s2
A - 2.2.3
4.2.2.1.3
K0 K4
A-3.6
K2
2.2.4.1.4.4
KL
4.2.4.2
Km
Mn med / M max
4.2.1.2
4.2.2.1.3
kc
A-4.1.3
kd
A-4.1.3
km
2.1.3.3
kp
2.1.2.3
ks
4.1.3.3
ksp
2.1.4.3
ksp
4.1.3.5
ku
4.1.3.3
1-9
K K
A-3.4
5.8.2.1
L1 L4
2.1.3.3
A-2.2.3.-2
5.2.3.3.2
2.2.4.1.4.1
4.2.4.1.2
lk
3.2.2.2.1
N.m
3.2.2.2.2
M1 M8
Mechanism groups ;
2.1.3.1
M1,M2, M3 -
5.8.1.3.1
MF
N.m
5.8.2.1
MNmax
N.m
5.8.2.1
Ma
N.m
A-3.2.2.2.2.3
MF
N.m
A-3.3
Mmax
N.m
5.8.2.1
Mmed
N.m
5.8.2.1
Mmin
N.m
5.8.2.1
3.2.2.2.2
kg
A-2.2.3.-1
A-2.2.3.-2
m0
kg
A-2.2 .3.-1
ml
kg
A-2.2 .3.-1
mL
kg
5.8 .3.1
me
kg
A-2.2.3.-2.1
kg
Load
2.1.2.3
mlmax
kg
2.1.2.3
1 - 10
A-2.1.1
3.2.2.2.2
NG
3-57 $$$$$
NM
3.2.2.2.2
2.1.2.3
4.1.3.5
min-1
5.8.1.4
nmax
2.1.2.3
Load on wheel
4.2.4.2
P1 P4
2.1.4.3
T.A-3.6
P10, P100 PL
4.2.4.1
PN
5.8.1.4
PNmax
5.8.2.1
Pmoy I, II
4.2.4.1
Pmoy III
4.2.4.1
4.2.4.1
Pmax I, II,III
4.2.4.1
Pmed
kW
5.8.1.3.2
mm
Span of crane
2.2.3.3
pa
mm
Pitch of thread
3.2.2.2.1
Q1 Q4
2.1.2.3
A-4.1.3
2.2.4.1.1
R0
4.2.2.1.3
RE
3.2.2.2.1
2.1.3.3
3.5
1 - 11
mm
A-3.4
4.2.3.2
4.2.4.1.2
A-4.1.3
/km
5.3.2
Stress :
Maximum tensile force in rope
2.1.3.3
4.2.2.1.1.2
m2
2.2.4.1.4.4
mm2
5.2.3.3.2
S1
mm
3.2.2.2.1
SG
SH
2.2.3
SL
2.2.1
SM
2.5
SMmoy
4.2.1.2
SMmin
4.2.1.2
SMmax I
2.6.1.1
SMmax II
2.6.2.1
SMmax III
2.6.3.1
SMA
2.5.1
SMCmax
2.6.4.3
SMF
2.5.1
SMG
2.5.1
2.5.1
SML
SMW
SMW 8
2.5.1
2.6.2.1
SMW 25
2.6.2.1
SR
2.5
1 - 12
SRmax I
2.6.1.1
SRmax II
2.6.2.1
SRmax III
2.6.3.1
SRmin
4.2.1.3
SRmoy
4.2.1.3
SRA
2.5.2
SRG
2.5.2
SRL
2.5.2
SRW
2.5.2
SRWmax
2.5.2
SRW25
2.6.2.2
ST
2.3.3
SV
3.5
SW
2.3.2
SWmax
2.3.3
Sb
mm2
3.2.2.2.1
Seq
mm2
3.2.2.2.1
Sp
mm2
2.2.4.1.4.4
8.2.2.1
8.2.2.4
8.2.3
2.1.3.3
A-2.2.3.-4
3.1.1.3
Duration of cycle
3.2.2.2.2
5.8.1.4
T0 T9
2.1.3.2
1 - 13
T1
Period of oscillation
A-2.2.3.-2
Ta
Tc
3.2.2.2.2
3.1.3
Ti
A-2.1.1
Tm
A-2.2.3-2
mm
A-2.2.3.-2.1
3.1.1.2
t1, t2...
ti, tr
A-3.4
8.2.2.7
2.1.3.3
t1, t2, t3
5.8.1.3.1
t*
mm
3.1.1.2
td
2.2
tmc
A-2.1.1
U0 U9
2.1.2.2
5.3.2
VL
m/s
Hoisting speed :
Vs
m/s
2.2.2.1.1
5.8.2 .1
2.2.4.1.1
Vt
m/s
2.2.3.4.1
m/s
A-2.2.3.-2
mm
A-3.3
Travel speed
5.8.3.1
A-3.6
A-2.2.3
m/s
W0, W1, W2 Wi
s-1
1 - 14
/km
5.3.2
2.1
2.1
x1
ZA
3.1.1.1
ZB
3.1.1.2
ZC
3.1.1.3
Zp
4.2.2.1
A-2.2.3.-2.1
zd
zm
A-2.2.3.-2.2
T.A-3.4.1
A-2.1.1
A-2.2.3.-2.2
crit
Critical value of
A-2.2.3
A-2.2.3.-2.2
2.3
2.6
l1
mm
3.2.2.2.1
l2
mm
3.2.2.2.1
mm
8.2.2.1
8.2.3
3.2.2.2.1
2.2.4.1.4.2
A-3.4
5.8.3.1
1 - 15
2.2.4.1.4.4
, ,
3.2.2.2.1
m/mm2Electric conductivity
x, y, xy
3.6
5.2.3.3.2
A-3.6
2.2.3.3
A-3.3
A-2.2.3.-2
3.2.2.2.1
3.2.2.2.2.-3
3.Intro]
3.5
3.2.1.1
4.1.1.1
3.2.2.2.2
E
R
T
3.4
4.1.3.7
2.2.2.1.1
A-3.4
2.3.3
2.3.3
3.2.1.1
A-3.6
1 - 16
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.1
+1
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.1
3.1.1.1
3.5
3.2.2.1
ER
A-3.4
3.5
3.1.1.1
4.1.1.1
af
4.1.3.7
3.2.2.2.1
bw
4.1.3.2
A-3.6
4.1.1.3
cg
4.2.4.2
cp
3.2.1.3
cr
3.5
vcr
A-3.4
vcr.c
A-3.4
4.1.3.4
4.1.1.3
vi
A-3.4
A-3.6
1 - 17
inf
2.1.4.3
4.1.3.6
kx
4.1.3.7
ky
4.1.3.7
N/mm2 Arithmetic mean of all upper and lower stresses during the total
duration of use :
Permissible stress in conformity tests to ISO 3600/1
2.1.4.3
3.2.2.2.1
max
3.6
min
3.6.4
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.2.1
sup
2.1.4.3
sup max
2.1.4.3
sup min
2.1.4.3
A-3.6
4.1.1.3
A-4.2.2
A-3.4
A-3.6
4.1.1.3
3.2.1.3
xa
A-3.6
x max
A-3.6
x min
A-3.6
3.2.1.3
A-3.6
wk
x
ya
1 - 18
y max
y min
A-3.6
A-3.6
3.2.1.3
4.1.1.3
3.2.1.2
af
4.1.3.7
3.2.2.2.1
vcr
A-3.4
4.1.3.4
4.1.3.6
max
3.6.4
min
3.6.4
4.1.3.2
4.1.3.3
xy
3.2.1.3
xya
A-3.6
xy max
A-3.6
xy min
A-3.6
4.1.3.5
2.2 .2.1.1
3.4
A-2.2.3.-2
wk
3.2.2.2.1
Crippling coefficient
3.3
s-1
1 - 19
motion
A-2.2.3.-3
1, 2, r
s-1
A-2.2.3.-2.2
s-1
A-2.2.3.-2.1
1 - 20
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
SECTION I
HEAVY LIFTING APPLIANCES
F.E.M.
1.001
3rd
EDITION
REVISED
1998.10.01
Booklet 2
2.2.2.2. LOADS DUE TO ACCELERATION (OR DECELERATION) OF THE HOISTING MOTION AND TO
VERTICAL SHOCK LOADINGS WHEN TRAVELLING ALONG RAIL TRACKS ...................................... 17
2.2.2.3. SPECIAL CASE........................................................................................................................ 17
2-2
.....................................................................................................................................................................39
APPENDIX..................................................................................................................................................40
A.2.1.1. - HARMONISATION OF THE CLASSES OF UTILIZATION OF APPLIANCES AND
MECHANISMS.......................................................................................................................................40
A.2.2.3. - CALCULATION OF LOADS DUE TO ACCELERATIONS OF HORIZONTAL MOTIONS
.................................................................................................................................................................45
2-3
2-4
Symbol
U0
U1
U2
U3
U4
U5
U6
U7
U8
U9
16 000
nmax
nmax
16 000
32 000
<
nmax
32 000
63 000
<
nmax
63 000
125 000
<
nmax
125 000
250 000
<
nmax
250 000
500 000
<
nmax
500 000
1 000 000
<
nmax
1 000 000
2 000 000
<
nmax
2 000 000
4 000 000
<
nmax
4 000 000
<
Figure 2.1.2.3.1. - a
Figure 2.1.2.3.1. - b
ml = loads ;
ml max = safe working load ;
n = number of hoisting cycles in respect of which the hoisted load is greater
than or equal to ml;
nmax = number of hoisting cycles determining the total duration of use.
Each spectrum is assigned a spectrum factor kp, defined by :
1
KP = yd dx
0
2-5
For the purposes of group classification the exponent d is taken by convention as equal to 3.
In many applications the function f(x) may be approximated by a function consisting of a certain
number r of steps (see fig. 2.1.2.3.2.), comprising respectively n1, n2, ..., nr hoisting cycles, the
th
load may be considered as practically constant and equal to mli during the ni cycles of the i step.
If nmax represents the total duration of use and ml max the greatest among the mli loads, there
exists a relation :
r
n1 + n2 + ..... + nr =
ni = nmax
i =1
or in approximated form :
kp = ( ml1/mlmax)3.(n1/nmax) + ( ml2/mlmax)3.(n2/nmax) + .....+ ( mlr/mlmax)3.(nr/nmax)
r
kp =
[ ( mli/mlmax)3.(ni/nmax) ]
i =1
Figure 2.1.2.3.2.
According to its load spectrum, a hoisting appliance is placed in one of the four spectrum
classes Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 defined in table T.2.1.2.3.
Table T.2.1.2.3. - Spectrum classes
Symbol
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
0,125
0,250
0,500
Spectrum factor kp
kp
<
kp
<
kp
<
kp
2-6
0,125
0,250
0,500
1,000
Class of utilization
U0
A1
A1
A1
A2
U1
A1
A1
A2
A3
U2
A1
A2
A3
A4
U3
A2
A3
A4
A5
U4
A3
A4
A5
A6
U5
A4
A5
A6
A7
U6
A5
A6
A7
A8
U7
A6
A7
A8
A8
U8
A7
A8
A8
A8
U9
A8
A8
A8
A8
2-7
18
19
20
21
22
Particulars concerning
nature of use
(1)
Designation
Hand-operated appliances
Erection cranes
Erection and dismantling cranes for power
stations, machine shops, etc.
Stocking and reclaiming transporters
Hook duty
Stocking and reclaiming transporters
Grab or magnet
Workshop cranes
Overhead travelling cranes, pigbreaking
cranes, scrapyard cranes
Ladle cranes
Soaking-pit cranes
Stripper cranes, open-hearth furnacecharging cranes
Forge cranes
Bridge cranes for unloading, bridge cranes
for containers
Other bridge cranes (with crab and/or
slewing jib crane)
Bridge cranes for unloading, bridge cranes
(with crab and/or slewing jib crane)
Drydock cranes, shipyard jib cranes, jib
cranes for dismantling
Dockside cranes (slewing, on gantry),
floating cranes and pontoon derricks
Dockside cranes (slewing, on gantry),
floating cranes and pontoon derricks
Floating cranes and pontoon derricks for
very heavy loads (usually greater than 100
t)
Deck cranes
Deck cranes
Appliance
group
(see 2.1.2.4.)
A1 - A2
A1 - A2
A2 - A4
A5
A6 - A8
A3 - A5
Grab or magnet
A6 - A8
A6 - A8
A8
A8
A6 - A8
Hook or spreader duty
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
A5 - A6
A4
A6 - A8
Hook duty
A3 - A5
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
A5 - A6
A6 - A8
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
A2 - A3
A3 - A4
A4 - A5
A3 - A4
A2 - A3
A4
(1) Only a few typical cases of use are shown, by way of guidance, in this column.
2-8
200
<
T
400
<
T
800
<
T
1 600
<
T
3 200
<
T
6 300
<
T
12 500
<
T
25 000
<
T
50 000
<
T
(h)
200
400
800
1600
3200
6300
12 500
25 000
50 000
km = yd dx
0
i =1
2-9
ti = T
[ (Si/Smax)3 ( ti/T) ]
i =1
Depending on its loading spectrum, a mechanism is placed in one of the four spectrum classes
L1, L2, L3, L4, defined in table T.2.1.3.3.
Table T.2.1.3.3. - Spectrum classes
Symbol
L1
L2
L3
L4
0,125
0,250
0,500
Spectrum factor km
km
<
km
<
km
<
km
0,125
0,250
0,500
1,000
Class of utilization
T0
M1
M1
M1
M2
T1
M1
M1
M2
M3
T2
M1
M2
M3
M4
T3
M2
M3
M4
M5
T4
M3
M4
M5
M6
T5
M4
M5
M6
M7
T6
M5
M6
M7
M8
T7
M6
M7
M8
M8
T8
M7
M8
M8
M8
T9
M8
M8
M8
M8
2 - 10
Designation
Hand-operated appliances
Erection cranes
Erection and dismantling cranes for
power stations, machine shops, etc.
Stocking and reclaiming transporters
6
7
Workshop cranes
Overhead travelling cranes,
pigbreaking cranes, scrapyard
cranes
Ladle cranes
Soaking-pit cranes
Stripper cranes, open-hearth
furnace-charging cranes
Forge cranes
Bridge cranes for unloading, bridge
cranes for containers
Other bridge cranes (with crab
and/or slewing jib crane)
Bridge cranes for unloading, bridge
cranes (with crab and/or slewing jib
crane)
Drydock cranes, shipyard jib cranes,
jib cranes for dismantling
Dockside cranes (slewing, on gantry,
etc.), floating cranes and pontoon
derricks
Dockside cranes (slewing, on gantry,
etc.), floating cranes and pontoon
derricks
Floating cranes and pontoon
derricks for very heavy loads (usually
greater than 100 t)
Deck cranes
Deck cranes
8
9
10
11
12-a
12-b
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Particulars
concerning
nature of use (1)
Hoisting
M1
M2-M3
Type of mechanism
SleLuffing Traver- Travel
wing
se
M1
M1
M2-M3 M1-M2 M1-M3 M2-M3
M2
M2
M2
M5-M6
M4
M4-M5 M5-M6
M7-M8
M6
M6
M4
M8
M6
M6-M7 M7-M8
M4
M5
M7-M8
M6-M7
M7-M8
M8
M6
M8
M8
M6
--
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
Grab or magnet
a - Hook or
spreader duty
b - Hook duty
Grab or magnet
M4-M5 M6-M7
M7
M8
M7
M5
M8
M6
M6-M7
M5-M6 M3-M4
M6-M7 M4-M5
M4-M5
M4-M5
M4-M5 M4-M5
M8
M5-M6 M3-M4
M7-M8 M4-M5
M5-M6
M4-M5 M4-M5
M4-M5 M5-M6
M6-M7
M5-M6 M5-M6
M3-M4
M7-M8
M6-M7 M6-M7
M4-M5
M3-M4
M3-M4 M3-M4
M4
M3-M4 M3-M4
M2
M3
M5-M6
M4
M2-M3
M3-M4 M3-M4
M5
M4
M1-M2 M1-M2
M3-M4
M2-M3 M2-M3
Hook duty
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
Hook duty
Grab or magnet
M4-M5 M3-M4
M3
M3
-
(1) Only a few typical cases of use are shown, by way of guidance, in this column.
2 - 11
16 000
16 000
<
n
32 000
32 000
<
n
63 000
63 000
<
n
125 000
125 000
<
n
250 000
250 000
<
n
500 000
500 000
<
n
1 000 000
1 000 000
<
n
2 000 000
2 000 000
<
n
4 000 000
4 000 000
<
n
8 000 000
8 000 000
<
n
2 - 12
yc dx
Where c is an exponent depending on the properties of the material concerned, the shape and
size of the component in question, its surface roughness and its degree of corrosion (see
booklet 4).
In many applications the function f(x) may be approximated by a function consisting of a certain
number r of steps, comprising respectively n1, n2, ..., nr stress cycles ; the stress may be
considered as practically constant and equal to i during ni cycles. If n represents the total
duration of use and max the greatest of the stresses 1, 2, ..., r there exists a relation :
r
n1 + n2+ ..... + nr =
ni = n
i =1
i =1
Depending on its stress spectrum, a component is placed in one of the spectrum classes P1,
1
P2, P3, P4, defined in table T.2.1.4.3.
Table T.2.1.4.3. - Spectrum classes
Symbol
P1
P2
P3
P4
0,125
ksp
0,250
0,125
<
ksp
0,500
0,250
<
ksp
1,000
0,500
<
ksp
There are components, both structural and mechanical, such as spring loaded components,
which are subjected to loading that is quite or almost independent of the working load. Special
care shall be taken in classifying such components. In most cases ksp = 1 and they belong to
class P4.
2 - 13
For structural components, the stresses to be taken into consideration for determination of the
spectrum factor are the differences sup - m between the upper stresses sup and the average
stress m, these concepts being defined by fig. 2.1.4.3. representing the variation of the stress
over time during five stress cycles.
Fig. 2.1.4.3. - Variation of stress as a function of time during a five stress cycles
sup = upper stress
m = arithmetic mean of all upper and lower stresses during the total duration of use
In the case of mechanical components, we can put m = 0 the stresses to be introduced into the
calculation of the spectrum factor then being the total stresses occurring in the relevant section
of the component.
2.1.4.4. GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
On the basis of their class of utilization and their stress spectrum class, components are
classified in one of the eight groups E1, E2, ..., E8, defined in table T.2.1.4.4.
Table T.2.1.4.4. - Component groups
Stress
Spectrum
class
Class of utilization
B0
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
P1
P2
P3
P4
E1
E1
E1
E1
E1
E1
E1
E2
E1
E1
E2
E2
E1
E2
E3
E4
E2
E3
E4
E5
E3
E4
E5
E6
E4
E5
E6
E7
E5
E6
E7
E8
E6
E7
E8
E8
E7
E8
E8
E8
E8
E8
E8
E8
2 - 14
(1) In certain cases, the maximum stress may be obtained with no working load.
2 - 15
The value of the dynamic coefficient to be applied to the load arising from the working load is
given by the expression :
= 1 + VL
Where :
VL is the hoisting speed in m/s, and an experimentally determined coefficient 3
The following values shall be adopted :
= 0,6 for overhead travelling cranes and bridge cranes
The maximum figure to be taken for the hoisting speed when applying this formula is 1 m/s. For
higher speeds, the dynamic coefficient is not further increased.
The value to be applied for the coefficient in the calculations shall in no case be less than 1,15.
The values of are given in the curves of figure 2.2.2.1.1. in terms of hoisting speeds VL.
In certain cases, the maximum stress may be obtained with no working load.
2 - 16
Note - The above mentioned coefficient is not the same for "overhead travelling cranes and
bridge cranes" and for "jib cranes".
The difference arises from the fact that the dynamic coefficient is, other things being equal,
smaller when the hoisting load is carried by a member having some flexibility, as in jib cranes
where the jib is never rigid.
In a similar way, use of the coefficient as indicated for jib cranes may be extended to certain
other appliances such as, for example, transporters for the design case corresponding to load
on the cantilever boom ; the value of indicated for overhead travelling cranes should, of course,
be used for the design cases where the load is applied between the legs of the machine as the
rigidity of the structure at this point is comparable with that one of an overhead travelling crane
girder.
2.2.2.2. LOADS DUE TO ACCELERATION (OR DECELERATION) OF THE HOISTING MOTION AND
TO VERTICAL SHOCK LOADINGS WHEN TRAVELLING ALONG RAIL TRACKS
Since the coefficient takes account of the degree of snatch on the working load which is the
largest shock loading, loads due to acceleration (or deceleration) of the hoisting motion and the
4
vertical reactions due to travelling along tracks, assumed to be properly laid, shall be neglected
2.2.2.3. SPECIAL CASE
In the case of certain appliances, the loads due to the dead loads are of opposite sign to those
due to the working load, in which case a comparison must be made between the loading figure
obtained in the "appliance under load" condition, with the dynamic coefficient applied to the
working load, and the loading figure obtained in the "no-load" condition, taking into account the
oscillations resulting from setting clown the load, as follows :
Let :
S G be the algebraic value of the loads due to the dead load
S L be the algebraic value of the loads due to the working load.
S G - S L (-1)/2
Which is compared with the load for the "appliance under load" condition determined by the
expression :
4
This assumes that the rail joints are in good condition. The detrimental effect on hoisting appliances of rail
tracks in poor condition is so great, both for the structure and the machinery, that it is necessary to stipulate
that the rail joints must be maintained in good condition : no shock loading coefficient can allow for the
damage caused by faulty joints. In so far as high speed appliances are concerned, the best solution is to
butt-weld the rails, in order to eliminate entirely the shock loadings which occur when an appliance runs over
joints.
The amplified total load, when setting clown the load is obtained by the expression :
2 - 17
SG + SL
2 - 18
the component being finally designed on the basis of the more unfavourable of these two values.
Note - This formula is based on the fact that the dynamic coefficient determines the maximum
amplitude of the oscillations set up in the structure when the load is picked up. The amplitude of
the oscillation is given by :
S L (-1)
It is assumed that the amplitude of the oscillation set up in the structure when the load is set
clown is half that of the oscillation caused when hoisting takes place.
The ultimate state of loading is therefore :
S G - S L (-1)/2
which must be compared with the state of loading given by :
SG + SL
2 - 19
The loads due to the accelerations (or decelerations) imparted to the movable elements when
starting or braking are calculated for the various structural members.
2.2.3.1.1. TRAVERSE AND TRAVEL MOTIONS
For these motions the calculation is made by considering a horizontal force applied at the tread
of the driven wheels parallel to the rail.
The loads shall be calculated in terms of the acceleration (or deceleration) time assumed
according to the working conditions and the speeds to be attained.
From it is deduced the value (in m/s2) of the acceleration to be used for calculating the horizontal
force according to the masses to be set in motion.
Note - If the speed and acceleration values are not specified by the user, acceleration times
corresponding to the speeds to be reached may be chosen according to the three following
working conditions :
a) Appliances of low and moderate speed with a great length of travel ;
b) Appliances of moderate and high speed for normal applications ;
c) High speed appliances with high acceleration.
In the latter case, it is almost always necessary to drive all the rail wheels.
Table T.2.2.3.1.1. gives the values of acceleration times and accelerations for the three
conditions.
2 - 20
(b)
moderate and high speed
(normal applications)
Acceleration Acceleration
time
s
m/s2
0,50
8,0
0,44
7,1
0,39
6,3
0,35
5,6
0,32
5,0
0,25
4,0
0,19
3,2
0,16
2,5
(c)
high speed with high
accelerations
Acceleration Acceleration
time
s
m/s2
6,0
0,67
5,4
0,58
4,8
0,52
4,2
0,47
3,7
0,43
3,0
0,33
The horizontal force to be taken into account shall be not less than 1/30th nor more than 1/4 of
the load on the driven or braked wheels.
2.2.3.1.2. SLEWING AND LUFFING (DERRICKING) MOTIONS
For slewing and luffing motions the calculations shall be based on the accelerating (or
decelerating) torque applied to the motor shaft of the mechanisms.
The rates of acceleration will depend upon the appliance ; for a normal crane a value between
2
2
0.1 m/s and 0.6 m/s , according to the speed and radius, may be chosen for the acceleration at
the jib head so that an acceleration time of from 5 to 10 s is achieved.
Note - A method for calculating the effects of acceleration of horizontal motions is given in
appendix A.2.2.3.
2.2.3.2. EFFECTS OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
In the case of jib cranes, account shall be taken of the centrifugal force due to slewing. In
practice, it is sufficient to determine the horizontal force exerted at the jib head as a result of the
inclination of the rope carrying the load and in general to neglect the effects of centrifugal force on
the other elements of the crane.
2 - 21
By "wheelbase" is understood the centre distance between the outermost pairs of wheels, or, in the case
of bogies, the centre distance between the fulcrum pins on the crane structure of the two bogies or bogie
systems. Where horizontal guilding wheels are provided, the wheelbase shall be the distance between the
rail contact points of two horizontal wheels.
2 - 22
The resulting loads set up in the structure shall be calculated on the basis of the retardation
imparted to the appliance by the buffer in use.
However, for higher speeds (greater than 1 m/sec), the use of decelerating devices which act
upon approach to the ends of the track is permitted provided the action of these devices is
automatic and they produce an effective deceleration of the appliance which always reduces the
speed to the predetermined lower value before the buffers are reached.
In this case the reduced speed obtained after slowing down is used for the value of Vt when
6
calculating the buffer effect .
In the second case where the load cannot swing the buffer effect is calculated in the same
manner but taking account of the value of the working load.
(1) It must be emphasised that a sure and effective device must be fitted. A mere end-of-travel limit switch
cutting off the power supply to the motor is not sufficient reason to assume reduced speed for the buffer
effect.
2.2.3.4.2. BUFFER EFFECTS ON THE SUSPENDED LOAD
Impacts due to collision between the load and fixed obstructions are taken into account only for
appliances where the load is rigidly guided. In that case, the loads generated by such a collision
are to be taken into consideration.
The loads can be computed by considering that horizontal force applied at the lever of the load
which is capable of causing two of the crab wheels to lift.
WIND PRESSURE
q = 0.613 Vs2
Where q is the dynamic pressure N/m2., and Vs is the design wind speed in m/s.
Where a wind speed measuring device is to be attached to an appliance it shall normally be placed at the
maximum height of the appliance. In cases where the wind speed at a different lever is more significant to
the safety of the appliance, the manufacturer shall state the height at which the device shall be placed.
2 - 23
Two design wind conditions are taken into account in calculating wind loads on cranes.
2.2.4.1.2.1. In-service wind
This is the maximum wind in which the crane is designed to operate. The wind loads are
assumed to be applied in the least favourable direction in combination with the appropriate
service loads. In-service design wind pressures and corresponding speeds are given in table
7
T.2.2.4.1.2.1. They are assumed to be constant over the height of the appliance .
It is assumed that the operating speeds and nominal accelerations are not necessarily reached
under extreme wind conditions.
Table T.2.2.4.1.2.1. - In-service design wind pressure
Type of appliance
Lifting appliance easily protected
against wind action or designed
for use exclusively in light wind.
Erection operations.
All normal types of crane
installed in the open
* Appliances which must
continue to work in high winds
Wind pressure
in service
N/m2
Wind speed
in service
m/s
125
14
250
20
500
28
(1) Where, exceptionally, a crane is required to handle loads of large surface area, it is admissible for the
manufacturer to determine a wind speed less than that specified in table T.2.2.4.1.2.1. above which such
loads shall not be handled.
2 - 24
This is a maximum (storm) wind for which the lifting machine is designed to remain stable in out
of service conditions, as indicated, by the manufacturer. The speed varies with the height of the
apparatus above the surrounding ground lever, the geographical location and the degree of
exposure to the prevailing winds.
For lifting appliances used in the open air, the normal theoretical wind pressure and the
corresponding speed, for "out of service" conditions are indicated in the table T.2.2.4.1.2.2.
Approximate equivalent
out of service design
wind speed m/s
36
42
46
When calculating wind loads for out of service conditions the wind pressure may be taken as
constant over the vertical height intervals in table T.2.2.4.1.2.2. Alternatively, the design wind
pressure at the top of the crane may be assumed constant over its entire height.
Where cranes are to be permanently installed or used for extended periods in areas where wind
conditions are exceptionally severe, the above figures may be modified by agreement between
the manufacturer and purchaser in the light of local meteorological data.
For certain types of appliance of which the jib can be quickly lowered, (such as a tower crane
which can be easily lowered by a built-in mechanism) the out of service wind need not be taken
into consideration provided the machine is intended for lowering after each working day.
For most complete and part structures, and individual members used in crane structures the
wind load is calculated from :
F = A . q . Cf
Where :
F is the wind load in N,
2
A is the effective frontal area of the part under consideration in m ,
Shape coefficients for individual members, single lattice frames and machinery houses are
given in table T.2.2.4.1.4.1. The values for individual members vary according to the aerodynamic
slenderness and, in the case of large box sections, with the section ratio. Aerodynamic
slenderness and section ratio are defined in figure 2.2.4.1.4.1.
The wind load on single lattice frames may be calculated on the basis of the coefficients for the
individual members given in the top part of table T.2.2.4.1.4.1. In this case the aerodynamic
slenderness of each member shall be taken into account. Alternatively the overall coefficients for
lattice frames constructed of flat sided and circular sections given in the middle part of the table
may be used.
Where a lattice frame is made up of flat-sided and circular sections, or of circular sections in
2
2
both flow regimes (D.VS < 6 m /s and D.VS 6 m /s) the appropriate shape coefficients are
applied to the corresponding frontal areas.
Where gusset plates of normal size are used in welded lattice construction no allowance for the
additional area presented by the plates is necessary, provided the lengths of individual
members are taken between the centres of node points.
2 - 26
Shape coefficients obtained from wind-tunnel or full-scale tests may also be used.
Table T.2.2.4.1.4.1. - Force coefficients
Type
Description
Rolled sections [ ]
5
1,15
> 50
1,6
Rectangular hollow
sections up to
356 mm square
1,4
1,45
1,5
1,55
1,55
1,55
1,6
1,05
1,05
1,2
1,3
1,4
1,5
1,6
1,30
1,35
1,60
1,65
1,70
1,80
1,80
0,60
0,60
0,70
0,65
0,80
0,70
0,85
0,70
0,90
0,75
0,90
0,80
0,90
0,80
1,55
1,40
1,0
0,80
1,75
1,55
1,20
0,90
1,95
1,75
1,30
0,90
2,10
1,85
1,35
1,0
2,20
1,90
1,40
1,0
d
Single
lattice
frames
Flat-sided sections
Circular sections where :
1,70
1,10
0.80
1,10
2 - 27
* In lattice construction the lengths of individual members are taken between the centres of
adjacent node points. See diagram below
(II) Solidity ratio : (area of solid parts) / (enclosed area) = A /Ae =
for "a" take the smallest possible value in the geometry of the exposed face.
2 - 28
Where parallel frames or members are positioned so that shielding takes place, the wind loads
on the windward frame or member and on the unsheltered parts of those behind it are calculated
using the appropriate shape coefficients. The wind load on the sheltered parts is multiplied by a
shielding factor given in table T.2.2.4.1.4.2. Values of vary with the solidity and spacing ratios
as defined in figure 2.2.4.1.4.1.
Table T.2.2.4.1.4.2. - Shielding coefficients
Spacing ratio
a/b
0,5
1,0
2,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
0,1
0,75
0,92
0,95
1,0
1,0
1,0
0,2
0,40
0,75
0,80
0,88
0,95
1,0
0,5
0,15
0,25
0,33
0,55
0,75
1,0
0,6
0,10
0,10
0,20
0,45
0,68
1,0
Where a number of identical frames or members are spaced equidistantly behind each other in
such a way that each frame shields those behind it, the shielding effect is assumed to increase
up to the ninth frame and to remain constant thereafter.
The wind loads are calculated as follows :
On the 1st. frame
F1 = A.q.Cf
in N
F2 = .A.q.Cf
in N
Fn = (n-1).A.q.Cf
F9 = 8.A.q.Cf
in N
in N
in N
in N
Note - The term x used in the above formula is assumed to have a longer limit of 0.10. It is taken
x
as 0.10 whenever < 0.10.
2 - 29
In calculating the "face-on" wind load on square towers, in the absence of a detailed calculation,
the solid area of the windward face is multiplied by the following overall force coefficient :
For towers composed of flat sided sections
1,7 (1 + )
For towers composed of circular sections
where D.Vs < 6 m2/s
1,1 (1 + )
2
where D.Vs 6 m /s
1,4
The value of is taken from table 2.2.4.1.4.2. for a/b = 1 according to the solidity ratio of the
windward face.
The maximum wind load on a square tower occurs when the wind blows on to a corner. In the
absence of a detailed calculation, this load can be considered as 1.2 times that developed with
"face-on" wind on one side.
2.2.4.1.4.4. Parts inclined in relation to the wind direction
S is the area in m2 of all (bracing and main) members of the truss or tower projected on to its
windward plane.
The value of K2 is assumed to have lower and upper limits of 0.35 and 1.0 respectively. It is taken
as 0.35 whenever the calculated value < 0.35 and as 1.0 whenever the calculated value > 1.0.
2 - 30
2 - 31
2 - 32
Loadings resulting from the working load are taken into account but the effects of load swing
resulting from the stock are neglected because this swing only loads the structure when the
other effects have been practically absorbed. This comment does not apply to rigidly guide loads
which cannot swing.
2 - 33
A1
1,00
A2
1,02
A3
1,05
A4
1,08
A5
1,11
A6
1,14
A7
1,17
A8
1,20
2 - 34
10
In a travel motion, for instance, the loads due to the vertical reaction on the rail wheels and the
transverse loads that stress the wheel axle but are not transmitted to the components of the
driving mechanism.
2 - 35
M1
1,00
M2
1,04
M3
1,08
M4
1,12
M5
1,16
M6
1,20
M7
1,25
M8
1,30
2 - 37
2 - 38
SM max I = ( S ML + S MF ) m
In this case the load due to the hoisting acceleration is neglected because it is small compared
to SML.
Case III :
Bearing in mind the general rules of clause 2.6.3.1., it is assumed that the maximum loads that
can be transmitted to hoisting mechanisms are limited in practice to 1,6 times the SM max I load 11.
11
In a hoisting motion it is impossible under normal working conditions to transmit to the mechanism loads
greater than those due to the hoisting of the working load, as the effects of acceleration are negligible.
A greater load could result only from mishandling (poor judgement of the load, etc.).
On the basis of experience gained over many years of practice with widely differing hoisting
appliances it is now accepted that a coefficient of 1,6 gives adequate safety. It must be stressed
that the use of excessively powerful motors should be avoided.
12
Whereas in the case of hoisting motions the loads normally transmitted to the mechanism are limited by the
load lifted, in horizontal motions the maximum torque of the motor can always be transmitted to the
mechanism if no mechanical limitation exists. This is why a different way of evaluating SM max III has been
specified according to whether a hoist motion or other motion is being considered.
2 - 39
13
Case III :
The load caused by applying the maximum motor torque SMC max III can be taken for the maximum
value SM max III This often unduly high value is always acceptable since it enhances safety.
It must be used when the power involved for raising the centres of gravity of the moving masses
is negligible compared to the power needed to overcome accelerations or wind effects.
Conversely, when the effect of the accelerations or the wind is negligible in comparison with the
effect of displacing the centres of gravity of the moving masses vertically, this value is too high
and SM max III can be calculated from the formula :
SM max III = 1,6 SM max II
Between these two limiting values, each individual case should be examined according to the
motor chosen, the method of starting and the relative magnitudes of the loads due to inertia and
wind effects on the one hand and those due to raising of the centres of gravity on the other.
Without exception, when operating conditions limit the torque actually transmitted to the
mechanism (see clause 2.6.4.2.), this limiting torque will be taken as the value of SMC max if it is
less than the values defined above.
13
2 - 40
APPENDIX
A.2.1.1. - HARMONISATION OF THE CLASSES OF UTILIZATION OF
APPLIANCES AND MECHANISMS
The present appendix sets out to demonstrate a method by which it is possible in many cases to
derive the class of utilization of mechanisms from that of appliances as a whole and from certain
parameters characterising the duty to be performed.
The starting point is the average duration tmc (in seconds) of a hoisting cycle as defined in clause
2.1.2.2. This is therefore the time necessary to perform all the operations in such a cycle.
The total duration of use T of the appliance, expressed in hours, is then given by the relation :
T = N.tmc / 3600
Where N represents the number of hoisting cycles determining the class of utilization of the
appliance.
Table T.A.2.1.1.1. gives the values of T for cycle durations of 30 - 480 s in accordance with the
class of utilization of the appliance. The number of hoisting cycles is the maximum number for
this class of utilization ; these values are, however, adjusted to 15 625, 31 250 and 62 500
respectively for class U0, U1 and U2, in order to reduce the number of different values for T.
The next step is to determine for each mechanism the ratio i between the duration of use of the
mechanism during a hoisting cycle and the average duration tmc of the cycle.
Table T.A.2.1.1.2. gives the total durations of use Ti of the mechanism depending on the total
duration of use of the appliance, and for various conventional values of the ratio i . This table
also shows the class of utilization of the mechanism. The various classes are represented by
the stepped areas.
It is thus sufficient to determine the class of utilization of the appliance by reference to table
T.2.1.2.2., the average duration of the hoisting cycle and the values of i in order to obtain the
classes of utilization of the mechanisms.
From the curves of the nomogram T.A.2.1.1.3. the classes of utilization for the mechanisms in
terms of these three parameters can be found directly.
2 - 41
U1
U2
U3
U4
U5
U6
U7
U8
U9
30
130
260
520
1 040
2 085
4 165
8 335
16 665
33 335
> 33 335
45
195
390
780
1 565
3 125
6 250
12 500
25 000
50 000
> 50 000
60
260
520
1 040
2 085
4 165
8 335
16 665
33 335
66 665
> 66 665
75
325
650
1 300
2 605
5 210
10 415
20 835
41 665
83 335
> 83 335
90
390
780
1 565
3 125
6 250
12 500
25 000
50 000
120
520 1 040
2 085
4 165
8 335
16 665
33 335
66 665
150
650 1 300
2 605
5 210 10 415
20 835
41 665
83 335
180
780 1 565
3 125
6 250 12 500
25 000
50 000
240
1 040 2 085
4 165
8 335 16 665
33 335
66 665
300
1 300 2 605
5 210
10 415 20 835
41 665
83 335
360
1 565 3 125
6 250
12 500 25 000
50 000
100 000
420
1 825 3 645
7 290
14 585 29 165
58 335
480
2 085 4 165
8 335
16 665 33 335
66 665
2 - 42
Table T.A.2.1.1.2. - Total duration of use Ti (in hours) of mechanisms in terms of T and i
Values of i
T
(h)
130
195
260
325
390
520
650
780
1 040
1 300
1 565
1 825
2 085
2 605
3 125
3 645
4 165
5 210
6 250
7 290
8 335
10 415
12 500
14 585
16 665
20 835
25 000
29 165
33 335
41 665
50 000
58 335
66 665
83 335
100 000
116 665
133 335
166 665
200 000
> 200 000
1,00
130
195
260
325
390
520
650
780
1 040
1 300
1 565
1 825
2 085
2 605
3 125
3 645
4 165
5 210
6 250
7 290
8 335
10 415
12 500
14 585
16 665
20 835
25 000
29 165
33 335
41 665
50 000
58 335
66 665
83 335
100 000
116 665
133 335
166 665
200 000
> 200 000
0,63
0,40
0,25
0,16
82
123
164
205
246
328
410
491
655
819
986
1 150
1 314
1 641
1 969
2 296
2 624
3 282
3 938
4 593
5 251
6 561
7 875
9 189
10 499
13 126
15 750
18 374
21 001
26 249
31 500
36 751
41 999
52 501
63 000
73 499
84 001
104 999
126 000
> 126 000
52
78
104
130
156
208
260
312
416
520
626
730
834
1 042
1 250
1 458
1 666
2 084
2 500
2 916
3 334
4 166
5 000
5 834
6 666
8 334
10 000
11 666
13 334
16 666
20 000
23 334
26 666
33 334
40 000
46 666
53 334
66 666
80 000
> 80 000
33
49
65
81
98
130
163
195
260
325
391
456
521
651
781
911
1 041
1 303
1 563
1 823
2 084
2 604
3 125
3 646
4 166
5 209
6 250
7 291
8 334
10 416
12 500
14 584
16 666
20 834
25 000
29 166
33 334
41 666
50 000
> 50 000
21
31
42
52
62
83
104
125
166
208
250
292
334
417
500
583
666
834
1 000
1 166
1 334
1 666
2 000
2 334
2 666
3 334
4 000
4 666
5 334
6 666
8 000
9 334
10 666
13 334
16 000
18 666
21 334
26 666
32 000
> 32 000
0,10
13
20
26
33
39
52
65
78
104
130
157
183
209
261
313
365
417
521
625
729
834
1 042
1 250
1 459
1 667
2 084
2 500
2 917
3 334
4 167
5 000
5 834
6 667
8 334
10 000
11 667
13 334
16 667
20 000
> 20 000
Class of
utilization for
mechanism
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
2 - 43
2 - 44
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
Dockside cargo crane.
The class of utilization for the appliance will be U5.
A hoisting cycle comprises the following operations :
- hoisting of load ;
- travelling ;
- slewing ;
- lowering ;
- unhooking of load ;
- hoisting empty ;
- slewing ;
- travelling ;
- lowering empty ;
- hooking on of new load.
The average time for completion of the cycle will be estimated at 150 s.
The ratios i will be estimated as follows :
- hoisting (hoisting and lowering) :
- slewing (2 directions) :
- travelling (do.) :
i = 0.63
i = 0.25
i = 0.10
Ti = 13 126 h
Ti = 5 209 h
Ti = 2 084 h
T7
T5
T4
From the curves in table T.A.2.1.1.3. the same conclusions are drawn on the basis of the
ordinate tmc = 150 s (broken line).
2 - 45
is the total mass of all elements, other than the load, undergoing the same pure linear
motion as the point of suspension of the load ;
Ii
the moment of inertia of a part undergoing a rotation during the motion under consideration,
this moment of inertia being considered about the axis of rotation, and
wi
the angular velocity of the part referred to, about its axis of rotation, corresponding to the
linear velocity v of the point of suspension of the load.
The sum covers all parts in rotation (structure, mechanisms, motor) during the motion
considered. However, in the case of mechanisms, the inertia of components other than those
directly coupled to the motor shaft can be ignored.
Mean acceleration or deceleration ( Jm ) :
Jm = F / (m + m1 )
where m1 is the mass of the load.
2 - 46
T1 = 2 . . ( l / g )0,5
l=
the length of suspension of the load when it is in its uppermost position (values of l below
2,00 m need not be taken into consideration) and,
g = the acceleration due to gravity.
Value of :
= m1 / m
When the system driving the motion controls the acceleration and the deceleration and
maintains it at a constant value, is taken equal to 0 irrespective of the masses m and m1.
Value of :
= Tm / T1
Value of h :
With the values obtained for and , the graph in figure A.2.2.1. is used to find the corresponding
value h.
Inertia forces to be considered in the design of the structure :
The forces of inertia which take account of dynamic effects and which must therefore be
considered in the structural calculations are obtained as follows :
- Inertia force due to the load :
h . Fcm
- Inertia force on moving parts other than the load : twice the mean inertia forces.
3. - JUSTIFICATION
A justification of the method given above follows in part 2 of this appendix.
2 - 47
2 - 48
2 - 49
Figure A.2.1.
It must not be forgotten however that F originates in the braking torque applied to the travel
mechanism which must not only brake the travel inertia of the crane and the load but also the
rotational inertia of the driving motor and the intervening machinery. Generally speaking, one can
neglect the rotating inertia of all components other than those integral with the motor shaft. In
many cases, however, the inertia of the latter must be taken into account and the relation (2.1.1.)
holds good only provided that m incorporates an equivalent mass me given by the relation :
me . v2 = Im . m2
(2.1.2.)
where :
Im
is the moment of inertia of all the components integral with the motor shaft (including the
motor itself, of course) and
the angular velocity of the motor corresponding to the travelling speed v of the crane.
Under the effect of the deceleration Jm, the suspension rope cannot retain its vertical position. Its
new position of equilibrium is inclined to the vertical at an angle m given by the relation :
(2.1.3.)
m = arctg( Jm / g )
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. In this case the rope exerts a horizontal force on the
crane whose projection Fcm on the x axis is given by :
Fcm = m1 . Jm
2 - 50
(2.1.4.)
In point of fact, the system is not rigid, the deceleration is not constant and is not therefore given
by (2.1.1.), the load and its suspension rope adopt an oscillating motion, and the horizontal force
developed by the rope on the crane can assume values differing greatly from (2.1.4.).
By a similar reasoning, one may conclude that the deceleration of the system gives rise to inertia
forces which act on each component part of the crane and the crab, but that because of the
elasticity of the girders the system will undergo an oscillating motion in the course of which the
stresses will be subject to fluctuations which must be estimated.
The next two paragraphs deal in succession with the effect of the inertia forces on the load and
on the girders.
2 - 51
(2.2.2.)
m . x = m1 . g [( x1 - x ) / l] - F
(2.2.3.)
x1 = x = 0
(2.2.4.)
x'1 = x' = v
(2.2.5.)
z = x1 - x = 0
(2.2.6.)
z = x1 - x = 0
(2.2.7.)
g / l = 12
(2.2.8.)
(m1 / m) . (g / l) = 22
(2.2.9.)
Let :
12 + 22 = r2
(2.2.10.)
F / m = J0
(2.2.11.)
(2.2.12.)
x" - 22 . z = - J0
(2.2.13.)
whence
2 - 52
z + r2 . z = J0
(2.2.14.)
With the initial conditions of (2.2.4.) to (2.2.7.), the solution to these equations is given by :
2
z = ( J0 / r ) . [1 - cos( r . t)]
J0 / r2 = zm
(2.2.15.)
(2.2.16.)
(2.2.17.)
it can then be seen without difficulty that zm is the position of equilibrium that can be assumed by
the load during a constant deceleration of the crane equal to the value Jm defined by (2.1.1.), i.e.
during the deceleration that would be obtained by applying the braking force F to the total mass
(crane plus load) in motion, this mass being assumed to constitute a rigid system. The value z =
zm defining the load displacement corresponds to the horizontal force Fcm, defined by (2.1.4.)
exerted by the rope on the crane. Comparison between (2.2.1.), (2.2.15.) and (2.2.17.) then
shows that :
(2.2.18.)
Fc = Fcm . [ 1 - cos(r . t) ]
If the deceleration period of the crane lasts for a time td such that :
r . td
(2.2.19.)
it will be seen that Fc momentarily becomes twice Fcm, or in other words, that its maximum value
Fc max is given by the relation :
(2.2.20.)
Fc max = 2 . Fcm
If the condition (2.2.19.) is not satisfied, this means that the crane has stopped before the load
has reached its maximum displacement z = 2 zm. However, after the crane stops, the load will
usually continue to oscillate, so the rope will continue to exert a varying horizontal force on the
crane, and the maximum value which this can attain must be sought.
It is easy to verify that after the crane has stopped, the motion of the load is defined by the
expression :
(2.2.21.)
z = zd . cos[ 1 . (t - td) ] + (zd / 1) . sin[ 1 . (t - td) ]
with
zd = zm . [ 1 - cos(r . td) ]
(2.2.22.)
(2.2.23.)
where td is the smallest positive value of t that makes the expression (2.2.16.) for x' equal to zero.
The maximum value Fc max assumed by Fc is then given by the relation :
2 - 53
2 - 54
(2.2.24.)
(2.2.25.)
the time for which the slowing-down phase of the crane would last if the
deceleration were constant and the system in motion not subject to deformation.
the period of oscillation of the pendulum system formed by the suspended load
(crane stopped).
T1 = 2 . ( l / g )0,5
It can be verified without difficulty that h depends only on two non-dimensional parameters
and defined by the ratios :
= m1 / m
(2.2.26.)
= Tm / T1
(2.2.27.)
which can be obtained very easily. It will be noted that (2.2.16.) can be written :
0,5
x = v . { 1 - [ r . t + . sin( r . t ) ] / [ 2 . ( 1 + )
]}
(2.2.28.)
and therefore :
[ r . td + . sin( r . td ) ] / [ 2 . ( 1 + )0,5 ] = 1
(2.2.29.)
this equation makes it possible to determine the value of r . td to be introduced into (2.2.24.).
The graph in figure (2.2.1.) plots the values of h against for various values of . (The curve
= 0 will be explained later in Chapter 5).
If < 1 (which is generally the case with overhead travelling crane travel motions, such as that in
the example dealt with), an analysis of the problem shows that h can in no case exceed 2. This
value is reached during the crane deceleration phase if the condition (2.2.19.) is satisfied or,
which is the same thing, if reaches or exceeds a certain critical value, crit dependent upon .
Above this critical value, h therefore remains constant and equal to 2, whatever the value of .
If > 1 (which could be the case with traverse motions, in which m essentially represents only
the mass of the crab, or with slewing motions), the same analysis shows that, again provided
reaches or exceeds a certain critical value crit dependent upon , h can exceed 2 and reach a
maximum given by :
h = [ 2 + + ( 1 / ) ]0,5
(2.2.30.)
2 - 55
2 - 56
This maximum can actually be reached only during the swinging motion of the load subsequent
to the bringing to rest of its point of suspension. The critical value crit is such that the crane is
halted before the condition (2.2.19.) is satisfied, or before Fc reaches 2 Fcm. However, any value
of greater than crit leads to the condition (2.2.19.) being satisfied and Fc necessarily passes
the value 2 Fcm , whence h > 2. It will also be noted that if > crit has been calculated taking v
equal to the maximum steady speed of the motion, braking applied starting from the initial speed
v . crit /
will necessarily lead to the maximum value of h given by (2.2.30.). This is the reason why, in the
graph of figure A.2.2.1., the values of h have been maintained for all values of greater than crit.
Figure A.2.2.1.
As regards the choice of T1, it should be noted that the danger of reaching high values of h is all
the greater as the suspension length l of the load becomes shorter, because then attains its
critical value more rapidly. The calculations must therefore be made assuming that the load is
near its uppermost position. In practice l will generally lie between 2 and 8 m. The table below
gives the values of T1 for a few values of l.
l
(m)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
T1 (s)
2,84
3.47
4.01
4.49
4.91
5.31
5.67
2 - 57
It remains for us to examine the effect of the horizontal force Fc max on the loading conditions
sustained by the structure.
This force actually exist, so that any components such as the crab which transmit it directly must
be designed to withstand it. The configuration of the load acting on the girder as a whole
therefore deserves some attention.
Let us first consider the case where Fc max occurs before the crane has come to halt. It would be
incorrect to consider the latter as a beam supported at both ends and subjected at its centre to
the force Fc max. One must not lose sight of the fact that each of the two supporting points can
transmit only a reaction F/2. The successive diagrams in figure A.2.2.2. illustrate how the
problem must be considered. Diagram "a" represents the ideal state of equilibrium, in which the
system as a whole is subjected to a deceleration Jm (or an acceleration
x" = - Jm) and in which the rope develops a force Fcm. Each material element dm of the system
therefore sustains an inertia force Jm dm. Diagram "a" is a superimposition of diagram "b" and
diagram "c". Diagram "b" relates to the load due to the inertia forces on the crane proper (this is
dealt with in paragraph 2.3.), while diagram "c" shows the effect of the load due to the rope. In
point of fact, the actual force developed by the rope is not the force Fcm represented in diagram "c"
but the force :
Fc max = h . Fcm
(2.2.31.)
Since the supporting points (braked wheels) are not capable of increasing their
reaction, the excess force (h - 1)Fcm can only result in a supplementary acceleration x"
expressed by :
x" = ( h - 1) . Fcm / m
(2.2.32.)
which is translated into a distributed load - x" dm on all material elements of the crane. Diagram
"d" consequently represents the loading configuration to be taken into account when designing
the girders.
Let us consider the case in which Fc max arises after the crane has halted. This time, the braked
wheels no longer have to devote part of the reaction of which they are capable to taking up the
inertia forces on the crane, and in general, must be regarded as being fixed. This being so, the
girder must be designed as if it were supported at each end and subjected to the force Fc max at
its centre. This latter case is in point of fact the only one which needs to be considered, because
when Fc reaches its maximum value 2 Fcm before the crane comes to a standstill this force can
still arise in the course of the pendulum motion which follows after it has stopped.
All the preceding considerations still hold good if, instead of considering a braking phase, one is
dealing with an acceleration phase of the crane, in the course of which it is speeded up, by a
constant driving torque, from rest to a given steady speed.
2 - 58
ACCELERATION
Figure A.2.2.2.
2 - 59
In almost all cases, it will suffice to represent a structure as being a simple oscillating system
having restoring forces proportional to the extension and subjected to the overall acceleration of
the reference system to which it is referred. In view of the note following expression (2.2.1.) the
considerations developed in paragraph 2.2. can be applied here also. However, the natural
period of the oscillations (comparable to the period T1 of paragraph 2.2.) is always appreciably
shorter than that of a suspended load, not exceeding a few tenths of a second in most cases.
The result of this is that the parameter corresponding to always exceeds the critical value crit,
so that h must always be taken equal to 2, this being the coefficient applicable to inertia loads
calculated with the mean deceleration Jm. The only exception that could be made to this rule
would be for extremely brief retardation phases, such as those resulting from braking a lowspeed travel motion, with the wheels slipping on the rails.
Because the oscillating motions of the structure have a high frequency, the maximum resulting
loadings are superimposed momentarily upon those due to the load.
2 - 60
is the moment of inertia of all parts in motion (structure, machinery, motor) referred to a
particular shaft,
is the total kinetic energy of the masses in motion when the horizontal linear velocity of the
suspension point of the load is equal to v.
2 - 61
6. - GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
Knowing the torque or the braking or accelerating force, the first step is to calculate the mean
deceleration or acceleration Jm, obtained on the assumption that the various parts of the
structure are perfectly rigid and the load is concentrated at its point of suspension. Using this
acceleration, one calculates the inertia forces acting on both the load and the various elements
of the structure. These forces are then-multiplied by a certain coefficient h in order to take
account of the elasticity of the various connections.
For the inertia forces acting on the structure h is always taken equal to 2, except possibly in the
special case mentioned in the penultimate paragraph of 2.3., provided justification can be
provided for the reduction.
In the case of the inertia forces acting on the load, the mass m is calculated (incorporating,
where necessary, the mass equivalent to the inertia of the motor and the mechanism) and the
mean deceleration or acceleration time Tm is then determined on the basis of the maximum
steady speed of the motion. The value of T1 depends on the suspension length of the load in its
uppermost position, and is therefore known. Hence one can determine the parameters and
( = 0 in the case of a regulated-acceleration system), and figure A.2.2.1. furnishes the
corresponding value h. In almost all cases, the maximum force appears or can appear after
completion of the braking or starting phase under consideration. Its effects on the structure can
be ascertained by applying the ordinary laws of statics.
It will be noted that the calculations developed in Chapter 2 assume the load to be relatively at
rest (z = z' = 0) at the initial time t = 0. If this is not so, the motion of the system is affected and h
can reach values considerably higher than those we have fixed. Such a situation could arise for
instance when a motion is braked by repeated intermittent applications of the brake, or when
successive motions take place at fairly short intervals. The method of calculation indicated above
is therefore not excessive in any way, and special cases exist in which it would be well to
exercise some caution in applying it.
2 - 62
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
F.E.M.
SECTION I
3rd EDITION
REVISED
1.001
1998.10.01
Booklet 3
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 3
3.1. THE CHOICE OF STEEL QUALITIES ................................................................................. 4
3.1.1. ASSESSMENT OF THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE BRITTLE FRACTURE ........ 4
3.1.1.1. INFLUENCE A : COMBINED EFFECT OF LONGITUDINAL RESIDUAL TENSILE
STRESSES WITH STRESSES FROM DEAD WEIGHT .....................................................................4
3.1.1.2. INFLUENCE B : THICKNESS OF MEMBER t........................................................................6
3.1.1.3. INFLUENCE C : INFLUENCE OF COLD ...............................................................................7
INTRODUCTION
The stresses set up in the various structural members are determined for the three cases of
loading defined under section 2.3., and a check is made to ensure that there is a sufficient
safety coefficient in respect of the critical stresses, considering the following three possible
causes of failure :
- exceeding the elastic limit ;
- exceeding the critical crippling or buckling load ;
- exceeding the limit of endurance to fatigue.
The quality of the steels used must be stated and the physical properties, chemical composition
and welding qualities must be guaranteed by the manufacturer of the material.
The permissible stresses for the materials used are determined as stipulated in clauses 3.2.,
3.3., 3.4. and 3.6. thereunder, with reference to the critical stresses for the material.
These critical stresses are those which correspond either to the elastic limit (which in practice,
involves establishing the stress corresponding to a critical limit for elongation), or to the critical
stress for crippling or buckling, or, in the case of fatigue, to the stress for which the probability of
survival, under tests, is 90 %.
The stresses in the structural members shall be calculated on the basis of the different cases of
loading envisaged under section 2.3. by applying conventional strength of materials calculation
procedures.
The sections of metal to be considered shall be the gross sections (i.e. without deducting the
areas of holes) for all parts which are subjected to compression loads 1, and the net sections
(i.e. with the areas of holes deducted) for all parts subjected to tensile loads.
In the case of a member subjected to bending, a half-net section should be assumed, taking the
net section in parts under tension and the gross section in parts under compression. To simplify
the calculations, however, one may use either the section modulus of the net section or the
section modulus computed for the half-net section, using as centre of gravity of the section that
of the gross section.
The area of the holes shall be included in the cross-sectional area only when they are filled by a rivet
or a bolt.
ZA = G / ( 0,5 . a )
ZA = G / ( 0,5 . a ) + 1
t = Thickness of member in mm
ZB = Assessing coefficient
for influence B
from t = 5 to t = 20 mm
ZB = 9 . t2 / 2500.
from t = 20 to t = 100 mm
ZB = 0,65 . ( t - 14,81 )0,5 -0,05
Thickness of member
Figure 3.1.1.2. - Assessing coefficient ZB = f (t)
t
mm
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
ZB
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,40
0,50
0,80
t
mm
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
ZB
0,9
1,45
2,0
2,5
2,9
3,2
3,5
3,8
4,0
t
mm
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
ZB
4,3
4,55
4,8
5,0
5,2
5,4
5,6
5,8
6,0
t* = d / 1,8
t* = t / 1,8
t* = b / 1,8
where b represents the larger side of the rectangle and the ratio of the sides b / t 1,8
For b / t > 1,8 then t* = t.
ZC
0,0
0,1
0,4
0,8
1,5
2,3
T
en C
- 30
- 35
- 40
- 45
- 50
- 55
ZC
3,4
4,5
5,6
6,7
7,9
9,0
Temperature T in C
Figure 3.1.1.3. - Assessing coefft. ZC = f (T)
Table T.3.1.2.
Classification of quality groups in relation to the sum of the assessing coefficients
Sum of the assessing coefficients
from paragraph 3.1.1.
Z = ZA + ZB + ZC
16
Quality
group
Notch ductility
measured in
ISO sharp notch
test ISO R 148
in Nm/cm2
35
35
35
Test temperature
Steels, corresponding
to the quality group
Standard
Tc C
+ 20
-20
Designation of steels
Fe 360 - A
Fe 430 - A
St 37 - 2
St 44 - 2
E 24 - 1
43 A 50 B
*
Fe 360 - B
Fe 430 - B
Fe 510 - B
R St 37-2
St 44-2
E 24 (A37) - 2
E 26 (A42) - 2
E 36 (A52) - 2
40 B 43 B
*
Fe 360 - C
Fe 430 - C
Fe 510 - C
St 37 - 3U
St 44 - 3U
St 52 - 3U
E 24 (A37) - 3
E 26 (A42) - 3
E 36 (A52) - 3
40 C 43 C
*
50 C 55 C
Fe 360 - D
Fe 410 - D
Fe 510 - D
St 37 - 3N
St 44 - 3N
St 52 - 3N
E 24 (A37) - 4
E 26 (A42) - 4
E 36 (A52) - 4
40 D 43 D
*
50 D 55 E
Euronorm 25
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360 1972
Euronorm 25
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360 1972
Euronorm 25
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360 1972
Euronorm 25
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360 1972
* The test requirements of steels to BS.4360 do not in all cases agree with the Euronorm and
other national standards, and the guaranteed impact test properties for steels to BS.4360 may
be different to other steels in the same quality group. Impact test properties are stated in BS.
4360 and where the requirements are different from those guaranteed in BS. 4360, agreement
must be obtained from the steel suppliers.
Case I
1,5
Case II
1,33
Case III
1,1
Permissible stresses a
E / 1,5
E / 1,33
E / 1,1
For carbon steels of current manufacture A.37 - A.42 - A.52 (also called E.24 - E.26 - E.36 or Fe
360 - Fe 510) the critical stress E is conventionally taken as that which corresponds to an
elongation of 0,2 %.
Table T.3.2.1.1. - Values of E and a for steels A.37 - A.42 - A.52
STEELS
Elastic limit
E
N/mm2
240
160
180
215
E 26 (A.42)
260
175
195
240
360
240
270
325
Note : It should be noted that when two out of the three stresses are approximately of the same
value, and greater than half the permissible stress, the most unfavourable combination of the
three values may occur in different loading cases from those corresponding to the maximum of
each of the three stresses.
Special case :
- Tension (or compression) combined with shear
The following formula should be checked :
( 2 + 3 . 2 )0,5 a
Taking the effect of the clamping force into account, the calculated shearing stress must not
exceed :
= 0,6 . a in the case of single shear
and
= 0,8 . a in the case of double or multiple shear
where a is the permissible tensile stress of the metal used for the rivet.
single shear
2 - Rivets in tension
a) Rivets subjected to tension should be avoided, particularly for the main members ;
b) all joints must have at least two rivets aligned in the direction of the force.
3.2.2.2. BOLTED JOINTS
3.2.2.2.0. GENERAL
Bolted joints may be subjected to stresses due to forces acting perpendicular to the joint (joints
by tension bolts), due to forces acting parallel to the joint surfaces, and due to forces acting
simultaneously perpendicular and parallel to the joint surface.
3.2.2.2.1. JOINTS MADE WITH TENSION BOLTS WITH CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
1 - General
A joint by tension bolts with controlled tightening is a joint in which the main tension is in the
direction of the axis of the bolt, screw or threaded rod and which has been subject to a
tightening effect, applied in the absence of any external load, which is recommended for all
joints subjected to fatigue.
Care must be taken to ensure that the bolt is not subjected to shear loading. These bolts do not
come into the category of H.S. bolts but may be used if they fulfil the conditions of 3.2.2.2.2.3.
Care should be taken to ensure that the bolts are correctly tightened and that the tightening is
permanent (tolerance +/- 10 %). Factor = 1,1 is introduced to take account of tolerances.
During the application of the initial tightening on the bolt, under the combined effect of tension
and torsional loading the stress should not exceed 80 % of the elastic limit, taking account of
the scatter in applying the initial tightening.
b = (p 2 + 3 . b2 )0,5 0,8 E
b = [ ( 2 . d2 . p ) / dt ] . [ pa / ( . d2 ) + 1,155 . ]
where :
p
=
b
=
d2
=
dt
=
=
pa
=
E =
a) Under the maximum load, taking into account the safety coefficient and , the elastic limit
of the bolt must not be exceeded.
1 = ( b2 - 3 . b2 )0,5
determine :
check that :
F1 / Sb ( 1 - p ) / ( . . b ) where :
For bolts whose shank diameter differs considerably from the root diameter of the thread and
where there is an appreciable threaded length remaining in the part submitted to stress, a
complete calculation of l2 should be made.
b) Under the maximum load with application of coefficients , ' and " separation of the parts
should not occur.
1 = F1 / Sb p / [ ' . ' . ( 1 - b ) . ]
Safety coefficients , ' and '
depends on the surface state of the parts to be tightened (machined surface = 1 )
' corresponds to safety in relation to the elastic limit in accordance with table T.3.2.2.2.
'' corresponds to safety against separation of the parts.
Table T.3.2.2.2.
Case I
Case II
Case III
1,50
1,33
1,1
1,3
1,0
1,0
Note : The coefficients and should be applied to the most unfavourable condition arising
from the scatter in applying the initial tightening effort.
C - Checking for fatigue
Checking bolts for fatigue is carried out solely for case I loads.
Under the effect of the service load F1, the true tensile stress varies between the values :
p
and
p + ( F1 . b ) / Sb
3.2.2.2.2. BOLTED JOINTS SUBJECTED TO FORCES ACTING PARALLEL TO THE JOINT PLANE
0,6 . a
or
0,8 . a
and that
( 2 + 3 . 2 )0,5 a
= 1,33
= 1,1
A.37
Case II Case
III
Case I
A.42
Case II Case
III
Case I
A.52
Case II Case
III
Longitudinal equivalent
stresses for all types
160
180
215
175
195
240
240
270
325
160
180
215
175
195
240
240
270
325
140
158
185
153
170
210
210
236
285
113
127
152
124
138
170
170
191
230
160
180
215
175
195
240
240
270
325
130
146
175
142
158
195
195
220
265
113
127
152,
124
138
170
170
191
230
of welds
Transverse tensile
stresses
1) Butt-welds and
special
quality K welds
2) Ordinary quality Kwelds
3) Fillet welds
Transverse compressive
stresses
1) Butt-welds and K
welds
2) Fillet welds
Shear
All tapes of welds
Case
I
II
III
I
II
III
Buckling safety V
1,70 + 0,175 ( - 1)
1,50 + 0,125 ( - 1)
1,35 + 0,075 ( - 1)
1,70
1,50
1,35
This ratio, which varies from + 1 to - 1, is positive if the extreme stresses are both of the same
sense (fluctuating stresses) and negative when the extreme stresses are of opposite sense
(alternating stresses).
.APPENDIX
A - 3.2.2.2.2.3. DESIGN OF JOINTS USING HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS WITH
CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
Clause 3.2.2.2.2.3. determines the general requirements to be observed for the execution of
joints with high strength bolts.
This appendix gives some directions on the preparation of the surfaces to be joined, the friction
coefficients obtained and the tightening methods.
Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction used for the calculation of the force transmitted by friction depends
upon the joined material and upon the preparation of the surfaces.
A minimum preparation before jointing will consist in removing every trace of dust, rust, oil and
paint by energetic brushing with a clean metallic brush. Oil stains must be removed by flame
cleaning or by the application of suitable chemical products (carbon tetrachloride, for instance).
A more careful preparation will increase the coefficient of friction. This could be sandblasting,
shotblasting or oxy-acetylene flame cleaning clone not more than five hours before tightening ;
brushing must be alone just prior to jointing.
The coefficients of friction are given in the following table.
Table T.A.3.2.2.2.2.3.1. - Values of
Normally prepared surfaces
(degreasing and brushing)
0,30
0,50
E-26 (A.42)
0,30
0,50
0,30
0,55
Joined material
It is necessary to insert two washers, one under the boit head, the other under the nut. These
washers must have a 45 bevel, at least on the internal rim, and turned towards the boit head or
the nut. They must be heat-treated in order that their hardness shall be at least equal to that of
the metal constituting the boit
Bolt tighteninq
The value of the tension induced in the bolt must reach the value determined by calculation.
This tension, resulting from tightening, can be measured by calculation of the torque to be
applied to the boit and given by the formula :
Ma = 1,10 . C . d .F
where :
Ma is the torque to be applied in Nm
d
is a coefficient depending on the thread form,the friction coefficient or the threads and
between the nut and the washer.
With metric-threaded bolts and washers as delivered (slightly oiled, without rust or dust) :
C = 0,18
The tensile stress in the boit must not exceed that defined under clause 3.2.2.2.2.
Value of the tensile stress area of the bolts
When determining the stress in the bolt, the tensile stress area shall be calculated by taking the
arithmetic mean of the core (minor) diameter and the effective thread diameter. These values
are given in the following table :
Nominal
diameter
( mm )
Tensile
stress area
( mm2 )
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
27
30
36,6
58
84,3
115
157
192
245
303
353
459
561
R
N/mm2
> 1,15 . E
> 1,12 . E
> 1,10 . E
The diameter of holes shall not exceed by more than 2 mm the diameter of the bolt.
The following table gives per bolt and per friction surface, the values of the transmissible forces
in the plane parallel to that of the joint for bolts of 1000 - 1200 N/mm2 with an elastic limit of E =
90O N/mm2 for various friction coefficients for the steels A. 37, A.42 and A. 52.
To apply these figures, the number of effective friction surfaces as indicated in the drawing
below must be determined.
1 friction surface m = 1
2 friction surfaces m = 2
3 friction surfaces m = 3
Table T.A.3.2.2.2.2.3.2.
Transmissible forces in the plane of the joint per bolt and per friction surface
Bolts of 1000/1200 N/mm2 : E = 90O N/mm2
with means of preventing stripping of the threads : a = 0,8 . E
Boltdiameter
Tensile
stress
area
mm
mm
10
Normally prepared
surfaces
Steels
A-37, A-42, A-52
= 0,30
Case
Case Case
III
II
I
kN
kN
kN
Steel
A-52
= 0,55
Case
Case
III
II
kN
kN
Clamping
force
Applied
torque
kN
Nm
58
41,7
82,7
8,3
9,4
11,4
13,9
15,7
18,9
15,2
17,2
20,8
12
84,3
60,6
144,0
12,1
13,6
16,5
20,2
22,8
27,5
22,2
25,0
30,3
14
115
82,7
229,0
16,5
18,6
22,5
27,5
31,0
37,6
30,2
34,2
41,4
16
157
113,0
358,0
22,6
25,5
30,8
37,7
42,5
51,4
41,5
46,8
56,5
18
192
138,0
492,0
27,6
31,0
37,6
46,0
51,8
62,7
50,6
57,0
69,0
20
245
176,0
697,0
35,2
39,7
48,0
58,5
66,1
80,0
64,5
72,7
88,0
22
303
218,0
950,0
43,6
49,3
59,7
72,5
82,0
99,0
80,0
90,2
109,0
24
353
254,0
1200,0
50,8
57,1
69,4
84,5
95,5
115,5
93,1
105,0
127,0
27
459
330,0
1760,0
66,0
74,2
90,0
110,0
124,0
150,0
121,0
136,0
165,0
Case
I
kN
For a bolt with an elastic limit of E the values of the forces and of the torques indicated in this
table are to be multiplied by the ratio E /9oo.
Where no special measures are taken to avoid stripping of the threads ( a = 0,7 . E ) these
values are to be divided by 1,14.
The stresses min and max for the fatigue strength calculations for the parent metal beside
the weld seam, can therefore in general be computed using the classical methods for
calculating the strength of meterials.
In order to verify the fatigue strength of the weld itself, it is generally held that it suffices to
confirm that it is capable of transmitting the same loads as the adjacent parent metal.
This rule is not obligatory however when the parts jointed are generously dimensioned in
relation to the forces actually transmitted. When this is the case it suffices to dimension the
weld seam in accordance with those forces, with the proviso that a fatigue check should then
be performed in accordance with appendix A-3.6.
Whatever the case it is emphasised that the size of a weld should invariably be in proportion
to the thickness of the assembled parts.
Special cases
In certain cases of assembly by welding, particularly when there is a transverse load (i.e.
perpendicular to the weld seam), the permissible stresses must be reduced (see clause
3.2.2.3.).
3 - Because of the uncertainty which exist at present about the effect of fixity on bars in
compression between two connections, the effects of fixity are not taken into consideration
and the bar is designed as if it were hinged at both ends, the effective length therefore being
taken as the length between points of intersection of axes.
The case of bars subjected to compression and bending :
In the case of bars loaded eccentrically or loaded axially with a moment causing bending in the
bar :
- either check the following two formulae :
F / S + ( M f . v ) / I a
and
. F / S + 0,9 . Mf . v / I a
where :
F is the compressive load applied to the bar,
S is the section area of the bar,
Mf is the bending moment at the section considered,
v is the distance of the extreme fibre from the neutral axis,
I
- or perform the precise calculation in terms of the deformations sustained by the bar under the
combined effect of bending and compression, the necessary calculation being effected either
by integration or by successive approximations.
20
1,04
1,04
1,04
1,05
1,05
1,06
1,06
1,07
1,07
1,08
30
1,08
1,09
1,09
1,10
1,10
1,11
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,13
40
1,14
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,16
1,17
1,18
1.19
1,19
1,20
50
1,21
1,22
1,23
1,23
1,24
1,25
1,26
1,27
1,28
1,29
60
1,30
1,31
1,32
1,33
1,34
1,35
1,36
1,37
1,39
1,40
70
1,41
1,42
1,44
1,45
1,46
1,48
1,49
1,50
1,52
1,53
80
1,55
1,56
1,58
1,59
1,61
1,62
1,64
1,66
1,68
1,69
90
1,71
1,73
1,74
1,76
1,78
1,80
1,82
1,84
1,86
1,88
100
1,90
1,92
1,94
1,96
1,98
2,00
2,02
2,05
2,07
2,09
110
2,11
2,14
2,16
2,18
2,21
2,23
2,27
2,31
2,35
2,39
120
2,43
2,47
2,51
2,55
2,60
2,64
2,68
2,72
2,77
2,81
130
2,85
2,90
2,94
2,99
3,03
3,08
3,12
3,17
3,22
3,26
140
3,31
3,36
3,41
3,45
3,50
3,55
3,60
3,65
3,70
3,75
150
3,80
3,85
3,90
3.95
4,00
4,06
4,11
4,16
4,22
4,27
160
4,32
4,38
4,43
4,49
4,54
4,60
4,65
4,71
4,77
4,82
170
4,88
4,94
5,00
5,05
5,11
5,17
5,23
5,29
5,35
5,41
180
5,47
5,53
5,59
5,66
5,72
5,78
5,84
5,91
5,97
6,03
190
6,10
6,16
6,23
6,29
6,36
6,42
6,49
6,55
6,62
6,69
200
6,75
6,82
6,89
6,96
7,03
7,10
7,17
7,24
7,31
7,38
210
7,45
7,52
7,59
7,66
7,73
7,81
7,88
7,95
8,03
8,10
220
8,17
8,25
8,32
8,40
8,47
8,55
8,63
8,70
8,78
8,86
230
8,93
9,01
9,09
9,17
9,25
9,33
9,41
9,49
9,57
9,65
240
9,73
9,81
9,89
9,97
10,05
10,14
10.22
10,30
10,39
10,47
250
10,55
20
1,06
1,06`
1,07
1,07
1,08
1,08
1,09
1,09
1,10
1,11
30
1,11
1,12
1,12
1,13
1,14
1,15
1,15
1,16
1,17
1,18
40
1,19
1,19
1,20
1,21
1,22
1.23
1,24
1,25
1,26
1,27
50
1,28
1,30
1,31
1,32
1,33
1,35
1,36
1,37
1,39
1,40
60
1,41
1,43
1,44
1,46
1,48
1,49
1,51
1,53
1,54
1,56
70
1,58
1,60
1,62
1,64
1,66
1,68
1,70
1,72
1.74
1,77
80
1.79
1,81
1,83
1,86
1,88
1,91
1.93
1,95
1,98
2,01
90
2,05
2,10
2,14
2.19
2,24
2,29
2,33
2,38
2,43
2,48
100
2,53
2,58
2,64
2,69
2,74
2,79
2,85
2,90
2,95
3,01
110
3,06
3,12
3,18
3,23
3,29
3,35
3,41
3,47
3.53
3.59
120
3,65
3,71
3,77
3,83
3,89
3,96
4,02
4,09
4,15
4,22
130
4,28
4,35
4,41
4,48
4,55
4,62
4,69
4,75
4,82
4,89
140
4,96
5,04
5,11
5,18
5,25
5,33
5,40
5,47
5.55
5,62
150
5,70
5,78
5,85
5,93
6,01
6,09
6,16
6,24
6,32
6,40
160
6,48
6,57
6,65
6,73
6,81
6,90
6,98
7,06
7,15
7,21
170
7,32
7,41
7,49
7,58
7,67
7,76
7,85
7,94
8,03
8,12
180
8,21
8,30
8,39
8,48
8,58
8,67
8,76
8,86
8,95
9,05
190
200
9,14
10,13
9,24
10,23
9,34
10,34
9,44
10,44
9,53
10,54
9,63
10,65
9,73
10,75
9,83
10,85
9.93
10,96
10,03
11,06
210
11,17
11,28
11,38
11,49
11,60
11,71
11,82
11,93
12,04
12,15
220
12,26
12,37
12,48
12,60
12,71
12,82
12,94
13,05
13,17
13,28
230
13,40
13,52
13,63
13,75
13,87
13,99
14,11
14,23
14,35
14,47
240
14,59
14,71
14,83
14,96
15,08
15,20
15,33
15,45
15,58
15,71
250
15,83
20
1,00
1,00
1,00
1,00
1,01
1,01
1,01
1,02
1,02
1,02
30
1,03
1,03
1,04
1,04
1,04
1,05
1,05
1,05
1,06
1,06
40
1,07
1,07
1,08
1,08
1,09
1,09
1,10
1,10
1,11
1,11
50
1,12
1,13
1,11
1,14
1,15
1,15
1,16
1,17
1,17
1,18
60
1,19
1,20
1,20
1,21
1,22
1,23
1,24
1,25
1,26
1,27
70
1,28
1,29
1,30
1,31
1,32
1,33
1,34
1,35
1,36
1,37
80
1,39
1,40
1,41
1,42
1,44
1,46
1,47
1,48
1,50
1,51
90
1,53
1,54
1,56
1,58
1,59
1,61
1,63
1,64
1,66
1,68
100
1,70
1,73
1,76
1,79
1,83
1,87
1,90
1,94
1,97
2,01
110
2,05
2,08
2,12
2,16
2,20
2,23
20
1,02
1,02
1,02
1,03
1,03
1,03
1,04
1,04
1,05
1,05
30
1,05
1,06
1,06
1,07
1,07
1,08
1,08
1,09
1,10
1,10
40
1,11
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,13
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,16
1,17
50
1,18
1,19
1,20
1,21
1,22
1,23
1,24
1,25
1,26
1,27
60
1,28
1,30
1,31
1,32
1,33
1,35
1,36
1,38
1,39
1,41
70
1,42
1,44
1,46
1,47
1,49
1,51
1,53
1,55
1,57
1,59
80
1,62
1,66
1,71
1,75
1,79
1,83
1,88
1,92
1,97
2,01
90
2,05
{ { [ ( 1 + ) / 4 ] . ( /
cr
Table T.A.3.4.1.
Value of the buckling coefficients and for plates supported at their four edges
No.
1
=a/b
1
CASE
Simple uniform compression
Non-uniform compression
Pure shear
= 4
or
= ( + 1 / )2
= 8,4 / ( + 1,1 )
= 2,1 . ( + 1 / )2 / ( + 1,1 )
2/3
= 23,9
2/3
= ( 1 + ) . - . + 10 . . ( 1 + )
where :
= value of for = 0 in case n 2
= value of for pure bending (case n. 3)
1
= 5,34 + 4 / 2
= 4 + 5,34 / 2
Table T.A.3.4.2. - Values of and the reduced critical stresses vcr , vcr.c and vcr
(N/mm2)
vcr
vcr
vcr
vcr
v
v
v
or
or
or
or
cr
cr
cr
vcr
v
v
v
v
cr.c
cr.c
cr.c
cr.c
calculated
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
280
300
340
calculated
reduced
reduced
110
113
114
116
117
118
119
120
122
124
128
calculated
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
380
400
440
calculated
reduced
reduced
168
169
172
174
175
176
177
178
180
182
185
shear stress :
( 810 . 103 - 162 . 0,625 . 103 ) / ( 10 . 1500 ) = 47 N/mm2
Bending (case 4 - compression preponderant) :
= 0,22 / -0,28 = -0,79
giving
= ( 1 + ) . - . + 10 . . ( 1 + )
in which
and
= 23,9
whence
and
Conclusion :
The comparison stress in the case of tension (or compression) combined with shear is given in
clause 3.2.1.3.
( 2 + 3 2 )0,5 = 86 N/mm2.
This value is smaller than the critical buckling stress given in 3.4. (with V = 1,4)
168 / 1,4 = 120 N/mm2 for loading case I.
The permissible buckling stress is therefore not exceeded in loading case I.
Naturally, a check must also be made to ensure that the permissible buckling stresses are not
exceeded in loading cases II and III.
Checking of buckling for circular cylinders :
Thin wall circular cylinders such as, for exempla, large tubes, which are subject to central or
eccentric axial compression have to be checked for local buckling if :
t / r 25 . E / E
where :
t = thickness of the wall ;
r = radius from the middle of the wall thickness ;
E = elastic limit of the steel type, as in table T. 3.2.1.1.
E = modulus of elasticity, see A-3.4.
The ideal buckling stress vi can be determined from :
vi = 0,2 E . t / r
In all cases where vi is situated above the limit of proportionality of the structural steel, the ideal
buckling stress vi has to be reduced to v by means of the factor .
At a maximum spacing of 10 . r, transverse stiffeners have to be provided whose moment of
inertia has to be at least :
I = 0,5 . r . t3 / ( r / t )0,5
The moment of inertia is calculated from the following formulae :
1 - Central disposition of the stiffener F (centre of gravity of the stiffener section in the median
plane of the wall thickness).
2 - Eccentric disposition of the stiffener F (centre of gravity of the stiffener section F2 outside the
median plane of the wall 1). .
I = I1 + I2 + F1 . e12 + F2 . e22
It is accepted that this calculation of vi and v respectively takes account of geometrical
divergences between the real and the ideal cylinder surfaces due to local construction defects
up to a dimension of t / 2.
Table T.A.3.6.1.
Values of W depending on the component group and construction case (N/mm2)
Component
group
E1
Welded components
Unwelded components
Construction cases
Construction cases
(Steels St 37 to St 52, Fe 360 to Fe 510)
W0
W1
W2
Fe 360
Fe 360
Fe 360
K1
K2
K3
K4
St 37
St 52
St 37
St 52
St 37
St 52
K0
St 44 Fe 510 St 44 Fe 510 St 44 Fe 510
249,1 298,0 211,7 253,3 174,4 208,6 (361,9) (323,1) (271,4) 193,9 116,3
E2
224,4
261,7
190,7
222,4
157,1
183,2
(293,8)
262,3
220,3
157,4
94,4
E3
202,2
229,8
171,8
195,3
141,5
160,8
238,4
212,9
178,8
127,7
76,6
E4
182,1
201,8
154,8
171,5
127,5
141,2
193,5
172,8
145,1
103,7
62,2
E5
164,1
177,2
139,5
150,6
114,9
124,0
157,1
140,3
117,8
84,2
50,5
E6
147,8
155,6
125,7
132,3
103,5
108,9
127,5
113,8
95,6
68,3
41,0
E7
133,2
136,6
113,2
116,2
93,2
95,7
103,5
92,4
77,6
55,4
33,3
E8
120,0
120,0
102,0
102,0
84,0
84,0
84,0
75,0
63,0
45,0
27,0
The values in brackets are greater than 0,75 times the breaking stress and are only theoretical
values (see note 2 at the end of this clause).
The following formulae give for all values of the permissible stresses for fatigue
a) 0
- for tension :
- for compression :
t = 5 . w / ( 3 - 2 . )
(1)
c = 2 . w / ( 1 - )
(2)
>o
- for tension
- for compression
t = O / [ 1 - . (1 - O / +1 ) ]
(3)
c = 1,2 . t
(4)
y = y min / y max
xy = xy min / xy max
y max < ya
None of the calculated sheares should exceed the permissible value of a in case I loading (see
table T.3.2.1.1.).
a) If any one stress is markedly greater than the other two in any given case of loading, it will
suffice to check the member for fatigue under the corresponding load, neglecting the effect of
the other two.
b) In the other cases, in addition to checking for each loading assumed to act alone, it is
recommended that the following relationship be checked :
2
(x max / xa )2 + (y max / ya )2 - x max . y max / ( | xa | . | ya | ) + ( xy max / xya )2 1
(5)
where the stress values xa, ya and xya are those resulting from the application of formulae (1),
(2), (3) and (4) limited to 0,75 . R.
As this inequality constitutes a severe requirement, values slightly higher than 1 are acceptable, but in
this case it is necessary to check the relation :
It should also be noted that the values | xa | and | ya | in the denominator for the third term should be
taken as absolute values, x max and y max being assigned their algebraic values.
In applying this formula, reference should be made to the directions given in clause 3.2.1.3. In
other words :
- either perform the check by combining the maximum values x max , y max and xy max and
comparing with the permissible stresses xa, ya and xya computed on the basis of the most
unfavourable values of .
- or seek the most unfavourable combination actually possible by making the check with the
following values :
a) x max and x min with the corresponding values of y, xy, y and xy
b) y max and y min with the corresponding values of x, xy, x and xy
c) xy max and xy min with the corresponding values of x, y, x and y
In this connection, see note in clause 3.2.1.3.
In order to facilitate the calculations, table T.A.3.6.2. gives the permissible values of :
xy max / xya as a function of x max / xa and of y max / ya
In this table, the values of x max / xa are given in the left hand column with the following
convention : the ratio is considered to be positive if x max and y max have the same sign,
and negative otherwise.
y max / ya
xa
+ 1,0
0,9
0,300
+ 0,9
0,300
0,436
0,520
0,575
0,608
0,625
0,625
0,608
0,575
0,520
0,436
+ 0,8
0,400
0,520
0,600
0,656
0,693
0,714
0,721
0,714
0,693
0,656
0,600
+ 0,7
0,458
0,575
0,656
0,714
0,755
0,781
0,794
0,781
0,781
0,755
0,714
+ 0,6
0,490
0,608
0,693
0,755
0,800
0,831
0,849
0,854
0,849
0,831
0,800
+ O,5
0,500
0,625
0,714
0,781
0,831
0,866
0,889
0,900
0,900
0,889
0,866
+ 0,4
0,490
0,625
0,721
0,794
0,849
0,889
0,917
0,933
0,938
0,933
0,917
+ 0,3
0,458
C,608
0,714
0,794
0,854
0,900
0,933
0,954
0,964
0,964
0,954
+ 0,2
0,400
0,575
0,693
0,781
0,849
0,900
0,938
0,964
0,980
0,985
0,980
+ 0,1
0,300
0,520
0,656
0,755
0,831
0,889
0,933
0,964
0,985
0,995
0,995
0,436
0,600
0,714
0,800
0,866
0,916
0,9S4
0,980
0,99S
1,000
0,300
0,520
0,656
0,755
0,831
0,889
0,933
0,964
0,98S
0,995
- 0,2
0,400
0,575
0,693
0,781
0,849
0,900
0,938
0,964
0,980
- 0,3-
0,173
0,458
0,608
0,714
0,794
0,854
0,900
0,933
0,954
0,265
0,490
0,625
0,721
0,781
0,849
0,889
0,917
0,300
0,500
0,625
0,714
0,781
0,831
0,866
0,300
0,490
0,608
0,693
0,755
0,800
0,265
0,458
0,575
0,656
0,714
0,173
0,400
0,520
0,600
0,300
0,436
0
- 0,1
- 0,4
- 0,5
- 0,6
- 0,7
- 0,8
- 0,9
1,0
0,8
0,400
0,7
0,458
0,6
0,490
0,5
0,500
0,4
0,490
0,3
0,458
0,2
0,400
0,1
0,300
- 1,0
If x max and y max are of opposite sign (tension or compression) read the values of
xy max / xya starting from the negative values of x max / xa
General notes
Note 1 - In applying the above considerations, it is essential to take into account the secondary
bending effects which a particular method of assembly may cause in the members of the
structure.
Note 2 - If reference is made to the table of values of w it can be seen that in group E1 and E2
much higher stresses than those usually permitted in structures are quoted. These values are in
fact only theoretical values obtained by extrapolation of the test results on higher group (E3 to
E8) with medium or severe notch cases (K2, K3 and K4). Therefore there is no need to attach
any material significance to these values in brackets, consideration of which could in some
cases lead to the conclusion that an assembly of type K0 or K1 could resist fatigue better than
the unwelded metal (case WO). This apparent anomaly illustrates the well known fact that it is
not always necessary to carry out fatigue checks for the longer group with slight or moderate
notch cases.
With respect to the calculations it must be remembered that these theoretical w values are
used only to determine the permissible fatigue stresses xa , ya and xya for use in formula (5)
which covers the case of combined loads.
Examples of calculations are given at the end of the Appendix.
The permissible bearing pressure values are obtained by multiplying the permissible shear
values in the bolts and rivets by 2,5.
A - Weld qualities
Type of weld
Weld
quality
Special
quality
(S.Q.)
Full depth
butt weld
Execution of weld
Root of weld scraped
(or trimmed) before
making sealing run.
No end craters.
Weld ground flush
with plate parallel to
direction of forces
K-weld in
angle formed
by two parts
with bevel on
one of the
parts to be
joined at
location of
seam
Fillet welds
in the angle
formed by
two parts
Special
quality
(S.Q.)
Welded edges
without undercutting
and ground if
necessary
Symbol
Weld testing
Check (e.g. with Xrays)
over 100 % of seam
length
If the calculated
stress > 80 % times
the permissible stress
Otherwise random
check over at least
10 % of seam length
Symbol
P 100
P 100
P 10
Ordinary
quality
(O.Q.)
Table T.A.3.6.(1) (continued)
B - Cases of construction for joints
In the tables below the various cases of means of assembly are classified in terms of the
magnitude of the notch effect they produce.
It is forecasted that the symbol shall be adapted to the ISO standard 2553 at the next edition
of the Design Rules, when the addition of this standard will be definitively adopted.
It should be noted that, with a given weld, the notch effect differs according to the type of
loading to which the joint is-subjected.
For exempla, a fillet welded joint is classified under case K0 for longitudinal tension or
compression loads (0,31) or longitudinal shear (0,51), and under cases K3 or K4 for transverse
tension or compression loads (3,2 or 4,4).
1 - Non welded parts
Reference
WO
Case WO
Description
Parent metal, homogeneous surface.
Part without joints or breaks in continuity
(solid bars) and without notch effects
unless the latter can be calculated.
Figure
Symbol
Figure
Symbol
Case W1
Reference
W1
Reference
W2.1
W2.2
W2.3
Description
Parts drilled. Parts drilled for riveting or
bolting with rivets and bolts loaded up
to 20 % of permissible values. Parts
drilled for joints using high strength
bolts (C1 3.2.2.2.2.3.) loaded up to 100
% of permissible values(C1 3.2.2.2.2.2.)
Case W2
Description
Parts drilled for riveting or bolting in
which the rivets or bolts are loaded in
multiple shear
Parts drilled for riveting or bolting, in
which the rivets or bolts are loaded
in single shear (allowing for eccentric
loads), the parts being unsupported
Parts drilled for assembling by means
of rivets or bolts loaded in single shear,
the parts being supported or guided
Figure
Symbol
2 - welded parts
Case K0 - Slight stress concentration
Reference
0,1
0,11
0,12
0,13
0,3
0,31
0,32
0,33
Description
Parts butt-welded (S.Q.) at right
angles to direction of forces
Parts of different thickness buttwelded (S.Q.) at right angles to
direction of forces.
Asymmetrical slope : 1/4 to 1/5;
Symmetrical slope : 1/3
Butt weld (S.Q.) in transverse joint of
web plate
Figure
Symbol
P 100
P 100
P 100
P 100
P 100
or P10
P 100
or P 10
0,5
0,51
Description
Figure
Symbol
P 100
or P10
Description
Figure
Symbol
1,1
P 100
or P10
1,11
P 100
or P10
1,12
1,13
1,2
P 100
or P10
P 100
or P10
1,21
1,3
1,31
Description
Web plate to which stiffeners are
joined at right angles to the direction
of the forces by means of fillet welds
(S.Q.) which extend round the corners
of the web stiffeners
Parts joined by butt welding parallel to
the direction of the forces (without
checking the welding)
Figure
Symbol
2,1
Description
Parts of different thickness butt
welded (O.Q.) at right angles to the
direction of the forces. Asymmetrical
slope : 1 in 3 (or symmetrical slopes :
1 in 2)
Figure
Symbol
2,11
2,12
P100
2,13
P100
P 100
or P10
2,2
2,21
2,22
2,3
2,31
2,33
2,34
Description
Continuous main member to which
transverse diaphragm, web stiffeners,
rings or hubs are fillet welded (S.Q.) at
right angles to the direction of the
forces
Web in which fillet welds (S.Q.) are
used to secure transverse web
stiffeners with cut corners, the welds
not extending round the corners
Transverse diaphragm secured by
fillet welds (S.Q.) with cut corners, in
which the welds do not extend round
the corners
Continuous main member to the
edges of which are butt welded (S.Q.)
parts parallel to the direction of the
forces. These parts terminal in bevels
or radii. The ends of the welds are
ground avoiding notches
Continuous main member to which are
welded parts parallel to the direction of
the forces. These parts terminal in
bevels or radii. Valid where the ends
of the welds are K-welds (S.Q.) over a
length equal to ten times the thickness
provided that the ends of the welds
are ground avoiding notches
Continuous member to which a flat (1
in 3 bevel) is joined by a fillet weld
(S.Q.), the fillet weld being executed in
the X area, with a = 0,5 e
Figure
Symbol
P100
2,4
2,41
2,5
Description
Figure
Symbol
D
3,1
3,11
3,12
3,13
Description
Parts of different thickness connected
by butt welds (O.Q.) at right angles to
the direction of the forces. 1 in 2
asymmetrical slope, or symmetrical
position without blend slope
Butt weld with backing strip and no
backing run. Backing strip secured by
intermittent tack welds
Tubes joined by butt welds whose root
is supported by a backing piece and
not covered by a backing run
Butt weld (O.Q.) at right angles to the
direction of the forces at the
intersection of flats with welded
auxiliary gussets. The ends of the
welds are ground, avoiding notches
Figure
Symbol
P 100
or P10
3,2
3,21
3,3
3,31
3,32
3,33
Description
Continuous main member to which
parts are fillet welded (O.Q.) at right
angles to the direction of the forces.
These parts take only a small portion
of the loads transmitted by the main
member
Web and stiffener or transverse
diaphragm secured by uninterrupted
fillet weld (O.Q.)
Continuous member to the edges of
which are butt welded (O.Q.) parts
parallel to the direction of the forces.
These parts terminal in bevels and
ends of the welds are ground avoiding
notches
Continuous member to which are
welded parts parallel to the direction of
the forces. These parts terminal in
bevels or radii. Valid where the ends
of the welds are fillet welds (S.Q.) over
a length equal to 10 times the
thickness, provided that the ends of
the welds are ground, avoiding
notches
Continuous member through which
extends a plate, terminating in bevels
or radii parallel to the direction of the
forces, secured by K-weld (O.Q.) over
a length equal to 10 times the
thickness
Continuous member to which is
welded a flat parallel to the direction of
the forces, by means of fillet weld
(S.Q.) in the indicated area when
e1 < 1,5 . e2
Figure
Symbol
3,34
3,35
3,36
3,4
3,41
Description
Members at the extremity of which
connecting gussets are secured by a
fillet weld (S.Q.) when e1 e2 In case
of unilateral gusset allow for eccentric
load
Continuous member to which
stiffeners parallel to the direction of
the forces are welded. The ends of the
welds are fillet welds (S.Q.) over a
length equal to ten times the thickness
and are ground avoiding notches
Continuous member to which
stiffeners parallel to the direction of
the forces are secured by fillet welds
(O.Q.) which are intermittent or made
between indentations
Cruciform joint made with K-weld
(O.Q.) at right angles to the direction
of the forces
Figure
Symbol
3,5
3,7
4,11
4,12
4,3
4,31
4,32
4,33
Description
Parts of different thickness butt
welded (O.Q.) at right angles to the
direction of the forces. Asymmetrical
position without blend slope
Butt welds (O.Q.) at right angles to the
direction of the forces, at the
intersection of flats (no auxiliary
gussets)
Single bevel weld at right angles to the
direction of the forces, between
intersecting parts (cruciform joint)
Continuous member to the sides of
which are welded parts ending at right
angles, parallel to the direction of the
forces
Continuous member to which parts,
ending at right angles, parallel to the
direction of the forces, and receiving a
large proportion of the loads
transmitted by the main member, are
secured by fillet weld (O.Q.)
Continuous member through which
extends a plate ending at right angles
and secured by fillet welding (O.Q.)
Continuous member on which a flat is
secured by means of a fillet weld
(O.Q.) parallel to the direction of the
forces
Figure
Symbol
Description
Joint plate secured by (O.Q.) fillet
welds (e1 = e2). In case of unilateral
joint plate allow for eccentric loads
4,35
4,36
Figure
Symbol
D
4,4
4,41
4,5
4,7
Longitudinal compression :
x max = - 140 N/mm2
x min = - 28 N/mm2
from which = 0,2
Lateral compression when the crab wheel passes :
y max = - 100 N/mm2
y min = 0 from
which = 0
Shear : changing sign when passing from one side to the other of the section:
xy max = 40 N/mm2
from which = -1
Equivalent stress :
[ ( -140 )2 + ( -100 )2 - 140 . 100 + 3 . 402 ]0,5 = 144 < 160 N/mm2 ( a )
acceptable (See clause 3.2.1.3.).
= 160
= - 140
N/mm2
N/mm2
(table T.3.2.1.1.)
= 193,5
N/mm2
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
a = 5 / 3 . w
= 322,5
N/mm2
+1 = 0,75 . R
= 270
N/mm2
t is limited to
270
N/mm2
c = - 1,2 . t
= - 324
N/mm2
xa
= - 324
N/mm2
from which
| x max l < a
Checking for fatigue :
l x max l < l xa l
b) Lateral compression : case K4 (reference 4,41)
Checking for elastic limit :
a
= 160
N/mm2
y max
= - 100
N/mm2
| y max | < a
(table T. 3.2.1.1.)
62,2
N/mm2
a = 5 / 3 . w
= 103,7
N/mm2
t = 0
= 107,7
N/mm2
c = 1,2 . t
= 124,4
N/mm2
ya
= - 124,4
N/mm2
l y max l
<
l ya |
92,4
xy max
= + 40
xy max
< a
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
(formula (3))
(table T. 3.2.1.1.)
N/mm2
(formula (1))
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
= 105,1
N/mm2
a = w
= 105,1
N/mm2
xya
= 105,1
N/mm2
XY max
40
N/mm2
| XY max l
<
If the thickness of the two welds is equal to the thickness of the web, the stresses x max, y max
and xy max have the same values as in 1 - above.
The permissible tensile and compressive stresses are the same as for 1 above (in the material),
with respect to both checking for elastic limit and checking for fatigue. It follows that we can
dispense with a check for the cases corresponding to a) and b) above.
The permissible shear stresses, as regards checking for elastic limit, are obtained by dividing
the permissible tensile stress by 20,5 , instead of 30,5 in the case of the material itself. They are
therefore more favourable than those used in cases c) and d) above.
To sum up, we may confine ourselves to checking for fatigue the cases corresponding to c) and
d) above.
c) Shear in the weld :
xya = 193,5 / 20,5
xy max
= 136,8
=
40
N/mm2
N/mm2
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
from which
| xy max l < | xya l
d) Checking for combined loads :
Using formula (5)
Condition to be checked :
(-140 / -324 )2 + ( -100 / -124,4 )2 - ( -140 ) . (-100 ) / ( 324 . 124,4 ) + ( 40 / 136,8 )2 = 0,571 <
1
therefore satisfied.
Note : If the component had been classified in group E6, the stress y max = - 100 N/mm2 would
be too high, since the permissible fatigue stress for case K4 and = 0 is only :
ya = 1,2 . 5 / 3 . 41 = 82 N/mm2
= 127,5
N/mm2
O = 5 / 3 . w
= 212,5
N/mm2
+1 = 0,75 . R
= 270
N/mm2
N/mm2
c = - 1,2 . t
266
N/mm2
xa
= - 266
N/mm2
x max
= - 140
N/mm2
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
(formula (3))
(formula (4))
l x max l < l xa l
from wihch
from wihch
= 95,6
N/mm2
a = 5 / 3 . w
= 159,3
N/mm2
t = O
= 159,3
N/mm2
c = - 1,2 . t
= 191,2
N/mm2
ya
= - 191,2
N/mm2
y max
= - 100
N/mm2
l y max l < l ya l
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
(formula (3))
xy max
= 40
85,3
N/mm2
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
N/mm2
from which
d) Checking for combined loads :
Use formula (5)
Condition to be checked :
(-140 / -266 )2 + ( -100 / -191,2 )2 - ( -140 ) . (-100 ) / ( 266 . 191,2 ) + ( 40 / 85,3 )2 = 0,495 < 1
therefore satisfied.
2 - CHECKING IN THE WELD
xy max
= 40
from which
90,2
N/mm2
(table T.A.3.6.1.)
N/mm2
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
SECTION I
HEAVY LIFTING APPLIANCES
F.E.M.
1.001
3rd
EDITION
REVISED
1998.10.01
Booklet 4
4.2.4.2. NOTES..................................................................................................................................... 25
4-2
It might seem logical to check against the elastic limit, in line with the structures booklet, as this figure is, in
principle, the limit not to be exceeded in the use of a material. The steels normally used for structures have a
wide gap between the yield strength and the ultimate strength and this gap affords protection against sudden
failure even when the yield strength is considerably exceeded.
On the other hand, the use in mechanisms of certain steels with a very high, elastic limit as compared to the
ultimate strength would result in fragile parts being produced if the permissible limit stress were to be based
on the elastic limit, and any accidental overstepping of this limit would lead to immediate failure. This explains
why the ultimate strength is chosen as the criterion for verification.
4-3
I and II
2,2
III
1,8
1,25 . t a
2) Pure compression :
c a
3) Pure bending :
f a
1,25 . t + f a
c + f a
6) Pure shear :
30,5 a
[ ( 1,25 . t + f )2 + 3 2 ]0,5 a
[ ( c + f )2 + 3 2 ]0,5 a
4-4
under the effect solely of stress cycles, all having the same ratio between extreme stresses),
the PALMGREN-MINER hypothesis on fatigue damage accumulation can be used to determine
the fatigue strength of a component according to a group in which the component is classified.
The method described in 4.1.3. for determining the fatigue strength is applicable only to
components in which the structure of the material is homogenous over the entire section being
considered. It cannot, therefore, be used in the case of components which have undergone a
surface treatment (e.g. hardening, nitriding, casehardening). In such cases the fatigue strength
can be derived from the WHLER curve only if the latter has itself been determined with respect
to components which have been made from the same material, have a comparable shape and
size and have undergone exactly the same surface treatment.
Checking for fatigue strength only needs to be performed for case of loading I.
Where the number of stress cycles is less than 8 000, such checking is not necessary.
4.1.3.2. ENDURANCE LIMIT UNDER ALTERNATING LOADING OF A POLISHED SPECIMEN
The specialised works on the subject (see also appendix A-4.1.3.) provide the endurance limit
value bw under alternating rotational bending of a polished specimen in the case of materials
used regularly in construction of mechanisms.
By approximation, the same values of bw may be accepted for the endurance limit under
alternating rotary bending.
To obtain the endurance limit under alternating axial tension and compression, the values of bw
have to be decreased by 20 % 2.
An element of material, when subjected to the same stress as an adjacent element, supports the latter less
effectively than if it were subjected to a lower stress, as is the case with bending. A stress gradient, i.e. :
( difference in stress between two adjacent elementary parts )
( distance between these two elementary parts )
4-6
The endurance strength w under alternating shear (pure shear or torsion) is derived from bw by
the relation :
w = bw / 30,5
The values given for bw are generally those corresponding statistically to a 90 % survival
probability. In the case of carbon steels in common use in mechanisms, it is permissible to
adopt :
bw = 0,5 . R
R being the minimum ultimate strength.
4.1.3.3. INFLUENCE OF THE SHAPE, SIZE, SURFACE CONDITION AND CORROSION
The shape, size, surface condition (machining) and state of corrosion of the component under
consideration entail a decrease in the endurance limit under alternating loading in relation to the
ideal case of a polished specimen.
This influence is allowed for by introducing factors ks, kd, ku and kc respectively, concerning the
determination of which, directions will be found in appendix A-4.1.3.
The endurance limit under alternating loading wk or wk of the component under consideration is
given for tension, compression, bending and torsional shear by the relation :
wk = bw / ( ks . kd . ku . kc )
or
wk = w / ( ks . kd . ku . kc )
In the case of pure shear we take :
wk = w4.1.3.4. ENDURANCE LIMIT AS A FUNCTION OF , R AND wk (or wk)
Fig. 4.1.3.4. expresses, in the form of a SMITH diagram, the hypotheses made concerning the
relations between the endurance limit d (or d), the ratio between extreme stresses, the tensile
strength R and the endurance limit under alternating loading wk (or wk)
This gives the following relations :
Normal stresses :
-1 < 0
< 1
Alternating stresses
d = 5 . wk / ( 3 - 2 . )
Pulsating stresses
d = [ 5 . wk / 3 ] / { 1 - [(1 - 5 . wk / ( 3 . R )) . ] }
4-7
Shear stresses :
-1 < 0
< 1
Alternating stresses
d = 5 . wk / ( 3 - 2 . )
Pulsating stresses
d = [ 5 . wk / 3 ] / { 1 - [(1 - 5 . 30,5 . wk / ( 3 . R )) . ]
Tension,
Compression
or
Shear
or
Average
Figure 4.1.3.4.
4-8
= d
or
= d
- for n > 2 * 106 , the so-called region of endurance limit, the function is represented, in the
same reference system as above, by the straight fine DN, bisector of the angle formed by the
extension of TD and a fine parallel to the axis of the n values, passing through D.
6
The slope of the WHLER curve for n > 2 * 10 is characterised by the factor :
c = tan( ) = c + ( c2 + 1 )0,5
4-9
Figure 4.1.3.5.
The spectrum factor ksp of the component is determined by means of the above mentioned value
of c. In the case of certain components in group E8 (see 4.1.3.6.), the calculation must also be
performed in exactly the same way, but after replacing c by c'. To distinguish between the two
spectrum factors thus found, the second will be designated ksp .
A c value below 2,5 is an indication of faulty design of the component concerned. Such a
component must not be put into service.
4 - 10
Figure 4.1.3.6.
In the case of components acted upon simultaneously by normal stresses and shear stresses
with different ratios between extreme stresses, the following condition must be satisfied :
( x / kx )2 + ( y / ky )2 - [ x . y / ( kx . ky ) ] + ( / k )2 1,1 / k2
in which :
x, y = maximum normal stresses in the directions x and y respectively ;
= maximum shear stress ;
kx , ky = fatigue strength for normal stresses, in the directions x and y respectively ;
4 - 12
4 - 13
4.2.1.2.1. Determination of the mean load SM mean on anti-friction bearings for combined motions
In the case of motions which combine an elevation of the centre of gravity of the moving masses
with a horizontal displacement (e.g. unbalanced luffing), the mean load SM mean is determined by
combining :
- the mean load due to the accelerations and the effect of the wind, as determined by applying
clause 4.2.1.2. with,
4 - 14
- the mean load due to the vertical displacement of the centre of gravity of the moving masses,
as determined from the expression :
SM mean = ( 2 . SM max + SM min ) / 3
where SM max and SM min are the maximum and minimum values of the corresponding loads.
4.2.1.3. MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS SUBJECTED TO TYPE SR LOADS
The extreme loads SR max and SR min developed in loading case I for appliances not subjected to
wind or loading case II for appliances subjected to wind (see clause 2.6.) are considered and
the bearing is designed for a constant mean load given by the expression :
SR mean = ( 2 . SR max + SR min ) / 3
and applied for the theoretical life in accordance with clause 4.2.1.1.
4.2.1.4. MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS SIMULTANEOUSLY SUBJECTED TO TYPE SM AND TYPE
SR LOADS
On the basis indicated above the equivalent mean loads are determined for each of the type SM
and SR loads, assumed to be acting alone and the bearing is selected for an equivalent mean
load resulting from combination of the two mean loads SM and SR.
4 - 15
The methods stated hereafter assume that the ropes are greased correctly, that the winding
diameters of the pulleys and the drums are suitably selected in compliance with 4.2.3. and that,
when in service, the ropes are properly maintained, inspected and periodically replaced in
conformity with ISO Recommendation 4309 "Rope inspection"
The selection of rope diameter (and winding diameters in 4.2.3.) is based on the group of the
hoisting mechanism. However, for appliances which require frequent dismantling (such as
builders tower cranes), in which ropes have to be changed more frequently, it is permissible to
select a hoist rope from the group immediately below that of the hoisting mechanism but not
inferior to group M3.
Whenever hoisting appliances are used for dangerous handling operations (e.g. molten metal,
highly radioactive or corrosive products, etc.) the choice of the ropes and pulleys must take
account of the mechanism group next above that resulting from the normal classification of the
hoisting appliances.
Group M5 is the minimum group to be used for the handling of dangerous loads for the choice of
rope and pulley diameters.
4.2.2.1. CHOICE OF ROPE DIAMETER
Two methods can be used at the choice of the manufacturer :
- the method using the minimum practical factor of safety Zp (see 4.2.2.1.2.) which is valid for
running ropes and static ropes (guy ropes, stays, etc.).
- the C factor method (4.2.2.1.3.) applicable to running ropes only.
4.2.2.1.1. Common bases for the two methods
4.2.2.1.1.1. Definition of the maximum tensile force S in the hoist rope (grab ropes excepted)
4.2.2.1.1.2. Definition of the maximum tensile force S in ropes other than hoist ropes
The determination of the maximum tensile force S in the various ropes which are not exclusively
used for the vertical hoisting of loads is based on the loads determined in load cases I or II
taking account of the most unfavourable case which can occur repeatedly in normal use.
For ropes which produce horizontal movement of loads, account must be taken of the loading
resulting from rolling motion and friction, together with the maximum inclination that the support,
on which the load is moved, can assume locally under the influence of the normal loading.
4.2.2.1.1.3. Determination of the maximum tensile force S in the ropes of multirope grabs (holding and closing)
In the case of appliances with grabs, where the weight of the load is not always equally
distributed between the closing ropes and the holding ropes during the whole of a cycle, the
value of S to be applied should be determined as follows :
1) If the system used automatically ensures an equal distribution of the hoisted load between
the closing and holding ropes, or any difference between the loads carried by the ropes is
limited to a short period at the end of closing or at the beginning of opening, S should be
determined as follows :
a) closing ropes : S = 66 % of the weight of the loaded grab, divided by the number of
closing ropes.
b) holding ropes : same pourcentage.
2) If the system used does not automatically secure an equal distribution of the load between
the closing ropes and the holding ropes during the hoisting motion and, in practice, almost
all the load is applied to the closing ropes, S should be determined as follows :
a) closing ropes : S = total weight of the loaded grab divided by the number of closing
ropes.
b) holding ropes : S = 66 % of the total weight of the loaded grab divided by the number of
holding ropes.
4.2.2.1.2. Method using the minimum practical factor of safety Zp
Definitions
The minimum practical factor of safety Zp is the ratio between :
- the minimum breaking load F0 of the rope (minimum load which must be attained when
carrying out the rope breaking test),
4 - 17
The chosen rope must have a minimum practical factor of safety at least equal to the minimum
value Zp for the mechanism group to which the rope in question belongs (see table T.4.2.2.1.2.).
Table T.4.2.2.1.2. - Factor of safety Zp
Group of
mechanism
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
Minimum value Zp
Running ropes
Static ropes
3,15
2,5
3,35
2,5
3,55
3
4
3,5
4,5
4
5,6
4,5
7,1
5
9
5
Definitions :
C = rope selection factor,
S = maximum tensile force exerted on the rope when in use,
d = nominal diameter of the rope (dimension by which the rope is designated),
f = fill factor of the rope,
k = spinning loss factor due to the rope construction,
RO = minimum ultimate tensile stress of the wire composing the rope,
K' = empirical factor for the minimum breaking load for a given rope construction such that
k = / 4 .f . k
4 - 18
For a rope of a given construction, having a given minimum steel strength, and for a given
mechanism group there is a factor C which is expressed by the formula :
0,5
C = [ Zp / ( . k . f . RO / 4 ) ]
= [ Zp / (k . RO ) ]0,5
where Zp is the minimum value for running ropes in table T.4.2.2.1.2., corresponding to the
mechanism group chosen for the rope.
d C . S0,5
4 - 19
4.2.3.1.1. Values of H
The minimum values of the coefficient H, depending upon the group in which the mechanism is
classified, are given in table T.4.2.3.1.1. for drums, pulleys and compensating pulleys.
They correspond to ropes currently used and known and are based on experience concerning
their working conditions.
They do not however serve as a substitute for the dialogue which is indispensable between the
rope manufacturer and the manufacturer of hoisting appliances, especially when the use of new
ropes with varying flexibility characteristics is being considered.
Table T.4.2.3.1.1. Values of H
Mechanism
group
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
Drums
11,2
12,5
14
16
18
20
22,4
25
Pulleys
12,5
14
16
18
20
22,4
25
28
Compensating
pulleys
11,2
12,5
12,5
14
14
16
16
18
4.2.3.1.2. Note
When the formula given in clause 4.2.2.1. has been used to determine a minimum rope
diameter from which in turn the minimum diameters for drums and pulleys have been
determined, a rope of diameter greater than the minimum calculated diameter can be used with
these latter diameters, provided that the diameter of the rope used does not exceed the
minimum diameter by more than 25 % and that the pull in the rope does not exceed the value S
used for calculating this minimum diameter.
4.2.3.2. RADIUS OF THE BOTTOM OF THE GROOVE
The useful life of the rope depends not only on the diameter of the pulleys and drums, but also
on the pressure exerted between the rope and the groove supporting the rope.
The winding ratios above are given on the assumption of a radius of supporting groove r where :
r = 0,53 . d
d being the nominal diameter of the rope.
4 - 20
and
Pmean I, II / ( b . D ) PL . C1 . C2
4 - 21
where :
D is the wheel diameter in mm
b the useful width of the rail in mm
PL a limiting pressure dependent upon the metal used for the wheel, in N/mm2
C1 a coefficient depending on the speed of rotation of the wheel
C2 is a coefficient depending on the group of the mechanism
Pmean III is the mean load to be withstood by the wheel, in loading case III, in N, calculated
according to the formulae in clause 4.2.4.1.1.
Pmean I,II is the mean load in case I or II.
4.2.4.1.1. Determining the mean load
In order to determine the mean loads, the procedure is to consider the maximum and minimum
loads withstood by the wheel in the loading cases considered, i.e. with the appliance in normal
duty but omitting the dynamic coefficient when determining Pmean I,II and with the appliance not
in use for Pmean III .The values of Pmean are determined by the formula below in the three cases of
loading I, II and III :
Pmean I,II,III = ( Pmin I,II,III + 2 . Pmax I,II,III ) / 3
4.2.4.1.2. Determining the useful rail width b
For rails having a flat bearing surface and a total width l with rounded corners of radius r at each
side, we have:
b=l-2.r
for rails with a convex bearing surface, we have:
b=l-4.r/3
(1) For the same width of rail head, these formulae give a greater useful bearing width for
convex rails than for flat rails. This allows for the superior adaptation of a slightly convex rail to the
rolling motion of the wheel.
4 - 22
The value of PL is given in table T.4.2.4.1.3. as a function of the ultimate strength of the metal of
which the rail wheel is made;
Table T.4.2.4.1.3. - Values of PL
Ultimate strength for metal
used for rail wheel
R > 500 N/mm2
R > 600 N/mm2
R > 700 N/mm2
R > 800 N/mm2
PL
in N/mm2
5,0
5,6
6,5
7,2
The qualifies of metal refer to cast, forged or rolled steels, and spheroidal graphite cast iron.
In the case of rail wheels with tyres, consideration must obviously be given to the quality of the
tyre, which should be sufficiently thick not to roll itself out.
In the case of wheels made of high tensile steel and treated to ensure a very high surface
hardness, the value of PL is limited to that for the quality of the steel composing the wheel prior to
surface treatment, according to table T.4.2.4.1.3., since a higher value would risk causing
premature wear of the rail.
For a given load, however, wheels of this type have a much longer useful life than wheels of
lesser surface hardness, which makes their use worthwhile in the case of appliances
performing intensive service.
Alternatively, it is possible to use wheels of ordinary cast iron, especially chilled cast iron, which
has good surface hardness.
It must be remembered that such wheels are brittle and that their use should be avoided for high
speed motions or when shock loadings are to be feared.
2
When these are used their diameter is determined by taking PL equal to 5 N/mm .
4 - 23
The values of c1 depend on the speed of rotation of the wheel and are given in table T.4.2.4.1.4.a.
These same values are also given in table T.4.2.4.1.4.b. as a function of the wheel diameter and
the speed in m/min.
Table T.4.2.4.1.4.a. - Values of c1
Wheel rotation
speed in R.P.M.
200
160
125
112
100
90
80
71
63
56
c1
0,66
0,72
0,77
0,79
0,82
0,84
0,87
0,89
0,91
0,92
Wheel rotation
speed in R.P.M.
50
45
40
35,5
31,5
28
25
22,4
20
18
c1
0,94
0,96
0,97
0,99
1,00
1,02
1,03
1,04
1,06
1,07
Wheel rotation
speed in R.P.M.
16
14
12,5
11,2
10
8
6,3
5,6
5
c1
1,09
1,10
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,17
Table T.4.2.4.1.4.b
Values of c1 as a function of the wheel diameter and the speed of travel
wheel
diameter
in mm
200
250
315
400
500
630
710
800
900
1 000
1 120
1 250
12,5
1,06
1,09
1,11
1,13
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,17
-
16
1,03
1,06
1,09
1,11
1,13
1,14
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,17
-
20
1
1,03
1,06
1,09
1,11
1,13
1,13
1,14
1,14
1,15
1,16
1,17
25
0,97
1
1,03
1,06
1,09
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,13
1,14
1,14
1,15
31,5
0,94
0,97
1
1,03
1,06
1,09
1,1
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,13
1,14
40
0,91
0,94
0,97
1
1,03
1,06
1,07
1,09
1,1
1,11
1,12
1,13
4 - 24
50
0,87
0,91
0,94
0,97
1
1,03
1,04
1,06
1,07
1,09
1,1
1,11
63
0,82
0,87
0,91
0,94
0,97
1
1,02
1,03
1,04
1,06
1,07
1,09
80
0,77
0,82
0,87
0,91
0,94
0,97
0,99
1
1,02
1,03
1,04
1,06
100
0,72
0,77
0,82
0,87
0,91
0,94
0,96
0,97
0,99
1
1,02
1,03
125
0,66
0,72
0,77
0,82
0,87
0,91
0,92
0,94
0,96
0,97
0,99
1
160
0,66
0,72
0,77
0,82
0,87
0,89
0,91
0,92
0,94
0,96
0,97
200
0,66
0,72
0,77
0,82
0,84
0,87
0,89
0,91
0,92
0,94
250
0,66
0,72
0,77
0,79
0,82
0,84
0,87
0,89
0,91
The coefficient
T.4.2.4.1.5.
c2
c2
1,12
1,00
0,90
0,80
4.2.4.2. NOTES
Note 1
The formulae apply only to wheels whose diameters do not exceed 1,25 m. For larger diameters
experience shows that the permissible pressures between the rail and the wheel must be
lowered. The use of wheels of greater diameter is not recommended.
Note 2
It should be noted that the limiting pressure PL is a notional pressure determined by supposing
that contact between the wheel and the rail takes place over a surface whose width is the useful
width defined earlier (clause 4.2.4.1.2.) and whose length is the diameter of the wheel. The
method of calculating set out above is derived from application of the HERTZ formula, which may
be written :
2
cg / ( 0,35 . E ) = P / ( b . D )
where :
cg is the compressive stress in the wheel and the rail N/mm2
E the modulus of elasticity of the metal in N/mm2
P the wheel load in N
b and D in mm, being as defined above (clause 4.2.4.1.).
Taking KL to represent the value cg2 / ( 0,35 . E ) which has the dimension of a pressure in
2
N/mm , the relation may be written :
KL = P / ( b . D )
4 - 25
and characterizes the wheel pressure on the rail. The formula of clause 4.2.4.1. is obtained by
putting :
KL = PL . c1 . c2
4 - 26
APPENDIX
A- 4.1.3. - DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN MECHANISM
COMPONENTS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE
The endurance limit for a polished specimen is a laboratory value, which is practically never
attained in parts actually used. Numerous factors - shape, size, surface condition (machining
quality) and possible corrosion - induce discontinuities resulting in "notch effects", which
decrease the permissible stresses in the part, when these stresses are calculated by
conventional elementary methods for the strength of materials. These factors are taken into
account by coefficients, called ks, kd, ku, kc, respectively all greater than or equal to unity, by the
product of which the endurance limit for a polished specimen is devided.
Guidelines concerning the determination of these coefficients are set out below :
a. Determination of ks
This coefficient specifies the stress concentrations caused by changes of section with radii,
annular grooves, transverse holes and the method of securing hubs.
Figures A.4.1.3.1. a. and b. give the values of the shape coefficient ks as a function of the ultimate
strength of the metal, valid for diameter D of 10 mm.
The curves a. give the coefficient ks for changes of section of ratio D/d = 2 with a correction table
T.A.4.1.3.1. for other values of D/d. The b curves give, for guidance some values of ks for holes,
annular grooves and keyways.
Diameters in excess of 10 mm are taken care of by introducing the size coefficient kd.
For other values of D/d read ks from the curve (r/d) + q with the following values for q :
Table T.A.4.1.3.1. - Correction factors q for D/d 2
D/d
q
1,05
0,13
Curve
1,1
0,1
1,2
0,07
1,3
0,052
1,4
0,04
1,6
0,022
2
0
10
1
20
1,1
30
1,25
50
1,45
4 - 28
100
1,65
200
1,75
400
1,8
I
II
III
IV
Values of kc
4 - 29
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
(Table T.A.4.1.3.1.)
(Figure A.4.1.3.1.a.)
Determination of kd (size)
For d = 50 we have :
kd = 1,45
(Table T.A.4.1.3.2.)
Determination of ku (machining)
For a part turned on a lathe we have :
ku = 1,15
4 - 30
For = - 1 we have :
d = wk = 117,8 N/mm2
c = log(2 000 000/8 000) / log(550 / 117,8) = 3,58
For group E4 the critical stress is therefore :
k = d . 2(8-4)/c = 117,8 . 2(4 / 3,58) = 255,4 N/mm2
The safety coefficient k is given by :
k = 3,21/c = 3,2(1 / 3.58) = 1,38
The permissible stress af is therefore :
af = 255,4 / 1,38 = 184,6 N/mm2
Section C-D
We have :
ks = 2,2
(Figure A.4.1.3.1.b.)
kd = 1,45
ku = 1,15
Hence :
wk = 275 / ( 2,2 . 1,45 . 1,15 ) = 75,0 N/mm2
d = wk
= 75,0 N/mm2
k =
3,21/2.77 = 1,52
af =
4 - 31
4 - 32
4 - 33
Yet the useful life of a rope whose diameter has been calculated in this way is not always
optimum.
A rope of identical diameter, of which the wire is of longer strength (e.g. 1600 N/mm2 instead of
2
2200 N/mm ) and the fill factor is lower (e.g. eight strands instead of six) may have a much
longer useful life in spite of the lower factor of safety.
Another difficulty stems from the fact that the safety factor is related to breaking strengths whose
definitions differ from one country to another, and safety factors do not have the same meaning if
they relate to a breaking strength defined in different ways.
Four definitions exist for the breaking strength of ropes :
- Calculated breaking strength : this is the cross-section of the rope multiplied by the strength
of the wire of which it is composed ;
- Theoretical breaking strength : given by the sum of the breaking strengths of the wires used
in the rope ;
- Actual breaking strength : this is the load obtained by an ultimate tensile strength test on the
rope ;
- Nominal breaking strength : this is the minimum breaking strength guaranteed by the rope
manufacturer.
When a rope is determined by using a safety factor which is related either to the actual breaking
strength or to the nominal breaking strength, the manufacturer tends to adopt ropes in which the
spinning loss (difference between the theoretical breaking strength and the actual breaking
strength) is as small as possible in order to obtain a smaller rope diameter. The spinning loss,
however, is not related to the resistance of a rope to repeated bending. A satisfactory useful life
for ropes cannot therefore be obtained with this method of calculation.
This shows that the safety factor is not an adequate basis for determining the winding diameters
required to ensure satisfactory rope life under bending reversals ; indeed this method will often
prevent the optimum solution from being obtained.
Because it is difficult for the manufacturer to allow for the influence of these different factors, it is
preferable to determine the rope diameter dmin simply as a function of the tensile load S, from the
formula :
0,5
dmin = C . S
where C is a coefficient depending solely on the group of the mechanism.
4 - 34
In cases where non rotating ropes are used (e.g. tower cranes in which the load is suspended
from a single part) and for dangerous handling operations (e.g. molten materials), the values of
C are increased above the normal values in order to compensate for the more unfavourable rope
construction or the greater risk.
The value of C, the safety factor Zp referred to the theoretical breaking strength and the rope fill
factor f (ratio of the metal cross section of the rope to the area of the circle circumscribing the
rope) are linked by the following relation :
0,5
C = [ Zp / ( . k . f .RO / 4 ) ]
where RO is the ultimate strength (in N/mm2) of the wire used in the rope.
The values of C apply to ropes made with wire having a strength of 1600, 1800, 2000 or 2200
N/mm2 .
where, exceptionally, use is made of a rope composed of wires with a strength of 1400 N/mm ,
the rope diameter must be increased accordingly.
The rope manufacturer or crane maker must choose the composition and cross section of the
rope, for the calculated minimum diameter d, to suit the reeving conditions of the particular rope
and in the light of the latest technical progress.
4 - 35
Tensil
stress
Langs lay rope, diameter 16 mm, six strands of nineteen 1 mm dia. wires, Ro = 1400 N/mm2
Cast-iron pulleys with machined groove of radius r = 8,5 mm.
Figure A.4.2.2.
Influence of pulley diameter D and tensile stress t on the useful life of a rope
4 - 36
4 - 37
Pulley diameter
Ratio
Langs lay rope, diameter 16 mm, six strands of nineteen 1 mm dia. wires,
R = 1400 N/mm2
Cast-iron pulleys with machined groove radius r = 8,5 mm.
Figure A.4.2.3.
Influence of pulley diameter D and tensile stress t on the useful life of a rope
4 - 38
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
F.E.M.
SECTION I
3rd EDITION
REVISED
1.001
1998.10.01
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Revised in 2003
F.E.M.
1.001
rd
3 EDITION
REVISED
1998.10.01
rd
The third edition of the "Rules for the design of hoisting appliances" dated 1987.10.01')
included 8 booklets. An addition to this edition was compiled in 1998. This addition is
incorporated in booklet 9, which also replaces booklet 6.
This booklet forms part of the "Rules for the design of hoisting appliances" 3rd edition
revised, consisting of 8 booklets:
Booklet 1 - Object and scope
Booklet 2 - Classification and loading on structures and mechanisms
Booklet 3 - Calculating the stresses in structures
Booklet 4 - Checking for fatigue and choice of mechanism components
Booklet 5 - Electrical equipment revised in 2003
Booklet 6 Stability and safety against movement by the wind
Booklet 7 - Safety rules
Booklet 8 - Test loads and tolerances
Booklet 9 - Supplements and comments to booklets 1 to 8
NOTE: Booklet 9 must not therefore be used separately
Booklet 5 has been revised in 2003 to take into account various European standards.
The main modifications concern the following points:
5.3 Installation of cables and conductors
This clause has been re-arranged; the new version includes some parts of old 5.2 and
references to
EN 60204-32
EN 60364-5-52
5.5 Limiting and indicating devices (old title "End limit switches")
This clause has been replaced by references to requirements coming from European
standards on motor over speed protection
Booklet 5 - 1/ 35
5.7 Environment
The existing text has been deleted and replaced by the reference to EN 60204-32.
Clauses on EMC and on potentially explosive atmospheres have been introduced
5.9 to 5.11
The revision of this clause introduced minor changes. The reference to IEC 60034-1 has
been added.
Booklet 5 - 2/ 35
G E N E R A L.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
CALCULATION O F C R O S S - S E C T I O N O F C O N D U C T O R S .....................................................................................................................................7
5.3.1.1.
5.3.1.2. CALCULATION OF THE MINIMUM CROSS-SECTION IN RELATION TO THE THERMAL CAPACITY OF THE
CONDUCTORS ...............................................................................................................................................................8
5.3.2.
INSTALLATION C O N D I T I O N S.........................................................................................................................................................................................................9
5.4.2.
SAFEGUARDING WIRING...............................................................................................................................................................................................................10
5.4.3.
5.4.4.
5.4.5.
GE N E R A L R E Q U I R E M E N T S.........................................................................................................................................................................................................12
5.5.2.
M O T O R O V E R S P E ED PROTECTION....................................................................................................................................................................................12
C O M P O N E N T S.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
5.6.1.1.
5.6.1.2.
RESISTOR UNITS.......................................................................................................................................... 13
5.6.2.
5.6.3.
T Y P E O F C O N T R OL.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
5.6.4.
5.6.3.1.
ENERGISATION ............................................................................................................................................. 14
5.6.3.2.
5.6.3.3.
FLOOR CONTROL.......................................................................................................................................... 14
5.6.3.4.
CABLE-LESS CONTROLS............................................................................................................................... 14
C O N T R O L O F M E CHANICAL BRAKES.................................................................................................................................................................................15
5.6.4.1.
SECOND BRAKE............................................................................................................................................ 15
5.7 ENVIRONMENT............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
5.7.1.
5.7.2.
E L E C T R O M A G N E TIC COMPATIBILITY................................................................................................................................................................................16
5.8.1.2.
5.8.1.3.
5.8.1.4.
Booklet 5 - 3/ 35
5.8.2.
5.8.3.
5.8.4.
5.8.1.5.
5.8.1.6.
5.8.2.2.
M O T O R S F O R H O R I Z O N T A L M O T I O N S.............................................................................................................................................................................25
5.8.3.1.
5.8.3.2.
5.8.3.3.
ROTATION..................................................................................................................................................... 27
5.8.3.4.
THERMAL DIMENSIONING............................................................................................................................. 29
5.8.4.3.
5.8.4.4.
5.9.2.
5.10
5.9.3.
G R A B S.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
5.9.4.
M A I N T E N A N C E........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
5.10.2.
C H E C K S.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
5.10.2.1. REGULAR CHECKS........................................................................................................................................ 33
5.10.2.2. CHECKS BEFORE COMMISSIONING.............................................................................................................. 34
5.11
LIGHTING......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
5.11.1.1. CABIN ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
5.11.1.2. WORKING AREA LIGHTING............................................................................................................................ 34
5.11.1.3. ACCESS AND MACHINERY CABINET LIGHTING.............................................................................................. 34
5.11.1.4. EMERGENCY LIGHTING................................................................................................................................. 34
5.11.2.
5.11.3.
AUXILIARY CI RCUIT............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
See booklet
Booklet 5 - 4/ 35
5.1
FOREWORD
The electrical equipment for hoisting appliances should conform to EN 60204-32 and other
applicable EN-standards published by CEN and CENELEC. In case the relevant ENstandards do not specify particular requirements, the recommendations given in this
document should be followed.
Many details specified in the previous versions of this Booklet 5 are now covered by the EN
60204-32.
Booklet 5 - 5/ 35
5.2
POWER SUPPLY
5.2.1.
GENERAL
The requirements for crane-supply-switch and crane disconnector are given in clause 5 of
EN60204-32.
Additional requirements may apply, if these devices are used in emergency operations (see
9.2.5.4 of EN 60204-32).
5.2.3.
Booklet 5 - 6/ 35
5.3
General requirements for cables and wiring practices are given in clauses 13 and 14 of EN
60204-32.
5.3.1.
These requirements apply both to the power supply to the crane and also to wiring within the
crane.
The voltage drop must be considered, paying attention to the fluctuation and the voltage drop
within the power supply. For very long supply lines, not only the resistive but also the
inductive part of the supply impedance need to be taken into account.
The cross-section of the conductors should be determined by taking into account the
mechanical strength required and the electrical load to be carried.
5.3.1.1.
When calculating the voltage drop, the most unfavourable position of the hoisting appliance
in relation to the supply point must be considered.
When calculating the admissible voltage drop on a supply line used by several hoisting
appliances, the start-up (ID) and rated (IN) currents of the motors operating simultaneously
must be taken into account.
Notes for the calculation:
In this clause, the rated current (IN) should be considered not necessarily to mean the
nameplate current of the motor but the current drawn by the motor at full rated load.
For squirrel-cage rotor motors ID (start-up current), refer to the manufacturer's
catalogue. In case the motor is controlled by an electronic drive (soft-starter, frequency
converter etc), the maximum current during any phase of operation should be
considered as start-up current, although the highest current does not necessarily
occur when starting the motion. With direct starting the ID is typically 5 to 10 times IN.
With electronic drives the start-up current depends on the converter type and on its
adjustments; with frequency converters the ID is typically below 2 times IN.
For slip-ring rotor motors, consider ID to be approx. 2 * IN.
For drive with n motors in parallel, apply n * ID or n * IN.
In case two or more hoisting appliances are working together, they should be
considered as one appliance by using the sum current ( ID or IN ) of each joint motion.
In case the power supply also feeds other (continuos) loads such as lighting, hydraulic
pumps, lifting magnets or other cranes, the current drawn by these devices need to be
taken into account.
Booklet 5 - 7/ 35
For a three phase power supply, the required minimum cross-section (S) of copper
conductors can be calculated with the formula:
S
= 3 * l * Itot * cos / ( u * )
l
Itot
cos
5.3.1.2.
[mm2], where
= Power factor.
When calculating the cross-section for the conductor bar, which supplies several hoisting
appliances, the actual simultaneous operation of the drive motors must be taken into
account.
Notes for the calculation:
In this clause, the rated current (IN) should be considered not necessarily to mean the
nameplate current of the motor but the current drawn by the motor at full rated load.
In case n>1 motors are driven in parallel, consider : IN = n * IN (IN = nominal current
for one motor).
In case two or more hoisting appliances are working together, they should be handled
as one by using the sum current of each joint motion.
In case the power supply also feeds other (continous) loads such as lighting, hydraulic
pumps, lifting magnets or other cranes, the current drawn by these devices need to be
taken into account.
The maximum allowed conductor temperature shall not be exceeded during normal
operation. Conductor cross-section should be selected according to manufacturers
specifications or according to IEC60364-5-52.
The tables of IEC 60364-5-52 contain a number of parameters, the most important of which
are:
- conductor type
- installation method
- correction factors (ambient temperatures, bunching of cables,...); for cable drums see
also EN 60204-32 clause 13.7.3,
The current limits given in IEC 60364-5-52 are for continuous current. If the conductor
manufacturer does not provide more detailed guidance for intermittent use consisting of
Booklet 5 - 8/ 35
5.3.1.2.1.
Overloading capacity of
conductors with 10
minute cycle time
Table 5. 3.1.2-A
Overloading capacity of
conductors with any
cycle time
cross
section
Ta / (Ta + Ti)
mm2
0,6
0,4
0,25
0,15
1,5
1,044
1,120
1,265
1,505
2,5
1,058
1,150
1,315
1,580
1,075
1,183
1,369
1,660
1,092
1,215
1,421
1,737
10
1,116
1,260
1,493
1,842
16
1,139
1,303
1,561
1,942
25
1,161
1,344
1,626
2,037
35
1,177
1,373
1,673
2,105
50
1,193
1,403
1,719
2,173
70
1,207
1,429
1,760
2,231
95
1,219
1,450
1,793
2,280
120
1,227
1,464
1,816
2,314
150
1,234
1,477
1,836
2,343
185
1,240
1,488
1,854
2,369
240
1,247
1,501
1,874
2,397
300
1,252
1,510
1,888
2,419
The thermal time constant T to be used in the f ED calculation is given in Table 5.3.1.2-b.
f ED =
1-e
1- e
5.3.2.
Table 5. 3.1.2-B
T a+ T i
1,5
2,5
10
16
25
35
T/min
2,7
3,1
3,6
4,2
5,2
6,4
7,9
9,4
mm 2
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
mm
Ta
INSTALLATION CONDITIONS
Type of protection for connection and distribution equipment must be suitable for surrounding
conditions following the guidelines given in EN 60204-32 clause 12.3.
The connections and linking terminals should be placed in cabinets or boxes. Plug-in
arrangements whose accidental connection could be dangerous should be clearly separated
unless their design precludes this risk. In order to ensure continual mechanical protection, the
protective covering of the cables and conductors should enter housings through packing
glands or such similar devices.
The wires or conductors belonging to electrical circuits with different rated voltages may be
arranged within a single enclosure or may form part of the same cable provided that these
wires or conductors are insulated against the highest rated voltage.
Conductors having single insulation can only be installed in conduits or trunking whose ends
are fitted with adequate protection.
Non-sheathed conductors and cables, which are fixed to parts of the framework should be
protected, if necessary, against any mechanical wear and tear.
Booklet 5 - 9/ 35
5.4
5.4.1.
5.4.2.
SAFEGUARDING WIRING
5.4.3.
Where an incorrect phase sequence of the supply voltage can cause a hazardous condition
or damage to the hoisting machine, protection should be provided according to 7.8 of EN
60204-32.
If the absence of phases may occasion a danger, the appropriate safety measures must be
taken.
5.4.4.
When several motors drive the same motion, the action of a safety device should stop all of
the motors for this movement.
After a safety device has been activated, it should be possible for the equipment to be started
up again only manually.
Booklet 5 - 10/ 35
5.4.5.
For very tall pieces of hoisting equipment which are erected in particularly exposed locations,
the effects of lightning must be considered
on pieces of vulnerable structure (for example : jib support cable)
on anti-friction bearings or runners which form a link between large parts of the frame (for
example : slewing ring, travel runner).
When necessary, safeguarding against the effects of lightning should be carried out e.g. by
following IEC 61024-1.
For the safety of personnel, it is recommended that the runner rails for the lifting equipment
are earthed.
Booklet 5 - 11/ 35
5.5
In addition to the requirements given later in this clause, the limiting and indicating devices
should comply
with 7.7 of FEM 1.001 Booklet 7, and
with EN 12077-2, and
with the EN-standards for the particular crane type, and
in case there is no published EN-standards for the the particular crane type, the
requirements given in ISO 10245 for the particular crane type should be followed.
5.5.1.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
A limit switch should bring about the arrest of motion by opening the electric circuit and
keeping it open as long as safety conditions are not restored.
If it is unavoidable to by-pass a safety device, this operation should only be able to be
effected with the aid of a device which, when no longer actuated, automatically re-inserts the
safety device. The provisions of 9.2.4 of EN 60204-32 should be followed, and if necessary a
permanent warning signal should be given.
In general, the safety functions should comply with safety category 1 if hardwired or safety
category 2 of EN 954-1 if not hardwired.
5.5.2.
All electronically controlled hoisting motions shall be equipped with overspeed protection.
The overspeed protection shall prevent
uncontrolled and unintentional motions and
all parts of the mechanism from reaching its mechanical limit speed.
The trigger limit of the overspeed protection shall be set so that the mechanical brake is
capable to stop the motion safely in all conditions. In general, the trigger limit should not
exceed 1,2 times the specified speed at nominal load. When utilising field weakening with a
reduced load, the trigger limit can be adjusted to a higher value, in general not exceeding 1,2
times the specified speed for that load.
The emergency stopping with any possible speed and load combination shall not cause any
hazard including the cases where the drive is intended to operate above the nominal speed.
NOTE : Topics to be considered include allowed speed/load combinations, time delays in the
system (particularly brake delays), mechanical speed limit of the machinery, reliability
of load measurement/estimation.
Booklet 5 - 12/ 35
5.6
CONTROLS
5.6.1.
COMPONENTS
5.6.1.1.
Relays and contactors must comply with the requirements of EN6024-32 clause 4.2.2.
In case the crane will be used at an altitude in excess of 1000 m, this shall be considered by
selecting the contactors and relays.
Reversing contactors should be of the electrically or mechanically interlocking type.
5.6.1.2.
5.6.1.2.1.
RESISTOR UNITS
General
The braking resistor of a hoisting drive shall be capable of absorbing the generative energy
when lowering the maximum load at maximum speed. For horizontal motions, the braking
resistor shall be capable of absorbing the generative energy during deceleration of the
motion also taking into account the possibility of a swinging load and the wind push (the load
and load attachment included).
The braking resistor shall be thermally capable to absorb the generative energy during
successive drive cycles of the application. The failure of the braking resistor shall neither lead
to the loss of stopping capability nor to any uncontrolled acceleration of the motion.
The braking resistors and their enclosure may heat up to hazardous temperatures. Protection
or warning of the hazard shall be provided depending on the application. The requirements of
clause 5.1.4.1 of prEN 13135-2 shall be fulfilled.
NOTE : The braking resistor may also be common for several hoist and travel drives. In such
cases the dimensioning of the braking resistor shall be made accordingly.
NOTE : The braking resistor is usually connected to the DC-bus of the inverter and due to
this it becomes live always when electric power is supplied to the inverter also during not
running the motor.
Booklet 5 - 13/ 35
5.6.2.
Switching devices, controlgear and panels housing electrical equipment may be enclosed:
in cabinets or housings,
in special enclosed spaces,
in the supporting structure (principally the crane girder) of the hoisting appliance.
These enclosures and the equipment installed should comply with cl. 12 of EN 60204-32.
5.6.3.
TYPE OF CONTROL
5.6.3.1.
ENERGISATION
The lifting appliance can only be energised when all the control devices are in the off
position. This off position can be determined either by a checking circuit or by using hold-torun controls. As required in EN 60204-32 clause 10.7.1, a device for emergency stop or for
emergency switching off shall be located at each operator control station.
5.6.3.2.
CAB CONTROL
The controls should be so arranged that the operator has an adequate view of the cranes
working area.
The control for hoisting appliances should preferably be arranged on the right-hand side of
the operators seat.
5.6.3.3.
FLOOR CONTROL
Push-buttons or other switching devices, which automatically return to their off position as
soon as they are released, should be provided for the control of all motions by pendant
control units.
Housings of pendant control units should preferably be of fully insulating material or of
material with protective insulaion. Metal parts accessible from the outside, which pass
through the insulation, should be separately earthed.
The surface of the housing must be a vivid colour. For indoor operation, the degree of
protection should be at least IP43, and for outdoor operation at least IP55
Pendant control units should be suspended with a strain relief arrangement.
5.6.3.4.
CABLE-LESS CONTROLS
The requirements of 9.2.7 of EN 60204-32 and Annex C of prEN 13557 apply to cable-less
controls incl. radio and infrared controls.
The transmitter must have a minimum protection class IP 43 for indoor use and IP 55 for
outdoor use.
Booklet 5 - 14/ 35
5.6.4.
The requirements of EN 60204-32 clauses 9.3.4, 15.6, and 15.7 should be fulfilled.
Measures should be taken to ensure that no unintentional movements occur when starting.
5.6.4.1.
SECOND BRAKE
Cranes, which require particular safety, e.g. in steel works or with dangerous or melted loads,
should be provided with a second brake.
The operation of the second brake shall be arranged according to the design of the drive. It is
recommended that under normal operating conditions, the second brake is always be applied
on stopping, after the motion has been brought to a halt by the main brake. In some
applications for example if waiting for the releasing of the second brake would cause
unacceptable time delay at each starting - it may be necessary to apply the second brake
only when the crane switch (main contactor) is de-energized.
In the event of an emergency stop, the second brake should be applied immediately.
Booklet 5 - 15/ 35
5.7
ENVIRONMENT
The electrical equipment shall be suitable for use in the physical environment and operating
conditions specified in 4.4.2 to 4.4.8 of EN 60204-32. When the physical environment or the
operating conditions are outside those specified, an agreement may be needed between the
supplier and the user (see annex A of EN 60204-32).
5.7.1.
In potentially explosive atmospheres, the electrical equipment including motors shall comply
with relevant additional requirements (e.g. EN 50014...50020).
5.7.2.
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
Booklet 5 - 16/ 35
5.8
SELECTION OF MOTORS
5.8.1.
When selecting motors for an application, at least the following details need to be considered:
- required powers-the thermal power is also included in these required powers,
- maximum rated torque and maximum acceleration torque,
- cyclic duration factor,
- number of cycles/hour,
- type of control (type of braking),
- speed regulation,
- type of power feed,
- degree of protection, (environment conditions),
- ambient temperature,
- altitude.
The motor has to comply with the following two dimensioning requirements:
- the thermal calculation according to clause 5.8.1.3.
- the required maximum torque:
for hoisting mechanisms according to clause 5.8.2.1.
for horizontal motions according to clause 5.8.3.1.
NOTE: Additional or different criteria may be needed depending on the driving system.
NOTE: Selection of motors for inverter drives is defined in clause 5.8.4, which also covers the
dimensioning of inverter drives.
If the required torque diagrams, in order to define the mean equivalent torque (cl. 5.8.1.3.1.)
are not available, these can be assessed respectively with the help of tables T 5.8.2.2a. and
T 5.8.3.2a
5.8.1.1.
The selection of the motor should be agreed with the manufacturer in taking into account the
torque and powers calculated in the following clauses and the real operating conditions of the
motor.
In the event of electronic power control, the definition of the motors has to be made in
cooperation with the manufacturer, taking into account the cooling system and the speed
range.
In cases where two or more mechanisms drive the same motion, the following shall be
considered:
both static and dynamic synchronisation of the motions according to the needs of the
application
necessary interlocks between the mechanisms to ensure safe operation
both static and transitional asymmetrical loading of the mechanisms and consequently
needed adequate dimensioning of motors and other drive components
Booklet 5 - 17/ 35
5.8.1.2.
The degree of protection for all motors shall be according to EN 60204-32 clause 15.2. In
case of water condensation risk, care should be taken that the water condensation drain
holes remain open.
5.8.1.3.
5.8.1.3.1.
In order to carry out the thermal calculation, the mean equivalent torque must be determined
as a function of the required torque during the working cycles, by the formula:
Mmed =
Where :
t1, t2, ...,tn
are the durations of the time periods during which the different torque
values are produced; periods of rest are not taken into account.
M1, M2 , .... Mn
are the calculated torque values taking into account all the inertia
forces including the one of the rotor mass of the motor.
In case of variable loads at least 10 successive working cycles must be taken into account
(see definition 2.1.2.2.).
Diagram 5.8.1.3.1. shows an example of the torque for 2 different operating cycles.
5.8.1.3.2.
Starting from the mean equivalent torque, the mean equivalent power P med [kW] is defined by
the formula:
Pmed = (M med * nm / 9 550 )
where:
Mmed
nm
If the motor is rated for S3-duty and the rating corresponds to the actual use in the particular
application, then the motor can be selected according to the calculated mean equivalent
power.
For S1-rated squirrel cage motors, the thermal dimensioning shall be carried out according to
the method described in clause 5.8.1.4. (NOTE: applies only for direct starting motors).
For the motor selection, the mean equivalent power P med should be corrected as a function of
altitude if it exceeds 1000 m and the ambient temperature if it deviates from 40 C (See
5.8.1.5.).
Booklet 5 - 18/ 35
Torque
raising
with load
lowering
with load
M1
raising
without load
M6
lowering
without load
M7
M12
M2
M5
hoisting
motion
M8
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t8
tr1
M3
tr2
t9
t10
t7
tr3
time
M11
t11
t12
tr4
M4
M9
M10
M1
M2
M6
with load
and resisting wind
horizontal
motion
t1
t2
t3
t4
tr1
t5
without load
with driving wind
t6
tr2
tr3
M5
CYCLE 1
M3
raising with
partial load
lowering with
partial load
M4
raising
without load
lowering
without load
M6
M1
M12
M2
M5
hoisting
motion
M8
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t8
tr1
M3
tr2
t9
t7
t10
tr3
M11
t11
time
t12
tr4
M4
M9
M1
M10
M2
M6
t1
t2
t3
t4
tr1
t5
tr2
without load
with driving wind
t6
tr3
M5
CYCLE 2
M3
M4
Diagram 5.8.1.3.1.
starting torque
hoisting torque raising
braking torque
hoisting torque lowering
Horizontal motion
tr: rest time
M1,M4
starting torque
M2
working torque with wind
M3, M6
braking torque
M5
torque without load with wind
Booklet 5 - 19/ 35
5.8.1.4.
The following inequality has to be fulfilled for the thermal dimensioning of squirrel cage
motors:
Ck ( 1 - N ) * P N * T > ( 1 - mcy ) * P mcy * tN + ( P N * t E * ID / IN ) - ( J * nmcy2 * 10-3 / 182 )
NOTE: Subscript cy refers to cycle.
loss energy of the motor working at its rated
power (S1) during a time T
loss energy of the motor during the time t N
( 1 - mcy ) * P mcy * t N
(constant speed) in a cycle
2
-3
( P N * tE * ID / IN ) - ( J * n mcy * 10 / loss energy of the motor during the starting
182 )
and braking phases
Ck
correction factor linked to the type of motor
nominal power [kW] of the motor in
PN
continuous (S1) duty
N
efficiency of the motor at P N
Pmcy.
Mmcy * nmcy / 9 550 [kW]
nmcy
speed of motor [1/min] for power P mcy
mean resisting torque [Nm] calculated in the
same manner as M med (see clause 5.8.1.3.1),
Mmcy
but not including the starting and braking
phases.
mcy
efficiency of the motor at power P mcy
total time of cycle [s],
T
= t N + t E + tr
cyclic duration factor (see clause 5.8.1.6.)
ED
= 100 * ( tN + t E ) / T
operating time [s] at constant speed during
tN
one cycle.
equivalent time [s] of starting and braking
during one cycle,
tE
= ( / 30 ) * nmcy * J / Macc / ( dccy + 0,5 * d icy +
3 * fcy )
tr
total rest (idle) time [s] during one cycle.
total inertia of masses in motion referred to
J
the motor shaft [kgm2].
the number of complete starts during one
dccy
cycle
dicy
the number of impulses during one cycle
the number of electrical brakings during one
fcy
cycle
the mean accelerating torque [Nm],
Macc
= M Dmcy - M mcy
MDmcy
mean starting torque of motor [Nm]
( 1 - N ) * P N * T
Booklet 5 - 20/ 35
PN
1/4 ... 5/4
JM
n1/4 ... 5/4
MDmcy
ID/IN
Ck
In case the C k factor is not mentioned in the manufacturer's catalogue, C k shall be taken
equal to 1 for motors of polarity equal or above 4.
5.8.1.5.
These corrections are depending from the type of motor, the cooling method and the
insulation class.
The precise calculation can only be made by the motor manufacturer in supplying them with
the following indications:
- P med without correction
- value of ambient temperature
- altitude
The thermal dimensioning can be based on the formulas below and on the values of k
indicated in Diagram 5.8.1.5:
Pmed = P med / k
or
P'mcy = P mcy / k
P'mcy or P'med = required nominal power of motor as function of altitude and ambient
temperature.
Booklet 5 - 21/ 35
ALTITUDE
Ambient Temperature
5.8.1.6.
(%)
The operating time and the number of operations per hour of the motors as well as the
number of working cycles of the crane, are an important base for the thermal definition of the
motors and which should be agreed between the user and the manufacturer of the crane. In
case it is not possible to give these indications in a precise manner, it should be referred to
tables T 5.8.2.2 a and T 5.8.3.2 a.
Booklet 5 - 22/ 35
5.8.2.
5.8.2.1.
For a hoisting motor, the required power to raise the maximum nominal load (P Nmax) is
defined in kW in taking account of the configuration of the transmission and of the reeving
according to the following formula:
PNmax = L * V L * 10-3 *
Where:
L = maximum nominal permissible lifting force [N]
VL = lifting speed [m/s]
= efficiency of machinery
The required torque to raise the maximum nominal load is:
MNmax = P Nmax * 9 550 / n, where
nm = rotating speed of the motor [1/min].
In order to be able to develop the necessary torque for acceleration, for lifting the test load or
for compensating for variations in the mains voltage and frequency, the torque developed by
the motor must satisfy the following minimum condition:
-
For all types of motors which are fed by voltages and /or variable frequencies:
Mmax / M Nmax 1,4
The mechanical braking torque at the motor shaft (MF) should at least be equal to:
MF 2 * M Nmax * 2
Static
Static: is the required minimum torque to prevent the SWL (safe working load) rotating the
machinery.
Dynamic: is the braking torque produced by the brake during the whole duration of a
braking cycle.
In case electrical braking is applied, it shall be capable to slow down the load in complete
safety.
Booklet 5 - 23/ 35
5.8.2.2.
In the case where no precise indications are given, the values mentioned in Table T 5.8.2.2.a
can be chosen.
Table T.5.8.2.2.a.
Indications for the number of cycles per hour and the cyclic duration factor for the vertical
motions
Type of appliance
Reference
1
2
3
Hand-operated (=not
motorised) appliances
Erection cranes
Erection and dismantling
cranes for power stations,
machine shops, etc.
Stocking and reclaiming
transporters
Stocking and reclaiming
transporters
6
7
Workshop cranes
Overhead travelling cranes,
pigbreaking cranes
Scrapyard cranes
Ladle cranes
Soaking-pit cranes
Stripper cranes, open-hearth
furnace-charging cranes
Forge cranes
Bridge cranes for unloading,
bridge cranes for containers
Other bridge cranes (with crab
and/or slewing jib crane)
11
12-a
12-b
13
14
Numbe
r
of
concerning
cycles
nature of use
per
(1)
hour
Designation
8
9
10
Particulars
Lifting
2-25
2-15
25-40
15-40
Hook duty
20-60
40
Grab or
magnet
25-80
60-100
10-50
40-120
25-40
40-100
3-10
30-60
30
10
6
20-60
60
40-60
40-60
60
60
40
40-60
b Hook duty
20-60
40-60
Grab or
magnet
20-80
40-100
20-50
60
40
Grab or
magnet
a Hook or
spreader duty
Hook duty
Booklet 5 - 24/ 35
Derrickin Derricki
g hinged
ng
boom
boom
S2 (2)
15-30
min
S2 (2)
15-30
min
S2 (2)
15-30
min
S2 (2)
15-30
min
S2 (2)
15-30
min
40
18
19
20
21
Tower cranes
Derricks
20
10
22
10
15
16
17
Hook duty
Grab or
magnet
Hook duty
Grab or
magnet
40
60
40-60
20
25-60
40
60-100
40-60
2-10
S1 (2)
or S2
30 min
40
60
S2 (2)
15-30
min
40
60
40-60
S1 (2)
or S2
30 min
40
25-40
S1 or
S2 (2)
30 min
30-60
30-80
5.8.3.
In order to select travel motors correctly, all the necessary torque (or power) values must be
considered, taking into account the starting time, the number of starting cycles per hour and
the cyclic duration factor. The maximum transmissible torque of the travel motors is limited by
the adhesion of the driven travel wheels on their tracks.
5.8.3.1.
Booklet 5 - 25/ 35
The travel motors must deliver the necessary torque in the following operating conditions:
-
mL
m0
mrot
The motor shall be selected based on the highest of the calculated torque values (M1 , ... Mn )
in case I and II.
For slip ring motors used for the horizontal motions, the starting resistances shall be so
defined that the minimum torque delivered by the motor is never less than 1,2 times the
torque required to maintain the travel speed.
Booklet 5 - 26/ 35
5.8.3.2.
In the case where no precise indications are given, the values mentioned in Table T
5.8.3.2.a. can be chosen.
5.8.3.3.
ROTATION
The calculation is carried out in an analogous fashion to clause 5.8.3.1, angular speeds being
substituted for the linear speeds.
5.8.3.4.
SPAN VARIATION
If the span variation in the case of luffing jibs, leads to an elevation or to a lowering of the
centre of gravity of the masses put into motion, the calculation can be carried out in an
analogous fashion to clause 5.8.3 in inserting into the factor (w) the forces required to the
vertical displacement of the centre of gravity.
Table T. 5.8.3.2.a
Indications for the number of cycles per hour and the cyclic duration factor for the horizontal
motions
Type of appliance
Particulars Numbe
Type of mechanism ED%
r
Refeconcerning
of
rence
nature of use cycles Rotatio
Designation
Crab
Travel
(1)
per
n
hour
1
Hand-operated appliances
2
Erection cranes
2-25
25
25-40
25-40
Erection and dismantling
3
2-15
25
25
cranes for power stations,
machine shops, etc.
4
Stocking and reclaiming
Hook duty
20-60
15-40
40-60
25-40
transporters
Stocking and reclaiming
Grab or
5
25-60
40
60
15-40
transporters
magnet
6
Workshop cranes
10-50
25-40
25-40
7
Overhead travelling cranes,
Grab or
40-120
40-60
60-100
pigbreaking cranes, scrapyard
magnet
cranes
8
Ladle cranes
3-10
40-60
40-60
9
Soaking-pit cranes
30-60
40
40-60
40-60
10
Stripper cranes, open-hearth
30
40
60
furnace-charging cranes
10
40
40
11
Forge cranes
6
100
25
25
12-a Bridge cranes for unloading,
a Hook or
20-60
15-40
40-60
15-40
bridge cranes for containers
spreader duty
Other
bridge
cranes
(with
crab
12-b
b Hook duty
and/or slewing jib crane)
20-60
25-40
40-60
25-40
Booklet 5 - 27/ 35
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Grab or
magnet
20-80
40
40-100
15-60
Hook duty
20-50
25
40
25-40
Hook duty
40
25-40
40
15-25
Grab or
magnet
Hook duty
Grab or
magnet
Tower cranes
Derricks
Railway cranes allowed to run
in train
20
25-60
40-60
2-10
15-40
30-60
30-80
40
60
20
10
10
40-60
25
25
25-40
25
15-40
5.8.4.1.
GENERAL
I
IN
4
M
MN
n
nN
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
NOTE 1:
If the motor is loaded up to the pullFigure 5.8.3.4
out torque or too close to it, there is a
high risk of getting into an unstable
situation. The required minimum torque
margins are defined in 5.8.4.3 and 5.8.4.4. An even higher margin may be needed
depending on
Booklet 5 - 28/ 35
2.6
the characteristic of the inverter (e.g. vector control or U/f control, with or without
speed feedback), and
the foreseen environment (e.g. variation of supply voltage, load swaying, transient
phenomena).
NOTE 2:
The curves shown in the figure are indicative only, and actual values for a
particular motor type need to be asked from the motor supplier.
NOTE 3:
5.8.4.1.1.
As with field weakening the motor's pull-out torque decreases, only a limited load can be
handled. The allowed maximum percent load for different speeds can not be specified as
such, but must be analyzed in more detail. The main points affecting are the load to be
handled and the rotational inertia of the system (motors, brakes, couplings, gears) together
with the desired acceleration rate.
When applying field weakening is considered, all restrictions caused by the mechanical
components (motor, brake, gear) have to be checked. Note also that increasing the speed
increases the stopping distance in quadrature.
5.8.4.2.
THERMAL DIMENSIONING
The thermal calculation of the motor can be done as shown in 5.8.1.3. When using S1-rated
motors, instead of the inequality of 5.8.1.4, the below formula shall be used.
Ck (1 - N ) * P N * T > ( 1 - med ) * P med * (T - tr )
The operational class of the crane as well as the load spectrum has only a negligible effect
on the inverter selection. The following items may vary depending on application and should
be checked:
dimensioning of the braking resistor
need of enclosure cooling.
5.8.4.3.
5.8.4.3.1.
The required torque (MNmax ) to raise the maximum nominal load is calculated as in 5.8.2.1.
The torque M max developed by the motor shall comply with 5.8.2.1.
In order to be able to develop the necessary torque for acceleration, for lifting the test load or
for compensating for variations in the mains voltage, the largest of the torques M1 ... Mn (
=Mi,max ) during the load cycle (see 5.8.1.3.1) should comply with
Mpo / Mi,max 1,3,
unless it is ensured by the control system that exceeding the pull out torque Mpo can be
avoided. See also NOTE 1 in 5.8.4.1.
NOTE: In the field weakening region, a lower safety margin according to the inverter
manufacturers instructions may be appropriate.
Booklet 5 - 29/ 35
5.8.4.3.2.
Inverter selection
The continuous current rating of the inverter shall be at least equal to the motor current at
load torque M Nmax. The current required by the motor at any foreseen loading including
dynamic situations shall not exceed the short time overload rating of the inverter.
5.8.4.4.
5.8.4.4.1.
The required torques (M1 ... Mn) are calculated as in 5.8.3.1. The largest of them (M i,max ) must
satisfy the following minimum condition:
Mpo / Mi,max 1,2,
unless it is ensured by the control system that exceeding the pull out torque Mpo can be
avoided.
The possibility to apply field weakening should be checked case by case. Usually there are
very limited possibilities to apply field weakening in horizontal motions due to the fact that
very often a major portion of the torque requirement comes from the acceleration (and
deceleration) dependent term. Typical applications for field weakening are cranes exposed to
wind during low wind condition.
5.8.4.4.2.
Inverter selection
The continuous current rating of the inverter shall be at least equal to the motor current at the
highest speed maintaining torque. The current required by the motor at any foreseen loading
including dynamic situations shall not exceed the short time overload rating of the inverter.
Booklet 5 - 30/ 35
5.9
5.9.1.
CURRENT SUPPLY
In view of the arduous duty to which current supply systems are subjected, the electrical
equipment must be selected and installed with special care.
Supply cables should be able to be wound on cable winders and their mechanical strength,
resistance to external influences and heat-resistance, must be suitable for the service
conditions.
Cable fixing means should be so selected that all strain on the connections or damage to the
cables is avoided.
Cables should be installed and guided in such a way as to exclude the possibility of damage
in normal service.
5.9.2.
The requirements given in this clause apply to all load holding devices such as lifting
magnets and vacuum lifters.
Load holding devices are normally designed for a cyclic duration factor of 50 %. Other cyclic
duration factors should be agreed between the manufacturer and user.
The tear-off force should be at least twice the lifting capacity.
If there is a stand-by power supply from batteries, the holding time should be at least 20
minutes. In this case, an automatic charging unit and a charge level indicator should be
provided. Use of the stand-by supply should be indicated visually and audibly for general
warning. If the battery voltage level is not adequate, a device preventing the installation from
being used should come into effect.
5.9.2.1.
LIFTING MAGNETS
The insulation class of the windings should be selected according to the power loss, the
ambient temperature and, if necessary, the heating caused by the goods handled.
The lifting capacity for a lifting magnet should be specified for a precise load at rated voltage
and operating temperature of the magnet coil.
5.9.3.
GRABS
The drive motors (electro-hydraulic or electro-mechanical drive) should be designed for S3,
S4 or S6 duty depending on type and application.
In normal service, the motors and electrical equipment located on the grab must comply with
IP 55 at least. For underwater operation the degree of protection must be IP 57 at least. Due
to the special service conditions of this equipment, jolts and vibrations must be given
particular attention.
Booklet 5 - 31/ 35
5.9.4.
Load turning equipment should be so designed that loads can be accelerated and braked
without the ropes twisting. The arrangement of the lifting ropes, the load, the lifting height, the
centre of gravity and the moment of inertia of the load and loading beam if applicable should
be taken into account in the design of the equipment.
The installation of guides such as telescoping or articulated systems may be used in order to
prevent the twisting of ropes.
All electrical connections to turning parts should be designed in accordance with the turning
range.
If the turning motor is mounted on the supporting structure of the hoisting appliance, it must
comply with the degree of protection of the other motors on the structure at least. If the
turning motor is mounted on the load lifting means, it must comply with IP 44 at least for
indoor operation and IP 55 for outdoor operation.
Booklet 5 - 32/ 35
5.10
5.10.1. MAINTENANCE
The electrical equipment of a hoisting appliance should be maintained in good condition.
Maintenance should be based on the duty class and load spectrum of the hoisting appliance
and carried out in accordance with the instructions of the supplier or manufacturer.
In addition to the checklists in 5.10.2, requirements for maintenance instructions and
practices can be found e.g. in ISO 12480-1 and EN 12644-1.
5.10.2. CHECKS
A distinction is made between regular checks and checks made before the appliance is
commissioned.
Regular checks are subdivided into simple checks and comprehensive checks.
5.10.2.1.
5.10.2.1.1.
REGULAR CHECKS
Simple checks
The safety devices which can be checked from the control position are to be checked
regularly, in principle before the start of each workday, for their proper electric functioning.
In particular, the following, at least, must be checked :
emergency limit switches,
brake functions,
emergency stop.
5.10.2.1.2.
Comprehensive checks
At least once a year, the electrical equipment of a hoisting appliance should be given a
comprehensive check.
Besides the above simple checks, the following should be checked thoroughly :
the settings and conditions of the electrical safety devices,
integrity of protective earth systems,
integrity of equipotential circuits,
insulation of all the electrical equipment,
tightness of all connections,
predetermined resistance values, if any,
physical condition of cables and cable inlets,
physical condition of safety devices,
presence and condition of devices protecting against direct contact,
the technical performance of replaced parts is compatible with the proper functioning of
the hoisting appliance.
Booklet 5 - 33/ 35
5.10.2.2.
In addition to the comprehensive checks, the checks before commissioning include, at least :
checking that all the hoisting appliances electrical equipment is in conformity with
regulations and standards,
checking that the electrical equipment agrees with the circuit diagrams,
checking the switching sequence of the safety and control circuits,
checking the proper functioning of the electrical components
checking that the control system does not permit any uncontrolled excess speeds in
normal operation,
checking the correct settings for all the electrical equipment and its proper functioning.
5.11
CABIN
A fixed non-dazzling service lighting should be provided, so arranged that only the necessary
illumination for the lighting of the control equipment is provided.
When the general area lighting equipment is not sufficient to permit access and exit out of the
cabin in safety, supplementary portable lighting should be provided ; this equipment must be
able to work, even if the principal electrical circuits of the crane are isolated.
5.11.1.2.
When the working area lighting is provided by the appliance, projectors should be suitably
placed on the crane, so that a minimum illumination of 30 lux at ground level is guaranteed.
This lighting circuit should be independent of the principal circuits of the hoisting appliance.
Precautions must be taken to avoid voltage drops produced by starting the motors cutting out
the gas discharge lamps.
5.11.1.3.
When the general area lighting does not permit sufficient illumination, supplementary lighting
independent of the principal circuits of the hoisting appliance should be provided. The
minimum illumination should be 30 lux.
5.11.1.4.
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
When the lighting of the area does not permit exit out of the appliance in safety, a portable
lamp, equipped with batteries should be provided. A battery charger must be provided in the
cabin.
Booklet 5 - 34/ 35
5.11.2.
5.11.2.1.
Natural or forced ventilation should be provided to disperse thermal power generated by the
machinery and its equipment.
Where electronic equipment is used and working conditions do not guarantee an ambient
temperature for proper functioning of the electronic equipment, an air conditioning unit should
be provided.
5.11.2.2.
CABIN
-:-
Booklet 5 - 35/ 35
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
SECTION I
HEAVY LIFTING APPLIANCES
F.E.M.
1.001
3rd
EDITION
REVISED
1998.10.01
SAFETY RULES
Booklet 7
SAFETY RULES
7.1. SCOPE..................................................................................................................................................4
7.2. BASIS OF CALCULATIONS...............................................................................................................4
7.3. MARKING AND PLATES.....................................................................................................................4
7.3.1. RATING PLATE............................................................................................................................4
7.3.2. MANUFACTURER'S PLATE ......................................................................................................5
7.3.3. WARNING NOTICES ..................................................................................................................5
7.4. CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................6
7.4.1. CLEARANCES.............................................................................................................................6
7.4.1.1. Safety distances....................................................................................................................... 6
7.4.1.2. Longer clearance...................................................................................................................... 6
7.4.1.3. Upper clearance ....................................................................................................................... 6
7.5.2. HOOK BLOCKS, PULLEYS AND OTHER LOAD CARRYING DEVICES ........................15
7.5.2.1. Prevent to jumping................................................................................................................... 15
7.5.2.2. Hand guard ............................................................................................................................. 15
7.5.2.3. Maintenance............................................................................................................................ 15
7.5.2.4. Accidental un-hooking protection ........................................................................................... 15
7.5.2.5. Working load plate................................................................................................................... 15
7.5.3. BRAKES......................................................................................................................................15
7.5.3.1. General ................................................................................................................................... 15
7.5.3.2. Hoisting brake ......................................................................................................................... 16
7.5.3.3. Travel and crab brakes........................................................................................................... 16
7.5.3.4. Slewing brake......................................................................................................................... 17
7.5.3.5. Luffing brake........................................................................................................................... 17
7-2
7-3
7.1. SCOPE
These rules are applicable to cranes and heavy lifting appliances covered by clause 1.4. of
1
booklet 1 - "Object and Scope" .
For builders tower cranes, the safety measures in preparation by the E.E.C. are also accepted by the
F.E.M.
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7.4.2.6. Heat-proof
Driver's cabs which are exposed to radiant heat shall be protected against heat radiation and of
a heat-proof design, and they shall be air-conditioned in order to ensure tolerable working
conditions.
7.4.2.7. Clean air supply
Driver's cabs exposed to conditions presenting a health hazard, such as dust, vapours or gases,
shall be protected against their entry and provided with a clean air supply.
7-8
7.4.3.5. Controls
All controls shall stop automatically as soon as the driver releases them.
7.4.3.6. Limit switches
Normal and emergency limit switches shall be provided for the highest and lowest positions of
the cab, with separate switching and operating systems.
Emergency limit switches shall directly switch off the main power circuit and activate an audible
warning signal.
In the event of the driver 's cab striking an obstacle or a suspension means becoming slack, all
crane motions shall automatically shut down. Devices for returning the crane to service shall not
be of self re-setting type.
7.4.3.7. Buffers
If the travel speed of the driver's cab is greater than 40 m/min, devices shall be provided to
reduce the speed promptly so that the buffers cannot be struck at a speed
greater than 40 m/min. If the impact velocity is greater than 20 m/min, energy absorption buffers
shall be provided.
7.4.3.8. Distress signal
The driver 's cab shall be provided with a distress signal system independent of the electrical
supply of the crane.
It shall also be provided with a mean of emergency descent, e.g. a rope ladder or escape
apparatus, which is always in the cab.
7.4.3.9. Safety headroom
The user shall ensure that with the maximum stacking height of goods there is a safety
headroom of 0,5 m to the underside of the driver's cab in its working position.
7.4.3.10. Remote control
It must only be possible to remotely operate the crane from the ground with the driver's cab in its
highest working position (see also 7.7.).
7-9
7 - 10
7 - 11
7 - 12
7.4.5.3. LADDERS
The length of rungs between side frames shall be no less than 0,3 m ; their pitch shall be
constant and not exceeding 0,3 m. The rungs shall be at least 0,15 m away from fixed structural
members. A rung shall be able to withstand a force of 1200 N at the centre without suffering
permanent deformation.
Climb-through openings shall not be smaller than 0,63 m x 0,63 m or less than 0,8 m in
diameter.
Ladders over 5 m in height shall be provided with safety hoops starting at a height of 2,5 m.
The distance between safety hoops shall be not greater than 0,9 m. They must be
interconnected by at least three equally spaced longitudinal stringers. In all cases, one
longitudinal stringer must be placed at a point which is exactly opposite the vertical centre line of
the ladder.
The strength of safety hoops, reinforced by the longitudinal stringers, must be adequate to
withstand a force of 1000 N distributed over 0,1 m acting on any point of the hoop, without any
visible deformation.
The sides of ladders shall extend at least 1 m above the top rung, unless some other
appropriate handhold is provided. Where space is limited, 0,8 m shall be acceptable.
Safety hoops are not necessary on ladders placed on the inside of structures which can act as a
safety guard and where there is a clearance of 0,7 m to 0,8 m between the ladder and the
opposite side. Structural members can be considered equivalent to safety hoops provided they
are arranged so that the perpendicular distance between bars in the danger zone is always less
than 0,75 m and the inscribed circle between the ladder and the struts is less than 0,75 m.
The ladders must be provided with rest platforms spaced so that the first stretch does not
exceed 10 m and there are then rest platforms at every 8 m.
7 - 13
7 - 14
7.5.3. BRAKES
The provisions of this clause shall not apply to cylinder operated mechanisms e.g. hydraulic jack
hoists.
7.5.3.1. General
Drives shall be provided with mechanical brakes. If in exceptional cases the drive is through a
self-locking gear, the brake may be omitted, provided it has been ensured that no excessive
stresses or movements can occur.
Brake mechanisms shall be easy to inspect. Brake springs shall be of the compression type.
Brakes must be adjustable and brake linings must be replaceable.
7 - 15
7 - 16
7 - 17
7.6.2. Cylinders
When hoisting and luffing mechanisms are driven by hydraulic jacks, automatic devices (burst
protection valves) shall be installed immediately adjacent to the connections to pressure lines to
avoid any undesirable lowering of the load, particularly in the event of pipe failure. When there is
a risk of dangerous lowering of the load due to oil leakage or leaking components, mechanical
devices shall be provided to prevent this.
With other hydraulic drives, the above motions must be stopped by means of automatic brakes,
actuated by self-resetting controls, as specified under paragraph 7.5.3.
7.6.4. Pollution
Prior to start-up, the hydraulic system shall be free from foreign bodies such as turnings,
sprinters or scale. The system shall be designed so that such foreign bodies can be readily
removed when making repairs.
7.6.6. Breathers
Hydraulic systems shall be fitted with breathers at suitable points.
7 - 18
7 - 19
7 - 20
When two or more cranes run on the same track special devices shall be provided to prevent a
dangerous collision. Under no circumstances shall the deceleration in the driver's cab exceed 5
2
m/sec .
In areas which are dangerous due to their being within the operational area of cranes or crabs,
adequate measures shall be taken to protect personnel ; e.g. by the use of warning notices,
flashing lights, acoustic warnings or, if necessary, automatic stopping devices.
7.7.1.3.
With power driven luffing mechanisms the movement of the jib at the limit of the travel shall be
restricted by means of automatic limit switches (emergency limit switches) having regard to the
distance required to slow clown.
The return from the limit positions must be possible by means of the controller.
Luffing mechanisms powered by an internal combustion engine and mechanically coupled with
no intermediate electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic link, may be provided with visual or acoustic
warning devices instead of limit switches.
Similarly, power driven slewing mechanisms with-limited slewing range shall have the slewing
movement limited by means of an automatic emergency limit switch.
Furthermore, there shall be devices in accordance with the spirit of the provisions of paragraph
7.7.1.2. at the limits of travel of restricted slewing range or luffing range.
7 - 21
7 - 22
fatigue phenomena
corrosion
operational, assembly and dismantling accidents
overloading
inadequate maintenance.
7 - 23
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
SECTION I
HEAVY LIFTING APPLIANCES
F.E.M.
1.001
3rd
EDITION
REVISED
1998.10.01
Booklet 8
8.1. TESTS...................................................................................................................................................2
8.1.1. DYNAMIC TEST ...........................................................................................................................2
8.1.2. STATIC TEST ...............................................................................................................................2
8.1.3. NOTE 1..........................................................................................................................................2
8.1.4. NOTE 2..........................................................................................................................................2
8.2. TOLERANCES OF CRANES AND TRACKS .....................................................................................3
8.2.1. MEASURING PROCEDURE .....................................................................................................3
8.2.2. MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES FOR CRANES...............................................................3
8.2.2.1. Span.......................................................................................................................................... 3
8.2.2.2. Crane girders camber............................................................................................................... 4
8.2.2.3. Inclination of the wheel............................................................................................................. 4
8.2.2.4. Trolley rail center distance........................................................................................................ 4
8.2.2.5. Difference in height of two opposite points.............................................................................. 5
8.2.2.6. Bearing surface........................................................................................................................ 5
8.2.2.7. Vertical axis of the trolley......................................................................................................... 6
8.2.2.8. Trolley rails linearity .................................................................................................................. 6
8.2.2.9. Axes of the wheel bores.......................................................................................................... 7
8.2.2.10. Axle bores of opposite wheels .............................................................................................. 7
8.2.2.11. Bushed wheels....................................................................................................................... 8
8.2.2.12. Guide rollers............................................................................................................................ 8
8.2.2.13. Bushed wheels diameter........................................................................................................ 8
8.1. TESTS
Prior to being placed in service, appliances must be tested under overload conditions, as follows
:
8.1.3. NOTE 1
The figures given for these test loads represent minimum requirements. Where national
legislation or rules call for higher values, these must be complied with insofar as appliances
destined for such countries are concerned.
The test to be used in certain countries are given in appendix A-8.1.3. for information.
8.1.4. NOTE 2
When making these tests, it is customary to measure the deflection of the structure of an
appliance.
The present rules impose no obligation as to the allowable deflections.
Should the user wish to impose a deflection limit, he must specify this in his call for tenders 1.
1
(1) The custom of regarding small deflection under load as a measure of the strength of an appliance
should be discontinued.
Although an unduly large deflection can adversely affect lattice girders because of the danger of movement
at the joints, no untoward effects are to be feared in the case of solid-web or box girders.
In practice, the magnitude of the deflection should be limited only from the standpoint of convenience of
operation, since vertical oscillations of the load can be troublesome in some cases.
8-2
Figure 8.2.2.1.
8-3
Figure 8.2.2.3.
By unladen crane is meant the crane bridge without trolley, freely supported on the end
carriages.
8.2.2.4. Trolley rail center distance
The trolley rail centre distance must not differ from the nominal dimension s by more than 3
mm.
Figure 8.2.2.4.
8-4
Figure 8.2.2.5.
8.2.2.6. Bearing surface
Trolley rails shall be laid in such a way that the running surface is horizontal and that the greatest
unevenness of the bearing surface is no more than 3 mm for rail centres up to 3 m and no
more than 0,1 % of the trolley wheel centre distance if it exceeds 3 m .
Figure 8.2.2.6.
8-5
Figure 8.2.2.7
8.2.2.8. Trolley rails linearity
The axes of the trolley rails must not diverge from their theoretical axis by more than 1,0 mm in
a rail length of 2 m. There should be no misalignments at rail joints.
Figure 8.2.2.8.
8-6
Figure 8.2.2.9.
8.2.2.10. Axle bores of opposite wheels
The axle bores of wheels opposite to each other at each side of the track, and if wheels are
mounted in bogies the axes of the bogie pins of the unwarped trolley and crane bridge shall have
an alignment divergence in the vertical plane, less than 0,15 %, maximum 2 mm of the wheel
centre distance .
Figure 8.2.2.10.
8-7
Center of wheel
Center of wheel
Figure 8.2.2.11.
For bushed wheels the above tolerances apply with the wheel in a central position between the
contact surfaces at either side of the wheel.
8.2.2.12. Guide rollers
If horizontal guide rollers are used, the centre of the distance between guide rollers at one corner
must not deviate more than 1 mm from the axis of the rail .
Center of distance between
guide rollers
Distance
between
guide
rollers
Center axis of the rail head
Figure 8.2.2.12.
8.2.2.13. Bushed wheels diameter
The diameter tolerance of the wheels should correspond to the ISO tolerance classification h9. If
runner wheel speeds are synchronized by an "electrical shaft", tighter tolerances may be
required. These will have to be determined from case to case. These tolerances will apply also
to non driven wheels, as the wheels must be interchangeable.
8-8
(max. 25 mm)
If horizontal guide rollers are provided on one rail only, the tolerances for the other rail only
may be increased to three times the above values, but must not exceed 25 mm.
2 - It is assumed that with the trolley positioned in the centre of the span the deflection of both
rail tracks is approximately equal.
3 - The greatest permissible tolerance of the upper edge of the rail is 10 mm from the
theoretical height position. The theoretical height is either the horizontal position, or if
applicable, the theoretical camber curve. The height position of the two rails may show a
divergence of 10 mm. The curvature in a longitudinal direction may, at each point of a
measured length of 2 m, not exceed a rise of 2 mm.
4 - The inclination of the rail rolling surface must not exceed the following values as compared
with the theoretical position :
Longitudinally : 0,3 %
Laterally
: 0,3 %
Figure 8.2.3.a.
8-9
5 - The maximum permissible lateral deviation of each rail in a horizontal plane is 10 mm.
The curvature in the longitudinal axis at any point shall not exceed 1 mm in a length of 2 m
.
Random sampling
Figure 8.2.3.b.
For cranes guided on both sides by horizontal rollers, the above values are valid also for the
rail surfaces of the horizontal rollers.
For cranes guided on one rail only, the requirement for the straightness of the non guiding
rail can be lowered, in agreement with manufacturer.
6 - No account has to be taken of misalignment at the rail joints. It is recommended that
welded rail joints are used.
8 - 10
APPENDIX
A - 8.1.3. - TEST LOADS FOR CRANES IN SOME EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
Country
AUSTRIA
BELGIUM
Dynamic tests
125 % up to 25 t
110 % over 25 t
Up to 20 t
125 %
From 20 to 50 t
+5t
Over 50 t
110 %
Static tests
25 t
25 to 50 t
50 t
140 %
10 t
120 %
SWITZERLAND
GERMANY
Pk = 1,25 . P
(H1 and H2)
Pg = 1,33 . P
(H1 and H2)
Pk = 1,25 . P
Pk = 1,25 . P1 + 0,25 . P0
FRANCE
120 %
(excluding builder's tower cranes
and some dismountable
appliances : 110 %)
GREAT BRITAIN 125 % of the SWL
ITALY
NETHERLANDS
NORWAY
SWEDEN
Comments
Pg = 1,50 . P
(H3 and H4)
Pg = 1,33 . P - 1,4 . P
According to
DIN 15030
DIN 15018 part 1
DIN 15019 part 1
DIN 15030
150 %
(excluding builder's tower cranes
and some dismountable
appliances : 133 %)
During 15 min.
Not compulsory
FEM
8 - 11
FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA
MANUTENTION
F.E.M.
SECTION I
3rd EDITION
REVISED
1.001
1998.10.01
The total 3rd Edition revised comprises booklets 1 to 5 and 7 to 9Copyright by FEM Section I
Also available in French and German
Booklet 9
9.1. PREFACE..............................................................................................................................................3
9.2. PRESENTATION..................................................................................................................................3
9.3. VALUES OF THE DYNAMIC COEFFICIENT (2.2.2.1.1.) ..............................................................4
9.4. FORCE DUE TO HORIZONTAL MOTIONS SH (2.2.3.)....................................................................6
9.4.1. Transverse action due to rolling action........................................................................................ 6
9.4.1.1.
9.4.1.2.
9.4.1.3.
9.4.1.4.
9.4.1.5.
Model of appliance................................................................................................................. 6
Relationship between tangential forces and displacements .................................................... 8
Forces due to skewing ........................................................................................................... 9
Tangential forces, Fx and Fy ................................................................................................ 10
Skewing angle .................................................................................................................. 11
9 -1
Stability .............................................................................................................................. 36
Calculations ....................................................................................................................... 36
travel effect........................................................................................................................ 36
site effect........................................................................................................................... 36
attachments effect ............................................................................................................. 36
collision effect .................................................................................................................... 36
For tower cranes ................................................................................................................ 37
9 -2
9.1. PREFACE
The Rules for the Design of Hoisting Appliances established by the Technical Committee of
Section I of the Fdration Europenne de la manutention (F.E.M), which were published in the
form of 8 booklets, have been increasing widely used in many countries all over the world.
However, these rules were elaborated at the beginning of the eighties and must advance to keep
pace with the improving state of knowledge and the increasingly efficient conception tool being
used.
The need for a revision is based on several observations :
The harmonized standard EN 13001 from the work of CEN/TC147/WG2 will be applied
progressively only at the beginning of the 21st century.
Thus, it is not desirable to await this date and continue to refer to the FEM rules, certain
parts of which became obsolete.
FEM 1.001 consolidates a great deal of experience and serves manufacturers and
customers often as a basis for calculations.
Development of the rules should make future application of the harmonized standards
easier, based on methods with limit states, among others.
The text below shall be considered as a supplement to those texts which are the subject of
booklets 2, 3, 4 and 8. Booklet 6 is deleted.
9.2. PRESENTATION
At the begining of each clause, there is a reference to the clause coming from booklet 2, 3, 4, 6 or
8 that the new text may replace.
Example :
Clause 2.2.2.1.1.of booklet 2 may be replaced by the following text:
9 -3
9 -4
2
s/m
2 min.
HC1
0,17
1,05
HC2
0,34
1,10
HC3
0,51
1,15
HC4
0,68
1,20
HD2
HD3
HD4
HD5
Case I, Case II
h,max
h,CS
h,CS
0,5 . h,max
h. = 0
Case III
h,max
h,max
0,5 . h,max
Where :
HD1
HD2
a steady creep speed for the hoist drive can be selected by the crane driver;
HD3
hoist drive control system ensures the use of a steady creep speed until the load is
lifted from the ground;
HD4
HD5
after prestressing the hoist medium, a stepless variable speed control is provided by
the drive control system independent of the crane driver;
h,max.
h,CS
9 -5
To enable an estimation to be made of the tangential forces between wheels and rails and also
of the forces between the acting guide means that are caused by skewing of the lifting appliance,
a simple travel-mechanics model is necessary. The lifting appliance is considered to be
travelling at a constant speed without anti-skewing control.
The model consists of n pairs of wheels in line, of which p pairs are coupled. An individual (i)
pair of wheels can be defined, either as coupled (C) mechanically or electrically, or mounted
independently (l) of each other. The latter condition is also valid in the case of independent
single drives.
The wheels are arranged in ideal geometric positions in a rigid crane structure which is
travelling on a rigid track. Differences in wheel diameters are neglected in this model. They are
either fixed (F) or movable (M) in respect of lateral movement. The lateral degree of freedom can,
for example, be provided by a hinged leg.
The different combinations of transversally in-line wheel pairs that are possible are shown in
figure F.9.4.a.
Coupled (C)
Fixed/Fixed
(F/F)
Independent (I)
IFF
CFF
Fixed/Movable
(F/M)
IFM
CFM
Figure F.9.4.a - Different combinations of wheel pairs
9 -6
In figure F.9.4.b the positions of the wheel pairs relative to the position of the guide means in
front of the travelling crane are defined by the distance di.
NOTE: Where flanged wheels are used instead of an external guide means, d1 = 0.
9 -7
It is assumed that the gravitational forces due to the masses of the loaded appliance (mg) are
acting at a distance l from rail 1 and are distributed equally to the n wheels at each side of the
crane runway.
Sl ac k of the
guide
Wheel pair i
Wheel pair n
Span
Rail 1
Rai l 2
It is at first necessary to assume a relationship between the tangential forces and the
corresponding displacements occurring between wheel and rail. Since the wheel has to transfer
drive moments (My) to the rail and its movement is restricted by the system (crane and runway), it
slides in the longitudinal and lateral directions [u(ux,uy)]; corresponding tangential forces (Fx, Fy)
react on the crane (see figure F.9.4.c).
Sliding
distance
Geometry
Rolling distance
Forces
9 -8
In general, a relationship exists between the sliding distances (ux,uy), the free-rolling distance r,
the wheel load Fz and the tangential forces (Fx, Fy), as follows :
Fx = fx(sx, sy, pc, surface conditions) Fz
Fz
The friction coefficients of the rolling wheel (fx, fy) depend on the slip, i.e. the relation between
slide and free-rolling distances (sx = ux / r, sy = uY / r), on the contact pressure between wheel
and rail (pc) and on the surface conditions of the rail. To simplify the calculation, the following
empirical relationships may be used :
fx = 0,3 1
fy = 0,3 1
250. s
) , for s
0,015
The crane model is assumed to be travelling in steady motion and to have skewed to an angle ,
as shown in figure F.9.4.d. The appliance may be guided horizontally by external means or by
wheel flanges.
Direction of motion
Direction of rail
Lateral slip
Guide means
Rail 1
Rail 2
Instantaneous
Slide pole
9 -9
A guide force Fy is in balance with the tangential wheel forces Fx1i, Fy1i, Fx2i, Fy2i, which are
caused by rotation of the appliance about the instantaneous slide pole. With the maximum
lateral slip sy = at the guide means and a linear distribution of the lateral slip syi between the
guide means and the instantaneous slide pole, the corresponding skewing forces can be
calculated as follows :
a) Distance between instantaneous slide pole and guide means h
For systems F/F, h = (p'l2 + d2i) / di
For systems F/M, h = (pl2 + d2i) / di
where :
p
'
di
is the distance of wheel pair i from the close-fitting guide means. b) guide force Fy
Fy = f mg
where :
= 1 - di /nh,
= ' (1 - di /nh),
-250
f = 0,3(1 - e
mg
Fx1i = 1i fmg
Fx2i = 2i fmg
FY1i = 1i fmg
FY2i = 2i fmg
Where :
f and mg are as given in clause 9.4.1.3.b)
1i, 2i, 1i and 2i are as given in table T.9.4.
9 -10
Combinations
of wheel pairs
(see figure F.9.4.a)
1i = 2i
CFF
'l/nh
IFF
CFM
'l/nh
IFM
1i
2i
d
(1 i )
n
h
'
di
(1 )
n
h
0
The skewing angle , which should not exceed 0,015 radians, shall be chosen taking into
account the space between the guide means and the rail as well as reasonable dimensional
variation and wear of the appliance wheels and the rails as follows :
= g + w + t
Where :
g = sg/wb
is the part of the skewing angle due to the slack of the guide;
sg
wb
w = 0,1 (b/wb)
t = 0,001 rad
9 -11
9 -12
EN 10113-1 Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels Part 1: General delivery conditions;
EN 10137-1 Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural steels in the quenched
and tempered or precipitation hardened conditions - Part 1: General delivery
conditions;
EN 10149-1 Hot-rolled flat products made of high yield strength steels for cold forming - Part 1:
General delivery conditions;
EN 10210-1 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels Part 1: Technical delivery requirements;
EN 10219-1 Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels Part 1: Technical delivery requirements.
The quality of steels in these design rules refers to the property of the steel to exhibit ductile
behaviour at determined temperatures.
The steels are divided into four quality groups. The group in which the steel is classified, is
obtained from its notch ductility in a given test and at a given temperature.
Tables T.9.6.a, T.9.6.b, T.9.6.c and T.9.6.d comprises the notch ductility values and test
temperatures for the four quality groups.
The indicated notch ductilities are minimum values, being the mean values from three tests,
longitudinal test pieces are used.
The notch ductility shall be determined in accordance with V-notch impact tests according to the
European Standard EN 10045-1.
Steels of different quality groups can be welded together.
Tc
Tc and T
are not directly comparable as the V-notch impact test imposes a more
unfavourable condition than the loading on the crane in or out of service.
9 -13
Quality
Impact
energy
Test
temperature
group
according to
EN 10045-1
J
Tc C
27
27
+ 20
27
40
4
- 20
27
40
27
40
27
S235JR
S275JR
S355JR
S235JRG2
S275JR
S235JR
S275JR
S355JR
S235JRG2
S275JR
1.0037
1.0044
1.0045
1.0038
1.0044
1.0037
1.0044
1.0045
1.0038
1.0044
Fe 360-C
Fe 430-C
Fe 510-C
St 37-3U
St 44-3U
ST 52-3U
E 24 (A37)-3
E 28 - 3
E 36 (A52)-3
40 C
43 C
50 C
Fe 360-D1
Fe 360-D2
Fe 430-D1
Fe 430-D2
Fe 510-D1
Fe 510-D2
Fe 510-DD1
Fe 510-DD2
S235JO
S275JO
S355JO
S235JO
S275JO
S355JO
S235JO
S275JO
S355JO
S235JO
S275JO
S355JO
S235J2G3
S235J2G4
S275J2G3
S275J2G4
S355J2G3
S355J2G4
S355K2G3
S355K2G4
1.0114
1.0143
1.0553
1.0114
1.0143
1.0553
1.0114
1.0143
1.0553
1.0114
1.0143
1.0553
1.0116
1.0117
1.0144
1.0145
1.0570
1.0577
1.0595
1.0596
St 37-3N
St 44-3N
St 52-3N
E 24 (A37)-4
E 28 - 4
E 36 (A52)-4
S235J2G3
S235J2G4
S275J2G3
S275J2G4
S355J2G3
S355J2G4
S355K2G3
S355K2G4
S235J2G3
S275J2G3
S355K2G3
1.0116
1.0117
1.0144
1.0145
1.0570
1.0577
1.0595
1.0596
1.0116
1.0144
1.0595
40 D
43 D
50 D
St 52-3N
S235J2G3
S275J2G3
S355J2G3
S355J2H
1.0116
1.0144
1.0570
1.0576
50D
S355J2H
1.0576
9 -14
Old
New
standard
standard
DIN 17100
BS 4360 (1972)
EN 10025
(1990)
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360
(1972)
EN 10025
(1990)
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360
(1972)
EN 10025
(1993)
EN 10025
(1990)
DIN 17100
NF A 35-501
BS 4360
(1972)
DIN 17100
EN 10210-1
BS 4360
(1972)
(1994)
group
Impact
energy
Test
temperature
according to
EN 10 045-1
Tc C
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
40
47
- 20
1.0490
1.0491
E 355 R
E 355 FP
S355N
S355NL
1.0545
1.0546
E 420 R
E 420 FR
S420N
S420NL
1.8902
1.8912
E 460 R
E 460 FP
S460N
S460NL
1.8901
1.8903
StE285
TStE285
S275N
S275NL
1.0490
1.0491
StE355
TStE355
S355N
S355NL
1.0545
1.0546
StE420
TStE420
S420N
S420NL
1.8902
1.8912
StE460
TStE460
S460N
S460NL
1.8901
1.8903
40EE
S275N
S275NL
1.0490
1.0491
50EE
S355N
S355NL
1.0545
1.0546
S420N
S420NL
1.8902
1.8912
S460N
S460NL
1.8901
1.8903
S275M
S275ML
1.8818
1.8819
S355M
S355ML
1.8823
1.8834
S420M
S420ML
1.8825
1.8836
S460M
S460ML
1.8827
1.8838
55EE
9 -15
Old
New
standard
standard
NF A 36-201
(1984)
EN 10113-2
(1993)
DIN 17102
(1983)
EN 10113-2
(1993)
(United
Kingdom)
EN 10113-2
(1993)
EN 10 113-3
(1993)
group
Impact
energy
Test
temperature
according to EN
10045-1
Tc C
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
50
30
40
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
S 500 T
S 550 T
S 620 T
S 690 T
S 960 T
-20
TStE 460 V
StE 500 V
TStE 500 V
EStE 500 V
StE 550 V
TStE 550 V
EStE 550 V
StE 620 V
TStE 620 V
EStE 620 V
StE 690 V
TStE 690 V
EStE 690 V
TStE 890 V
EStE 890 V
TStE 960 V
S460Q
S460QL
S460QL1
S500Q
S500QL
S500QL1
S550Q
S550QL
S550QL1
S620Q
S620QL
S620QL1
S690Q
S690QL
S690QL1
S890Q
S890QL
S890QL1
S960Q
S960QL
S460Q
S460QL
S460QL1
S500Q
S500QL
S500QL1
S550Q
S550QL
S550QL1
S620Q
S620QL
S620QL1
S690Q
S690QL
S690QL1
S890Q
S890QL
S890QL1
S960Q
S960QL
S500A
S500AL
S550A
S550AL
S620A
S620AL
S690A
S690AL
9 -16
1.8908
1.8906
1.8916
1.8924
1.8909
1.8984
1.8904
1.8926
1.8986
1.8914
1.8927
1.8987
1.8931
1.8928
1.8988
1.8940
1.8983
1.8925
1.8941
1.8933
1.8908
1.8906
1.8916
1.8924
1.8909
1.8984
1.8904
1.8926
1.8986
1.8914
1.8927
1.8987
1.8931
1.8928
1.8988
1.8940
1.8983
1.8925
1.8941
1.8933
1.8980
1.8990
1.8991
1.8992
1.8993
1.8994
1.8995
1.8996
Old
New
norme
norme
NFA 36-204
(1992)
EN 10137-2
(1995)
(Allemagne)
EN 10137-2
(1995)
EN 10137-3
(1995)
ality
oup
Impact
energy
Test
temperature
according to
EN 10 045-1
Tc C
S315MC
1.0972
E 355 D
S355MC
1.0976
E 420 D
S420MC
1.0980
S460MC
1.0982
S500MC
1.0984
S550MC
1.0986
S600MC
1.8969
S650MC
1.8976
S700MC
1.8974
E 560 D
E 690 D
QStE 300 TM
40
- 20
Old
New
standard
standard
NF A 36-231
(1992)
S315MC
1.0972
QStE 360 TM
S355MC
1.0976
QStE 420 TM
S420MC
1.0980
QStE 460 TM
S460MC
1.0982
QStE 500 TM
S500MC
1.0984
QStE 550 TM
S550MC
1.0986
QStE 600 TM
S600MC
1.8969
QStE 650 TM
S650MC
1.8976
QStE 690 TM
S700MC
1.8974
S315MC
1.0972
46F40
S355MC
1.0976
50F45
S420MC
1.0980
S460MC
1.0982
(United
S500MC
1.0984
Kingdom)
S550MC
1.0986
S600MC
1.8969
43F35
60F55
SEW 092
EN 10149-2
(1995)
S650MC
1.8976
75F70
S700MC
1.8974
QStE 260 N
S260NC
1.0971
QStE 300 N
S315NC
1.0973
QStE 360 N
S355NC
1.0977
QStE 420 N
S420NC
1.0981
EN 10149-3
S260NC
1.0971
(1995)
S315NC
1.0973
(United
S355NC
1.0977
Kingdom)
S420NC
1.0981
40/30
43/35
9 -17
SEW 92-75
Steel
Thickness
t
mm
Yield
stress fy
N/mm2
Ultimate
stress fu
N/mm2
S235
(Fe360)
16
40
100
150
200
250
16
40
63
80
100
150
200
250
16
40
63
80
100
150
200
250
16
40
63
80
100
50
100
150
50
100
150
50
100
50
235
225
215
195
185
175
275
265
255
245
235
225
215
205
355
345
335
325
315
295
285
275
460
440
430
410
400
460
440
400
690
650
630
890
830
960
340
340
340
340
320
320
410
410
410
410
410
400
380
380
490
490
490
490
490
470
450
450
550
550
550
550
550
550
550
500
770
760
710
940
880
980
EN 10025
S275
(Fe440)
EN 10025
and
EN 10113
S355
(Fe510)
S355N
and
S355NL
steels up
to t 150
EN 10113
S460
EN 10137
S460
S690
S890
S960
9 -18
Permissible stresses: a
Case I
Case II
Case III
2
2
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm2
157
150
143
130
123
117
183
177
170
163
157
150
143
137
237
230
223
217
210
197
190
183
307
293
287
273
267
307
293
267
460
433
420
593
553
640
177
169
162
147
139
132
207
199
192
184
177
169
162
154
267
259
252
244
237
222
214
207
346
331
323
308
301
346
331
301
519
489
474
669
624
722
214
205
195
177
168
159
250
241
232
223
214
205
195
186
323
314
305
295
286
268
259
250
418
400
391
373
364
418
400
364
627
591
573
809
755
873
NOTE 1: The yield stress fy and the permissible stress a of the hot finished structural
hollow sections according to EN 10210-1 comply with those in Table T.9.7, t 65 mm, for
grades 235 to 460.
NOTE 2: The yield stress fy and the permissible stress a of the cold formed welded
structural hollow sections according to EN 10219-1 comply with those in Table T.9.7, t 40
mm, for grades 235 to 460.
Table T.9.7.b - Values for fy, fu, and a for high yield strength steels for
cold forming and hollow sections
Standard
EN 10149
Steel
S315
S355
S420
S460
S500
S550
S600
S650
S700
EN 10219-1
S420MH
and MLH
Thickness
t
mm
all t
>
>
8
8
8
8
16
40
Yield
stress fy
N/mm2
315
355
420
460
500
550
600
650
630
700
680
Ultimate
stress fu
N/mm2
390
430
480
520
550
600
650
700
700
750
750
420
400
500
500
9 -19
Permissible stresses: a
Case I
Case II
Case III
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
210
237
286
237
267
323
280
316
382
307
346
418
333
376
455
367
414
500
400
451
545
433
489
591
420
474
573
467
526
636
453
511
618
280
267
315
300
382
363
9 -20
Buckling safety v
I
II
III
I
II
III
1,70 + 0,175 ( - 1)
1,50 + 0,125 ( - 1)
1,35 + 0,075 ( - 1)
1,70
1,50
1,35
9 -21
Fj
is the load combination j from loads fi, multiplied by partial load coefficients and risk
coefficient, when applicable;
Sk
are the load effects in section k of members or supporting parts, such as inner forces and
moments, resulting from load combination Fj;
1l
are the stresses in the particular element l as a result of load effects Sk;
2l
are the stresses in the particular element l arising from local effects;
are the partial load coefficients applied to individual loads according to the load
combination under consideration;
The individual specific fi loads are calculated according to the data in booklet 2.
They are multiplied by the appropriate partial coefficients of load.
Then they are combined according to the combinations given in clause 2.3 of
booklet 2.
Table T.9.11 - Partial coefficients p
Loads
Clause
Loading condition
(see 2.3)
Case I
1,22
1,16
1,10
0,90
0,95
1,00
1,00
1,00
1,00
2.2.2.1
1,34
1,22
2.2.3
1,34
1,22
1,10
Effects of climate
2.2.4
1,16
1,10
Dead
loads
unfavourable effect
2.2.1
Working loads
with m = 1,10
9 -23
9 -24
A simplified example: A simply supported beam,with span l and section modulus W, loaded by
its own weight mg (SG ) and in the middle by force F (produced by the load effects SL) . The
bending stress is calculated by the formula:
c mg l c F l
+
8 W
4W
l
8W
and
kL =
l
4W
In order to check the most critical effect of all the loads for a particular design detail, it is evident
that the signs for the variable loads shall be selected so that they lead to the maximum
combined stress (if such a combination is physically possible). Furthermore, the loads are
multiplied by coefficients taking into account dynamic effects and an adequate margin for failure.
However, in a case where the dead weight SG decreases the absolute value of the stress due to
the variable loads (SG having an opposite, favourable stress effect) the multiplication of the dead
weight by its coefficients would lead to an situation where the actual margin for the critical stress
might be dangerously reduced. To maintain the intended margin for failure, the calculation
method described in clause 3.5 shall be applied in the following cases:
1. - When the dead weight has an effect in the opposite direction to the effect of the variable
loads, i.e. the dead weight has a balancing effect. Examples: towers and lower structures of
slewing jib cranes and tower cranes.
2. - Especially for structures where the dead weight has an effect in the opposite direction to the
effect of the variable loads and the tension and compression forces are carried by different
structural elements.
Example 1: Tie-downs for storm anchoring take the difference between upwards and
downwards loads while the wheels carry all the downwards loads in the case of opposite
wind action.
Example 2: Bogie pins and the ties of pin joints (such as end cups). The pins carry all the
compression while the ties carry the difference between upwards and downwards loads.
3. - Pre-stressed structures.
Example: Bolted flange joints.
In this case the variable loads shall be multiplied by the coefficient , but the pre-stress loads
shall be taken as the lowest estimated nominal values. The coefficient for the dead weight shall
be selected between 1 and depending on whether its effect is favourable or unfavourable for
the bolts.
9 -25
PL
Minimum strength
for the rail
N/mm_
N/mm2
N/mm2
fu > 500
5,00
350
fu > 600
5,60
350
fu > 700
6,50
510
fu > 800
7,20
510
fu > 900
7,80
600
fu > 1000
8,50
700
c2
M1 and M2
1,25
M3 and M4
1,12
M5
1,00
M6
0,90
M7 and M8
0,80
The hardening of the running surface at the depth of 0,01D may be taken into account when
selecting the value of PL
When using the tables above, it is not necessary to consider the 5 last paragraphs of clause
4.2.4.1.3 in booklet 4.
9 -26
Figure F.9.14.a
9 -27
The presence of this second slope results in the determination of very low values for fatigue
strength for very heigh number of cycles n, and consequently the safety level is too high.
The text below proposes in particular the cancelling of the second slope of the Whler curve is
presented below.
9.14.2. Partial modifications of booklet 2 and 4
BOOKLET 2 MODIFIED
NOTE: The modifications are written in bold face type.
2.1.4.3
STRESS SPECTRUM
....In many applications the function f(x) may be approximated by a function consisting of a
certain number r of steps, comprising respectively n1, n2,... nr stress cycles ; the stress may
be considered as practically constant and equal to i during ni cycles. If n represents the total
number of cycles and max the greatest of the stresses 1, 2, ..., r there exists a relation :
r
n1 + n2 + ... + nr =
ni = n
et
i =1
n1
+ 2
n
max
n2
+ ..... + r
n
max
nr
=
n
n
maxi ni
i= 1
r
the summation is truncated for the first ni 2.106. This ni is taken as nr and replaced with
nr = 2.106 cycles.
Depending on its stress spectrum, a component is placed in one of the spectrum classes
P1, P2, P3, P4, defined in table T.2.1.4.3.
9 -28
BOOKLET 4 MODIFIED
NOTE: The modifications are written in bold face type.
4.1.3.5
WHLER CURVE
In this context, the Whler curve, shows the number of stress cycles n which can be
withstood before fatigue failure as a function of the maximum stress (or ), when all stress
cycles present the same amplitude and the same ratio k between extreme values.
With regard to this WHLER curve, the following hypotheses are made respectively
- for n = 8.103 :
- for
= R
or
R
3
log R log d
log R log d
3
- for
n > 2.106 :
= d
or
=d
9 -29
8 j
= 2 c d
The group classification of components, on the basis of their total number of cycles n and their
spectrum factor ksp, as well as the critical fatigue stresses associated with each group, are
illustrated in figure 4.1.3.6 modified where jk represents the stress applying to group Ej. For the
critical shear stresses, the letter must be replaced with .
Figure 4.1.3.6
modified
Concerning the relation between spectrum classes P1 to P4 and the spectrum factor ksp see
table T.2.1.4.3 in booklet 2.
9 -30
Comment : The above fatigue strengths are based on the components group number so
those values are discontinuous. The above formulas may be usefully replaced with the
following:
k =
n
k sp
nd
1
c
d
n
k sp
2 106
1
c
or k =
9 -31
d
1
c
n
k sp
nd
d
n
k sp
2 106
1
c
BOOKLET 4 MODIFIED
NOTE: The modifications are written in bold face type.
4.1.3.7 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND CALCULATIONS
The permissible stresses af and af are obtained by dividing the stresses k and k, defined in
4.1.3.6., respectively by a safety factor of k .
1
k = 3,2c
Taking :
af =
k
k
af =
k
k
af
af
with :
maximum calculated normal stress amplitude,
+ 2
kx
k
k
ky
kx ky
in which :
x, y
kx, ky
k
= shear fatigue strength.
If it is not possible to determine the most unfavourable case of the foregoing relation from the
corresponding stresses x, y and , calculations must be performed separately for the loads
x max, y max and max and the most unfavourable corresponding stresses.
It should be noted that the checks described above do not guarantee safety against brittle
fracture.
Such safety can be ensured only by a suitable choice of material quality.
9 -32
BOOKLET 4 MODIFIED
A- 4.1.3. - DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN MECHANISM COMPONENTS
SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE
NOTE: The modifications are written in bold face type.
The endurance limit for a polished specimen is a laboratory value, which is practically never
attained in parts actually used. Numerous factors - shape, size, surface condition (machining
quality) and possible corrosion - induce discontinuities resulting in "notch effects", which
decrease the permissible stresses in the part, when these stresses are calculated by
conventional elementary methods for the strength of materials. These factors are taken into
account by coefficients, called ks, kd, ku, kc, respectively all greater than or equal to unity.The
endurance limit fora polished specimen isdivided by the product of theses coefficients.
Designers are advised against using a skin factor taking into account the influence of
surface treatments.
...
The calculation for permissible stresses for fatigue can also be constructed with the
stress gradient method (or Siebel method), which takes into account plastic adaptation
with notch root ..
This method is used in the following documents :
- "Handbuch fr Werkstoffprfung", E. SIEBEL, Berlin 1958,
- "Calcul des pices la fatigue - Mthode du gradient", A. BRAND, CETIM 1980
- FKM Forschungskuratorium Maschinenbau e. V. (Hrsg.) : Festigkeitsnachweis. Vorhaben
Nr. 154, FKM-Heft 183-1Frankfurt 1994,
- E DIN 743 : Tragfhigkeit von Wellen und Achsen. Teile 1-4, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin, April
1996
9 -33
i (N/mm_)
i/ max
ni (real)
ni (effective)
200
10 000
10 000
160
0,8
50 000
50 000
125
0,625
200 000
200 000
90
0,45
1 500 000
1 500 000
80
0,4
5 000 000
2 000 000
71
0,355
20 000 000
63
0,315
50 000 000
0
n = ni = 3 760 000
According to booklet 2
n = 3,76.106
It belongs to the class of utilization B8 (clause 2.1.4.2).
c = 3 (slope of the Whler curve for the component)
We calculate the spectrum factor ksp (clause 2.1.4.3):
k sp = 1
10 4
3,76 10 6
+ 0,83
5 104
3,76 106
+ 0,6253
2 105
3,76 106
+ 0,45 3
1,5 106
3,76 106
+ 0,4 3
2 106
3,76 106
9 -34
According to booklet 4
8 j
. d = 2
8 6
.100 = 158 N / mm 2
1/c
k = 3.2
af =
= 3.21/3 = 1.473
k
158
=
= 1073
, N/mm2
k
1473
,
The shaft is not acceptable for fatigue, because the max stress amplitude is higher than the
permissible value.
NOTE: If we use the fatigue
4.1.3.6, it becomes :
d
=
k =
1/ c
n
k sp
2 106
0,09285
2000000
1/ 3
2
= 178,9 N/mm
k
178,9
=
= 1215
, N/mm2
k
1473
,
The shaft is still not acceptable for fatigue, because the max stress amplitude is higher than the
permissible value.
9 -35
A crane is said to be stable when the algebraic sum of the stabilizing moments is greater than or
equal to the sum of the overturning moments.
9.15.2.2. Calculations
Calculations shall be made to verify the stability of the crane by computing the sum of the
overturning moments and the stabilizing moments using the loads multiplied by the load factor
given in table T.9.15.a
In all calculations, the position of the crane and its components, and the effect of all loads and
forces, shall be considered in their least favourable combination, direction and effect.
9.15.2.3. travel effect
For cranes designed to travel with load, the forces induced by the maximum allowable vertical
track variation as specified by the manufacturer shall be taken into account, in addition to other
loads specified in condition II of table T.9.15.a.
9.15.2.4. site effect
Where required, excitation effects appropriate to the particular site or zone shall be considered
as an additional loading condition.
9.15.2.5. attachments effect
In the calculations shown in table T.9.15.a, consideration shall be given to the loads induced by
the weight of the crane and its components, including any lifting attachments which are a
permanent part of the crane in its working condition.
9.15.2.6. collision effect
For the case of collision (e. g. buffer impact), the stability calculations shall be based on dynamic
considerations.
9 -36
For tower cranes the stability case according to table T.9.15.b shall be met.
Table T.9.15.a.
Condition
Loading
Load factor to
be considered
1,0
Applied load
1,6P
Wind load
Inertia forces*
1,0
Applied load
1,35 P
Wind load
1,0 W1
Inertia forces
1,0 D
1,0
Applied load
-0,2 P
Wind load
1,0 W1
Inertia forces
1,0
Applied load
1,0 P1
Wind load
1,2 W2
Inertia forces
1,0
Applied load
1,25 P2
Wind load
1,0 W3
Inertia forces
1,0 D
I. Basic Stability
IV.
Extreme
Wind Loading
V. Stability During
Erection
or dismantling
Where :
P1
is the fixed load lifting attachment; out-of-service the fixed load lifting attachment
shall be considered as part of the weight of the crane and its components
P2
9 -37
Table T.9.15.b.
Condition
VI Stability During
Erection or
dismantling
see figure F.9.15.
Loading
Load factor to be
considered
1,0
0,10 P2
1,16 P2
Wind load
1,0 W3
Inertia forces
1,0 D
On-service wind forces shall always be applied in the least favourable direction.
9.15.4.2. Out-of-service
Out-of-service wind forces shall be applied in the least favourable direction for those cranes
which are not free to rotate with the wind. For those cranes which are designed to rotate with the
wind, the force shall be applied on the superstructure in the direction contemplated, and in the
least favourable direction on the lower structure.
9.15.5. Crane base
The crane manufacturer shall specify the forces imposed by the crane on the ground or
supporting structure. The information given by the manufacturer should state all applicable
conditions for which the forces have been stipulated (including out-of-service wind). Where the
crane base provides all or part of the stability of the crane, the manufacturer shall specify the
requirement applicable to the crane base.
9 -38
Loading
Load factor to be
considered
1,0
Applied load
1,35 P
Wind load
1,2 W1
Inertia forces
1,0 D
1,0
Applied load
1,0 P1
Wind load
1,2 W2
Inertia forces
9 -39
Where rail clamps or similar measures are necessary to avoid out-of-service drifting, the
operator's manual shall advise that they shall be applied when the in-service wind limit has been
reached.
The resistance to travel due to friction and the coefficients of friction shown in table T.9.15.d shall
apply.
Table T.9.15.d - Resistance to travel and coefficients of friction
Ratio : Resistance to travel / Radial load
Plain bearings
0,02
0,005
0,14
0,25
NOTE: Higher coefficients of friction may be allowed for if it can be shown that these are
present in all surface conditions and qualities (e.g. oil, dirt, ice).
9 -40
1,2
1,4
> 1,4
30
1,2
1,25
1,3
100
1,15
1,2
1,25
< 100
1,10
1,15
1,2
NOTE: These values are not applicable for cranes equipped with powered series hoist
mechanisms with a direct action lifting force limiter. In that case the values given in FEM
9.751 may be used.
where = dynamic coefficient according clause 9.3.
For cranes this dynamic test also covers the requirements of static overload and stability testing.
9 -41
Figure F.9.17
Table T.9.17 - Wheel direction deviation angle /rad
Class of
mechanism
25
50
100
200
>200
M1
0.0012
0,0012
0,0012
0,0010
0,0008
M2
0,0012
0,0012
0,0010
0,0008
0,0007
M3
0,0012
0,0010
0,0008
0,0007
0,0006
M4
0,0010
0,0008
0,0007
0,0006
0,0005
M5
0,0008
0,0007
0,0006
0,0005
0,0004
M6
0,0007
0,0006
0,0005
0,0004
0,0004
M7
0,0006
0,0005
0,0004
0,0004
0,0004
M8
0,0005
0,0004
0,0004
0,0004
0,0004
NOTE: The angles give approximately same amount of wear of the wheels and rails, when the
wheels are designed according to 9.12.
9 -42