Photosynthesis & Chloroplasts

6CO + 6HO

CHO + 6O

Heterotroph something which gets its food from other

organisms
Autotroph creates its own food
Photoautotroph uses light & energy to create its own food
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate (3 phosphate groups)
- Universal energy source.
- Powers cellular processes by building and breaking bonds
When we need energy, the third bond is broken by a hydrolysis
reaction using ATPase enzyme.
ATP

ADP + Pi + energy

The Electron Transport Chain

ATP is made as a result of what is used in the electron transport
chain. As electrons move along the chain, they lose energy
which can be used to drive the synthesis of ATP to ADP &
inorganic phosphate.
Hydrogen molecules removed from compounds are picked up
by other compounds and become reduced. OILRIG (oxidation
is loss, reduction is gain)

Chloroplasts: Structures & Functions

Starch Grain

Organelle which contains

starch

Lamellae

Extension of the Thylakoids

(contain PSI)

Thylakoids

Organelle which contains

chlorophyll (and PSI & PSII)
found in the Stroma in stacks
called Grana. Increase surface
area for light capture and
allows capture of photons with
a wider range of wavelengths.
Light Dependant Reactions
occur in the Thylakoid
Membrane.

Grana (granum)

Stack of Thylakoid discs

Stroma

The space in a chloroplast

surrounding the Thylakoids.

Contains ribosomes and

genetic materials so proteins
required for photosynthesis
can be synthesised. Also
contains starch grains and lipid
droplets.
Ribosomes

Organelle for synthesis of

Polypeptides

Outer Membrane
(double membrane)

Permeable to most ions and

metabolites.

Inner Membrane
(double membrane)

Highly specialised with

transport proteins

Chlorophyll Pigments
There are 5 pigments:
- Chlorophyll a
- Chlorophyll b
- Carotene
Carotenoids
- Xanthophyll
- Phaeophytin
All parts of the plant do not need to carry out photosynthesis and
therefore do not have chloroplasts. The most abundant type of
chlorophyll is chlorophyll a which is found in most places. The benefit
of having different types is that it is most efficient as each of the
pigments absorbs and captures light from particular areas, more
energy from the light can be used and photosynthesis is maximised.
Plant leaves appear green as all colours apart from green are absorbed
so green is reflected back as chlorophyll a is most abundant.

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

Products of Light Dependent Reactions ATP (energy), Oxygen & Reduced NADP

Photosystem I Lamellae
Photosystem II Granum
Light dependent reactions Thylakoid
Membrane
Light independent reactions Stroma

Takes place on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. It

has 2 main functions:
1. To produce ATP, supplying energy for the synthesis of
carbohydrates
2. Split water molecules in a photochemical reaction
providing hydrogen ions to reduce CO2 & produce
carbohydrates
The smallest unit of light energy is a photon. When a photon of
light hits a chlorophyll molecule, the energy is transferred to
the electrons of that molecule. Photoexcitation occurs & if an
electron is raised to a sufficiently high energy level it will leave
the chlorophyll molecule completely. The excited electron can
be picked up by an electron acceptor (carrier molecule). This in
turn results in the synthesis of ATP by one of two processes
Cyclic & Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation.

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only photosystem I &
drives the production of ATP. When light hits a chlorophyll
molecule, a light excited electron leaves the molecule. It is

taken up by an electron acceptor and passed directly along the

electron transport chain to produce ATP. When an electron
returns to the chlorophyll molecule in PSI, it can then be excited
in the same
Way.

NON - CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

Non cyclic photophosphorylation involves both photosystem I
& photosystem II. It splits water molecules to provide
reducing power to make carbohydrates. It also produces more
ATP.
Water dissociates into Hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH-)
ions, so there are always plenty of these ions present in the
cell. A series of Redox Reactions take place.
An excited electron from PSI is picked up by an electron
acceptor (NADP). The NADP takes up a hydrogen ion from the
dissociated water at the same time to form reduced NADP.
This reduced NADP is used as a source of reducing power in
the light independent reactions of photosynthesis to
make glucose.
At the same time, an excited electron from PSII is picked up by
another electron acceptor and passes along an electron
transport chain until it reaches PSI. PSI then receives an
electron to replace the one that was lost to the light
independent reactions.
As the chlorophyll molecule in PSII is short of an electron and
unstable, an electron has to be found from somewhere to
restore the chlorophyll to its original state. The electron comes
from the splitting of water PHOTOLYSIS.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

Carbon dioxide is converted to carbohydrates. These
reactions
occur in the Stroma of the chloroplasts, surrounding the
grana. Carbon dioxide readily diffuses into the
chloroplast where it is built up into sugars in a cyclic
process called the Calvin cycle.

The Calvin Cycle

Intermediates of the Calvin Cycle:
- RuBP (Ribulose Biphosphate)
- Rubisco (Ribulose Biphophate Carboxylase/Oxygenase
enzyme)
- GP (Glycerate 3 phosphate)
- TP (Triose phosphate) = GALP (Glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate)

- The enzyme Ribisco combines RuBP with CO to form a 6

carbon molecule (unstable) which then splits into 2 GP
molecules which are 3 carbons each.
- These molecules are reduced using ATP energy & H+ from
NADPH (from the light dependent reactions) to form 2 GALP
molecules (3 carbons each).
- 1 carbon goes off to make complex molecules; glucose,
lipids and amino acids & the other 5 start the process again
converting back into RuBP.
- Products of the Calvin Cycle which pass from independent
reaction to dependent reactions are: NADP, ADP &
Inorganic Phosphate

ECOSYSTEM

- An ecosystem is a life supporting environment which

includes all living organisms which interact together, the
nutrients that cycle through the system, and the physical
& chemical environment in which the organisms are living.
Habitat place where an organism lives
Population group of organisms of the same species
Community all the populations of different species living in a
habitat at any one time.
Niche role of an organism, its way of life

Abiotic factors non-living elements of the habitat of an

organism e.g. sunlight, temperature, soil, ph.
Biotic factors living elements of a habitat which affect the
ability of a group of organisms to survive there e.g. the
presence of suitable prey will affect the number of predators in
the habitat

BIOMES
- Major ecosystems devised from the biosphere,
distinguished by their similar climates and plant
communities.
Tropical Rainforest high humidity, warm and plenty of
sunlight, rain all year.
Savannah dry tropical grassland
Tropical Woodland wetter than savannah, grassland with
thornwoods, bushes and trees
Desert very little rainfall, often extreme of temp. between
day and night
Taiga evergreen forests in cold subarctic & subalpine regions
Tundra very cold, artic & high mountain regions
The major biomes have developed over millions of years due
to:

SUCCESSION Communities of animals and plants colonise an area,

and over time are replaced by other, usually more varied
communities

Primary Succession
- Rock is uninhabited, due to poor conditions for growth
such as no soil or moisture
- Pioneer species such as algae or lichens penetrate the
bare rock
- The pioneer species break the bare rock, this is mixed with
the remains of dead pioneer species organisms HUMUS,
which creates the foundations of soil

- Once soil is established, plants which require soil such as

grasses and ferns colonise the area
- Upon the death of primary colonisers, more humus is
added to the soil, so the nutrient content develops. Roots
hold the soil together and retain more water
- Secondary colonisers more adapted to the new
environment will then colonise the land
- Larger trees block the growth of smaller plants, due to
competition for sunlight & species diversity drops.
- Climax community is self-sustaining & reached
where the biodiversity is constant. Not many
further changes occur.
Secondary Succession

Occurs as rivers shift their courses after fires & floods and
disturbances cause by humans. Due to primary
succession, the soil is already formed and contains the
seeds, tools and soil organisms, which means the number
of plants and animals present right from the beginning of
the succession, are much higher.

EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

ABIOTIC
FACTOR

Light

EFFECT ON
ECOSYSTEM IF IN
MODERATION
Plants depend on light
for photosynthesis and
must be able to cope in

EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF
TOO MUCH/LITTLE
Some plants are able to
reproduce and thrive in low
light levels, having extra

areas with low levels of

light.

Temperat
ure

Wind

Water

There is a range of
temperatures which
allow growth and
reproduction for
particular organisms.
The temperature in an
area also affects the
rate of enzyme
controlled reactions in
plants
Wind increases water
and heat loss from the
body ad adds to the
environmental stress
an organism has to
cope with.
Water is vital for living
organisms

Oxygen
Conc.

Oxygen can be in short

supply in both water
and soil. When water is
cold sufficient oxygen
dissolves in it to
support life and vice
versa. Soil is usually
well aerated.

Edaphic
Factors
(soil

Plant populations that

are linked by massive
root and rhizome
networks, such as

chlorophyll or other
chlorophyll pigments which
are sensitive to lower light
levels. Animals behaviour
may be affected by seasonal
light changes, as well as
reproductive patterns.
Above or below that range,
reproduction does not occur,
even if the organism
survives. It is the extreme of
temperature which
determines where an
organism can live, not the
average.

Few species can survive in

areas with strong prevailing
winds while occasional gales
and hurricanes can devastate
populations.
So where the supply is
limited it will cause severe
problems. Organisms may die
if the stress becomes too
severe if like camels and
cacti, the have adaptations to
enable them to survive.
The spaces between soil
particles contain air so there
is plenty of oxygen for the
respiration of plant roots. In
waterlogged soil, the air
spaces are filled with water
so plant roots may be
deprived of oxygen and may
die.
Soil that contains high
proportion of sand are light,
easily worked and warmed.
However, also easily drained

structure
& mineral
content)

marram grass can

survive in loose,
shifting structures such
as sand. They bind the
sand together which
makes it more suited
for colonisation by
other species.

so water passes through

them rapidly, carry with it
minerals needed for plants.
The opposite occurs for soils
made of predominantly tiny
clay particles.

EFFECT OF BIOTIC FACTORS

TERM &
MEANING
Finding a mate
finding a
member of the
opposite sex to
reproduce with
Territory an
area occupied
& defended by
an/a group of
organism (s)
from the same
or different
species
Parasitism &
Disease
biotic factors
which cause
weakened
animal
relationships.
Where 1

HOW IT
AFFECTS AN
ECOSYSTEM
Affects the
biodiversity
allows niches to
carry on. Larger
allele/genetic
diversity
Resources are
defended
making sure
others can get
them and
continue
reproducing
Diseases can
wipe out whole
populations
within a biome

EXAMPLE
A equine
species
becoming
extinct due to
reproduction
isolation
Lions dens

Mixing
populations &
bringing
diseases
Wild pigs

organism
benefits at the
others expense

Competition
- Intraspecific Competition
competition for a
limited resource
between members of
the same population
or species.
As a result of
intraspecific
competition, some
individuals may not
survive, or may not
reproduce and so population growth slows.
- Interspecific Competition occurs when different
species within a community compete for the same
resources. Competition will reduce the abundance
of the competing species.

Energy Transfer In Ecosystem

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) the rate at which
energy is incorporated into plants. Plants use up to 25% of this
accumulated energy for metabolic processes. Most importantly,
in respiration breaking down glucose to release energy in the
form of ATP.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) The rest of energy which
is stored in body tissues
NPP = GPP Plant Respiration
The energy in plant material is available to herbivores, but
relatively little of it ends up as new animal material. Much of
the energy is used to drive respiration then is lost to the
atmosphere as heat energy. Some is lost as chemical energy in
metabolic waste products and heat energy in urine.
The energy used to make new animal biomass is known as
SECONDARY PRODUCTION.

Speciation & Evolution

Mechanisms of Speciation Populations that have been
isolated for millions of years can remain effectively the same
species. However, populations living next door to each other
can begin to form new species. Reproductive isolation is crucial
to speciation and this occurs when fertilisation is prevented
(prezygotic) or when the zygote fails or is unable to breed
(postzygotic)
Sympatric Speciation Occurs when
populations are geographically near but
Allopatric
other barriers prevent reproduction such
Speciation Occurs
when populations are
geographically far

- Habitat
Isolation
Populations
occupy different
habitats in the
same area, and
therefore do not
breed
Gametic Isolation
Sex cells of opposite
sexes are incompatible

Prezygotic
Reproductive
Barriers
- Temporal
Isolation
Species exist in
the same area
but are
reproductively
active at different
times of the year

Postzygotic
Reproductive
Barriers
- Low Hybrid
Adult Viability
Offspring of two
different species
not
healthy
- are
Low
Hybrid
enough to survive
Zygote Vigour
Zygote fails to
develop and dies
or produces
offspring with
severe disability

- Behavioural

- Mechanical

Isolation
Speciation
populations do
not respond to
each others
mating calls

Isolation
Reproductive
- Hybrid
organs do not fit
Infertility
together with all
INVESTIGATING TIME OF DEATH Offspring of two
potential
different species
members of the
not fertile
same
speciesof changes take place in the place ofare
A number
any

mammal after death which can be helpful in estimating

the time of death.
- The normal human body temp is 37C, at death the
metabolic reactions which have created the body
heat slow down and eventually stop. Although
body temp. Starts to fall straight after death, it
plateaus for a while before dropping steadily to
room temp. As a result, the temp. of a body will
give some indication of how long they have been
dead.
Rigor Mortis a stiffening effect caused by lack of ATP
in the muscles & muscle fibres becoming permanently
contracted and locked solid. On average rigor mortis
starts about 2-4 hours after death, begins in the face &
neck and works its way down the body.

Stages of Succession
The first colonisers are anaerobic bacteria,
which do not need oxygen and thrive in the
lactic acid rick environment of the muscles
after death.
As enzymes break down cells, the bacteria
spread & are joined by several species of
flies mostly blowflies. These insects can
arrive on the body within minutes of death as
they are attracted to the moisture and smell
of natural orifices of the body as well as open
wounds.
The main attraction of the body is a site to
lay eggs. Maggots begin to hatch and feed
on the tissues, breaking them down.
The maggots pupate, turn into flies, mate &
start the cycle again. As the tissues of the
body liquefy, adult flies can feed on this too.
Beetles then begin to lay eggs on the
carcass & parasitic wasps arrive to lay
their eggs in the larvae.

- As the body is digested it also dries out,

which doesnt suit the early colonisers.
Different species such as the cheese flies and
coffin flies move in.
- As the body becomes too dry for
maggots, carcass beetles, ham beetles and
hide beetles feed on the remains of the
muscles and connective tissues
- At the very end, mites and other larvae
will feed on the hair until only dry bones
are left.

Viruses
- Viruses are the
smallest of all
microorganisms. They
are not cells, but
arrangements of
genetic material
and protein that
invade other living
cells & take over their
biochemistry to make more viruses.
- Most scientists class viruses as obligate
intracellular parasites meaning they can
exist and reproduce as parasites only in the
cells of other living organisms.

The Structure of Viruses

The protein coat

or capsid is
made up of
simple repeating
protein units
known as
capsomeres,
arranged in
different ways. In
some viruses, the
genetic material
and protein coat are covered by a lipid
envelope, produced from the host cell. The
presence of the envelope makes it easier for
the viruses to pass from cell to cell but it
does make them vulnerable to substances such
as ether which will dissolve the lipid membrane.
Viral genetic material can be DNA or RNA, and
nucleic acid can be single or double stranded.
Viral RNA directs the synthesis of a special
enzyme called reverse transcriptase which
proceeds to make DNA molecules corresponding
to the viral genome.
Viruses attach to their host cells by means of
specific proteins (antigens) known as Viral
attachment particles (VAPs) which target
proteins in the host cell surface membrane.

Virus Life Cycles

Bacteriophages inject their genome into the

host bacterial cell but the bulk of the viral

material remains outside the bacterium. The viral

DNA forms a plasmid within the bacterium. The
viruses that infect animals get into the cells in
several ways. Some types are taken into the cell
by endocytosis & the host cell then digests the
capsid, releasing the viral genetic material. The
viral envelope fuses with the host cell surface,
releasing the rest of the virus inside the cell
membrane. Plant viruses usually get into the
plant cell using a vector (often an insect) to
pierce the cellulose cell wall.
2 routes of infection
- Lysogenic Pathway Many viruses are
non-virulent when they first get into the
host cell. They insert their DNA into the host
DNA so it is replicated every time the host
cell divides. This inserted DNA is called a
provirus. During this period of lysogeny,
when the virus is part of the reproducing host
cells, the virus is said to be dormant.
- Lytic Pathway Sometimes the viral genetic
material is replicated independently of the
host DNA straight after entering the host.
Mature viruses are made & eventually the
host cell bursts, releasing large numbers of
new virus particles to invade other cells. The
virus is said to be virulent (disease
causing) & the process of replicating &
killing cells is known as the lytic pathway.
1.Bacteriophage attracts bacterium

2.Phage DNA is injected into host cell. It

brings about the synthesis of viral enzymes
3.A. Viral DNA is incorporated into host cell
DNA & replicated each time the bacterium
divides, without causing any damage.
B. OR Phage DNA inactivates the host
DNA and takes over the cell biochemistry
4.Phage DNA is replicated. New phage
particles are assembled as new protein
coats are made around phage DNA. The
enzyme lysozyme is synthesised or
released
5.Lysis the bacterial cell bursts due to the
action of lysozyme, releasing up to 1000
phages to infect other bacteria & the cycle
begins again.

RETROVIRUSES
Retroviruses have a more complex life
cycle. Their genetic material is viral
RNA. This cannot be used as mRNA but
is translated into DNA using reverse
transcriptase.
1. The retrovirus attacks an animal cell
2. Viral RNA enters the host cell. This RNA
cannot be used as mRNA.

3. Viral RNA is translated into viral DNA

by reverse transcriptase in the
cytoplasm
4. Viral DNA is incorporated into the host
DNA in the nucleus. It directs the
production of new viral genome RNA,
mRNA and coat proteins.
5. New viral particles are assembled and
leave the host cell by exocytosis. Viral
DNA remains in the nucleus so the process
is repeated.
6. The host cell continues to function
as a virus making factory, while the
new viruses move on to infect other
cells.

Bacteria
Flagella & Pilli
Flagella are rigid protein strands that arise from basal
bodies in the plasma membrane in some bacteria. They
bring about movement by rotating from their base,
driven by the basal body.
Pilli are tiny tubular structures that arise from the cell
membrane of some bacteria. They enable bacteria to
attach to surfaces and to other bacteria.

Cytoplasm - About 75%

water in which are
dissolved proteins
(mainly enzymes)
Lipoproteins, sugars,
amino acids and fatty
acids, inorganic salts,
and the waste products
of metabolism.

Cell Wall
Protects against rupture due to
osmosis and keep shape. Rigid
wall containing giant
molecules consisting of amino
sugars and peptidogylcan

Capsule
A slime layer or
capsule is made
up of additional
materials that are
laid down on the
outer surface of
the wall. Capsules
are firmly
attached, whereas
slime layers may
diffuse into the

Ribosomes - Sites of
protein synthesis.
Bacterial ribosomes
are known as 70S
ribosomes because
they are smaller than
those in the
cytoplasm of plant
and animal cells and
fungi (called 80S
ribosomes)

Plasma Membrane Consists of

phospholipids and
Infoldings of the plasma
Additional hereditary material
proteins arranged in the
membrane found in
small rings of DNA, present
fluid mosaic model.
some bacterial cells. In
in the cytoplasm of some but
Carbohydrates attach to
the photosynthetic
not all bacteria.
some lipids forming
bacteria, they are
There are two different
types
walls and some
where
the of bacterial cell glycolipids
proteins
forming
photosynthetic
which can be distinguished
by Gram Staining.
glycoproteins on the
Plasmids

Mesosomes

Gram positive bacteria

have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan containing
chemicals such as teichoic
acid. The crystal violet in the
stain binds to the acid &
resists decolouring, leaving
the positive PURPLE/BLUE
in colour.
Gram negative bacteria
have a thinner layer of
peptidogylcan with no
teichoic acid. Any crystal
violet which does bind is readily decolourised &
replaced with red safranine in the stain, so the cells
appear RED in colour.

Classifying
- by shape
Cocci (spherical)
Bacilli (rod shaped)
Spirilla
(twisted/spiral)
Vibrios (comma shaped)

Bacteria

Reproduction of Bacteria
Bacteria can reproduce in two main ways. The
most common is Asexual Reproduction (binary
fission) splitting into two. One the bacterium
reaches a certain size, the DNA is replicated and
the old cell wall begins to break down around the
middle of the cell. Enzymes break open the
circular piece of DNA allowing the strands to
unwind and be replicated.

Another form of reproduction is Sexual

reproduction. In very rare conditions, bacteria
can reproduce using what appear to be different
forms of sexual reproduction. There are 3 ways in
which genetic material from one bacterium cab
be taken in and used as part of the DNA of
another bacterium.

Transformation
A short piece of DNA is released by a donor and
actively taken up by a recipient where it replaces
a similar piece of DNA. Only occurs in certain
types of bacteria.
Transduction
Takes place when a small amount of DNA is
transferred from one bacterium to another by a
bacteriophage. Bacteriophage attaches to the
bacterial cell wall. Enzymes are released to break
down the cell wall. New bacteriophage forms and
some bacteria DNA is included by mistake

Conjugation genetic information is transferred

from one bacterium to another by direct contact.
The donor cell is similar to a male cell and this
produces a sex pillus, a cytoplasmic bridge
between the two cells through which DNA is
transferred to the recipient cell, similar to the
female cell

Endotoxins
-

Lipopolysaccharides (part
of the outer layer of gram negative bacteria)
- Rarely fatal
- Tend to cause symptoms such as fever, vomiting &
diarrhoea
- E.g. Salmonella & E.coli
- However symptoms may indirectly lead to death
Exotoxins
- Soluble proteins produced & released into the body by
bacteria as they metabolise and reproduce.
- There are many different types; some damage cell
membranes causing internal bleeding, some act as
competitive inhibitors to neurotransmitters, whilst others
directly poison cells.
- Rarely cause fevers but so include some of the most
dangerous bacterial diseases.
- E.g. Clostridium botulinum produces one of the most toxic
substances known, botulinum toxin

BENEFICIAL BACTERIA
- Many bacteria in the body is
beneficial, helping to break down
food and keeping pathogens at bay
by outcompeting them. The normal
growth of bacteria on your skin or in
your gut is referred to as the skin
flora or gut flora
Probiotic drinks and foods contain cultures
of these good bacteria to help support
the normal healthy bacterial flora of the gut.
- Bacteria also play a vital role in the ecosystems of the
natural world. The majority of bacteria are decomposers.
They break down organic material to produce simple
inorganic molecules such as CO2 and water.
- They release inorganic nitrogen which returns to the
soil in the nitrogen cycle, and also sulphur compound
which returns to the soil or water.
- Another important aspect of bacteria is in the carbon cycle
is the fact that some microorganisms produce the
enzyme cellulase. This enzyme breaks down the
cellulose produced in plant cell walls to give sugars which

can then be used as food by a wide range of other

microorganisms.

INVADING THE BODY

Pathogens are transmitted in a variety of ways:
- Vectors - a living organism that transmits infection from
one host to another E.g. Insects Malaria
- Fomites inanimate objects that carry pathogens from
one host to another E.g. Hospital towels & bedding
- Direct Contact many sexual diseases are spread by
direct contact of genital organs E.g. Gonorrhoea or Syphilis

- Inhalation coughing, sneezing,

& talking release droplets which
contain pathogens E.g
Tuberculosis & Influenza
- Ingestion Contaminated food
the risk is greatest in raw or
undercooked food E.g.
Salmonella
- Inoculation directly through a break in the skin either
through contaminated medical instruments or shared
needles in drug abuse. An infected animal may also bite or
lick you. E.g. H.I.V or Rabies

BARRIERS TO ENTRY
SKIN
- An impenetrable layer toughened by keratin, a
fibrous structural protein
- Forms a physical barrier between the pathogen laden
environment & the blood rich tissues beneath the skin
- Sebum, an oily substance produced by the skin contains
chemicals which inhibit the growth of microorganisms
- Natural skin flora prevent disease by competing
successfully for a position on the skin & produce
substances that inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms

MUCUS & TEARS

- Surfaces of internal tubes & ducts are more vulnerable
than skin however these epithelial layers also produce
defensive secretions. Many produce MUCUS.
- MUCUS contains lysozymes, enzymes capable of
destroying microbial cell walls, particularly against
gram positive bacteria, breaking cross linkage in the the
peptidoglycans in the bacterial cell wall.
- Lysozymes are also present in tears, the secretions
produced to keep the eyes moist & to protect them from
the entry of pathogens.
- Part of the non-specific defence of the body

GUT
- Saliva in the mouth has bacterial properties. Some
polypeptides produced in the salivary glands destroy
bacteria while others slow down bacterial growth.
- Acid in the stomach destroys the majority of ingested
microorganisms.
- The natural flora in the gut usually competes
successfully for both nutrients and space with any
microorganisms which manage to get through the
stomach & produces anti-microbial compounds
- VOMITING is effectively removing many of the
microorganisms physically from the system when the body
is infected.

NON SPECIFIC RESPONSES TO INFECTION

Inflammation is a common way in which our bodies respond
to infection.
- Special cells called mast cells are found in the connective
tissue below the skin & around blood vessels. When this
tissue is damaged, mast cells along with damaged white
blood cells release chemicals known as HISTAMINES.

- These cause the blood vessels in the area to dilate,

causing local heat & redness. The raised temp. reduces
the effectiveness of pathogen reproduction in the area.
- Histamines also make the walls of the capillaries lady as
the cells forming the walls separate slightly. As a result,
fluid including plasma, WBCs & antibodies is forced
out of the capillaries causing swelling.
- The WBCs & antibodies destroy the pathogens.
Fever occurs when a pathogen infects the body which cause
the hypothalamus to reset to a higher temp. This helps in 2
ways:
- A raised temp. will reduce the ability of many pathogens
to reproduce effectively & so they cause less damage.
- Specific response works better at a higher temp. &
therefore will be more successful at combating the
infection.
Phagocytosis involves white blood cells. There are 2 main
types of white blood cells; the granulocytes which have
granules that can be stained in their
cytoplasm & agranulocytes which have no
granules.
- Phagocyte is a general term for white
blood cells which engulf & digest
pathogens and any other foreign
material in the blood & tissues.
- There are two types of phagocytes; neutrophils which
are granulocytes & make up 70% of the
white cells & macrophages which are
agranulocytes and make up about 4%.
They accumulate at the site of infection
to attack invading pathogens.
Phagocytes can sometimes be seen as
pus which may ooze out of the wound
or it may be reabsorbed into the body.

NEUTROPHIL

MACROPHA
GE

INTERFERONS Group of chemicals produced when cells are invaded

by viruses. Interferons are proteins that inhibit viral replication within
the cells. They bind to receptors in the surface membranes on
THE SPECIFIC RESPONSE TO INFECTION
uninfected cells, stimulating a pathway which makes the cells resistant
to infection by viruses by preventing viruses reproducing.

The immune system enables the body to recognise anything

that is non-self and to remove it from the body as efficiently as
possible. Each organism carries its own unique antigens or the
cell surface membrane. There are 2 main types of White
blood cells involved in the immune systems;
- Lymphocytes are agranulocytes, made in the white bone
marrow
- Macrophages are also agranulocytes which move freely
through the tissue after leaving the bloodstream
KINDS OF LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes

B Cells

T Cells
Killer Cells

Helper Cells

B cells
- are made in the bone
marrow
- found in lymph glands &
free in the body
- have membrane bound
globular receptor
proteins on their cell
surface membrane
which are identical to
the antibodies they will
later produce
- all antibodies are known
as immunoglobulins
(IgM)

T cells
- made in the bone marrow but mature and become active
in the thymus gland
- Surface of each T cell displays thousands of identical T-cell
receptors. There are 2 main types of T-cells; T killer cells
produce chemicals that destroy pathogens & T helper
cells involved in the process which produces antibodies
against the antigens on particular pathogen.
The working of these cells depend on special proteins
known as major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
proteins, which display antigens in the cell surface
membranes

ANTIBIOTICS
- Bacteriostatic the antibiotic used completely inhibits
the growth or the microorganism
- Bactericidal the antibiotic used will destroy almost all
of the pathogens present

DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMMUNITY

- Natural Active Immunity when the body comes into
contact with a foreign antigen and the immune system is
activated & antibodies are formed & the pathogen is
destroyed. The body actively makes the antibodies.
- Natural Passive Immunity during pregnancy,
preformed antibodies are passed from the mother to the
foetus through the placenta. The baby gets extra
protection from antibodies taken in through breast milk.
This provides the baby with temporary immunity until its
own system becomes active.

INDUCING IMMUNITY
- Immunisation is the process of protecting people from
infection by giving them passive or active artificial
immunity.
- Vaccination is the procedure by which you immunise

Artificial Passive Immunity occurs when

antibodies are formed in one individual, extracted
& injected into another individual.
Artificial Active Immunity is when small
amounts of antigen (vaccine) are used to produce
immunity in a person
people to produce immunity

CORE PRACTICALS
1. Studying The Ecology On An Area
- Techniques such as taking a transect can be
used to study the topography of an area the
shape, height & depth of the land surface.
- Quadrats can be used to give valid & reliable
measures of the numbers and types of
plants.
- The animal communities can be investigated
by many methods, including quadrats, nets,
pitfall traps & taking soil samples.
- The abiotic factors which affect a habitat
such as rainfall & temperature & edaphic
factors such as soil type & pH are also
measured & recorded to give as much
information as possible about the ecology of
the area.

2. Effect of temperature on a living

organism
- It is possible to model the effect of increasing
temperature on the development of living
organism in the laboratory.
- There are many different experimental
procedures which can be used such as
germination of seeds, the growth rate of
young seedlings, or the hatching rate of brine
shrimps.
- The temperature differences for the
investigation need to be controlled very
carefully

3.

Gel Electrophoresis

- Gene probes are short DNA sequences that

are complementary to specific sequences
which are being sought. Each probe is
labelled, either with a radioactive element or
with a fluorescent molecule
- Large amounts of the gene probes are added
to the filter and bind with complementary
DNA strands in a process known as
hybridisation
- Excess probes are washed away & either Xray pictures are taken of the filter, or the
filter is placed under UV light to show up the
DNA regions

4. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

- Amplifying the DNA
- Adapts the natural process in which DNA is
replicated in the cell, making it possible to
produce enough DNA for a profile from tiny
traces of biological material
- Primers (small sequences of DNA which must
join to the beginning of the separated DNA
strands before copying can begin) & a good
supply of the four nucleotide bases are mixed
together in a PCR vial and placed in a PCR
machine.
- The mixture is heated to 90-95C which
causes hydrogen bonds to break so DNA
strands separate
- The mixture is then cooled to 55-60C so the
primers bind to the single DNA strands
- The mixture is then heated again to 75C
which is the optimum temperature for DNA
polymerase enzyme to build the
complementary strands of DNA.
- The process is repeated about 30 times to
give approx. 1 billion copies of the DNA.

5. Effect Of Different Antibiotics On

Bacteria
- The effect of different antibiotics on bacteria
can be investigated using standard
microbiological techniques.
- An agar plate is seeded with a known
bacterial culture
- Filter paper discs containing different
antibiotics, or different concentrations of the
same antibiotics, are placed in the agar & the
plate is sealed.
- A control culture of microorganisms with
known sensitivity to the antibiotic is grown at
the same time under the same conditions
- The level of inhibition of bacterial growth
gives a measure of the effectiveness of the dr
ugs.