Complex Numbers XI XII Study Materials PDF

LOCUS
Complex Numbers
CONCEPT NO
TES
NOTES
01.
Introduction
02.
Arithmetic Operations in !
03.
Geometry of Complex Numbers
04.
Eulers Form
05.
Rotation
06.
Powers of Complex Numbers Roots of Unity
07.
More Geometry With Complex Numbers
Maths / CompIex Numbers
LOCUS
Complex Numbers
Section - 1
INTRODUCTION
The concept of complex numbers is fundamentally important to many sciences and engineering branches and is a
powerful tool to solve a diverse array of problems. However, this concept is a radical departure from the concept
of numbers that students generally have in mind before they first encounter complex numbers. Therefore, this
section is devoted to an intuitive introduction to complex numbers, why they are required at all, and what their
actual significance is. For this section in particular, you are urged to really think and reflect deeply on the statements
and concepts that will be presented here.
You must all be familiar by now with the various number systems, starting from the natural numbers, to the real
numbers.
Natural Numbers "
1, 2, 3.......
Whole numbers W
0, 1, 2, 3.......
3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ........
Rational numbers Q
Numbers of the form
{Rational numbers} {irrational numbers}
Integers
Real numbers
p
, q 0,
q
p, q #
You also know that " W # Q $ .

For each set in this sequence (except $ ), there are mathematical equations which have no solution in that
set, but do have a solution in the next higher set. For example
x+3=3
Has no solution in "

Has a solution in W {x = 0}
x+3= 2
Has no solution in W
Has a solution in # {x = 1}
3x = 2
Has no solution in #
x2 = 2
Has a solution in Q x =
3
Has no solution in Q
Has a solution in $ x = 2
LOCUS
Therefore, we see that each successive set in this sequence is an improvement or extension over the previous set,
because it has more scope than its predecessor in terms of solvability of equations.
The question that now arises is, can $ be improved or extended? That is, are there equations which have no
solutions in $ ? Yes; consider the following equation:
x2 + 1 = 0
This has obviously no solution in $ since the LHS is always greater than or equal to 1. This means that $ is
insufficient, for there do exist equations having no solution in $ . So, for example, from the equation above, there
is no real number whose square is 1.
However, being mathematicians, nothing stops us from defining a number whose square is 1. Though such a
number does not exist according to us, let us still go ahead and define such a number; we will (due to the
convention followed) call this self-defined number as iota, written as i. And since i does not exist, let us call it
an imaginary number.
i2 +1 = 0
or
i 2 = 1
We can now say with satisfaction that even the equation x 2 + 1 = 0 has a solution, namely i, though it is not real
(i $ ). Now, the next question that arises is, is such a definition (which we seemed to have made out of our own
free will) justified? If yes, what significance do we attach to i ? Is it even useful? Will we be able to do useful
mathematics with i or is it just a useless mathematical construction on our part? We can associate real numbers
with geometric lengths. What do we associate i with? The answers to these questions will soon become clear. Let
us first try to give a graphical (or geometrical) significance to i.
Draw the real number line:
0
Fig - 1
Since i $, we cannot locate i anywhere on this real line. However, what we can do is draw another line
perpendicular to the real line, passing through 0, and associate i with one unit of length on this new line, which we
can term as the imaginary line:
y
i
One
imaginary
unit
x
1
One real
unit
Fig - 2
LOCUS
What representation would then be given to a point on the imaginary line 5 units above 0? Answer : 5i. What
about 2 units below 0? Answer: 2 i .
Does this make sense? It turns out that this way of associating real numbers with the (horizontal) real line and
imaginary numbers (of the form ki, where k is itself real and represents the displacement of that number from 0,
on the vertical line) with the (vertical) imaginary line is extremely powerful and useful. A little thought will show you
that using this representation, any point on the entire plane can be assigned a unique number.
For example, the point with co-ordinates (2, 3) can be represented by the number 2 + 3 i.
y
2+3i
x
2
Fig - 3
This number has both a real as well as an imaginary part.

Similarly, any other point anywhere can be represented uniquely using a single number x + iy.
(The real part, x, is nothing but the x-co-ordinate of the point while the imaginary part, y, is the y-co-ordinate of
the point).
Also, any number of the form x + iy corresponds to a unique point on the plane.
Thus, we have managed to develop a new number system, consisting of numbers of the form x + iy, where
x, y $. We will call such numbers (again due to the convention followed) complex numbers; ! is the set of all
complex numbers
! = {x + iy; x, y $, i 2 = 1}
Observe that every real numbers x ! , since x can be written as x + i0 . Therefore, ! is a superset of $ .
From all this discussion, it does seem after all that i is a valid mathematical entity (albeit with no physical significance).
Associating i with a unit length on the y-axis gives us a number system ! capable of representing the entire plane
and hence ! seems to be a valid improvement or extension over $ . However it is not just sufficient to define a
number system and give it some geometrical significance ourselves. We must also show that the various operations
that we use in other number systems, like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can also somehow be
LOCUS
applied in the set ! , in a consistent manner. Apart from this, we must also show that these operations are
consistent with the geometrical significance that we have given to complex numbers.
This is the subject of the next two sections. As a conclusion to this section, you might find it satisfying to know that
any polynomial equation of degree n is solvable in ! , and has n roots lying in ! . For example:
x2 + 1 = 0
has two roots, i and i;

both are non-real (complex)
has three roots, one of them being 1;
the other two are non-real (complex)
x3 + 1 = 0
Thus, the complex number system ensures the complete solvability of any polynomial equation, which was not
possible with just the real number set.
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN !
Section - 2
We will first define two useful quantities related to an arbitrary complex number z = x + iy.
(a)
Modulus:
The modulus, which can be interchangeably represented by z or r, is the distance of the point z from the
origin, so that its numerical value is given by z = r = x 2 + y 2
y
z = x + iy
r=
Fig - 4
(b)
Argument: arg ( z )
The argument of z, represented interchangeably by arg(z) or , is the angle that the line joining z to the
origin makes with the positive direction of the real axis. The argument of z can have infinite possible values;
this is because if is an argument of z, then 2n + is also a valid argument.
To be more specific, we define a unique value called the principal argument of z. The convention that is
used to determine the principal argument for the four different quadrants in which z can lie, is depicted
below:
LOCUS
y
z
z lies in the first

quadrant
z lies in the second

quadrant
z lies in the third

quadrant
x
x
z lies in the fourth
quadrant
Fig - 5
Notice that Principal arg ( z ) ( , ] . For z above or on the real axis, principal arg (z) [0, ] ; it is
non-negative and measured in the anti-clockwise direction from the positive real axis. For z below the real
axis, principal arg ( z ) ( , 0 ) ; it is negative and measured in a clockwise direction from the positive
real axis.
From now on, arg(z) will be considered to mean Principal arg(z).
Observe now that we have two ways to specify an arbitrary complex number; one is the standard way
(x, y) which is referred to as the Cartesian form of the point. The second is by specifying the modulus
and argument of z, instead of its x and y components i.e, in the form ( r , ) . This is referred to as the
Polar form of the point.
z (x,y) or (x+iy)
(r, )
Cartesian
form
Polar
form
LOCUS
Example 1
Plot the following points on a plane and evaluate their polar forms:
(b) z = 1 + 2i
(a) z = 1 + i
(c) z = 3 3i
(d) z = 3 4i
(e) z = 2i
(f) z = 3
(g) z = 4
(h) z = 5i
Solution:
Observe the figures drawn for each of these parts carefully to determine how ( r , ) is evaluated
from ( x, y ) or x + iy. The polar forms so obtained are boxed.

y
(a)
z = 12 + 12 = 2
z=1+i
1
arg ( z ) = tan 1 = 45 or
4
1
1
45
z = 1 + i 2,
4
1
Fig - 6
y
z =
(b)
z=-1+2i
( 1) + ( 2)
2
= 5
2
= tan 1 = tan 1 2
1
arg ( z ) = = tan 1 2
-1
z = 1 + zi
5, tan 1 2
Fig - 7
y
-3
(c)
-3
Fig - 8
( 3) + ( 3)
2
3
= tan 1 =
3 4
3 2
z=-3-3i
z =
=3 2
arg ( z ) = =
4
3
=
4
3
z = 3 3i 3 2,
LOCUS
(d)
3
z =
(3) + ( 4 )
2
=5
arg ( z ) = = tan 1
4
3
z = 3 4i 5, tan 1
3
-4
z=3-4i
Fig - 9
distance of z
z =2
from the origin
(e)
z=2i
arg ( z ) = =

z = 2i 2,
2
Fig - 10
(f)
z =3
arg ( z ) = 0
z = 3 (3, 0 )
x
z=3
Fig - 11
z =4
(g)
arg ( z ) = =
z=-4
Fig - 12
z = 4 ( 4, )
LOCUS
z =5
(h)
x
arg ( z ) = =

z = 5i 5,
2
z=-5i
Fig - 13
Parts (f) and (g) above were included particularly so that you develop a tendency of thinking of even purely real
numbers as points on the plane, and realise the fact that the real set $ is just a subset of ! .
Before moving to arithmetic operations on complex numbers, observe one more important relation between the
cartesian and polar form of a complex number. You have seen how to write the polar form from the cartesian form.
How do we do the reverse? This is quite straightforward:
y
C
z = (r, )
Fig - 14
Observe that AB = r cos and BC = r sin .

Therefore, the cartesian form is simply ( r cos , r sin ) or r cos + i r sin :
z = ( r , ) ( r cos , r sin ) r ( cos + i sin )

The relation
z = r (cos + i sin )
is extremely useful, as we will soon see.
LOCUS
10
ADDITION / SUBTRACTION
Consider two numbers z1 = x1 + i y1 and z2 = x2 + i y2 which we have to add/subtract.
For any complex number, since the real and imaginary components are along mutually perpendicular directions,
this suggests that to add/subtract two complex numbers, we add/subtract their real and imaginary components
separately.
That is,
z1 z2 = ( x1 + x2 ) i ( y1 + y2 )
...(1)
This definition of addition/subtraction is intuitively appealing.

How is this definition consistent with the way we understand complex numbers graphically?
Notice that (1) simply suggests that complex numbers add/subtract like vectors. The two mutually perpendicular
components add/subtract separately. Therefore, our graphical interpretation of complex numbers is further validated
by this approach (vector approach) to addition / subtraction.
To actually carry out addition / subtraction, we simply use the parallelogram law.
Addition ( z1 + z2 )
(1)
(2)
y
y
z2
z2
Treat z1 and
z2 as vectors
z1
z1
You have to
evaluate z1 + z2
z1+z2
(3)
Add the 'vectors'

z1 and z2 using the
parallelogram
law
z2 +
z1
z2
The resultant
gives the 'vector'
z1 + z2 ; its tip
gives the point
z1 + z2
z1
x
Fig - 15
LOCUS
11
Subtraction ( z1 z2 )
(1)
(2)
z2
y
z2
Treat z1 and
z2 as vectors
z1
z1
x
Reverse the
'vector' z2
(4)
(3)
z1
z1
Add the 'vectors'
x
z 1-
z1 and -z2 using the

parallelogram law
z2
z2 as vectors
-z2
The resultant gives

the 'vector' z1 -z2 ;
its tip gives the
point z1 - z2
-z2
Fig - 16
Notice that we have made a distinction between, for example, the vector z1 + z2 and the point z1 + z2 ; similarly,
a distinction has been made between the vector z1 z2 and the point z1 z2 .
You must understand this distinction.
A vector is a free entity. It will remain the same as long as it is translated without rotation anywhere in the plane. So,
z2
for example, the vector z1 + z2 , as long as it maintains its magnitude and direction, can lie anywhere in the plane;
y
it will still remain the vector z1 + z2 :
Fig - 17
z2
+
z1
z2
x
+
z1
z1
z2
z1
z2
z1
A z1 + z2
LOCUS
12
However, to determine the point z1 + z2 in the plane, we must make the tail end-point of the vector z1 + z2
%%%&
co-incide with the origin; the tip of this vector then gives the point z1 + z2 . For example, the tip A of the vector OA
in the figure above gives the point z1 + z2 .
This distinction will mean that the triangle law when applied to the subtraction problem will give us the vector
z1 z2 and not the point z1 z2 . To determine the point z1 z2 , we make the tail end point of the vector
z1 z2 co-incide with the origin.
The vector z1 - z2 as
obtained by the triangle
law; translate this vector
so that the tail end-point
coincides with the origin
y
z2
z1
-z
z1
x
z1
-z
The point z1 - z2
Fig - 18
Before concluding, observe that z1 z2 will represent the length of the vector z1 z2 or the distance between
the points z1 and z2.
Example 2
Evaluate the expression for z1 z2 using the polar forms for z1 and z2.
2
Solution:
Let
z1 = r1 cos 1 + i r1 sin 1
and
z2 = r2 cos 2 + i r2 sin 2
z1 z2 = ( r1 cos 1 r2 cos 2 ) + i ( r1 sin 1 r2 sin 2 )

z1 z2 = ( r1 cos 1 r2 cos 2 ) + ( r1 sin 1 r2 sin 2 )
2
= r12 + r22 2r1 r2 cos (1 2 )
LOCUS
13
Example 3
Carry out the following operations graphically:
(a)
( 2 + i ) + (3 i )
(b)
( 2 2i ) + ( 2 + 3i )
(c)
(3 i ) ( 2 i )
(d)
(3) (5 + 2i )
Solution:
Observe carefully how the parallelogram law is applied to each of the four parts:
y
(a)
2+i
2
-i
3-i
Fig - 19
y
(b)
-2+3i
3i
i
2
-2
2-2i
-2i
Fig - 20
LOCUS
14
(c)
-2+i
i
1
-2
-1
-i
2-i
3-i
Fig - 21
sds
(d)
y
2i
5+2i
i
-5
-2
x
5
-i
-5-2i
-2i
-2-2i
Fig - 22
Example 4
Prove the Triangle Inequality:
For any two arbitrary complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z1 + z2
sds
LOCUS
15
Solution:
From example-2, observe that

z1 + z2 = r12 + r22 + 2r1 r2 cos (1 2 )
2
Now, 1 cos (1 2 ) 1
r12 + r22 2r1 r2 z1 + z2
r12 + r22 + 2r1 r2
( r1 r2 ) z1 + z2 ( r1 + r2 )
2
or ( z1 z2
z1 + z2 ( z1 + z 2
2
Taking the square root for all the three terms, we get:
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z1 + z2
sds
MULTIPLICATION:
Consider two numbers z1 = x1 + i y1 and z2 = x2 + i y2 which we have to multiply. Intuition suggests that we should
simply apply the distributive law to accomplish this task.
z1 z2 = ( x1 + i y1 ) ( x2 + i y2 )
= x1 x2 + i x1 y2 + i x2 y1 + i 2 y1 y2
= ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
...(2)
For example:
(3 + i )( 2 + 2i ) = 4 + 8 i
(5 i )(5 + i ) = 26
etc
The product that we have obtained in the RHS of (2) is not very illuminating graphically. It does not give us an
indication as to where z1 z2 will lie. To determine that, we evaluate the product in polar form.
Let z1 = r1 cos 1 + ir1 sin 1 and z2 = r2 cos 2 + i r2 sin 2
z = z1 z2 = ( r1 cos 1 + ir1 sin 1 )( r2 cos 2 + ir2 sin 2 )
= r1r2 cos 1 cos 2 + i r1r2 cos 1 sin 2 +i r1r2 sin 1 cos 2 + i 2 sin 1 sin 2
= r1r2 {( cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i (sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 )}
= r1r2 ( cos (1 + 2 ) + i sin (1 + 2 ))
= r ( cos + i sin )
where
r = r1r2 and = 1 + 2
LOCUS
16
This result is now much more illuminating! It says that the result z obtained by multiplying z1 and z2 will have a
modulus equal to the product of z1 and z2 and an argument equal to the sum of arg(z1) and arg (z2)
Multiplication of complex numbers causes multiplication of

individual moduli and addition of arguments.
For example, if z = r and arg
(z) = ,
the complex number z = zi will have z = z = r and
arg ( z ) = arg ( z i ) = arg ( z ) + arg (i ) = +

2
Geometrically interpreted, the vector z retains the same length but gets rotated anticlockwise by
by i:
, when multiplied
2
y
zi
z
r
r
x
Fig - 23
DIVISION
Consider two numbers z1 = x1 + i y1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 ; we want to find
z1 x1 + i y 1
=
z 2 x2 + i y 2
z1
:
z2
How do we reduce this expression to the standard form of a complex number a + i b? For that, we need to make
the denominator real. How can this be done?
Observe the product (5 i) (5 + i) that we obtained earlier as 26; this gives us the hint; multiplication of x + iy by
x iy results in a real number x 2 + y 2 :
z1 x1 + iy1 x2 iy2
=
z2 x2 + iy2 x2 iy2
=
which is in the standard form a + ib.
( x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i ( x2 y1 x1 y2 )
x22 + y22
x22 + y 2
LOCUS
17
As with multiplication, we now repeat the division process with polar forms for z1 and z2.
z=
z1 r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )
=
z2 r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 )
=
r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 )
r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 )
r1 cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 + i (sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 cos 1 )

r2
cos 2 2 + sin 2 2
r1
{cos (1 2 ) + i sin (1 2 )}
r2
= r ( cos + i sin )
where
r=
r1
and = 1 2
r2
This result says that division of complex numbers causes division of

individual moduli and subtraction of arguments.
z
For example, if z = r and arg ( z ) = , the complex number z = will have z = z = r and
i
arg ( z ) = arg = arg ( z ) arg (i ) = . Geometrically, the vector z retains the same length but
2
i
gets rotated clockwise by , when divided by i:

2
y
z
r
x
r
z
i
Fig - 24
LOCUS
18
The entire preceding discussion shows that arithmetic operations can be applied legitimately and consistently to
complex numbers, establishing the validity of our mathematical construction of i.
In higher science and engineering courses, the reader will realise that complex numbers are indispensable.
Example 5
Show the following operations graphically:
(a)
(1 + i ) (1 i )
3 4
(c)
13 13
(e)
12
i 1 +
5

3 + 4i
2
(b)
( 2 ) (3 + 4i )
(d)
2+i
2i
(f)
4 + 3i
3 + 4i
y
Solution:
(a)
z1 = 1 + i = 2
arg ( z1 ) =
z1=1+i
z2 = 1 i = 2
/4
arg ( z2 ) =
4
/4
2
z = z1z2
=2
z = z1 z2 = 2
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) = 0
z2 = 1-i
sds
Fig - 25
(b)
z1 = 2 = 2
8i
arg ( z1 ) = 0
z2 = 3 + 4i = 5
arg ( z2 ) = tan 1
4
3
z = z1 z2 = 10
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( zi )
4
= tan 1
3
4i
tan-1 4/3
x
3
Observe how a complex number (a 'vector') when

multiplied by a purely real number (a 'scalar')
retains its direction, only its length gets modified
sds
Fig - 26
LOCUS
19
(c)
3 4i
5
z1 =
=
13 13 13
z 2= 1 +
12 i
5
3 4i
4
arg ( z1 ) = arg = tan 1
13 13
3
z2 = 1 +
12
13
i =
5
5
12i
1 12
arg ( z2 ) = arg 1 +
= tan
5
13
5
z1 z2
-1
tan 12
5
1
tan-1 12 -tan-1 4
5
3
z = z1 z2 = 1
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 )
-tan-1 4
3
5
13
12
4
= tan
tan 1
5
3
1
z1 =
3
4
i
13 13
sds
Fig - 27
(d)
z1 = 2 + i = 5
1
2
arg ( z1 ) = tan 1
z2 = 2 i = 5
1
arg ( z2 ) = tan
2
1
z =
z1
=1
z2
tan-1
-tan-1
-i
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 )

= 2 tan 1
-1
2 tan
z1=2+i
z1 / z2
1
2
z2=2-i
Fig - 28
sds
LOCUS
20
z1 = 3 + 4i = 5
(e)
arg ( z1 ) = tan 1
3+4i
8i
4
3
z2 = 2
4i
arg ( z2 ) = 0
z =
-1 4
tan 3
z1 5
=
z2 2
x
3
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 )

= tan 1 4
3+4i
2
As in multiplication by a real number, notice that division

by a real number also causes just a change in the magnitude
of the vector without a change in its direction
sds
Fig - 29
(f)
Notice that ( 4 + 3i ) = i (3 + 4i ) so that
4 + 3i
=i
3 + 4i
z2=3+4i
sds
z1=-4+3i
z1
z2 i
Fig - 30
CONJUGATION
Consider a complex number z = x + iy . Where do you think will the number x iy lie? A little thinking will show
that it will be the exact mirror image of the point z, in the x-axis mirror.
z = x + iy
x - iy (Mirror image of x+iy in the real axis)
Fig. 31
LOCUS
21
Such a number is given a special name. It is called the conjugate of z and represented as z . Therefore,
if z = x + iy, then z = x iy .
It turns out the notion of a conjugate is, though simple, very useful. We will put the conjugate to a lot of use in this
chapter.
Let us now see some of the properties of the conjugate.
(1)
z = z and arg( z ) = arg( z ) .
The validity of these two relations should be obvious from the figure below:
y
r=
|z|
r=
|z|
z
Fig.32
(2)
z1 z2 = z1 z2
These relations mean that the operation of conjugation is distributive over addition (and subtraction).
You are urged to verify this by considering two arbitrary complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 .
(3)
z z
z1 z2 = z1 z2 ; 1 = 1
z2 z2
These relations imply that conjugation is distributive over multiplication and division too. Lets prove this
for multiplication.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 .
Then,
z1 z2 = ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 + iy2 )
= ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
= ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
Now,
z1 z2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) ( x2 + iy2 )
= ( x1 iy1 )( x2 iy2 )
= ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
We see that z1 z2 = z1 z2
The proof for division is similar.
LOCUS
(4)
22
z = zz
2
This is one of the most important relations to be used in this chapter. The proof is very straightforward. Let
z = x + iy.
zz = ( x + iy )( x iy )
= x2 i2 y 2
= x2 + y 2
= ( x 2 + y 2 )2
= z
(5)
z + z = 2 Re( z ); z z = 2i Im( z ) . Re( z ) denotes the real part of z and Im(z) denotes the imaginary part of
z.
This property is again obvious; just consider z = x + iy to deduce it.
Example 6
Simply the following
(a)
z1 z2
(b)
z1 + z2 + z 1 z2
Solution: (a) Let us simplify z1 + z2 2

z1 + z2 = ( z1 + z2 )( z1 + z2 )
(property 4)
= ( z1 + z2 )( z1 + z2 )
(property 2)
= z1 z1 + z2 z2 + z1 z2 + z1 z2
= z1 + z2 + z1 z2 + z1 z2
2
Now notice that z1 z 2 can be written as z1 z2 by virtue of property (3) {z1 z2 = z1 z 2 = z1 z2 } .

Therefore, z1 z2 + z1 z2 becomes z1 z2 + z1 z2 which is equal to 2 Re( z1 z2 ) by property (5).
Hence,
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 + 2 Re( z1 z2 )
2
Similarly,
z1 z2 = z1 + z2 2 Re( z1 z2 )
2
sds
sds
(b) The solution to this part is obtained by simply adding the two expressions obtained in part (a):
z1 + z2 + z1 z2 = 2( z1 + z2 )
2
sds
LOCUS
23
Example 7
If z1 , z2 , z3 represent the vertices of an equilateral triangle, show that
1
1
1
+
+
=0.
z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 z1
z1
Solution:
z2
z3
l
Fig. 33
We know that the sides of an equilateral triangle are equal. Using this for the triangle above, we get:
z1 z2 = z2 z3 = z3 z1 = l
Now, we square this to get

z1 z2 = z2 z3 = z3 z1 = l 2
2
or
( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = ( z2 z3 )( z2 z3 ) = ( z3 z1 )( z3 z1 ) = l 2
z z
z z
1
z z
1
1
= 1 2 2;
= 2 2 3;
= 3 2 1
z1 z2
l
z2 z3
l
z3 z1
l
(properties 5 and 2)
s sdsaasds
Adding these three, we get the desired result.
Example 8
Prove that if the sum and product of two non-real complex numbers are real, they must be the conjugates of each
other.
Solution: Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
where y1 , y2 0 .
It is given that z1 + z 2 and z1 z 2 are purely real, i.e.,

Im( z1 + z2 ) = Im( z1 z 2 ) = 0`
y1 + y2 = 0 and x1 y2 + x2 y1 = 0
y1 = y2 and x1 y2 x2 y2 = 0
x1 = x2
Thus, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 = x1 iy1 or in other words,

z1 and z2 are conjugates of each other.
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
24
Example 9
If z1 + z2 2 = z1 2 + z2 2 for two arbitrary non-zero complex numbers, show that
z1
is purely imaginary.
z2
Solution: From example-6, z1 + z2 2 can be written as z1 + z2 + 2 Re( z1 z2 )

2
z1 + z2 + 2 Re( z1 z2 ) = z1 + z2
Re( z1 z2 ) = 0
Since the real part of z1 z2 is 0 , it must be purely imaginary. This means that it lies on the imaginary axis

or its argument must be or
.
2
Arg ( z1 z2 ) =
Arg ( z1 ) + Arg( z2 ) =
Arg( z1 ) Arg( z2 ) =
Arg 1 =
2
z2
This shows that
[Arguments of complex numbers add

when they are multiplied]
[ Arg ( z ) = Arg( z ) ]
[Argument of complex numbers subtract
when they are divided]
z1
lies on the imaginary axis; therefore, it is purely imaginary.
z2
s sdsaasds
Example 10
If z1 , z2 ....zn are complex numbers and z1 = z2 = ... = zn = 1, show that
z1 + z2 + ... + zn =
1 1
1
+ + ... +
z1 z2
zn
Solution: The information that all the moduli are 1 and the form of the expression we need to obtain hint that we
should consider the term zi 2 :
zi = zi zi = 1
2
zi =
n
1 1
=
zi zi
1
i =1 i
n
z = z
i =1
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
25
n 1
=
i =1 zi
n
z
i =1
[Conjugation distributes over addition]
n 1
=
i =1 zi
n 1
=
i =1 zi
z = z
s sdsaasds
This is the result we needed to obtain.

Example 11
For complex numbers z and w, prove that z w w z = z w implies that z = w or zw = 1 .
2
z w w z = z w
2
Solution:
z 1+ z
=
w 1+ w 2
2
...(1)
z
is purely real.
w
Let, z = kw , where k $ . Substituting for z in (1), we get
2
kw 1 + k w
=
2
w
1+ w
k + k w =1+ k2 w
k 1 = k w (k 1)
(k w 1)(k 1) = 0
k = 1 or k =
z
z
1
1
= 1 or = 2 =
w
w w
ww
1
w
z = w or zw = 1
Example 12
If z1 and z2 are complex numbers such that z1 < 1 < z2 , prove that
1 z1 z2
<1
z1 z2
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
26
Solution: We can equivalently show that 1 z1 z2 < z1 z2 or 1 z1 z2 < z1 z2 . This is convenient because
2
we know how to expand z (= zz )

2
1 z1 z2 z1 z2
2
{1 + z
}{
z2 2Re( z1 z2 ) z1 + z2 2Re( z1 z2 )
2
= 1+ z1 2 z2 2 z1 2 z2 2
(1 z1 )(1 z2 ) < 0
2
1 z1 z2 < z1 z2
2
(because z1 < 1 < z2 )
2
s sdsaasds
Hence, we get the desired result.
Example 13
If z
4
= 2, find max ( z ) and min ( z ) .
z
4
z
Solution: Applying the triangle inequality on z , we get
4
4
4
z z +
z
z
z
4
4
2 z +
z
z
The right side of this inequality is always satisfied (verify). We therefore, use the left side of this
inequality:
z
4
2
z
4
2
z
2 z
z + 2 z 4 0 and z 2 z 4 0
z 1 + 5 and z 1 + 5
5 1 z 5 +1
These are the required maximum and minimum values.

s sdsaasds
LOCUS
27
Example 14
If
1 iz
= 1 , show that z is purely real.
z i
Solution: From the given relation, 1 iz 2 = z i 2

1 + z 2 Re(iz ) = z + 1 2 Re(i z )
2
Re(iz ) = Re(i z )
If z = x + iy, this means that
Re(i( x + iy )) = Re(i( x iy ))
y = y
y=0
z is purely real.
s sdsaasds
Example 15
Find all non-zero complex numbers z satisfying z = iz 2 .
Solution: We let z = x + iy . Using the given relation, we get
x iy = i( x + iy) 2
= i ( x 2 y 2 + 2ixy )
= 2 xy + i( x 2 y 2 )
Comparing the real and imaginary parts, we get

2 xy = x
and
x2 y 2 = y
From the first equation, we get
x(1 + 2 y ) = 0
x = 0 or y = 1/ 2
Now we use these two values in the second equation:

x = 0 y = 0 or 1
y = 1/ 2 x = 3 / 2
Thus, we get the following solutions for x and y:

3 1 3 1
(0, 0), (0, 1),
,
,
,
2
2 2 2
Since we want a non-zero solution, we neglect the solution (0, 0). The valid solutions are (in the form
x + iy):
i,
3 1
i
2 2
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
28
TRY YOURSELF - I
Q. 1
Plot the following points on the complex plane and evaluate their modulii and arguments:
(a) z = 1 + 3i
i 1
(c) z =
i +1
Q. 2
Q. 3
(b) z = 6 7i
3
(d) z = 1 7i
Depict the following operations graphically:

(a) z = (2 + 3i ) + (1 4i )
(b) z = (6 + 2i ) (2 + 6i)
i
(c) z = (2 + 3i )
13
(d) z =
z1 and z2 are two complex numbers such that
2 + 5i
2 5i
z1 2 z2
is unimodular, while z2 is not unimodular.
2 z1 z2
Find z1 .
Q. 4
Prove that if z1 and z2 are two complex numbers and > 0 , then
2
2
1
z1 + z2 (1 + c ) z1 + 1 + z2
c
Q.5
Find the square root(s) of 7 24i.
Q. 6
If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, prove that
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z1 z2 is purely imaginary.
2
Q. 7
Evaluate arg( z1 ) arg( z2 ) if

(a)
Q. 8
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
(b)
z1 + z2 = z1 z2
What is the mistake in this computation?
1 = 1 = (1)(1) = 1 1 = i i = 1
LOCUS
29
Section - 3
GEOMETRY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
This section will give you more experience in dealing with complex numbers from a geometrical perspective. We
will use the knowledge gained upto this point to interpret equations and inequations involving complex numbers
geometrically. In particular, we will draw regions corresponding to equations and inequations on the complex
plane; what this means will become quite clear in the following examples.
Example 16
Intrepret the equation z = 1 geometrically.
Solution: z is a (variable) complex number whose modulus is 1. This means that no matter what the direction in
which z lies (i.e. no matter what its argument), the distance of z from the origin is always 1. Therefore,
what path can z possibly trace out on the complex plane or in other words, what is the locus of z?
Obviously, a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin.
y
|z|
z can lie anywhere on this unit circle;

|z| will always equal 1: In polar form,
z can be written as z= cos + i sin
Fig - 34
s sdsaasds
Example 17
Plot the regions that z represents if:
(a)
z <1
(b)
z >2
(c) 1 < z < 2
LOCUS
30
Solution: (a) z < 1 means that the distance of z from the origin must be less than 1. Therefore, z must lie
(anywhere) inside a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin.
y
z can lie anywhere

inside the shaded region
1
x
s sdsaasds
Fig - 35
(b) z > 2 means that the distance of z from the origin must be greater than 2. Therefore, z must lie
(anywhere) outside a circle of radius 2 centred at the origin.
z can lie anywhere
2
x
s sdsaasds
Fig - 36
(c) 1 < z < 2 means geometrically that z must lie outside a circle of radius 1, but inside a circle of
radius 2, both the circles being centred at the origin.
y
z can lie anywhere
1
2
x
Fig - 37
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
31
Example 18
Plot the region represented by z if z satisfies
arg( z ) <
z <3
Solution: Since, arg( z ) < , this implies that

< arg( z ) < . This means that z must lie in a triangular region
6
6
6
with one edge making an angle and the other edge making an angle
with the x-axis. Also, the
6
6
distance of z from the origin must be less than 3. Thus, z lies in a region that is in the shape of a sector
of a circle:
y
3
/6
z can lie anywhere

in this shaded region
x
-/6
Fig - 38
s sdsaasds
Example 19
Plot the region/locus represented by z if z satisfies:
(a)
z 1 = z +1
(b)
z 1+ i = z +1 i
(c)
2 < Re( z ) < 3; 2 < Im( z ) < 3
(d)
z i + z +i =3
Solution: (a) As mentioned earlier, we must look for a geometrical interpretations of equations involving complex
numbers. This equation, in particular, says that the distance of z from 1 (you must learn to view
every number as a point on the complex plane; for example, 1 is a point which lies on the real
axis!) must be equal to the distance of z from 1, because
z 1 = z (1)
From plane geometry, z must lie on the perpendicular bisector of 1 and 1, or equivalently z must
lie anywhere on the imaginary axis.
LOCUS
32
y
z
z lies anywhere on
the imaginary axis
x
-1
Fig - 39
s sdsaasds
(b) As in part (a), this equation, which can be written as

z (1 i) = z (1 + i)
means that z is equidistant from 1i and 1+i, i.e., z lies on the perpendicular bisector of these two
points:
y
-1+i
z can lie anywhere

on this line, which is
given by x = y
s sdsaasds
Fig - 40
(c) Since 2 < Re ( z ) < 3, z lies anywhere in the region between the vertical lines x = 2 and x = 3.
Also, since 2 < Im ( z ) < 3, z must also lie in the region between the horizontal lines y = 2 and
y = 3.
y
z lies anywhere in
this square region
y=3
y=2
x
x=2
Fig - 41
x=3
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
33
(d) To solve this part, a little knowledge of co-ordinate geometry would be helpful. The given equation
says that the sum of the distances of z from i and from i must equal 3. z would therefore trace out
an elliptical path in the plane with i and i as its two focii, as shown in the figure below:
y
i
x
-i
Fig - 42
For those not conversant with co-ordinate geometry, heres an explanation. Suppose that you fix
two pegs at the points i and i and tie a 3-unit long string between the two pegs.
y
This string is
3 units long
-i
Fig - 43
Now, with a pen, pull this string to away from the pegs so that it becomes taut, and then,
keeping the string taut, trace out a complete revolution on the plane with the tip of the pen (the taut
string will automatically guide the pen)
Move the pen while
keeping the string taut
The pen traces
out an 'ellipse'
s sdsaasds
Fig - 44
LOCUS
34
Example 20
z 1
Plot the locus of z if z satisfies arg
=
z +1 2
Solution: We have,
z 1
arg
=
2
z +1
... (1)
2
z 1 is the vector drawn from the point 1 to the point z. Similarly, z + 1 is the vectron from 1 to z.
arg ( z 1) arg ( z + 1) =
The angle between these two vectors, as (1) tells us, is
x
1
-1
Fig - 45
Since the angle in a semicircle is a right angle, z can lie anywhere on a circle with 1 and 1 as the
end-points of a diameter. (1 and 1 themselves cannot lie on this circle because either z 1 or z + 1
becomes a zero vector if z = 1 or 1, and the argument of a zero vector cannot be uniquely defined)
y
z can lie any where
on this circle
-1
-i
Fig - 46
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
35
TRY YOURSELF - II
Plot the locus/region represented by z:

(a) z 2 + 2i = z + 2 + 2i
(b)
z 1 + z +1 = 4
(d)
< Arg ( z ) < ,

6
3
(e) Re( z ) + Im( z ) = 1
(f)
z 2 + z + 2i = 5
z 1
(g) arg
=
z +1 6
(h)
z < 3, z 4i < 2, arg( z ) <
(c) 1 < Re( z ) < 2, 1 < Im( z ) < 2,
z <2
z <3
LOCUS
36
Section - 4
EULERS FORM
The Eulers form of a complex number is important enough to deserve a separate section. It is an extremely
convenient representation that leads to simplifications in a lot of calculations. Eulers representation tells us that we
can write cos + i sin as ei
ei = cos + i sin
where e is the natural base introduced in the unit on Functions e is actually lim (1 + x )
1/ x
x 0
This representation might seem confusing at first. What sense does it make to raise a real number to an imaginary
number? However, you may rest assured that a valid justification for this relation exists, and we (might) encounter
it in the unit on exponential series. For the time being, you may take the truth of this relation(and the fact that Euler
was smart enough to get it right!) for granted.
Let us now use this relation.
*
z = 1 can be written as ei0
z = i and z = i can be written as ei / 2 and e i / 2 respectively
z = 1 can be written as ei
Any arbitrary complex number z can be written as r (cos + i sin ) or rei where r is the
modulus and the argument of z.
Multiplication and division become a whole lot easier
Let
z1 = r1ei1 and z2 = r2ei2

i 2
z1 z2 = r1ei1 . re
= r1r2e ( 1
i
i +2 )
This result is in agreement with the fact that moduli multiply and arguments add
upon multiplication
z1 r1ei1 r1 i(1 2 )
=
= e
z2 r2 ei2 r2
As in multiplication the relation above confirms the corresponding property of

division of complex numbers.
From now onwards, whenever working in the polar form, we will use the Euler representation
Also, some readers might have noticed by now that addition/subtraction is more convenient in Cartesian
form (where we add/subtract the real and imaginary components separately) while multiplication/division
is generally more convenient in Polar (Euler) form where we deal simply with multiplication/division and
addition/subtraction of moduli and arguments respectively.
LOCUS
37
Before concluding, we would like to, for the sake of emphasis, repeat this important fact about Eulers
representation again: ei , which is cos + i sin , represents a unit vector making an angle with the
positive x-axis; rei represents a vector of magnitude r at an angle with the positive x-axis.
rei
e
Fig - 47
Therefore, you should view rei as the multiplication of a vector ei , by a scalar r, which has the effect
of modifying the magnitude of the vector while preserving its direction
Section - 5
ROTATION
Rotation is a convenient method that is used to relate complex numbers and angles that they make; this method
will be widely used subsequently. However, you will realise that the method involves no new concept.
Consider a configuration of complex numbers as shown below:
z3
z1
z2
Fig - 48
We know the angle . Our purpose is to write down an expression that relates all the four quantities z1 , z2 , z3
and .
Consider the vector z3 z2 . Let its argument be 1. Similarly, let the argument of the vector z1 z2 be 2 .
Now, a little thought will show you that is simply 1 2 .
z3
z2
Fig - 49
z1
real direction
LOCUS
38
Now we write z3 z2 and z1 z2 in Eulers form
z3 z2 = z3 z2 ei1
... (1)
z1 z2 = z1 z2 ei2
... (2)
Since we know 1 2 , we divide (1) by (2) to get

z3 z2 z3 z2 i
=
e
z1 z2
z1 z2
... (2)
This is the relation we were looking for. It relates all the four terms z1 , z2 , z3 and .
You might have wondered why this method is called rotation. Well, you can think of this method in this way:
z3
z1
We need to rotate z1-z2

vector by angle
to make it into z3-z2
z2
Fig - 50
You are given the vector z1 z2 . You need to modify it into the vector z3 z2 . How can you do it? Obviously,
there will be a change in modulus. Apart from that, you need to rotate the vector z1 z2 anticlockwise by angle
too. This is where the term rotation comes from. Viewing the process in this way we obtain the relation (3) as
follows
* Write down the unit vector in the direction of the original vector, the one that you need to rotate. In our
case, it will be
z1 z2
z1 z2
* To rotate this unit vector by an angle (anticlockwise; for clockwise, it will be ), we multiply it by
ei . For the current case, this turns the unit vector into a new unit vector along the direction of the
vector z3 z2 :
z1 z2 i
e
z1 z2
*
Finally, to turn this unit vector into the final vector that we need to obtain after rotation, we multiply the
unit vector by the appropriate magnitude. Thus we obtain the required final vector after rotation
z3 z2 = z3 z2
This is the same relation that we obtained in (3)
z1 z2 i
e
z1 z2
LOCUS
39
Using this same approach, suppose that we now wish to relate four complex numbers in the following
configuration
z1
z3
z4
z2
Fig 51
Using rotation, we can obtain he vector z1 z2 from the vector z4 z3 :

Unit vector along
:
z 4 z3
z 4 z3
z1 z2 direction
(Final unit vector)
z1 z2
z1 z2
Angle between the two
z4 z3 direction
(Initial unit vector)
Unit vector along
z z
z1 z2
= 4 3 ei
z1 z2
z4 z3
This is the relation we wished to obtain.

Example 21
Prove that if the complex numbers z1 , z2 and the origin form an equilateral triangle, then z12 + z22 z1 z2 = 0 .
Solution:
l
z1
z2
60
Origin
Fig - 52
LOCUS
40
We can assume the configuration drawn above for z1 and z2 . Observe that the vector z1 can be
obtained from the vector z2 through rotation.
z1 z2 i / 3
= e
l
l
z1
= ei / 3 = cos + i sin
3
3
z2
=
1
3
+i
2
2
z12 1 3 1
= + i 3
z22 4 4 2
1
3
= +i
2
2
1
3
= 1 + + i
2
2
= 1 +
z1
z2
z12 = z22 + z1 z2
z12 + z22 z1 z2 = 0
s sdsaasds
Example 22
Find the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides if its centre is at the origin and one of its vertices is known to
be z1.
Solution:
z2
z1
z3
2/n
z4
Fig - 53
LOCUS
41
From the figure, it should be clear that all the vertices of the polygon (other than z1) can be obtained from
z1 through successive rotations, each of angle 2 / n .
z2 = z1ei 2 / n
z3 = z2 ei 2 / n = z1ei 4 / n
zn = zn 1ei 2 / n = z1ei 2( n 1) / n
If we let ei 2 / n be , then
z2 = z1 , z3 = 2 z1........., zn = n 1 z1 .
Thus, all the vertices become known.
s sdsaasds
Example 23
Let z1 and z2 be roots of the equation z 2 + pz + q = 0, where the coefficients p and q may be complex. Let A
and B represent z1 and z2 in the complex plane. If AOB = 0 and OA = OB, where O is the origin, prove
that p 2 = 4q cos 2 / 2 .
Solution: The situation described in the question is graphically sketched below:
y
B ( z2 )
Using rotation (OA OB ) , we get:
A ( z1)
x
Fig - 54
z2 OB i
=
e = ei = cos + i sin
z1 OA
... (1)
Adding 1 to both sides of (1) (it will soon become clear why), we get
z2
+ 1 = 1 + cos + i sin
z1
= 2 cos 2 + 2i sin cos

2
2
2
= 2 cos cos + i sin

2
2
2
= 2 cos
i / 2
e
2
... (2)
LOCUS
42
Since z1 and z2 are the roots of z 2 + pz + q = 0,
z1 + z2 = p
... (3)
z1 z2 = q
Substituting (3) in (2) and then squaring, we get
... (4)
p2
= 4 cos 2 ei
2
z1
2
= 4 cos 2
p 2 = 4 cos 2
z2
2 z1
(From (1))
z1 z2
2
= 4q cos 2 / 2
(From (4))
Example 24
If z = 1, show that
i (1 z )
arg ( z )
= tan
1+ z
2
Solution: We will solve this using both an analytical and a geometrical approach.
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
Let
(since r = 1)
z = rei = ei
i (1 z ) i (1 e
=
1+ z
1 + ei
i (1 cos i sin )
1 + cos + i sin
sin + i (1 cos )
1 + cos + i sin
2sin
2 + 2 cos
= tan
arg ( z )
= tan
2
(Rationalization; verify this step)
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
43
GEOMETRICAL APPROACH
Let z lie anywhere on a unit circle centred at the origin
y
B(z)
A
-1
= arg (z)
Also, = 2 (Why?)
C
1
Fig - 55
Applying rotation ( AB BC ) ,
z 1 BC i / 2 BC
=
=
e
i = i tan
z + 1 AB
AB
1 z 1 i (1 z )
tan =
=
i z +1
1+ z
Since =
, we get
2
tan
i (1 z )
=
2
1+ z
which is the desired result
Example 25
Let A1 , A2 .... An be the vertices of an n-sided regular polygon such that
1
1
1
=
+
A1 A2 A1 A3 A1 A4
Find the value of n.
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
44
Solution: Referring to Fig - 53 we let the vertices be represented by z1 , z2 ......zn . As in example 22,
z2 = z1ei 2 / n
z3 = z1ei 4 / n
z4 = z1ei 6 / n
A1 A2 = z1 z1ei 2 / n = z1 1 ei 2 / n
2
2
= z1 1 cos
i sin
n
n
= z1 2sin 2 2i sin cos

n
n
n
= 2 z1 sin
Similarly,
A1 A3 = z1 z1ei 4 / n = 2 z1 sin
2
n
A1 A4 = z1 z1ei 6 / n = 2 z1 sin
3
n
Substituting for A1 A2 , A1 A3 and A1 A4 in the relation given in the question, we get

1
sin
sin
Writing sin
1
1
+
2
3
sin
sin
n
n
2
3
2
3
= sin sin
+ sin sin
sin
n
n
n
n
n
n
2
as 2sin cos and cancelling out sin from both sides, we get
n
n
n
n
2 cos
sin
4
3
= sin
n
n
4
3
=
n
n
n=7
3
2
3
= sin
+ sin
sin
n
n
n
n
(why ?)
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
Section - 6
45
POWERS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ROOTS OF UNITY
Given z, suppose you have to evaluate z n where n is a rational number. How do we evaluate this power is the
subject of this section.
Let us write z in polar (Euler) form:
z = rei
Suppose n is an integer. Then z is straightforward to evaluate
z n = ( rei ) n
n
= r n ein
Now, consider the case when n is a non-integer rational number. Let us take n =
might wonder, what is the problem in following the same approach for n =
z n = z1/ k
1
, where k is an integer. You
k
1
as we did when n was an integer:
k
= (rei )1/ k
i
k
...(1)
=r e
The problem is that the value that we have obtained in (1) is just one of the values for z n ; there are other values
too. To be precise, in this case, for example, the nth power of z, which is actually the k th root of z, will have k
different values, the value in (1) being just one of those k values.
1
How? Consider z = ei and n = . How many values does z1/ 4 = (ei )1/ 4 have? ei / 4 will be one of those values.
4
To actually show that we can obtain other values, we write ei as:
1/ k
ei = ei (2 p + )
p #
This is justified since ei (2 p ) = 1 . Now,

(ei )1/ 4 = {ei (2 p + ) }1/ 4
2 p +
i
=e
Let us give different integer values to p and see what we obtain
p = 0 z1/0 4 = ei / 4

i +
4
p = 1 z11/ 4 = e 2

i +
4
p = 2 z1/2 4 = e
p =3 z
1/ 4
3
=e
3
i +
2 4
p = 4 z1/4 4 = e (
i 2 + / 4 )
= e i 2 e i / 4
= ei / 4
= z1/0 4
and so on
LOCUS
46
Now we give negative integer values to p

p = 1 z
1/ 4
1
=e

i +
2 4
=e
i 2 + +
2 4
3
i +
2 4
= e i 2 e
= z31/ 4
p = 2 z1/24 = z1/2 4
Similarly,
'
and so on
We see that there are precisely 4 unique values of z1/ 4 , given by any four consecutive integer values of p. For
example, we could take p from {0, 1, 2, 3} or {7, 8, 9,10} or whatever you wish. The important thing to
remember is that the four values of p should be consecutive (the value of the root follows a cycle of 4, p and p+4
will give the same value for the root). Also, this discussion shows that the fourth root of a complex number has four
unique values. What about the nth root? n different values.
Before proceeding to the nth roots of a complex number, let us encounter De-Moivres theorem, which is a formal
statement of what weve studied upto this point in the current section.
DE - MOIVRES THEOREM
Let z = rei
(a)
If n is an integer, z n = (rei ) n = r n ein

= r n (cos n + i sin n )
(b)
If n is a non-integer rational number, say of the form

i
z = ( re )
n
=r
p/q
p
,
q
p
q
ip
q
= r p / q (cos
p
p
+ i sin
)
q
q
is one of the values of z n . There will be actually multiple values of z n . (How to obtain those multiple
values will be discussed subsequently).
We will now discuss how to evaluate the nth roots of an arbitrary complex number in the manner described
above.
Let z = rei = rei (2 p + )
1
z n = {rei (2 p + ) }n
2 p +
i
=r e
This will have n unique values given by n successive integral values of p. We take p from the set{0, 1, 2...(n1)}.
1/ n
LOCUS
47
The n values that we obtain are listed out below:

1/ n
i
n
1/ n
r e ,r e
2
i
+
n n
1/ n
,r e
4
i
+
n n
1/ n
..., r e
2 p
i
+
n
n
1/ n
...r e
2( n 1)
i
+
n
n
These n values of z1/ n are termed the nth roots of z. How will they lie on a plane? Notice that the angle between
2
any two successive roots zi and zi +1 is
. Thus, the nth roots will lie on a circle of radius r1/ n and will be
n
2
.
evenly spaced out; the angle between any two successive roots being
n
y
z2
z3
z4
z1
1/n
= r 1/
Circle of radius r
|z |
z
x
Fig - 56
th
Now we consider a special case, the n roots of unity (1). In other words, we want the solutions to the equation:
zn = 1
The Eulers form of 1 is ei 0 . Therefore,
z=e
=e
(2 p + 0)
n
i 2 p
n
The n different values are
1, e
i 2
n
,e
i 4
n
..., e
i 2( n 1)
n
If we let ei 2 / n = , the n root are 1, , 2 ... n 1

These n roots will be evenly spaced out, lying on a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin.
y
3
2/n
1
n - 1
Fig - 57
The n roots of unity

(unity is a root itself)
lie on a unit circle,
centred at the origin;
the angle between any
two successive roots is 2
n
LOCUS
48
From symmetry, notice that the sum of these n roots (vectors) will be 0.
1 + + 2 + ... + n 1 = 0
This can be proved analytically too:

Since is one of the nth roots of 1, we have
n =1
n 1 = 0
( 1)( n 1 + n 2 + ... + + 1) = 0
Since 1 , we get:
n 1 + n 2 + ... + + 1 = 0
Now we evaluate the product of these n roots:
P = 1 2 ... n 1
= 1+ 2+3+...+ n 1
=
i 2 / n
n ( n 1)
2
i 2 n ( n 1)
n 2
Since = e
= ei ( n 1) .
,P = e
Now observe that if n is odd, P is 1 while if n is even, P is 1:
1 if n is odd
P=
1 if n is even
Lets apply this discussion to some particular values of n:
(i)
n=2
We want the square roots of unity, or, the solutions to

z 2 = 1.
One of the roots is 1. Where can we symmetrically place the other root? Obviously, at 1.
y
2
Solutions to z = 1.
-1
Fig - 58
LOCUS
(ii)
49
n=3
We want to solve
z3 = 1
One of the roots is 1. The other roots can be placed symmetrically if they are at angles
shown below:
2
4
, as
and
3
3
The roots apart from 1 are

i2/3
i4/3
2
e and e labelled as and
120
120
120
2
Fig - 59
The two other roots are:

1 i 3
1 i 3
= ei 2 / 3 = +
, 2 = ei 4 / 3 =
2
2
2
2
2
2
Notice that and are conjugates of each other. Also, 1 + + = 0 and 1 2 = 3 = 1
(iii)
n=4
We want to solve
z4 = 1
The four roots can be symmetrically placed as shown below:
y
The fourth roots
of unity.
-1
-i
Fig - 60
LOCUS
50
Note that 1 + i + ( 1) + ( i ) = 0 and 1 (i ) ( 1) ( i ) = 1 .

Higher order roots can be similarly evaluated. You must understand carefully the geometrically significance
of the nth roots. Let us take one of the cube roots of unity for this purpose, say 2 .
y
240
x
Fig - 61
If you cube , you are essentially rotating this vector. The argument of 2 is 240; when you cube 2 ,
2
you will rotate 2 by 240 (for 2 2 ) + another 240(for 2 2 2 ) . Hence, 2 , when cubed,
will become the vector 1.
22
nd
(2 position)
240
22 2 =1
(Final position)
2
(Initial)
Fig - 62
Thus,
( 2 )3 = 1
Similarly, observe one of the fourth roots of unity, say i. The argument of i is 90. When you raise i to
power 4, you are essentially rotating the vector i by 90(for i i) + 90(for i i i) + 90(for iiii).
Therefore, i when raised to power four will become the vector 1.
LOCUS
51
i (initial position)
ii
(2 position)
i i i i=1
(Final position)
nd
ii i
rd
(3 position)
Fig - 63
Thus,
i4 = 1
This discussion should make you realise that when looking for the nth roots of unity, you are looking for
vectors which when rotated by a certain fixed angle (2 n) a particular number (n 1) of times, give the
vector 1.
Example 26
Find the square roots and the cube roots of i.
Solution: First write i in its Eulers form.
i
i=e2
Square roots:
z =e
2
i / 2
=e
i 2 p +
2
i p +
4
z=e
The two roots are given by two consecutive values of p, say p = 0, 1
z1 = ei / 4 , z2 = ei 5 / 4
Cube roots:
z =e
3
z=e
i 2 p +
2
2 p
i
+
6
3
There are three roots; take p = 0,1, 2

z1 = ei / 6 , z 2 = ei 5 / 6 , z3 = ei 3 / 2
You are urged to plot the square roots and the cube roots obtained above graphically on a plane.
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
52
Example 27
If 1, 1 , 2 ..., n 1 are the nth roots of unity, find the value of (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )...(1 + n1 ) .
Solution: Since x n 1 = 0 has n roots (that have been specified in the question), we can write
(by factor theorem):
x n 1 = ( x 1)( x 1 )...( x n 1 )
xn 1
= ( x 1 )( x 2 )...( x n 1 )
x 1
...(1)
The form of the expression whose value we need to obtain hints that we should substitute x = 1
in (1):
(1) n 1
= (1 1 )(1 2 )...(1 n 1 )
(1) 1
= ( 1) n 1 (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )...(1 + n 1 )
If n is even the left hand side is 0 so that the value of the expression becomes 0. If n is odd, the
expression becomes
2
= ( 1) n 1 (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )...(1 + n 1 )
2
(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )...(1 + n 1 ) = 1
Thus, the expression takes the value 0 or 1 depending on whether n is even or odd respectively.
s sdsaasds
Example 28
Let , 2 be the complex cube roots of unity. Let z1, z2 , z3 be complex numbers such that
z1 + z2 + z3 = A
z1 + z2 + 2 z3 = B
z1 + 2 z2 + z3 = C
Evaluate z1 , z2 and z3 in terms of A, B, and C.

Solution: We know that 1 + + 2 = 0
We have to use this to somehow express each of z1 , z2 and z3 independently in terms of A, B and C.
Label the three equations as (I), (II) and (III).
(I) + (II) + (III) gives
3z1 = A + B + C
LOCUS
53
z1 =
A+ B+C
3
(I) + 2 (II) + (III) gives

3z2 = A + 2 B + C
z2 =
A + B 2 + C
3
Finally, (I) + (II) + 2(III) gives

3z3 = A + B + C 2
A + B + C 2
z3 =
3
These were the values we were looking for.
s sdsaasds
Example 29
Let a complex number , 1 be a root of z p + q z p z q + 1 = 0, where p and q are distinct primes. Show that
either 1 + + 2 + ... + p 1 = 0 or 1 + + 2 + ... + q 1 = 0 , but not both together.
Solution: The given equation can be written as
( z p 1)( z q 1) = 0
Therefore, is a root of either z p 1 = 0 or z q 1 = 0 . In other words, is either a p th or a q th
root of unity.
Now,
z p 1 = ( z 1)( z p 1 + z p 2 + .... + z + 1)
Substituting z = gives
0 = ( 1)( p 1 + p 2 + ..... + + 1)
Since 1, we get
1 + + 2 + .... + p 1 = 0
...(1)
Similarly, if z q 1 = 0, we get
1 + + 2 + ..... + q 1 = 0
...(2)
We now need to show that (1) and (2) cannot hold simultaneously. In other words, cannot be a pth
and a qth root of unity at the same time (given the condition that p and q are distinct primes). This is
easy to prove:
LOCUS
54
If is a pth root of unity,
=e
2 m
p
...(3)
2 n
q
...(4)
If is a qth root of unity,
=e
m
Observe the right hand sides of (3) and (4) carefully. The terms in the exponents,
(where m < p)
p
n
and (where n < q) can never be equal. Why? Lets assume they are equal
q
m n
=
p q
pn = mq
Since p is a prime, different from q, it cannot have m and q and factors. Since n < q, n cannot have q
as a factor. Thus pn cannot have m or q as factors which is a contradiction.
(3) and (4) cannot be equal
(1) and (2) cannot be simultaneously satisfied.
Example 30
Find all the roots of the equation z12 56 z 6 512 = 0 whose imaginary parts are non-negative
Solution: We let z 6 = x so that the given equation reduces to a quadratic.
x 2 56 x 512 = 0
( x 64)( x + 8) = 0
x = 64, 8
z 6 = 64, 8
(a) z 6 = 64
z 6 = 64 = 26 ei (2 p +0)
z = 2e
2 p + 0
i
Verify that for p = 0, 1, 2, 3, we get non-negative imaginary parts for z:

z = 2, 2ei /3 , 2ei 2 /3 , 2ei
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
55
(b) z 6 = 8
z 6 = 8 = 23 ei = 23 ei (2 p + )
z=2 e
1/2
2 p +
i
Verify that for p = 0, 1, 2, we get non-negative imaginary parts for z:

z = 2ei /6 , 2ei /2 , 2ei 5 /6
s sdsaasds
Thus we get seven values of z that satisfy the given condition.
TRY YOURSELF - III
Q. 1
Prove that the following factorizations hold true:

(a) x 2 + x + 1 = ( x )( x 2 )
(b) x 2 x + 1 = ( x + )( x + 2 )
(c) x 2 + xy + y 2 = ( x y )( x y 2 )
(d) x3 + y 3 = ( x + y )( x + y )( x + y 2 )
(e) x3 y 3 = ( x y)( x y )( x y 2 )
(f) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 xy yz zx = ( x + y + z 2 )( x + 2 y + z )
using part (f), write down the factors of x3 + y 3 + z 3 3 xyz .
Q. 2
Redo Example-7 using rotation.
Q. 3
If ABC is an equilateral triangle having vertices z1 , z2 and z3 (in the anti-clockwise direction), prove that
z1 + z2 + 2 z3 = 0
Q. 4
Find the value of ( 1)( 2 )( 3 )...( n 1 ) where = ei 2 / n .
Q. 5
Prove (geometrically or analytically) that
(a)
z
1 arg( z )
z
(b)
z 1 z 1 + z arg( z )
LOCUS
56
Section - 7
MORE GEOMETRY WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS
In this section, well put complex numbers to more geometrical use. We will write down equations of straight lines
and circles, among other things, in the complex plane. Readers who are familiar with co-ordinate geometry an
vectors will find this section very easy. Before proceeding, pay attention to the following facts necessary to do
geometry with complex numbers.
| z1 z2 | should be interpreted as the distance between the points z1 and z2, or equivalently, the
length of the vector z1 z2.
You must know the difference between the point z and the vector z. Suppose we talk about the
point 1 + i. This has a fixed location in the plane, as you know, in the first quadrant. Theres also
the vector 1 + i, which has an x-component of 1 and a y-component of 1, but this vector is not
fixed. It is free vector. We can move the vector 1 + i anywhere around the plane as we wish, as
long as we dont change its magnitude and direction
If z is purely real, then z = z . If z is purely imaginary, then z + z = 0 .
Suppose z1 and z2 are fixed in the plane.
z2
z
z1
Fig - 64
We want to find a point z on the line segment joining z1 and z2 such that this point divides the line
segment in the ratio m : n. z will be given by
mz + nz1
z= 2
m+n
How?
LOCUS
57
Lets consider z1 , z2 and z with respect to a reference axis

y
z2
n
z
m
z1
Fig . 65
Now, from the figure, it should be clear that

z z1 =
m
( z2 z1 )
m+n
z=
mz2 + nz1
m+n
(verify this)
Such a point z is said to divide the line segment joining z1 and z2 internally in the ratio m:n. We
could also have an external division as follows.
C (z)
B (z2)
A
(z1)
Fig - 66
Here, z divides the line segment joining z1 and z2 externally in the ratio m : n, i.e.,
AC m
=
CB n
Verify that z in this case is given by

z=
mz2 nz1
mn
Now we apply our knowledge of complex numbers along with these facts to actual geometric problems,
in the following examples.
LOCUS
58
Example 31
(a)
Write the equation of a circle of radius 1 centred at 1 + i.
(b)
What relation should z satisfy so that it is closer to 1 than to i?
Solution: (a) Let z be a variable complex number representing the required locus (circle). We want that the
distance of z from 1 + i must always equal 1.
| z (1 + i ) | = 1
(b) The required condition can be easily translated into a mathematical form:
(Distance of z from 1) <
(Distance of z from i)
| z 1| < | z i |
s sdsaasds
Example 32
If z1, z2 and z3 represent the vertices of an arbitrary triangle, find its centroid.
Solution: Let ABC be the triangle, and let G be its centroid. Let D be the mid point of BC.
A(z1)
G(z)
B(z2)
C(z3)
Fig. 67
z 2 + z3
. From plane
2
geometry, we also know that the centroid divides any median in the ratio 2 : 1. Thus,
Since D is the mid-point of BC (D divides BC in the ratio 1 : 1), D is given by
AG : GD = 2 : 1
This implies that G is given by
z +z
2 2 3 + 1( z1 )
2
z=
2 +1
=
z1 + z2 + z3
3
Thus, the centroid is given by z1 + z2 + z3 .

3
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
59
Example 33
Find the equation of the straight line joining the points A(z1) and B(z2).
Solution: The situation is sketched in the figure below:
z
B (z2)
A (z1)
z is an arbitrary point
on the line; we need to
determine the relation
that z must satisfy .
Fig - 68
Observe from the figure that the vectors z z1 and z z2 are either in the same direction (wherever z
lies out side the line segment AB) or they are antiparallel (whenever z lies between A and B). Thus, the
vector z z1 can be obtained by multiplying the vector z z2 with a scalar (a real number) in all cases:
z z1 = s( z z2 )
s!
z sz = z1 sz2
z=
1
s
z1
z2
1 s
1 s
= tz1 + (1 t ) z2 , where t =
1
$.
1 s
Thus, we vary t over all real numbers in the relation above and well therefore obtain all the corresponding
points on the required line.
This is the equation of the straight line in parametric form.
We can also write the required equation without involving any parameter. Since z z2 is a scalar
(real) multiple of z1 z2,
z z2
z1 z2 is purely real
z z2
z z2
=
z1 z2 z1 z2
z ( z1 z2 ) z ( z1 z2 ) + z1 z2 z1 z2 = 0
...(1)
This is the required equation in non-parametric form. How do we measure the slope of this line from
the expression in (1)? Observe that the required slope is tan = tan ( arg( z1 z2 ) ) .
LOCUS
60
| z1 z2 | ei
z1 z2
= e 2i , we do get a measure of . Thus, we
If we evaluate
, which is actually ,
i
| z1 z2 | e
z1 z2
z1 z2
can use z z as some form of slope. Lets call it the complex slope of the line given by (1).
1
2
Now, (1) can be simplified further. Notice that z1 z2 z1 z2 can be written as z1 z2 z1 z2 which is
equal to 2i Im( z1 z2 ).
Therefore, (1) becomes
z ( z1 z2 ) z ( z1 z2 ) + 2i Im( z1 z2 ) = 0
Multiplying both sides by i, we get
z (i ( z1 z2 ) ) z (i ( z1 z2 ) ) 2 Im( z1z2 ) = 0
az + a z + b = 0
where a = i ( z1 z2 )
so that a = i ( z1 z2 )
and b is real
a coefficient of z
. This is the equation of a straight line in its
a coefficient of z
most general (complex form). From this equation try to write down the condition for the collinearity
of three points in determinant form
The complex slope of this line
s sdsaasds
Example 34
If s1 and s2 be the complex slopes of two lines, find the condition on them so that the lines are
(a) parallel
(b) perpendicular
Solution: Let the actual slopes be tan 1 and tan 2

The complex slopes are
(a) For parallel lines,
s1 = e 2i1 and s2 = e 2i2
1 = 2 . Therefore,
s1 = s2
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
61
(b) For perpendicular lines, 1 2 =
2(1 2 ) =
ei 2(1 2 ) = ei = 1
s1 s21 = 1
s1 + s2 = 0
s sdsaasds
Example 35
Find the equation of a line perpendicular to the line az + a z + b = 0, passing through z1 .
Solution: The complex slope of the original line is
a
a
The complex slope of the perpendicular line will be
s1 =
s2 =
z z1
z z1
Since, the lines are perpendicular, s1 + s2 = 0
z z1 a
=0
z z1 a
a( z z1 ) a ( z z1 ) = 0
az a z (az1 a z1 ) = 0
az a z 2i Im(az1 ) = 0
s sdsaasds
Example 36
Let A( z1 ) and B( z2 ) be arbitrary points in the complex plane. Find the equation of the circle having AB as a
diameter.
Solution: Let P(z)be an arbitrary point lying on the required circle as shown in the figure below
LOCUS
62
P(z)
A(z1)
B(z2)
Fig - 69
We can now take two approaches:

(i) We know that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle. Therefore,
AP 2 + PB 2 = AB 2 :
| z z1 |2 + | z z2 |2 = | z1 z2 |2
s sdsaasds
This is a possible equation of the required circle. All points lying on the circle will satisfy this
equation
%%%&
%%%&
(ii) Applying rotation ( PA
PB), we get
z2 z | z2 z | i / 2
=
= ik ,
e
z1 z | z1 z |
k $
z2 z
is purely imaginary
z1 z
z z2 z z 2
+
=0
z z1 z z1
( z z1 )( z z2 ) + ( z z1 )( z z2 ) = 0
This is another possible equation of the required circle.

Example 37
Find the general equation of a circle in complex form
Solution: Let us consider an arbitrary circle with centre z0 and radius r.
| z z0 |= r
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
63
| z z0 |2 = r 2
( z z0 )( z z0 ) = r 2
zz zz0 zz0 + z0 z0 r 2 = 0
| z |2 + a z + a z + k = 0
where a = z0 and k =| z0 |2 r 2
This is the general equation that we required. Given this form, we can easily deduce that the centre will
be a and the radius will be | z0 |2 k .
s sdsaasds
Example 38
If z1 and z2 are fixed and z satisfies
| z z1 |2 + | z z2 |2 = k ,
find the possible values of k so that this equation represents a circle.

Solution: Let us try to reduce (simplify) this equation
| z z1 |2 + | z z2 |2 = k
2 | z |2 2 Re( zz1 + zz2 ) + | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 = k
| z |2 Re ( z ( z1 + z2 ) ) =
1
k | z1 |2 | z2 |2
2
Careful thinking will show that the left hand side can be transformed into a perfect square with the
following manipulation.
introduction of
a new term
z +z
1
z +z
| z | Re (z ( z1 + z 2 ) ) + 1 2 = ( k | z1 |2 | z2 |2 ) + 1 2
2
2
2
2
z +z
z 1 2
2
1
| z1 z2 |2
= k
2
2
1
2k | z1 z2 |2
4
{verify this step}
LOCUS
64
z1 + z2
1
and the radius is
2k | z1 z2 |2 . For the radius to be defined
2
2
the condition that k must satisfy is
Thus, the centre is z0 =
k>
1
| z1 z2 |2
2
s sdsaasds
These are the possible values of k.
Example 39
Let bz + bz = c, b 1 be a line in the complex plane. If a point z1 is the reflection of a point z2 through the line,
show that c = z1b + z2b ,
Solution:
A( z1 )
bz + bz = c
B( z2 )
Fig - 70
z1 + z2
should
2
satisfy the equation of the line. Also, AB must be perpendicular to the given line, i.e the complex
slopes of AB and the given line must add to 0.
From the figure, it is obvious that the midpoint of AB must lie on the given line, i.e,
z +z z +z
b 1 2 + b 1 2 = c
2 2
and
z1 z2 b
+ = 0
z1 z2 b
b ( z1 z2 ) b ( z1 z2 ) = 0
2 (1) ( 2 ) gives us the required relation.
... (1)
... (2)
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
65
Example 40
Find the circumcentre of the triangle whose vertices are given by the complex numbers z1, z2 and z3.
Solution:
P(z1)
O(z)
R(z3)
Q(z2)
Fig - 71
We have to find z, the circumcentre O of triangle PQR. By virtue of being the circumcentre, z is
equidistant from z1, z2 and z3. Therefore,
z z1 = z z2 = z z3
( z z1 )( z z1 ) = ( z z2 )( z z2 ) = ( z z3 )( z z3 )
()*)+
()*)+
Equality A
Equality B
From the first two terms in the equality above (Equality A) we get:
z z zz1 z1 z + z1 z1 = z z zz2 z2 z + z2 z2
z ( z2 z1 ) = z ( z1 z2 ) + z2 z1
2
...(1)
Similarly, from equality B, we get

z ( z3 z2 ) = z ( z2 z3 ) + z3 z2
2
...(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we get :

z2 z1 z ( z1 z2 ) + z2 z1
=
z3 z2 z ( z2 z3 ) + z3 2 z2 2
2
Solving for z, we get

z ( z2 z3 ) + z2 ( z3 z1 ) + z3 ( z1 z2 )
z= 1
z1 ( z2 z3 ) + z2 ( z3 z1 ) + z3 ( z1 z2 )
2
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
66
TRY YOURSELF - IV
Q. 1
C is the centre of a circle z c = r . A is a point represented by the complex number a inside the circle
and B is a point represented by the complex number b outside the circle, such that C, A, B lie in a straight
line and CA.CB = r2. Show that
r2
b =c+
a c
Q. 2
A is a point given by 8 + 4i. If 0 is the origin and P is the perpendicular bisector of OA, such that
OPA = 120 , find P.
Q. 3
Points D( z1 ), E ( z2 ) and F ( z3 ) lie on a circle centred at the origin 0. The tangents to the circle at D, E
and F intersect at A, B and C; A, B, C are opposite to D, E, F respectively. Show that A is given
by
Q. 4
2z2 z3
z +z z
. Also show that the point of intersection X of AO and DE is given by ( 1 2 ) 3 .
z 2 + z3
z1 + z3
A square whose one vertex is 2 + i 3 circumscribes the circle z 1 = 2 . Find the other three vertices.
LOCUS
67
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1
Show that if
1
1
1
+
+
= 0, z1 , z2 and z3 represent the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 z1
Solution: Let z1 , z2 and z3 represent the vertices A, B and C of the triangle ABC. We need to show that ABC
is equilateral.
A(z1 )
B(z2 )
C(z3 )
Fig - 72
We multiply the given relation by z3 z1 on both sides to obtain:

z3 z1 z3 z1
+
+1 = 0
z1 z2 z2 z3
()*)
+
combine
z3 z1 z2 z1
+
=0
z1 z2 z 2 z3
z3 z1 z1 z2
=
z2 z1 z3 z2
z z
z z
Arg 3 1 = Arg 1 2
z3 z2
z2 z1
A = B
s sdsaasds
Similarly, we can prove that B = C and therefore, A = B = C . Thus, ABC is equilateral

Example 2
If z 1 and w 1, show that
(i) z w ( z w ) + (arg( z ) arg( w) )
2
(ii) z + w ( z + w ) ( arg( z ) arg( w) )

2
LOCUS
68
Solution: Assume some arbitrary values for z and w, and plot them on the plane (both z and w will lie inside the
unit circle)
Note that:
A(z)
OA = |z|
OB = |w|
AB = |z w|
B(w)
AOB = = arg(z) arg(w)
Fig - 73
Applying the cosine rule on triangle OAB above, we obtain :

AB 2 = OA2 + OB 2 2OA OB cos
z w = z + w 2 z w cos
2
= ( z w ) + 2 z w 2 z w cos
2
= ( z w ) + 2 z w (1 cos )
2
= ( z w ) + 4 z w sin 2
2
( z w ) + 2
2
2
because z 1, w 1 and

2
sin so that sin 2
2 2
2 4
This proves the first part.

To prove the second part, we apply the cosine rule again as shown below:
C
Note that:
|z+
w|
A(z)
OA = BC = |z|
OB = |w|
OC = |z + w|
B(w)
0
AOB =
OBC =
Fig - 74
LOCUS
69
Applying the cosine rule on triangle OBC, we obtain

OC 2 = OB 2 + BC 2 2OB BC cos ( )
z + w = z + w + 2 z w cos
2
= ( z + w ) 2 z w (1 cos )
2
= ( z + w ) 4 z w sin 2
2
( z + w ) 2
2
because, as in the previous
2
2
part, 4 z w sin
s sdsaasds
Example 3
Two different non-parallel lines meet the circle z = r in the points a, b and c, d respectively. Prove that these lines
meet in the point z given by
z=
a 1 + b 1 c 1 d 1
.
a 1b 1 c 1d 1
Solution: The situation given in the question is sketched in the figure below:
a
b
d
c
|z| = r
Fig - 75
Since a, b, c, d lie on the circle z = r , we have
a = b = c = d =r
aa = bb = cc = dd = r 2
Now, a, b and z are collinear z b = (b a )
z b
is purely real
ba
z b z b
=
ba b a
(b a ) z (b a ) z + ab ab = 0
...(1)
LOCUS
70
(b a ) z + ab ab
ba
Similarly, since c, d and z are collinear,
...(2)
(d c ) z + cd cd
d c
...(3)
z=
z=
From (2) and (3)
(b a ) z + ab ab = (d c ) z + cd cd
ba
d c
...(4)
Using (1) in (4), we obtain

r2 r2
r 2b r 2 a r 2 r 2
r 2 d r 2c
z
+
z
+
a
b
d c
c
d
b a
=
ba
d c
z b + a z d + c
+
=
+
ab
ab
cd
cd
1 b+a d +c
1
z =
ab
cd
ab cd
=
1 1 1 1
+
a b c d
= a 1 + b 1 c 1 d 1
a 1 + b 1 c 1 d 1
z=
a 1b 1 c 1d 1
s sdsaasds
Example 4
If z1 , z2 and z3 represent the complex numbers A, B, C respectively and ABC = ACB =
prove that ( z2 z3 ) 2 = 4( z3 z1 )( z1 z2 ) sin 2 / 2 .
Solution: Since ABC = ACB , the triangle ABC is isosceles
A(z1 )
A = 2 . 1 ( )
2
=
AB = AC
1 ( )
2
1 ( )
2
B(z2 )
C(z3 )
Fig - 76
1
( ) ,
2
LOCUS
71
%%%& %%%&
Applying rotation about z1 ( AB AC ) :
z3 z1
= ei = cos + i sin
z2 z1
...(1)
Since the final result we would like to obtain contains / 2 , we subtract 1 from both sides of (1)
z3 z1
1 = 1 + cos + i sin
z2 z1
z3 z 2
= 2sin 2 + 2i sin cos

2
2
2
z2 z1
= 2sin
sin i cos
2
2
2
= 2i sin
cos + i sin
2
2
2
= 2i sin
i / 2
e
2
Squaring both sides,
( z3 z2 )
2
( z2 z1 )
= 4sin 2
i
e
2
= 4sin 2
z3 z1
2 z2 z1
s sdsaasds
Cross-multiplying by ( z2 z1 ) gives us the desired result.

2
Example 5
Prove that if p # the sum of the pth powers of the nth roots of unity is 0, unless p is a multiple of n. What is the
sum in that case?
Solution: Let the nth roots of unity be
1, , 2 .......... n 1
where = ei 2 /n
The sum of the pth powers of these roots is

S p = (1) p + ( ) p + ( 2 ) p + ....... + ( n 1 ) p
= 1 + p + ( p ) 2 + ....... + ( p ) n 1
...(1)
LOCUS
72
This is a G.P. with common ratio p

Sp =
( p ) n 1
p 1
... (2)
If p is not a multiple of n, p 1 so that the expression for S p is defined in (2). The numerator of S p
is ( p ) n 1 = ( n ) p 1 = 1p 1 = 0. Thus, S p = 0.
Suppose now that p is a multiple of n. In that case, p = 1, so that S p is directly obtainable from (1).
S p = 1 + 1 + 1 + ....... + 1 (n times)
=n
S p = 0,
n,
Thus,
if p is not a multiple of n
if p is a multiple of n
s sdsaasds
Example 6
If arg( z1/3 ) =
1
arg( z 2 + zz1/3 ), find | z |. (z is a non real complex number).
2
Solution: Since the given relation contains only arguments, we can use the properties that arguments satisfy, to
simplify this relation:
2 arg( z1/3 ) = arg( z 2 + zz1/3 )
arg( z 2/3 ) = arg( z 2 + zz1/3 )
arg( z 2 + zz1/3 ) arg( z 2/3 ) = 0
z 2 + zz1/3
arg
=0
2/3
z
arg z 4/3 + 1/3 = 0

z
z 4/3 +
z 1/3 ( z 5/3 + z ) = z1/3 ( z 5/3 + z )
z 1/3 z1/3 z 4/3 + z 4/3 = z1/3 z 1/3 z 4/3 + z 4/3
z
z
1/3
= z 4/3 +
z
z
1/3
because if arg (z ) = 0,
z is purely real
z= z
LOCUS
73
| z |2/3 z 4/3 + z 4/3 =| z |2/3 z 4/3 + z 4/3
z 4/3 (1 | z |2/3 ) z 4/3 (1 | z |2/3 ) = 0
( z 4/3 z 4/3 )(1 | z |2/3 ) = 0
Since z is a non-real complex number, z z
z 4/3 z 4/3 .
Therefore,
z
2/3
=1
| z | = 1.
s sdsaasds
Example 7
If | z 25i | 15, find max(arg( z )) and min(arg( z )).
Solution: From the given relation, it is clear that z must lie inside (or on) a circle of radius 15 centred at 25i. To
obtain max(arg( z )) and min(arg(( z )), what we can do is draw two tangents to the circle from the
origin:
y
It is clear that of all

the points satisfying the given
relation, A will have the minimum
argument while B will have the
maximum argument
P 25i
B(z2)
A(z1)
0
Fig. 77
OP = 25,
Now,
AP = 15
15
3
POA = sin 1 = sin 1 = POB
25
5
1 3
arg( z1 ) = sin
Therefore,
2
5
3
and
arg( z2 ) = + sin 1
2
5
These are the minimum and maximum values respectively.
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
74
Example 8
If sin + 2 sin + 3sin = 0 and cos + 2 cos + 3cos = 0, find:
(a) cos 3 + 8 cos 3 + 27 cos 3
(b) sin( + ) + 2sin( + ) + 3sin( + )
Solution: Construct three complex number z1 , z2 and z3 , such that
z1 = cos + i sin ; z2 = cos + i sin ;
Note that
z3 = cos + i sin
| z1 | = | z 2 | = | z3 | = 1
Also, from the given relations,
and
z1 + 2 z2 + 3z3 = 0
... (1)
1 2 3
+ + =0
z1 z2 z3
...(2)
1
because zi = ; i = 1, 2, 3
zi
(a) From (1), since z1 + 2 z2 + 3z3 = 0, we have
z13 + 8 z23 + 27 z33 = 3 z1 2 z2 3z3
ei 3 + 8ei 3 + 27ei 3 = 18ei ( + + )
cos 3 + 8 cos 3 + 27 cos 3 = 18 cos( + + )
(By comparing the real parts)
(b) From (2),

z2 z3 + 2 z1 z3 + 3 z1 z2 = 0
ei ( + ) + 2ei ( + ) + 3ei ( + ) = 0
Comparing the imaginary parts on both sides,

sin( + ) + 2sin( + ) + 3sin( + ) = 0
LOCUS
75
Example 9
Find the orthocentre of the triangle whose vertices are z1 , z2 and z3
Solution: Let z be the required orthocentre
z1
z3
z2
Fig 78
From the figure, it is clear that:

z z
arg 1
=
z
z
3 2 2
Similarly,
z1 z
z3 z2 is purely imaginary
z1 z
z z
+ 1
=0
z3 z2 z3 z2
z z1 =
( z3 z2 )( z1 z )
z3 z 2
...(1)
z z
arg 2
=
z1 z3 2
( z1 z3 )( z2 z )
z1 z3
Subtracting (2) from (1), we obtain
z z2 =
z2 z1 =
...(2)
( z3 z2 )( z1 z ) ( z1 z3 )( z2 z )
z3 z2
z1 z3
...(3)
A sequence of (lengthy and tedious !) manipulations to separate z in terms of the other constants in (3)
will give
2
| z1 |2 ( z2 z3 )+ | z2 |2 ( z3 z1 ) + z3 ( z1 z2 ) + z1 ( z2 z3 ) + z2 ( z3 z1 ) + z3 ( z1 z2 )
z=
( z1 z2 z1 z2 ) + ( z2 z3 z2 z3 ) + ( z3 z1 z3 z1 )
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
76
Example 10
If is the nth roots of unity given by = ei 2 / n and z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, show that
n 1
z1 + p z2
p =0
= n | z1 |2 + | z2 |2
| z1 + p z2 |2 = z1 + p z2
Solution:
)( z + z )
p
=| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 + p z1 z2 + p z1 z2
n 1
Now,
p = 0
(sum of the nth roots is 0)
p =0
n 1
p = 0
p =0
Thus,
n 1
n 1
n 1
p =0
p =0
| z1 + p z2 |2 = n | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 + z1z2 p + z1z2 p
p =1
= n | z1 |2 + | z 2 |2
s sdsaasds
Example 11
If both and 2 (non-real cube roots of unity) satisfy the equation
1
1
1
1
2
+
+
+
=
a+ x b+ x c+ x d + x x
show that x = 1 also satisfies this equation.

Solution: The given equation can be re-written as (upon re-arranging into the standard form)
2 x 4 + ( a + b + c + d ) x 3 (abc + acd + abd + bcd ) x 2abcd = 0
and 2 are roots of this equation. Let and be the other two roots.
+ 2 + + =
(a + b + c + d )
2
Since + 2 = 1, this reduces to
+ = 1
(a + b + c + d )
2
...(1)
LOCUS
77
Also, the coefficient of x 2 is 0
+ + 2 + + 2 + 3 = 0
+ 1 = 0
( 1)( 1) = 0
= 1 or = 1
If = 1 , can be determined from (1) and vice-versa

Thus, x = 1 is a root of the given equation
s sdsaasds
Example 12
If | an |< 2 for 1 n k , show that the equation
1 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + ...... + ak z k = 0
1
cannot be satisfied by any z whose modulus is less than
3
1
Solution: Assume that | z | < . We will use this assumption to arrive at a contradiction, proving the assumption
3
wrong.
Let
p = a1 z + a2 z 2 + .... + ak z k
| p | =| a1 z + a2 z 2 + .... + ak z k |
| a1 z | + | a2 z 2 | +.....+ | ak z k |
< 2 | z | + | z |2 +......+ | z |k
(Triangle inequality)
( | an |< 2 V n )
1
1 1
< 2 + 2 + ...... + k
3
3 3
Thus,
1 k
1
3
= 2
3 1 1
1
= 1 k
3
<1
| p |< 1 or 1 < p < 1
1 + p can never be 0, or the given equation can never
1
be satisfied if | z | < .
3
1
Our assumption | z | < is wrong. Thus,
3
1
| z | <|
3
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
78
Example 13
s sdsaasds
Prove these identities for an arbitrary complex number z:

(a)
(e z ) = e z
(b)
(ln z ) = ln z
(c)
(cos z ) = cos z
(d)
( z1z2 ) = z1 2 .
z
Solution: Let z = x + iy = rei

(a) (e z ) = (e x +iy ) = e x eiy = e x e iy
= e x iy
= ez
s sdsaasds
You might find the operation of raising a real number to an arbitrary complex number sort of
strange. But with time, you will realise that what we are doing is mathematically consistent and
therefore makes sense. For example, we can even determine sines and cosines of complex
numbers! (as in part -c below)
(b) (ln z ) = ln(rei ) = (ln r + ln ei )
= ln r + i
= ln r i
= ln r + ln e i
= ln re i
= ln z
(c) We can write cos z as
eiz + e iz
2
eiz + e iz e iz + eiz
cos z =
=
2
2
(From part (a))
= cos z
z2
1
(d) z can be written as e
z2 ln z1
( z1z2 ) = (e z2 ln z1 ) = e z2 ln z1 = e z2 (ln z1 ) = e z2 ln z1 = z1 2
z
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
79
Example 14
Find the largest and the smallest value of |z| if z satisfies
z+
1
=a
z
Solution: We apply the triangle inequality on z +

a= z+
1
:
z
1
1
z
z
z
Ineq A
-./
1
a z a
z
(*+
Ineq B
z + a z 1 0
2
Ineq A :
The roots of the quadratic expression are
Since |z| > 0, we have the solution as
a a 2 + 1
4
a + a 2 + 1
z
4
z z 1 0
2
Ineq B :
a a2 + 1
The roots of this quadratic expression are
4
a + a2 + 1
4
Thus,
a + a 2 + 1
a + a2 + 1
z
4
4
These are the required largest and smallest values, between which |z| can lie.
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
80
Example 15
Assume that Ai (i = 1, 2...n) are the vertices of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle of radius unity. Find the value
of A1 A2 + A1 A3 + ... + A1 An
2
Solution : There is no loss of generality in assuming that one of the vertex, say Al, lies at the point 1.
y
A4
i4 /n
A3 = e
i2/n
A2 = e
2/n
A1 = 1
An = ei2(n-1)/n
Fig - 79
Thus, A1 A2 = 1 ei 2 / n = 1 cos
= 2sin 2
= 2sin
2
2
i sin
n
n
2i sin cos
n
n
n
sin i cos
n
n
n
= 2 sin / n
Similarly, A1 Ar = 1 ei 2( r 1) / n = 2 sin
Now,
( r 1)
n
A1 A2 + A1 A3 + ... + A1 An
2
= 4sin 2
2
( n 1)
+ 4 sin 2
+ ... + 4sin 2
n
n
n
2
= 2 1 cos
n
4

+ 1 cos
n

2(n 1)
+ ... + 1 cos
n
LOCUS
81
2
4
2 (n 1)
= 2 (n 1) cos
+ cos
+ ...cos
n
n
n
n 1
Why?
Because
e i 2 r / n = 0
r =0
n 1
ei 2 r / n = 1
r =1
n 1
Re ei 2 r / n = 1
r =1
= 2 {(n 1) (1)}
= 2n
s sdsaasds
Example 16
If n is a positive integer, prove that Im( z n ) n Im( z ) z
Im( z n ) =
Solution:
Im( z ) =
Similarly,
n 1
zn zn zn z n
=
2i
2i
zz
2i
Im( z n )
zn z n
=
Im( z )
zz
n
= z
n 1
= z
n 1
n 1
= z
n 1
z
1
z
z
1
z
n 1
+ n 2 + ... + 1
Triangle inequality
Im( z n ) n Im( z ) z
we let =
z
n 1 + n 2 + ...1
n 1
= 1)
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
82
Example 17
Show that the triangles whose vertices are z1 , z2 , z3 and Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3 are directly similar if
z1
z2
z3
Z1 1
Z2 1 = 0
Z3 1
z1
Solution:
z1
z3
z2
z3
z2
Fig . 80
Since the triangles are directly similar, the vector z1 z2 will be a scalar multiple of Z1 Z 2 ; the
vector z2 z3 will be the (same) scalar multiple of Z 2 Z3 and so on:
z1 z2 = ( Z1 Z 2 )
z 2 z3 = ( Z 2 Z 3 )
z1 z2 Z1 Z 2
=
z 2 z3 Z 2 Z 3
z1 ( Z 2 Z 3 ) + z2 ( Z 3 Z1 ) + z3 ( Z1 Z 2 ) = 0
z1
z2
z3
Z1 1
Z2 1 = 0
Z3 1
Example 18
Show that the perpendicular distance of a point z0 from the line az + az + b = 0 (b $ ) is
az0 + az0 + b
2a
s sdsaasds
LOCUS
83
Solution:
z0
az + az + b = 0
z1
Fig - 81
Let z1 be the foot of the perpendicular dropped from z0 onto the given line. We need to evaluate
z0 z1 .
Now, since z1 lies on the given line, we have
az1 + az1 + b = 0
Also, the complex slopes of the given line and the perpendicular must add to 0:
...(1)
a z0 z1
+
=0
a z0 z1
a ( z0 z1 ) + a ( z0 z1 ) = 0
az0 + az0 + az1 az1 = 0
...(2)
From (1) + (2),

az0 + az0 + 2az1 + b = 0
z1 =
az0 az0 b
2a
z1 z0 =
az0 az0 b
2a
z1 z0 =
az0 + az0 + b
2a
s sdsaasds
Example 19
Find all a $ if these exists one z which satisfies z = 3, z (a(1 + i ) i) 3 and z + 2a ( a + 1)i > 3
simultaneously.
Solution: Since z = 3, z must lie on a circle of radius 3 centred at the origin. Now, the distance of z from
a(1 + i) i must not be greater than 3, i.e., z must lie inside a circle of radius 3 centred at
a(1 + i) i. Thus, the |z| = 3 circle and the latter circle must intersect (or at least touch) in order that
both the relations |z| = 3 and z (a(1 + i) 1) 3 are satisfied. This means that the distance between
the centres of the two circles must be less than the sum of the radii, i.e., 6
LOCUS
84
a(1 + i) 1 6
(a 1) + ai 6
(a 1) 2 + a 2 36
2a 2 2a 35 0
1 71
1 + 71
a
2
2
...(1)
By an analogous argument, for the relation z + 2a ( a + 1)i > 3 to be satisfied simultaneously, z must
lie outside a circle of radius 3 centred at 2a ( a + 1)i . Thus, the distance between the two centres of
the two circles z = 3 and this circle must be greater than the sum of the radii.
2a (a + 1)i > 6
5a 2 + 2a + 1 > 36
a<
1 4 11
1 + 4 11
or a >
5
5
...(2)
The intersection of (1) and (2) gives

1 71 1 4 11 1 + 4 11 1 + 71
,
,

5
5
2

2
s sdsaasds
Example 20
Plot the fifth roots of 16( 3 + i ) on the plane
Solution: We first write z = 16( 3 + i ) in its Euler form.
z = 16( 3 + i ) = 32ei 5 / 6
5
i 2 p +
= 32e
, p#
2 p
i
+
6
5
z = 2e
, p#
To obtain the roots , we let p take on five consecutive integral values, say p = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. The roots
obtained are:
1/ 5
2ei / 6 , 2ei / 6 ei 2 / 5 , 2ei / 6 ei 4 / 5 , 2ei / 6 ei 6 / 5 , 2ei / 6 ei 8 / 5
LOCUS
85
These five roots will lie evenly spaced out at angles of 72 between any two consecutive roots. The
first root is at an angle of 30.
2e e
i /6 i2/5
2ei/6
2e e
i /6 i4/5
2
5
r=2
=
6
2e e
i /6 i8 /5
2e e
i /6 i6/5
s sdsaasds
Fig . 82
Example 21
Prove that
z z1
= k represents a circle if k 1 and a line if k = 1.
z z2
Solution: For k = 1, the proof is trivial. The given equation reduces to
| z z1 | = | z z2 |
which implies that z lies on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining z1 and z2 .
Let us now consider the case when k 1 .
P(z)
A(z1)
B(z2)
Fig - 83
LOCUS
86
We need to find the locus of a point P which moves such that

AP
=K
PB
Note that one such point also lies on the line segment AB itself which divides AB internally in the ratio
k : 1. Also, another such point lies on the extended line of the line segment AB, which will externally
divide AB in the ratio k : 1. If k > 1, this external point will lie on the right side of B (in the figure
above), and if k < 1, this point will lie to the left of A.
Assuming k > 1, we let I be the point of internal division and E the point of external division of the
segment AB in the ratio k : 1.
A(z1)
B(z2)
Fig- 84
Thus,
AI AE
=
= k.
IB EB
kz2 + z1
kz z
while E is given by 2 1
k +1
k 1
Now, we need the points z which satisfy
I is given by
| z z1 | = k | z z2 |
| z |2 + | z1 |2 zz1 zz1 = k 2 | z |2 + k 2 | z2 |2 k 2 zz2 k 2 zz2
(k 2 1) | z |2 z (k 2 z2 z1 ) z (k 2 z2 z1 ) + k 2 | z 2 |2 | z1 |2 = 0
| z |2 z
| z |2
(k 2 z2 z1 )
(k 2 z2 z1 ) k 2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2
z
+
=0
k 2 1
k 2 1
k 2 1
z (k 2 z2 z1 ) z (k 2 z2 z1 ) | k 2 z2 z1 |2 | k 2 z2 z1 |2 k 2 | z 2 |2 | z1 |2
+
=
(k 2 1) 2
( k 2 1) 2
k 2 1
k 2 1
k 2 1
0
Introduction of a new term
k 2z z
k 2 (| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 z1 z2 z1 z2 ) k 2 | z1 z2 |2
z 22 1 =
=
(k 2 1) 2
k 1
(k 2 1)2
k 2 z2 z1 k | z1 z2 |
z 2
=
k 1
k 2 1
LOCUS
87
This is the equation of a circle with centre at

point of I and E is
k | z1 z2 |
k 2 z2 z1
and radius
. Note that the mid
2
k 2 1
k 1
1 kz2 + z1 kz2 z1
+
2 k +1
k 1
k 2 z2 z1
k 2 1
Thus, the centre of this circle is actually the mid-point of IE and the radius is
k
times the original
k 1
2
line-segment AB.
s sdsaasds
Example 22
Find the complex numbers which simultaneously satisfy
z 12 5
z4
= and
=1
z 8i 3
z 8
Solution: Readers whove followed the previous example will realise that the first equation is that of a circle
while the second is that of a straight line which is the perpendicular bisector of 4 and 8, i.e., from the
second equation, we know that z is of the form z = 6 + xi.
Using this in the first equation, we get
6 + xi
5
=
6 + ( x 8)i 3
Thus,
9(62 + x 2 ) = 25 62 + ( x 8) 2 = 25(100 + x 2 16 x)
16 x 2 400 x + 2176 = 0
x 2 25 x + 136 = 0
( x 8)( x 17) = 0
x = 8 or 17
z = 6 + 8i or 6 + 17i
s sdsaasds
Example 23
If the points z1 , z2 ,.........zn all lie on the same side of a line passing through the origin, show that the points
1 1
1
, ,......,
z1 z 2
zn also lie on the same side of another line passing through the origin.
LOCUS
88
Solution: Let the given line be

az + a z = 0
All the points zi lie on the same side of this line, i.e.,
azi + a zi > 0 V i or < 0 V i
Dividing by | zi |2 = zi zi on both sides of the inequality, we obtain
a a
+ >0
zi zi
V i or < 0 V i
1
a
zi
> 0 V i or < 0 V i
1
+ a
zi
All the zi ' s lie on the same side of the line az + az = 0
s sdsaasds
Example 24
10
2q
2q
i cos
Evaluate (3 p + 2) sin
11
11
p =1
q =1
32
Solution: Although the expression is enormous, the alert reader will quickly realise that this expression can be
expressed in terms of the eleventh roots of unity.
2q
2q
2q
2q
i cos
+ i sin
sin
= i cos
11
11
11
11
= i q where = cos
10
Thus,
sin
q =1
2q
2q
i cos
11
11
2
2
+ i sin
= ei 2 /11
11
11
10
q
= (i )
q =1
10
= i q
q 1
= i 1
= i
(1 + + ...
10
= 0)
LOCUS
89
The given expression reduces to

32
S = (3 p + 2)i p
p =1
32
32
P =1
P =1
= 3 pi P + 2 i P
32
is obviously 0. Therefore
P =1
S = 3[(i 2 3i + 4) + (5i 6 7i + 8) + ... 31 i + 32]

= 3[( 2i + 2) + ( 2i + 2) + ...( 2 i + 2]
= 3 8 2(1 i )
= 48 (1 i )
s sdsaasds
Example 25
If =
8
, find the value of cos + cos 2 + cos 3 + cos 4 + cos 5 .
11
Solution: Consider the eleventh roots of unity, i.e., the solutions to the equation
z11 1 = 0 .
The roots are ei 2 k /11 , k = 0, 1...10 .
The roots can also be expressed in terms of ei 8 k /11 , i. e., if we let = ei 8 k /11 and take 11 consecutive
values of k, we will still be able to list down all the roots (Think about why this should happen carefully.
Take = ei 2 k /11 and take 11 consecutive values of k; and then take = ei 8 k /11 and again take 11
consecutive values of k. You will get the same set of 11 (eleventh roots of unity) values).
Thus, we let = ei 8 k /11 and let k take the values 5, 4, ... 4, 5 (eleven consecutive values)
i 8 k /11
=0
i 8 k /11
= 1
k =5
k =5
k 0
i
i
2(cos + cos 2 + cos 3 + cos 4 + cos 5 ) = 1 (e + e = 2 cos )
The required sum is
1
2

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LOCUS

Geometry of Complex Numbers

Powers of Complex Numbers Roots of Unity

More Geometry With Complex Numbers

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Numbers of the form

{Rational numbers} {irrational numbers}

You also know that " W # Q $ .

Has no solution in "

This number has both a real as well as an imaginary part.

has two roots, i and i;

Maths / CompIex Numbers

z lies in the first

z lies in the second

z lies in the third

Maths / CompIex Numbers

from ( x, y ) or x + iy. The polar forms so obtained are boxed.

from the origin

Observe that AB = r cos and BC = r sin .

z = ( r , ) ( r cos , r sin ) r ( cos + i sin )

Maths / CompIex Numbers

This definition of addition/subtraction is intuitively appealing.

Add the 'vectors'

z1 and -z2 using the

The resultant gives

z1 z2 = ( r1 cos 1 r2 cos 2 ) + i ( r1 sin 1 r2 sin 2 )

= r12 + r22 2r1 r2 cos (1 2 )

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Maths / CompIex Numbers

From example-2, observe that

r12 + r22 + 2r1 r2

z = z1 z2 = ( r1 cos 1 + ir1 sin 1 )( r2 cos 2 + ir2 sin 2 )

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Multiplication of complex numbers causes multiplication of

For example, if z = r and arg

the complex number z = zi will have z = z = r and

arg ( z ) = arg ( z i ) = arg ( z ) + arg (i ) = +

Maths / CompIex Numbers

r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 )

r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 )

r1 cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 + i (sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 cos 1 )

This result says that division of complex numbers causes division of

gets rotated clockwise by , when divided by i:

Maths / CompIex Numbers

arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) = 0

Observe how a complex number (a 'vector') when

Maths / CompIex Numbers

arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 )

arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 )

As in multiplication by a real number, notice that division

Notice that ( 4 + 3i ) = i (3 + 4i ) so that

x - iy (Mirror image of x+iy in the real axis)

z = z and arg( z ) = arg( z ) .

Solution: (a) Let us simplify z1 + z2 2

Now notice that z1 z 2 can be written as z1 z2 by virtue of property (3) {z1 z2 = z1 z 2 = z1 z2 } .

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Now, we square this to get

Adding these three, we get the desired result.

It is given that z1 + z 2 and z1 z 2 are purely real, i.e.,

Thus, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 = x1 iy1 or in other words,

Maths / CompIex Numbers

Solution: From example-6, z1 + z2 2 can be written as z1 + z2 + 2 Re( z1 z2 )