HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

TECHNICAL TERMS
Term:

Definition:

Direct Object

= The noun or pronoun that receives the action of a

verb (e.g. the man hit the dog) or shows the result of
the action (e.g. the man built the house).

Indirect Object

= The person or thing to whom or for whom the

action of the verb is done and who is receiving the
direct object. Indirect objects are usually found with
verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring,
tell, show, take, or offer.
In Stage Two you will encounter some verbs which
are not followed by an accusative (direct object) but
only by a dative (indirect object).

Agreement

= The rule that an adjective must correspond to the

noun it describes in number, gender and case.

Stem

= The main, unchanging part of a word in Latin that

endings are added to. Recognising stems is crucial
when covering the perfect active tense and when
covering third declension nouns.

Principal Parts

= The parts of any verb from which all

tenses/endings can be worked out. The principal
parts are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

present tense
present infinitive
perfect active (the stem of the verb changes)
perfect passive (to be covered in Stage 5)

Hence, the principal parts of the five conjugations

are:
1. amo, amare, amavi, amatus
2. moneo, monere, monui, monitus
3. rego, regere, rexi, rectus
3 capio, capere, cepi, captus
4. audio, audire, audivi, auditus
However, you will notice from principal parts of
many verbs that they deviate from these basic
patterns, e.g.:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

do (I give), dare, dedi, datus (1st conjugation)

rideo (I smile/laugh), ridere, risi, risus (2nd
conjugation)

FORMS
Nouns:
o
o
o
o

rex (3rd declension masculine see pages 3 & 7 in yellow pages)

navis (3rd declension feminine similar to rex, but see The Third Declension)
opus (3rd declension neuter see pages 3 & 7 in yellow pages)
mare (3rd declension neuter see page 7 in yellow pages)

Adjectives:
o

2-1-2
o
o
o

declension adjectives (page 12, pink pages):

bonus-a-um
miser, misera, miserum
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum

Pronouns:
o
o

endings of hic haec hoc (this), ille illa illud (that) and is ea id (see page 17)
endings of personal pronouns: ego, tu, nos, vos, se (see page 17)

Verbs:
o
o
o
o
o
o

1st conjugation (amo) future & perfect active tenses (page 20, blue pages)
2nd conjugation (moneo) future & perfect active tenses (page 22, blue pages)
3rd conjugation (rego) future & perfect active tenses (page 24, blue pages)
conjugation 3 (capio) future & perfect active tenses (page 26, blue pages)
4th conjugation (audio) future & perfect active tenses (page 27, blue pages)
future & perfect tenses of sum, possum, eo, volo and nolo (pages 29-31)

In the Stage Two Test you will be asked to fill in gaps in tables. Here are two
examples:
CASE

2nd Declension
singular

3rd Declension
(m) plural

3rd Declension (n)

singular

Nominative

bellum

reges

iter

Vocative

bellum

reges

iter

Accusative
Genitive

regibus

Dative
Ablative

bello

regibus

itinere

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

PERSON
1st sing
2nd sing
3rd sing
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural

4th
Conjug.
perfect
audivi
audivit
audivimus

STAGE TWO

4th
Conjug.
future

1st
Conjug.
future

Irregular
verb future

Irregular
verb perfect

audies
audiet

amabis

poteris

fui
fuisti

amabimus
amabitis

poteritis

audietis

fuimus

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

Spotting the Two Future Tenses
1. The first and second conjugations have the following future tense
endings:
-bo
-bis
-bit
-bimus
-bitis
-bunt
Hence, amabit = he/she/it will love and monebimus = we will warn
2. The third, third-and-a-half, and fourth conjugations have the following
future tense endings:
-am
-es
-et
-emus
-etis
-ent
This future tense is often called the AMAZING (am-es) FUTURE.
Hence, reget = he/she/it will rule and audiemus = we will hear
3. The two futures means it is very important you know which
conjugation any Latin verb belongs to, since the endings of the
3rd/3/4th conjugation future are almost identical to the endings of
the 2nd conjugation present:
Hence: respondet = he replies (respondeo goes like moneo)
but
mittet = he will send (mitto goes like rego)
4. Also, be sure not to confuse the 1st/2nd conjugation future with the
imperfect endings, which are BA-, not BO/-BI-/-BUPractice:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

Translate the following:

1. lacrimabat
iubebo

STAGE TWO

2. lacrimabit

3.

4. reget

5. regit

6. monet

7. capiam

8. audies

9. rides

10. incendet
13. erat

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

11. timet

12. timebit

14. erit

The Perfect Tense (Active)

1. The perfect active tense is the third principal part.

2. The endings of the perfect tense are:

-i
-isti
-it
-imus
-istis
-erunt
3. The most important thing to realise about the perfect tense is that the
STEM (see Technical Terms) of the verb CHANGES. In the examples
below, the STEM of the perfect is underlined:
nuntio (I announce) becomes nuntiav-i (I announced/I have
announced)
timeo (I fear) becomes timu-i (I feared / have feared)
frango (I break) becomes freg-i (I broke / have broken)
traho (I drag) becomes trax-i (I dragged / have dragged)
4. The perfect tense can be translated as a simple past (I sent), but
often when someone is speaking, or the action still has consequences
in the present, the perfect tense can be translated with have (I have
sent).
5. The imperfect tense in Latin can sometimes be translated as a simple
past, e.g.:
sex annos Romae vivebat = he lived in Rome for six years
(this could still be translated: he was living in Rome for six years but
he lived is better English; another alternative for the imperfect tense
here would be: he used to live...
6. However, the perfect active tense is NEVER translated was / were

doing.
Practice:
Using the vocabulary, translate the following into Latin:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

1. he bought

2. they threw

3. I gave

2. we praised
been absent

3. you (pl) believed

4. I have

Practice sentences:
1. milites lacrimaverunt. epistulas enim ad matres scribebant.
2. imperator clarus iudicem cognovit.
3. cives semper regem laudaverunt.
4. multum vinum bibisti.

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

The Third Declension
1. The endings of the third declension masculine/feminine are:
singular:
nom
x
voc
x
acc
-em
gen
-is
dat
-i
abl
-e
(x = no ending)

plural:
-es
-es
-es
-um / -ium
-ibus
-ibus

For neuter third declension, the endings are:

singular:
nom
x
voc
x
acc
x
gen
-is
dat
-i
abl
-e
(x = no ending)

plural:
-a / -ia
-a / -ia
-a / -ia
-um / -ium
-ibus
-ibus

2. The Third Declension is more complicated than the First and Second,
for the following reasons:
a. There is no clear sign of the GENDER of a Third Declension noun.
This means you have to learn the gender of each word carefully.
b. The STEM of the word CHANGES in the accusative (for masculine
and feminine nouns) or in the genitive (for neuter nouns) e.g.:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

i.
homo (man) is the nominative, but the genitive is homin-is
ii. dux (leader) is the nominative, but the genitive is duc-is
iii. nomen (name) is the nominative, but the genitive is
nomin-is
iv. iter (journey) is the nominative, but the genitive is itineris
c. Because the STEM CHANGES, it is not enough simply to learn the
nominative of the word; you must also learn its genitive; this is
why Latin nouns are written out in a vocabulary list in the
format:
nominative, genitive (gender)
e.g.
miles, militis (m)
p.t.o.

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

The Third Declension (continued)
3. The genitive plural: for all Third Declension nouns, the genitive
plural is either UM or IUM.
a. It is UM if:
i. there is one more syllable in the genitive than in the
nominative, e.g.: rex (1 syllable), regis (2 syllables)
b. BUT, it is IUM if:
i. the stem ends in two consonants (even if more syllables in
genitive), e.g.: urbs, urbis (stem is urb- so ends in two
consonants)
ii. there are the same number of syllables in nominative and
genitive, e.g.: navis (2 syllables), navis (2 syllables)
c. BUT, the following words (known as the family group) have
genitive plural UM even though they have the same number of
syllables in nom & gen:
pater, patris [patrum]
mater, matris [matrum]
frater, fratris [fratrum]
senex, senis [senum]
iuvenis, iuvenis [iuvenum]
canis, canis [canum]
4. Neuter: all neuter nouns and adjectives have the same ending for
nominative, vocative and accusative. All neuter plural (nom/voc/acc)
forms end in -a.
5. take careful note of the irregular 3rd declension noun MARE
(sea).
Practice:
For each of the following, write down the accusative singular, genitive
singular, accusative plural and genitive plural:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

noun& meaning
rex (king)

gender
m

acc sing
regem

STAGE TWO

gen sing
acc plur
gen plur
regis
reges

regum
civis (citizen)

m/f

hospes (guest/host) m/f

leo (lion)

nox (night)

vox (voice)

senex (old man) m

caput (head)

nomen (name)

tempus (time)

mare (sea)

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

Uses of hic, ille, is; personal pronouns; pronominal adjectives
1. hic haec hoc means this (plural these). It occurs:
a. With a noun agreeing with it in number, gender and case: e.g.:
hic homo = this man
ad hunc hominem = towards this man
b. Without any noun.... e.g.:
hic = this man
hoc = this (i.e. this thing), e.g. hoc facere volebat=he wanted to
do this
c. haec (neuter plural) often means these things
2.

ille illa illud means that (plural those). It occurs both with and without a
noun in agreement (see 1. above). illa (neuter plural) often means those
things

3. is, ea, id means this or that, or him, her, it.

a. It means this or that when:
i. it occurs with a noun, e.g. ad eam urbem = to that city
ii. when the neuter plural ea occurs, it means these/those
things
b. It means him, her, it or them when:
i. it occurs on its own as a pronoun. e.g.:
pueri puellas amant et eas laudant = the boys love the girls
and praise them
mensa plena cibo erat. servi eam in horto posuerunt =
The table was full of food. The slaves put it in the garden.
c. It means his, her, its or their when it occurs on its own in the
genitive, e.g.:
libros eorum = their books

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

uxor eius = his wife

4. Personal Pronouns. Note the following:
a. se can mean himself, herself or themselves and refers back to the
subject of the sentence. Consider the following:
i. Marcus amicum ad se vocavit. Marcus called a friend to him/to
himself.
ii. Marcus amicum vidit. eum vocavit. Marcus saw a friend. He
called him.
b. personal pronouns do not need to be used with verbs (e.g. potes
= you can), but can be used to add emphasis to the person.
5. Pronominal adjectives. Make sure you distinguish meus-a-um / tuus-a-um /
noster, nostra, nostrum / vester, vestra, vestrum from ego/me, tu, nos, vos.

Practice Sentences:
1. nos dona hospitibus damus; vos eos pugnatis.
2. homines in illis montibus se celaverunt.
3. hic vir uxorem habet, ille amicum.
4. haec carmina sunt mea.
5. pacem petimus. eam facere volumus.

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

Noun/Adjective agreement (1)

RULE: ADJECTIVES must AGREE with NOUNS in NUMBER, GENDER & CASE
1. Often, this means the adjective and noun will have the same ending
(if they are the same declension), e.g.:
mensam bonam = good table
magnus gladius = big sword
however, note that first declension masculine nouns
(agricola/nauta/poeta/incola)
will have to take masculine endings, e.g.:
agricolam bonum = good farmer
magnus nauta = big sailor
2. When nouns and adjectives are from different declensions, it is
important to use the grids (see pink pages) to work out the correct
adjective (or pronoun) ending to correspond with the noun. e.g.:
make bonus-a-um agree with navem:

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

STEP ONE: navem is singular, so find the singular endings of bonus-aum

STEP TWO: navem is feminine, so find the feminine endings of bonusa-um (bona...)
STEP THREE: navem is accusative, so find the accusative ending of
bona
ANSWER: navem bonam
Practice:
Make the adjective or pronoun in brackets AGREE with the noun in NUMBER,
GENDER & CASE:

1. servi (gen sing) (malus-a-um)

2. regibus (iratus-a-um)
3. nautas (laetus-a-um)
4. regum (bonus-a-um)
5. iter (longus-a-um)
6. patris (bonus-a-um)
7. comites (acc plur) (hic, haec, hoc)
8. senem (ille, illa, illud)

RULES & MANIPULATIONS

Adjectives to take note of:
1. medius-a-um: (middle of). Even though the English expression in

the middle of the city puts the noun (city) in the genitive, in Latin, the
words middle and city agree. Hence:
in media urbe = in the middle of the city (not: in the middle
city)
2. plenus-a-um: (full of). English says full of, but Latin says full with
in other words, the noun after plenus-a-um goes in the ablative.
Hence:
mensa plena cibo erat = the table was full of food (note cibo
is ablative)
3. summus-a-um (highest, greatest, top of): when this word means top
of it behaves the same way as medius-a-um: hence:
in summo monte = on top of the mountain
4. dignus-a-um: (worthy of). English says worthy of, but Latin says
worthy by in other words, the noun after dignus-a-um goes in the
ablative. Hence:
vir dignus donis = a man worthy of gifts
et....et...

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

10

When et occurs twice (where the first et is not necessary) it means

both... and... e.g.:
servi et gladios et scuta portabant: the slaves were carrying both swords
and shields.
Direct/Indirect Objects & Verbs taking the Dative
1. Verbs of giving / showing / buying etc.. often take a direct and an

indirect object. e.g.:

pater librum filio dedit = the father gave a book to his son.
senex cibum iuvenibus emit = the old man bought food for the young
men.
2. Some verbs that only have one object are considered to have only an

indirect object. Another way of saying this is that these verbs take the
dative. Here are some of these verbs:
credo, credere, credidi, creditus +dative = I trust, believe
faveo, favere, favi + dative = I favour, support
impero, imperare, imperavi, imperatus + dative = I order,
command
pareo, parere, parui + dative = I obey
persuadeo, persuadere, persuadi, persuasus + dative = I
persuade
Practice Sentences:
1. igitur uxor pecuniam viro tradidit.
2. rex saevus militibus non credidit.
3. num iratis iuvenibus persuadisti?
4. soror mea cibum mihi emere noluit.
5. noli illis parere, pater!

STAGE TWO VOCABULARY - NOUNS

BASIC WORD
3rd
DECLENSION
masculine/femin
ine
ars
canis
civis
clamor
comes
custos
dux

GENITIVE/GENDE
R
MEANING

artis f
canis m/f
civis m
clamoris m
comitis m (f)
custodis m
ducis m

DERIVATION

art, skill
art
dog
canine
citizen
civilian, civic
shout, shouting,
exclaim
noise
comrade, companionconcomitant
Custos
guard
leader
Duke

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

frater
homo
hospes
hostis

fratris m
hominis m
hospitis m (f)
hostis m (f)

imperator
iudex
iuvenis
leo
mater
mercator
miles
mons
mors
navis
nox
pater
pax
rex
senex
sol
soror
urbs
uxor
vox
3rd
DECLENSION
neuter
caput
carmen
corpus
flumen
iter
mare
nomen
opus
tempus
vulnus

STAGE TWO

fratricide
homicide
hospitality
hostile

imperatoris m
iudicis m
iuvenis m
leonis m
matris f
mercatoris m
militis m
montis m
mortis f
navis f
noctis f
patris m
pacis f
regis m
senis m
solis m
soror, sororis f
urbis f
uxoris f
vocis f

brother
man, human being
guest, host
enemy
emperor,
commander
judge
young man
lion
mother
merchant
soldier
mountain
death
ship
night
father
peace
king
old man
sun
sister
city
wife
voice, shout

capitis n
carminis n
corporis n
fluminis n
itineris n
maris n
nominis n
operis n
temporis n
vulneris n

head
poem, song
body
river
journey
sea
name
work, construction
time
wound

capital
Carmen Etonense
corpse

11

judicious
juvenile
leonine
maternal
mercantile
military
mountain
mortal
navigate, naval
nocturnal
patricide
pacify
regicide
senile
solar
sorority
urbane, suburb
uxorious
vocal

itinerary
maritime
nominate
operation
temporary
vulnerable

STAGE TWO VOCABULARY: 2-1-2 ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, ADVERBS

ADJECTIVE

Masc, Fem, Neut forms

MEANING

DERIVATION

altus

altus, alta, altum

deep, high

bonus
carus
clarus
dignus

bonus, bona, bonum

carus, cara, carum
clarus, clara, clarum
dignus, digna, dignum

altitude
bonanza,
bonafide
charity
clarity
dignity

doctus
iratus
laetus

doctus, docta, doctum

iratus, irata, iratum
laetus, laeta, laetum

good
dear
clear, famous
worthy (of)
learned, educated, skilful,
clever
doctor
angry
irate
happy
Laetitia!

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

lentus
longus
magnus
malus
medius
miser
multus

lentus, lenta, lentum

longus, longa, longum
magnus, magna,
magnum
malus, mala, malum
medius, media, medium
miser, misera, miserum
multus, multa, multum

notus
novus
parvus
plenus

notus, nota, notum

novus, nova, novum
parvus, parva, parvus
plenus, plena, plenum

STAGE TWO

slow
long
big, large, great
evil, bad
middle, middle of
miserable, wretched, sad
much, many
known, well-known,
famous
new
small
full

12

lente
(musical
term)
longtitude
magnify
malevolent
miserable
multi-story
notorious
novelty
plenty
pulchritude

superbus

pulcher, pulchra,
puchrum
Romanus, Romana,
Romanum
saevus, saeva, saevum
stultus, stulta, stultum
summus, summa,
summum
superbus, superba,
superbum

PRONOUN

Masc, Fem, Neut forms

MEANING

hic
ille

hic, haec, hoc

ille, illa, illud

ipse
is

ipse, ipsa, ipsum

is ea id

this
that, he, she, it
himself, herself, itself,
themselves
this, that, him, her, it, them

PERSONAL PRONOUN

cases (acc, gen, dat, abl) MEANING

DERIVATION

ego
tu

egotistic

vos

me, mei, mihi, me

te, tui, tibi, te
nos, nostrum, nobis,
nobis
vos, vestrum, vobis,
vobis

se (accusative)

se, sui, sibi, se

you, your(pl)
himself, herself,
themselves

PRONOMINAL
ADJECTIVE

Masc, Fem, Neut forms

MEANING

meus
tuus
noster
vester
suus

mea, meum 2-1-2

tua, tuum 2-1-2
nostra, nostrum 2-1-2
vestra, vestrum 2-1-2
sua, suum 2-1-2

my
your (sg), yours
our
your (pl), yours
his, her, its, their (own)

pulcher
Romanus
saevus
stultus
summus

nos

beautiful, handsome
Roman
savage, cruel
stupid, foolish

stultify

highest, greatest, top (of) summit

proud, arrogant

I, me, my
you, your (sg)
we, our

ADVERB

MEANING

igitur
itaque
saepe
semper

therefore
and so, therefore
often
always

DERIVATION

HARROW SCHOOL CLASSICS DEPARTMENT PEMBER PROGRAMME

STAGE TWO

13

STAGE TWO VOCABULARY VERBS

VERB
1st
CONJUGATION

PRINCIPAL PARTS

MEANING

ambulo
celo
do
lacrimo
laudo
nuntio
pugno
rogo
sto
2nd
CONJUGATION
iubeo
respondeo
rideo
timeo
3rd
CONJUGATION
ascendo

ambulare, ambulavi, ambulatus

celare, celavi, celatus
dare, dedi, datus
lacrimare, lacrimavi
laudare, laudavi, laudatus
nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus
pugnare, pugnavi, pugnatus
rogare, rogavi, rogatus
stare, steti, status

walk
hide
give
weep, cry
praise
announce
fight
ask, ask for
stand

bibo
cognosco
descendo
discedo
duco
emo
frango
incendo
mitto
peto
pono
scribo
trado
traho
vinco
vivo
3
CONJUGATION
iacio
interficio
4th
CONJUGATION
pervenio
VERBS taking
DATIVE
(indirect)

iubere, iussi, iussus

order, command
respondere, respondi, responsus reply
ridere, risi
laugh, smile
timere, timui
be afraid, fear

ascendere, ascendi, ascensus

DERIVATION

perambulator
(pram)
conceal
data
laudatory
enunciate
pugnacious
interrogate
station, static

responsive
risible
timid

climb, go up

ascent
bibulous,
bibere, bibi
drink
imbibe
cognoscere, cognovi, cognitus
get to know, find out incognito
descendere, descendi, descensus go down, come down descend
discedere, discessi, discessus
depart
ducere, duxi, ductus
lead, take
induct, produce
emere, emi, emptus
buy
redemption
frangere, fregi, fractus
break
fragile
incendere, incendi, incensus
burn, set on fire
incendiary
missive,
mittere, misi, missus
send
mission
make for, seek, beg,
petere, petivi, petitus
attack
petition
ponere, posui, positus
put, place, put up
position
scribere, scripsi, scriptus
write
scribe
tradere, tradidi, traditus
hand over
tradition
trahere, traxi, tractus
drag
tractor, traction
vincere, vici, victus
conquer
victory
vivere, vixi, victus
live, be alive
victuals, revive

iacere, ieci, iactus

throw
interficere, interfeci, interfectus kill

pervenire, perveni
Conjugation given in square
brackets

reach, arrive at

projectile

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OBJECT

credo
faveo
impero
pareo
persuadeo
IRREGULARS
absum
adsum

credere, credidi, creditus + dat

[3]
favere, favi + dat [2]
imperare, imperavi, imperatus +
dat [1]
parere, parui + dat [2]
persuadere, persuadi, persuasus
+ dat [2]

abesse, afui (irreg.)

adesse, adfui (irreg.)

trust, believe
favour, support

credit,
incredible
favour

order, command
obey

imperious

persuade

persuasive

be out, be absent, be
away
absent
be present

THE CLASSICAL WORLD ANCIENT SPORT

1. The Ancient Olympic Games
The Ancient Olympic Games were open to citizens in all Greek
cities. The Games were similar to the Modern Olympic Games
(which re-started in Athens in 1896ad). The Ancient Games were
much more religious, and were basically a festival to Zeus. The site
of Olympia (see below) had a massive temple to Zeus, and
sanctuaries for other gods and goddesses, as well as the sites for
athletics, such as the palaestra (wrestling-ground), stadion
(running-track) and hippodrome (horse-racing track).
Map of Olympia

1. Temple of Zeus
2. Temple of Hera
3. Tholos of Philippos

13. Eastern Roman baths

14. Gymnasion (training complex)
15. Palaistra (wrestling grounds)

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4. House of the magistrates

16.
5. Fountain of Herodes Atticus 17.
6. Treasuries
18.
7. Temple of Rhea
19.
8. The Zanes
20.
9. Altar of Zeus
21.
10. Colonnade of Echo
22.
11. Running track
23.
12. Horse track

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Baths of the Kladeos

Roman hotels
Heron (Temple of the Heroes)
Workshop of Pheidias
Hotel of Leonidas
Southern baths
Council house
Southern colonnade

The religious area, containing the temple of Zeus and other buildings, is called the
Altis: this was central to the ancient Olympic games, as the site where Zeus was
worshipped.

Boxing

Boxers

Ancient boxing had fewer rules than the modern sport. Boxers fought without
rounds until one man was knocked out, or admitted he had been beaten. Unlike the
modern sport, there was no rule against hitting an opponent when he was down.
There were no weight classes within the mens and boys' divisions; opponents for a
match were chosen randomly.

himantes hanging above boxer

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Instead of gloves, ancient boxers wrapped leather thongs (himantes) around their
hands and wrists which left their fingers free.
Plato makes fun of boxers' faces, calling them the "folk with the battered ears."
Plato, Gorgias

Chariot racing

charioteer and chariot box at left

There were both 2-horse chariot and 4-horse chariot races, with separate races for
chariots drawn by foals. Another race was between carts drawn by a team of 2
mules. The course was 12 laps around the stadium track (9 miles).

Two riders

Riding
The course was 6 laps around the track (4.5 miles), and there were separate
races for full-grown horses and foals. Jockeys rode without stirrups.

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Only wealthy people could afford to pay for the training, equipment, and
feed of both the driver (or jockey) and the horses. As a result, the owner
received the olive wreath of victory instead of the driver or jockey.

Aristophanes, the comic playwright, describes the troubles of a father whose son has
too-expensive tastes in horses: "Creditors are eating me up alive...and all because of
this horse-plague!" (Aristophanes, Clouds l.240ff.)

Pankration

pankration

This event was a gruelling combination of boxing and wrestling. Punches were
allowed, although the fighters did not wrap their hands with the boxing himantes.
Rules outlawed only biting and gouging an opponent's eyes, nose, or mouth with
fingernails. Attacks such as kicking an opponent in the belly, which are against the
rules in modern sports, were perfectly legal.
Like boxing and wrestling, among others, this event had separate divisions for both
men and boys.
The poet Xenophanes describes the pankration as "that new and terrible
contest...of all holds" (Xenophanes 2)

Pentathlon

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trainer watching wrestlers

This was a 5-event combination of discus, javelin, jumping, running and

wrestling.
Aristotle describes a young man's ultimate physical beauty: "a body capable of
enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength...This is why the
athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful." (Aristotle, Rhetoric 1361b)

Discus

discus thrower

The ancient Greeks considered the rhythm and precision of an athlete throwing the
discus as important as his strength.

The discus was made of stone, iron, bronze, or lead, and was shaped like a
flying saucer. Sizes varied, since the boys' division was not expected to
throw the same weight as the mens.

Javelin

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The javelin was a man-high length of wood, with either a sharpened end or
an attached metal point. It had a thong for a hurler's fingers attached to its
centre of gravity, which increased the precision and distance of a javelin's
flight.

youth with javelin, from the waist up

Jump

jumper

Athletes used lead or stone jump weights (halteres) shaped like telephone
receivers to increase the length of their jump. The halteres were held in front of
the athlete during his ascent, and forcibly thrust behind his back and dropped
during his descent to help propel his body further.

discus bag and halteres above wrestlers

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Jump weights also doubled as weight lifting equipment during training.

Running

There were 4 types of races at Olympia. The stadion was the oldest event of the
Games. Runners sprinted for 1 stade (192 m.), or the length of the stadium. The
other races were a 2-stade race (384 m.), and a long-distance run which ranged
from 7 to 24 stades (1,344 m. to 4,608 m.).
Running (continued)
And if these races weren't enough, the Greeks had one particularly gruelling event
which we lack. There was also a 2 to 4-stade (384 m. to 768 m.) race by athletes in
armour. This race was especially useful in building the speed and stamina that
Greek men needed during their military service. If we remember that the standard
hoplite armour (helmet, shield, and greaves) weighed about 50-60 lbs, it is easy to
imagine what such an event must have been like.

hoplitodromos

The Phaiacian nobles entertain the hero Odysseus by competing in athletic games:
"A course was marked out for them from the turning point, and they all sped swiftly,
raising the dust of the plain, but among them noble Clytoneus was far the best at
running...he shot to the front and the others were left behind." (Homer, Odyssey
8.121ff.)

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Wrestling

trainer watching wrestlers

Like the modern sport, an athlete needed to throw his opponent on the ground,
landing on a hip, shoulder, or back for a fair fall. 3 throws were necessary to win a
match. Biting was not allowed, and genital holds were also illegal. Attacks such as
breaking your opponent's fingers were permitted.
In one of Aristophanes's comedies, one character recommends that another rub his
neck with lard in preparation for a heated argument with an adversary. The debater
replies, "Spoken like a finished wrestling coach." (Aristophanes, Knights l.490ff.)

What was the penalty for cheating?

"...it is the custom for athletes, their fathers and their brothers, as well as their
trainers, to swear an oath upon slices of boar's flesh that in nothing will they sin
against the Olympic games. The athletes take this further oath also, that for ten
successive months they have strictly followed the regulations for training. An oath is
also taken by those who examine the boys, or the foals entering for races, that they
will decide fairly and without taking bribes, and that they will keep secret what they
learn about a candidate, whether accepted or not." (Pausanias 5.24.9ff)
Anyone who violated the rules was fined by the judges. The money was used to set
up statues of Zeus, the patron god of the Games at Olympia. These statues were
called Zanes. In addition to using bribes, other offences included deliberately
avoiding the training period at Olympia. One athlete claimed that bad winds kept
his ship from arriving in time, but was later proved to have spent the training
period travelling around Greece winning prize money in other competitions.
Another athlete was so intimidated by his opponents that he left the Games the
day before he was to compete, and was fined for cowardice.

What prizes did Olympic victors get?

A victor received a crown made from olive leaves, and was entitled to have a statue
of himself set up at Olympia. Although he did not receive money at the Olympics,
the victor was treated much like a modern sports celebrity by his home city. His
success increased the fame and reputation of his community in the Greek world. It
was common for victors to receive benefits such as having all their meals at public

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expense or front-row seats .at the theatre and other public festivals. One city even
built a private gym for their Olympic wrestling champion to exercise in.

Main panel: Nike holding phiale and oinochoe, altar at left

When an Olympic victor from Crotona re-entered the Games as a native of

Syracuse (to impress the ruler of Syracuse) and won both times, the citizens of
Crotona were so angry about being robbed of their rightful victories that they tore
down the athlete's statue in their city and condemned his house to be a prison.

Follow up task: Consider the similarities and differences

between the Ancient and Modern Olympic Games

THE CLASSICAL WORLD ANCIENT SPORT
2. Chariot Racing & Circus Maximus
Not only was Chariot Racing one of the competitions in the ancient Olympic Games,
but it was also one of the most popular (and dangerous) sports in the Roman Empire.
Read about it below, and then answer the questions to complete the crossword.

Early Chariot Racing

Chariot Racing was one of the sports in the Ancient Olympic Games. In fact, Chariot
races are mentioned by Homer, and there are even suggestions (although they are
probably not true) that a Chariot Race was the event that led to the first Games, when

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King Oenomaus challenged his daughter Hippodamia's suitors to a race, but was
defeated by Pelops, who founded the Games in honour of his victory!
Chariot Racing in Rome
According to legend, chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome
in 753 BC as a diversion. Romulus sent out invitations to the neighbouring towns to
celebrate the festival of the Consualia, which included both horse races and chariot
races. Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle, Romulus and his men seized
and carried off the Sabine women, who became wives of the Romans. Really, the
Romans are likely to have picked up chariot racing from the Etruscans, as well as from
the Greeks themselves after mainland Greece was conquered in 146 BC. Races were
linked to religion, and were often held in honour of Jupiter, although Neptune was also
included in the processions that took place before races, as he was the god of Horses.
The main centre of Chariot Racing in ancient Rome was the Circus Maximus. It was
rebuilt by Julius Caesar in around 50 BC to have a length of 650 metres, and a width of
125 metres. Chariots started the race in gates, called carceres, staggered at the more
open end of the track. The chariots would race around an oval circuit, with a divide
called a spina in the centre. The host of the race (typically the Emperor in Rome)
would drop a cloth called a mappa to signal the start of the race, and the gates would
open so no competitor could get an unfair start.

Chariot races were dangerous for the competitors. They would often try to push each
other into crashing into the spina, and there were lots of spectacular crashes against
the large ornate columns, called metae, around which the chariots had to turn at each
end of the spina. Whereas in racing today there are strict rules, cheating was common
in chariot racing as you will see if you watch the chariot race in the movie Ben Hur!
Each race would last seven laps (although this was later reduced to five) which were
counted by taking down metal dolphins or eggs on the spina.
The Circus Maximus could seat over 250,000 spectators (many more than the 90,000
Wembley can seat). Entry was free for the poor, but the wealthy could pay for shaded
seats with a better view. The Emperor had his own box, called the pulvinar.

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Teams and Drivers

Today in Formula 1 motor racing, teams are owned by car companies such as Ferrari,
and rich individuals. Team owners supply the racing cars, and try to hire the best
drivers by offering them lots of money and other rewards. Similarly in Roman times,
teams in Chariot Racing represented different rich individuals and groups, and
competed to hire skilled racers. Teams would have fans, who would sometimes fight
with fans of other teams. On the race track, teams could have up to three chariots in
race, and they could cooperate to try to cause opponents to crash or at least take a
poorer route around the race track. Eventually the Emperor started to take over teams
and appoint officials to stop the teams being linked to groups of politicians. The most
important races used four horses for each chariot (called quadrigae), although twohorse chariots (bigae) were also common, and skilled racers sometimes tried to control
up to ten horses pulling a carriage!
Formula 1 drivers are celebrities who make lots of money if they do well. In ancient
Rome, charioteers (known as aurigae) were usually slaves. The races were so
dangerous, the charioteers received a certain amount of celebrity just for surviving.
The winners did receive some money as a prize however, and if a driver won enough
races they could buy their freedom. One celebrity charioteer was Scorpus who won
2000 races before he died on the race track. The horses could also become
celebrities, and while those who follow Formula 1 collect details about the different cars
technical capabilities, so in Ancient Rome people kept statistics about the different
horses.
Just as Formula 1 drivers wear protective clothing and helmets to race, so Roman
charioteers wore leather helmets, kneepads and shin pads. They also carried a curved
knife called a falx. This was because the drivers wrapped the horses reins around
their waist to race. This meant if their chariot crashed, the horses would continue to
drag them around the circuit until they cut themselves free from the reins. The drivers
clothing would be red, white, green or blue to indicate which team they belonged to (the
Emperor Domitian also created purple and gold teams that raced while he was alive).
Chariot Racing in Britain

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Archaeologists recently discovered remains of a chariot racing stadium in Colchester.

Although it would only have seated around 8000 spectators, it is important as the first
such venue ever to be discovered in the UK.
Please turn over and attempt the crossword!
There are further sheets for you to read, to develop a more detailed
understanding of Chariot Racing and the Circus Maximus.

25

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Across
2. A chariot with four
horses
3. Charioteers wrapped
their reins around this
4. Also used to count laps
5. The divide in the middle
of the race track
7. One of the team colours
8. The falx was a curved
one of these
10. The gates used at the
start of races
13. The columns around
which the chariots turned
15. He created the gold and
purple teams
16. God of Horses

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Across contd.
18. Chariot racing probably took
place here in the UK
19. Movie with a famous chariot
race
20. Where chariot racing took place
in Rome
22. Used to count the number of
laps

Down
1. He rebuilt the Roman
chariot racing arena in
50 BC
6. The Emperor's Box
9. Number of laps in
most races
11. He was said to have
won 2000 races!
12. Number of horses
pulling a bigae
14. Number of chariots
each team could have in
a race
17. Founder of Rome
21. It was dropped to
start a race

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THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS : ROMAN CHARIOT RACING

Introduction
The first-century CE satirist Juvenal wrote, Long ago the people shed their
anxieties, ever since we do not sell our votes to anyone. For the peoplewho once
conferred imperium, symbols of office, legions, everythingnow hold themselves
in check and anxiously desire only two things, the grain dole and chariot races in
the Circus (Satires 10.77-81). Juvenal's famous phrase, panem et circenses
(bread and circuses) has become proverbial to describe those who give away
significant rights in exchange for material pleasures. Juvenal has put his finger on
two of the most important aspects of Roman chariot racestheir immense
popularity and the pleasure they gave the Roman people, and the political role
they played during the empire in diverting energies that might otherwise have
gone into rioting and other forms of popular unrest. The image above bears
witness to the popularity of the races; found in the imperial baths in Trier
(Germany), this centrepiece of a large mosaic floor depicts a charioteer for the
Reds, holding in his hands the palm branch and laurel wreath, symbols of victory.
Both the driver, Polydus, and his lead horse, Compressor, are identified by name,
as though they were great state heroes. We can deduce something of the political
role of chariot racing from the fact that the same word, factiones, was used to
designate the four racing stables as had been applied to the political factions (the
populares and the optimates) that had such large followings in the Republic.
Origins
Possibly the oldest spectacular sport in Rome, chariot racing dates back at least
to the sixth century BCE. It was quite popular among the Etruscans, an advanced
civilization of non-Italic people who for a time dominated the area around Rome
and contributed greatly to many aspects of Roman civilization. We can also see
depictions of chariot racing among the Lucanians of Sicily in the fifth century

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BCE. Among these peoples, races were associated with funeral games, and in
Rome too they had religious ties, particularly to the chariot-driving deities Sol (the
sun) and Luna (the moon), and to a god called Consus, an agricultural deity who
presided over granaries. Originally chariot races (ludi circenses) were held only on
religious festivals like the Consualia, but later they would also be held on nonfeast days when sponsored by magistrates and other Roman dignitaries.

CIRCUS MAXIMUS

Races were held in a circus, so named because of its oval shape. The oldest and
largest circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, built in a long valley stretching
between two hills, the Aventine (bottom left in this model shown ) and the Palatine
(top right). Originally there was no building, just a flat sandy track with temporary
markers; spectators sat on the hill slopes on either side of the track. Gradually the
area developed into a well-maintained stadium-style building with a central
divider, starting gates at one end (top left in this picture) and an arch at the other,
surrounded on three sides by stands (originally wooden but later made of stone).
By the time of Augustus, the entire building was 620 metres long (678 yards) and
about 140-150 metres (159 yards) at its widest point; its seating capacity was
approximately 150,000 spectators.

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This reconstruction drawing of the circus from the starting gate end shows the
construction of the stands.
Tasks:

On the pictures on this page, find the following:

o Carcares (starting gates)
o Spina (the central barrier)
o Metae (the three conical turning-posts at each end of the spina)

For further images of Chariot Racing and the

Circus Maximus, visit the following website:
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/circus.html

This terracotta lamp depicts a chariot race in the Circus Maximus; on the left one
can see rows of spectators, on the right the carcares (starting gates), and at the
bottom the spina with its statues and obelisks.

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Charioteers and Racing Factions

Chariot racing was the most popular sport in Rome, appealing to all social classes
from slaves to the emperor himself. This appeal was no doubt enhanced by the
private betting that went on, although there was no public gambling on the races.
Although most Roman charioteers (called aurigae or agitatores) began their
careers as slaves, those who were successful soon accumulated enough money to
buy their freedom. The four Roman racing companies or stables (factiones) were
known by the racing colours worn by their charioteers; The mosaic below depicts
a charioteer and horse from each of the stables, Red, White, Blue, and Green. Fans
became fervently attached to one of the factions, proclaiming themselves
partisans of the Blue in the same way as people today would be Chelsea or Man
Utd fans. The factions encouraged this sort of loyalty by establishing what we
might call clubhouses in Rome and later in other cities of the empire.

The popularity of chariot racing is reflected in the many household items

decorated with racing motifs:

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D
Items A-D are everyday items which show the popularity
of chariot racing.
Tasks

Which of items A-D is the following:

o Glass bowl
o Signet Ring
o Terracotta Lamp
o Childs toy
What details of chariot racing can you see in these four items?

A criticism of the Chariot teams

In the first century AD, the Roman writer and statesman Pliny the Younger
criticized this partisanship (Letters 9.6):

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I am the more astonished that so many thousands of grown men should be

possessed again and again with a childish passion to look at galloping horses, and
men standing upright in their chariots. If, indeed, they were attracted by the
swiftness of the horses or the skill of the men, one could account for this
enthusiasm. But in fact it is a bit of cloth they favour, a bit of cloth that captivates
them. And if during the running the racers were to exchange colours, their
partisans would change sides, and instantly forsake the very drivers and horses
whom they were just before recognizing from afar, and clamorously saluting by
name.
Leading Charioteers
These stables competed for the services of the best charioteers, whose popular
celebrity surpassed even that of modern sports heroes, and they were depicted in
many statues and monuments. One famous charioteer of the second century AD,
Gaius Appuleius Diocles, left a detailed record of his career. He began driving for
the Whites at the age of 18; after 6 years, he switched to the Greens for 3 years,
and then drove 15 years for the Reds before retiring at the age of 42. He won
1,462 of the 4,257 four-horse races in which he competed, and his winnings
totalled nearly 36 million sesterces. Diocles career was unusually long; many
charioteers died quite young. Charioteers wore little body protection and only a
light helmet; their practice of wrapping the reins tightly around their waists so
they could use their body weight to control the horses was exceedingly dangerous
in the case of accidents, since they could be dragged and trampled before they
could cut themselves loose.
An epitaph to the Charioteer Scorpus, written by the Roman poet Martial
I am Scorpus, the glory of the noisy Circus,
the much-applauded and short-lived darling of Rome.
Envious Fate, counting my victories instead of my years,
and so believing me old,
carried me off in my twenty-sixth year.
Martial, Epigrams 10.53

Scorpus, a famous charioteer who lived at the end of the first century CE, won
2,048 victories in his short life. Although we do not know how he died, it is likely
to have been in one of the numerous crashes (which the Romans called naufragia,
shipwrecks) that occurred during races. Since charioteers wrapped the reins
around their bodies, after a crash they were often unable to cut themselves free
with their daggers. Crashes frequently occurred near the turning posts, as shown
in the following detail from a circus relief in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin,
which shows a fallen charioteer being trampled by another team.

Chariots: Roman racing chariots were designed to be as small and lightweight

as possible. Unlike military chariots, which were larger and often reinforced with
metal, racing chariots were made of wood and afforded little support or protection
for the charioteer, who basically had to balance himself on the axle as he drove, as
can be seen in this statuette from Germany.

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Day at the Races: The ceremonies

began with an elaborate procession
(pompa) headed by the dignitary who was sponsoring the games, followed by the
charioteers and teams, musicians and dancers, and priests carrying the statues of
the gods and goddesses who were to watch the races; in this relief of the
procession, the dieties are Jupiter, Castor, and Pollux. There were usually twelve
races scheduled for a day, though this number was later doubled. The charioteers
drew lots for their position in the starting gates; once the horses were ready, the
white cloth (mappa) was dropped by the sponsor of the games; this statue shows a
magistrate preparing to drop the cloth:

At this signal, the gates were sprung, and up to twelve teams of horses thundered
onto the track. The strategy was to avoid running too fast at the beginning of the
race, since seven full laps had to be run, but to try to hold a position close to the
barrier and round the turning posts as closely as possible without hitting them.
There were plenty of ways that teams from one stable could foul their opponents
during a race, and sometimes even before it started (attempts to dope or poison
horses and charioteers were not unknown). Fanatical partisans sometimes even
resorted to magic, seeking to hex the rivals of their favourites. The following
curse tablet represents an attempt to incapacitate the drivers of the Red faction:
Help me in the Circus on 8 November. Bind every limb, every sinew, the shoulders,
the ankles and the elbows of Olympus, Olympianus, Scortius and Juvencus, the
charioteers of the Red. Torment their minds, their intelligence and their senses so
that they may not know what they are doing, and knock out their eyes so that they
may not see where they are goingneither they
nor the horses they are going to drive.
Spectators followed the progress of a race by watching
the egg or dolphin counters. When the race was over,

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the presiding magistrate ceremoniously presented the victorious charioteer with a palm
branch and a wreath while the crowds cheered wildly; the more substantial monetary
awards for stable and driver would be presented later.

A terracotta lamp try and identify: the obelisk, the victory prize wreath and palm
branch, the spina and the dolphins used to count the laps.

PEMBER STAGE TWO TEST A GUIDE

For Tests two, three and four, there is a CORE element, which every Shell
Latinist must complete in full. In addition, there are OPTIONS.

CORE (75 marks):

TECHNICAL TERMS (10 marks)
This section will include:
1. four definitions from the Technical terms page (4 marks)
2. a passage of English from which you will have to identify different types of word (this
re-caps many of the technical terms in stage one, but also focuses on direct &
indirect objects) (6 marks)

FORMS (20 marks)

You will be required to fill in gaps for the various noun, verb, adjective and pronoun
forms on the Forms page.
MANIPULATIONS (5 marks)
In this section you will need to do the following:
1. give in Latin the genitive singular and the gender of third declension nouns.

RULES (10 marks)

This section will consist of sentences in Latin which you must translate into English.
1. The first TWO sentences will be taken from the practice sentences you did in Stage
Two. Each one will be worth two marks.
2. The remaining sentences will test the same rules, but will be unfamiliar sentences.

VOCABULARY (30 marks)

This section will consist of 60 words ( mark each) from the vocabulary lists for
Stage Two.

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OPTIONS (25 marks)

There are nine OPTIONS. You must complete five. Your Beak may require you to
choose certain options and not others. Each OPTION carries 5 marks.
OPTIONS 1-4: MANIPULATIONS
OPTION 1: convert noun forms from singular into plural, and vice versa, e.g. mensam
becomes mensas (keeping the same case).
OPTION 2: convert verb forms from singular into plural, and vice versa, e.g. or moneo
becomes monemus (keeping the same person).
OPTION 3: give in Latin the perfect active form of a given Latin verb (e.g. for amo (I love),
the answer would be amavi).
OPTION 4: agreements: you will be required to write a Latin adjective or pronoun in the
correct number, gender and case to agree with a noun.

OPTION 5: DERIVATIONS
OPTION 5: You are given 5 words from the vocabulary list. You will have to give derivations
for each.

OPTIONS 6-9: THE CLASSICAL WORLD

OPTION
OPTION
OPTION
OPTION

6:
7:
8:
9:

Two questions covering different events in the Olympic Games.

Two questions covering the Circus Maximus and Chariot Racing.
One more advanced question on the Olympic Games.
One more advanced question on the Circus Maximus/Chariot Racing.

PASS MARK FOR THE TEST = 60/100

SEND-UP MARK FOR THE TEST = 85/100
Your Beak may award Send-ups for any outstanding effort which secures a
mark below 85/100.