Iniuchadh Ar An Gcumas Datheangach

Analysis of Bilingual Competence
Language acquisition among young people in the Gaeltacht

This study derives from the analysis of the current crisis in the social use of Irish in
the Gaeltacht, as described in Staid Reatha na Scoileanna Gaeltachta (2005) and the
Comprehensive Linguistic Study of the Use of Irish in the Gaeltacht (2007).
This publication presents an in-depth and multifaceted analysis of the linguistic

competence in Irish and English of young pupils (712 years old) whose home
language is exclusively Irish. It is the first comparative bilingual study of its kind in
Ireland. The analysis is based on recordings of the speech of 50 pupils in both of their
languages (engaged in narration and language tests).
ISBN 978-0-9572986-9-9
m20
9 780957 298699
Ptervry Curnin
Giollagin Sheahan
The results indicate a linguistic disadvantage in Irish in the context of the pupils
bilingual ability (i.e. their competence in English significantly surpasses their Irish)
and we present recommendations which seek to address this disadvantage in
competence and the reduced functionality in Irish. The analysis provides valuable
insights into the complexities of the contemporary minority language condition. The
recommendations provide a new agenda for parents, teachers, community activists
and policy makers.
Lirtear mbhuntiste sa Ghaeilge i gcumas dtheangach na ndalta (.i. sraonn

a gcumas sa Bharla a gcumas sa Ghaeilge go suntasach) agus moltar d bhr sin
aghaidh a thabhairt ar an mbhuntiste cumais sin agus ar an mfheidhmilacht
sa Ghaeilge. Largas luachmhar ar chastachta an mhionteangachais nua-aoisigh
at san fhoilseachn seo. Bonn do chlr oibre r at i molta an tsaothair seo
do thuismitheoir, do mhinteoir, do ghnomhair pobail agus do lucht polasa.
Is Lachtir Sinsearach
Jerome Sheahan i Scoil na
Matamaitice, na Staitistic
agus na Matamaitice Feidhm
in Ollscoil na hireann,
Gaillimh. Rinne s PhD sa
Staitistic Mhatamaiticiil
in Ollscoil Calgary, Alberta,
Ceanada. T s ag obair shin
in ollscoileanna i gCeanada
agus in irinn i mbun gach
gn de theagasc, de thaighde,
de sheirbhs ollscoile agus sa
chomhairleoireacht staitistiil
do lucht taighde agus mhic
linn iarchime.
Is ard at sa saothar seo, inichadh domhain, ilghnitheach ar chumas Gaeilge

agus Barla dalta ga Gaeltachta (712 bliain daois) a bhfuil Gaeilge amhin
labhairt leo sa bhaile. Seo an chad taighde comparideach dtheangach d
shrt a rinneadh in irinn. Bunatear an anails ar thaifeadadh caint 50 dalta
ina dh dteanga (is iad ag reacaireacht agus i mbun tstlacha cumais teanga).
Jerome Sheahan
Eascraonn an taighde seo as an bpl ar an igeandil shisialta Ghaeilge at i

rim sa Ghaeltacht, mar a lirodh sna foilseachin Staid Reatha na Scoileanna
Gaeltachta i 2005 agus an Staidar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch ar sid na
Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht i 2007.
An sealbh teanga i measc ghlin g na Gaeltachta
T Conchr Giollagin
ina Ollamh Taighde in
Ollscoil na Gaeltachta agus
na nOilen i Sabhal Mr
Ostaig in Albain, agus an
grasn taighde, Soillse,
faoina chram. Roimhe sin
ba ceannasa Aonad na
Pleanla Teanga in Acadamh
na hOllscolaochta Gaeilge,
Ollscoil na hireann, Gaillimh.
Is comhdar ar an Staidar
Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch
ar sid na Gaeilge sa
Ghaeltacht (2007) agus
Nuashonr ar an Staidar
Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch
ar sid na Gaeilge sa
Ghaeltacht: 20062011
(2014). T saothair agsla
taighde antraipeolaochta,
sochtheangeolaochta agus
pleanla teanga i gcl aige.
Chuir s Stairsheanchas Mhicil
Chonra: n Mimn go Rth
Chairn (1999) in eagar agus
bh s ina chomheagarthir
ar An Chonair Chaoch:
An Mionteangachas sa
Dtheangachas (2012).
Inichadh ar an gCumas Dtheangach
Conchr Giollagin
Tams Ptervry
T Tams Ptervry i
mbun PhD ar id-eolaocht
na Gaeilge in Ollscoil na
hireann, Gaillimh. T
mistreacht sa tseandlaocht
aige Ollscoil Bhudapest agus
chaith s blianta ina stirthir
tochailte ar lithreacha
agsla san Ungir agus
in irinn. Bhain s an dara
mistreacht amach sa
phleanil teanga in Acadamh
na hOllscolaochta Gaeilge,
Ollscoil na hireann, Gaillimh.
Brian Curnin
T Brian Curnin ina
Ollamh Cnta i Scoil an Linn
Cheiltigh, Institiid Ard-Linn
Bhaile tha Cliath. T leabhar
leis i gcl: The Irish of Iorras
Aithneach, County Galway
(2007). T ailt foilsithe
aige ar chanineolaocht,
shocheolaocht agus
bhairdne na Gaeilge. Ina
chomheagarthir i 2012
ar An Chonair Chaoch:
An Mionteangachas sa
Dtheangachas agus
Ilteangach, Ilseiftiil:
Filscrbhinn in ms do
Nicholas Williams.
Inichadh ar an gCumas
Dtheangach
An sealbh teanga i measc ghlin g
na Gaeltachta

Language acquisition among young people
in the Gaeltacht
Tams Ptervry, Brian Curnin, Conchr Giollagin agus Jerome Sheahan 2014.
Gach ceart ar cosaint. N ceadmhach aon chuid den fhoilseachn seo a atirgeadh, a chur i gcomhad athfhla, n
a tharchur ar aon mhodh n sl, bodh sin leictreonach, meicniil, bunaithe ar fhtachipeil, ar thaifeadadh n
eile, gan cead a fhil roimh r n bhfoilsitheoir.
I M na Samhna 2014 a foilsodh den chad uair le haghaidh
An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta
35 Cearng Mhic Liam
Baile tha Cliath 2
www.cogg.ie
ISBN: 978-0-9572986-9-9
Comhairleoir: Pl Cainn
Dearadh agus leagan amach: Denis M-Baker, www.tudco.ie
Arna chlbhualadh in irinn ag Partners in Print Ltd.
Aonad T7 Ascaill na Mailpe,
Eastt Tionsclaochta Stigh Lorgan/th an Ghainimh,
Co. Bhaile tha Cliath.


Tuarascil taighde arna riteach don

Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta
Tams Ptervry
Brian Curnin
Conchr Giollagin
Jerome Sheahan
Aistrichn: ine U Ghiollagin
CLR
Clr _____________________________________________________________________ iv
Focal buochais ______________________________________________________________ 1
1 Ramhr _____________________________________________________________ 2
1.1 Modheolaocht __________________________________________________________ 3
1.1.1 Dearadh na dtstlacha agus na measnuithe _________________________________ 3
1.1.2 Na hagallaimh ___________________________________________________________ 5
1.1.3 Anails na dtaifeadta agus cruth an bhunachair shonra _______________________ 5
1.1.4 Cumas comparideach sa d theanga ________________________________________ 5
1.1.5 Tortha na tuarascla ______________________________________________________ 6
1.2 Cumas agus ceannas sa dtheangachas ____________________________________ 7

1.2.1 Cumas, ceannas agus laghd sa mhionteangachas _____________________________ 8
1.2.2 Foins agus litrocht _____________________________________________________ 10
1.3 Clra sochtheangeolaochta an staidir __________________________________ 11

1.3.1 Athruithe sisialta agus dimeagrafaochta _________________________________ 11
1.3.2 Laghd ar sheachadadh na Gaeilge sa bhaile _______________________________ 11
1.3.3 Creimeadh ar dhls an phobail Ghaeilge ___________________________________ 12
1.3.4 An ghnthachtil oideachais i scoileanna sa Ghaeltacht _______________________ 12
1.3.5 Polasaithe oideachais sa Ghaeltacht _______________________________________ 13
1.3.6 Teanga dhchais, teanga phromhil, teanga na forbartha pearsanta ____________ 13
1.4 Sainmhnithe _________________________________________________________ 14

Litheoireacht bhreise ______________________________________________________ 15
1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 16
1.1 Methodology _________________________________________________________ 17
1.1.1 Development of testing and assessment tools ______________________________ 17
1.1.2 Interviews _____________________________________________________________ 19
1.1.3 Analysis of recordings and development of the database _____________________ 19
1.1.4 Comparative ability in both languages _____________________________________ 19
1.1.5 Results of the report ____________________________________________________ 20
1.2 Ability and dominance in bilingualism ___________________________________ 21

1.2.1 Ability, dominance and reduction in minority languages _______________________ 22
1.2.2 Sources and literature ___________________________________________________ 24
iv
Clr
1.3 Sociolinguistic background to the study _________________________________ 25

1.3.1 Social and demographic changes _________________________________________ 25
1.3.2 Weakening of acquisition of Irish in the home _______________________________ 26
1.3.3 Erosion in the social density of community Irish speakers _____________________ 26
1.3.4 Educational performance in schools in the Gaeltacht _________________________ 26
1.3.5 Education policies in the Gaeltacht ________________________________________ 27
1.3.6 Native language, primary language, language of personal development _________ 27
1.4 Definitions ___________________________________________________________ 28

Additional reading __________________________________________________________ 29
2 Gaeilge ______________________________________________________________ 30
2.1 Foclir (leama) _______________________________________________________ 30
2.1.1 Lon na leama _________________________________________________________ 30
2.1.2 Leama T2 sa Ghaeilge __________________________________________________ 32
2.1.3 Leama mchu _________________________________________________________ 33
2.2 Deilbhocht ___________________________________________________________ 33

2.2.1 An t-ainmfhocal ________________________________________________________ 34
2.2.2 An briathar ____________________________________________________________ 36
2.2.3 An aidiacht ____________________________________________________________ 40
2.2.4 An t-ainm briathartha ___________________________________________________ 42
2.2.5 An ramhfhocal ________________________________________________________ 43
2.2.6 B an ghuta sna forainmneacha sealbhacha 1ua m agus 2ua t/d ______________ 46
2.2.7 Mreanna briathartha ____________________________________________________ 46
2.2.8 Comhfhocail dr croch -rud ______________________________________________ 46
2.3 Comhrir _____________________________________________________________ 47

2.3.1 Cuspir ainmfhoclach agus forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha i bhfochlsail________ 47
2.3.2 Cuspir forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha sa tr pearsa ____________________ 49
2.3.3 An chlaoninsint ________________________________________________________ 49
2.3.4 An fochlsal ceisteach (m n go in ionad an) _______________________________ 50
2.3.5 An clsal coibhneasta ___________________________________________________ 50
2.3.6 Struchtir an ghinidigh __________________________________________________ 51
2.3.7 An forainm in ionad iad leis an gcopail; alt uatha mchu ____________________ 52
2.3.8 agslacht ceisteanna ___________________________________________________ 53
2.3.9 Sampla eile dathr comhrire ____________________________________________ 53
Clr
2.4 Simeantaic __________________________________________________________ 53

2.4.1 An ramhfhocal ________________________________________________________ 54
2.4.2 An briathar ____________________________________________________________ 57
2.4.3 Cn dath? _____________________________________________________________ 58
2.4.4 Sln a fhgil __________________________________________________________ 59
2.4.5 An bhfuil cead ag ...? ___________________________________________________ 59
2.4.6 Sampla eile de thionchar an Bharla ______________________________________ 59
2.5 Pragmataic ___________________________________________________________ 59

2.5.1 Marcir dioscrsa ______________________________________________________ 59
2.5.2 Na focail yeah, yes, yep __________________________________________________ 61
2.5.3 Freagra ar cheisteanna dnta ____________________________________________ 61
2.6 Lofacht ______________________________________________________________ 63

2.6.1 Trithe lofachta agus mlofachta _________________________________________ 63
2.6.2 Ritis i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal ________________________________ 65
2.7 Foghraocht: raladh r leathan agus caol _________________________________ 66

2.8 Inscne ghramadil _____________________________________________________ 67
2.9 An claochl tosaigh ____________________________________________________ 68
2.9.1 An t-ainmfhocal ________________________________________________________ 69
2.9.2 An briathar ____________________________________________________________ 72
2.9.3 An aidiacht ____________________________________________________________ 74
2.9.4 An forainm sealbhach ___________________________________________________ 75
2.9.5 An uimhir _____________________________________________________________ 75
2.9.6 An aidiacht iginnte agus na rimreanna r- agus an- ________________________ 76
2.9.7 Claochl ar an ainm briathartha i ndiaidh an fhorainm shealbhaigh ___________ 76
2.9.8 Focail Bharla sa chomhr Gaeilge agus an claochl tosaigh __________________ 76
2.10 Achoimre _____________________________________________________________ 77

3 Barla _______________________________________________________________ 79
3.1 Foclir (leama) _______________________________________________________ 79
3.1.1 Lon na leama _________________________________________________________ 79
3.1.2 Leama T2 sa Bharla ___________________________________________________ 80
3.1.3 Leama mchu _________________________________________________________ 80
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Clr
3.2 Deilbhocht ___________________________________________________________ 80

3.2.1 An t-ainmhfhocal: an uimhir iolra mhrialta ___________________________________ 80
3.2.2 An briathar: an aimsir chaite mhrialta _______________________________________ 81
3.2.3 An aidiacht ______________________________________________________________ 83
3.3 Comhrir _____________________________________________________________ 85

3.3.1 An chlaoninsint ________________________________________________________ 85
3.3.2 An clsal coibhneasta ___________________________________________________ 86
3.3.3 Struchtr ginideach comhfhreagracht uimhreach __________________________ 86
3.3.4 agslacht ceisteanna ___________________________________________________ 87
3.4 Simeantaic __________________________________________________________ 87

3.4.1 An ramhfhocal ________________________________________________________ 87
3.4.2 Inscne fhorainmneach ___________________________________________________ 88
3.4.3 Na forainmneacha iginnte much agus many ________________________________ 89
3.5 Pragmataic ___________________________________________________________ 89

3.5.1 Marcir dioscrsa ______________________________________________________ 89
3.5.2 Na focail yeah, yes, yep __________________________________________________ 91
3.6 Lofacht ______________________________________________________________ 91

3.6.1 Trithe lofachta agus mlofachta _________________________________________ 91
3.6.2 Ritis i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal ________________________________ 93
3.7 Achoimre _____________________________________________________________ 94

4 An d theanga taobh le taobh ________________________________________ 96

4.1 Foclir _______________________________________________________________ 96
4.2 Deilbhocht ___________________________________________________________ 98
4.2.1 Comparid dhreach ____________________________________________________ 98
4.2.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 102
4.2.3 Trithe eile a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu ________________________ 103
4.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 103

4.3.1 Comparid dhreach ___________________________________________________ 104
4.3.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 105
4.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 106

vii
Clr
4.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 106
4.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 107

4.5.2 Comhchlaonadh sa Ghaeilge i dtreo an Bharla _____________________________ 109
4.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 109

4.6.1 Trithe lofachta agus mlofachta ________________________________________ 110
4.6.2 Ritis i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal _______________________________ 113
4.7 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 113

Litheoireacht bhreise _____________________________________________________ 115
5 Aois ______________________________________________________________ 116

5.1 Foclir ______________________________________________________________ 116
5.2 Deilbhocht __________________________________________________________ 118
5.2.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 119
5.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 121

5.3.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 122
5.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 125

5.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 126
5.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 126

5.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 128

5.7 Foghraocht _________________________________________________________ 129
5.8 Inscne ______________________________________________________________ 130
5.9 An claochl tosaigh ___________________________________________________ 130
5.10 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 131
6 Gnas _____________________________________________________________ 136

6.1 Foclir ______________________________________________________________ 136
6.2 Deilbhocht __________________________________________________________ 137
viii
Clr

6.2.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 138
6.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 140

6.3.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 141
6.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 143

6.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 143
6.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 144

6.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 146

6.7 Foghraocht _________________________________________________________ 147
6.8 Inscne ______________________________________________________________ 147
6.10 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 147
7 Cumas acadil _____________________________________________________ 151

7.1 Foclir ______________________________________________________________ 151
7.2 Deilbhocht __________________________________________________________ 153
7.2.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 154
7.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 157

7.3.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 158
7.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 159

7.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 160
7.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 161
ix
Clr

7.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 162

7.7 Foghraocht _________________________________________________________ 163
7.8 Inscne ______________________________________________________________ 164
7.10 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 164
8 Taith theilifse agus theicneolaocht na faisnise _____________________ 168

8.1 Foclir ______________________________________________________________ 168
8.2 Deilbhocht __________________________________________________________ 169
8.2.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 170
8.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 172

8.3.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 172
8.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 174

8.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 175
8.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 175

8.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 177

8.7 Foghraocht _________________________________________________________ 177
8.8 Inscne ______________________________________________________________ 177
8.10 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 178
9 Staitistic shochtheangeolaochta: tscair teanga, scril chumais,

scrinnacs dtheangach agus cimheas Gaeilgeoir sa scoil ___________ 183
9.1 Coibhneas na ngnithe teangeolaochta ________________________________ 183
Clr
9.2 Scril chumais sa d theanga agus scrinnacs dtheangach _____________ 186

9.2.1 Scrinnacs dtheangach _______________________________________________ 189
9.3 Socheolaocht an chumais dhtheangaigh _______________________________ 193

9.3.1 Gnas (agus aois) de rir an chumais dhtheangaigh ________________________ 195
9.3.2 Aois agus an ghnthachtil teangeolaochta _______________________________ 197
9.3.3 Cimheas Gaeilgeoir sa scoil agus an cumas Gaeilge / dtheangach ___________ 199
9.4 Clabhsr ____________________________________________________________ 200

9 Sociolinguistic statistics: linguistic variables, ability scoring, bilingual

score index and ratio of Irish speakers in school _____________________ 202
9.1 Relation between linguistic variables ___________________________________ 202
9.2 Ability scores in each language and bilingual index ______________________ 205
9.2.1 Bilingual score index ___________________________________________________ 208
9.3 Sociology of bilingual ability __________________________________________ 212

9.3.1 Gender (and age) with bilingual ability ____________________________________ 214
9.3.2 Age and linguistic achievement __________________________________________ 216
9.3.3 Proportion of Irish speakers at school and Irish / bilingual ability _____________ 218
9.4 Conclusion __________________________________________________________ 219

Additional reading _________________________________________________________ 220
10 Conclid agus molta ______________________________________________ 221

10.1 Buntiste an Bharla ar an nGaeilge ____________________________________ 221
10.1.1 Comhthacs ginearlta nisinta agus idirnisinta _________________________ 222
10.1.2 Prinn maidir le cur i bhfeidhm molta sa chomhthacs casta seo ______________ 225
10.2 An cras Stit, an pobal agus na dalta _________________________________ 226

10.3 Bonn tuisceana an chrais reatha oideachais ____________________________ 226
10.3.1 Tuiscint ar fheidhmi an chrais _________________________________________ 227
10.3.2 Tuiscint ar an dtheangachas: teanga dhchais, teanga phromhil agus
teanga na forbartha pearsanta ___________________________________________ 227
10.4 Cras nua oideachais thgil ar bhunsraith athnuachan phobail _________ 228
10.5 Mnla oideachais ____________________________________________________ 229
10.5.1 Pl ar chins na roghanna seo __________________________________________ 229
10.6 Molta don Stt n do phtrnacht scolaochta __________________________ 230
xi
Clr
10.7 Molta ginearlta i leith an mhionteangachais ___________________________ 231

10.7.1 Molta do thuismitheoir agus do mhinteoir dalta Gaeltachta ________________ 233
10.7.2 Molta do mhinteoir __________________________________________________ 233
10.8 Feidhm tabhairt don chras mionteangach breisitheach _________________ 234

10.9 Molta maidir le taighde breise agus taighde tacaochta __________________ 234
10 Conclusions and recommendations __________________________________ 236

10.1 The advantage of English over Irish ____________________________________ 236
10.1.1 General national and international context _________________________________ 237
10.1.2 Urgency of implementing proposals in this complicated context ______________ 239
10.2 The State system, the community and the pupils _________________________ 240
10.3 Conceptual framework of the current education system ___________________ 241
10.3.1 Governing principals of the system _______________________________________ 241
10.3.2 Concepts of bilingualism: native language, primary language and
language of personal development _______________________________________ 242
10.4 A new system of education grounded in community renewal ______________ 243

10.5 Educational models ___________________________________________________ 243
10.5.1 Discussion of choices regarding each model _______________________________ 244
10.6 Proposals for the State or for school patronage _________________________ 245
10.7 General proposals with regard to minority language issues _______________ 245
10.7.1 Proposals for parents and teachers of Gaeltacht pupils ______________________ 247
10.7.2 Proposals for teachers _________________________________________________ 248
10.8 Implementing a system of additive minority-language education __________ 248

10.9 Suggestions for further research _______________________________________ 249
Additional reading _________________________________________________________ 249
Tagairt _______________________________________________________________ 251

Aguisn A: Struchtr na n-agallamh (Gaeilge) ____________________________ 257
Aguisn B: Struchtr na n-agallamh (Barla) _____________________________ 263
Aguisn C: Sampla dagallaimh tr Ghaeilge _____________________________ 269
Aguisn D: Sampla dagallaimh tr Bharla ______________________________ 285
Aguisn E: Comhghaolta teangeolaochta agus socheolaochta ____________ 306
xii
Focal buochais
Focal buochais
Timid an-bhuoch de na dalta a ghlac pirt sa taighde seo agus d dtuismitheoir, de na hoid
scoile, de na hagallir, de na trascrobhaithe, den teicneoir taifeadn agus den litheoir profa.
Timid go mr faoi chomaoin ag Promhfheidhmeannach, foireann agus Bord na Comhairle um
Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta a chuir tacaocht, comhairle agus maoini ar fil dinn
le haghaidh an staidir seo. Gabhaimid r mbuochas freisin le Promhfheidhmeannach agus
foireann Acadamh na hOllscolaochta Gaeilge as tacaocht a chur ar fil. T sil againn go gcitonn
an saothar seo an cnamh ar fad a tugadh dinn.
Ramhr
Is an Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta (COGG) a rinne maoini ar an

tuarascil taighde seo. Sa bhliain 2009 bronnadh an conradh ar Ollscoil na hireann, Gaillimh,
le tabhairt faoin taighde i gcomhar le hInstitiid Ard-Linn Bhaile tha Cliath. Is ard a diarr an
Chomhairle orainn inichadh a dhanamh ar chinel an tsealbhaithe Gaeilge a bh chleachtadh
i measc cainteoir ga dchais Gaeilge faoi rir na gcins agus na mbrnna sochtheangeolaochta
a tugadh chun solais sa Staidar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch ar sid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht
(SCT). Lirodh san SCT go raibh bonn an-leochaileach faoin gcomhthacs sisialta ina raibh an
Ghaeilge sealbh i measc teaghlaigh Ghaeltachta. Ba a theastaigh COGG largas a fhil ar na
dla inmhenacha teangeolaochta a bhaineann leis an nGaeilge dhchais i measc cainteoir ga
(sa bhreis ar an liri a tugadh ar na dla seachtracha sochtheangeolaochta a leagadh amach san
SCT maidir le treochta sisialta agus cumas dtheangach de rir fhintuairisc na ndaoine ga).
Ach tortha an SCT agus tortha an inichta seo a thabhairt le chile, t liri cuibheasach iomln
thabhairt ar ghnithe cainnochtla agus cilochtla araon de na tosca i nGaeltacht na linne seo,
idir chins an phobail agus chins a n-urlabhra. Is sprioc na tuarascla seo craiceann cilochta
na teangeolaochta a chur ar chreatlach chainnochta na socheolaochta de rir an SCT.
I measc na dtreochta a lirodh san SCT, bh dh rud shuntasacha: an laghd at ag teacht ar

shealbh na Gaeilge mar theanga bhaile agus a lrna is at sisial an Bharla i measc cainteoir
ga. Sa taighde seo iarradh orainn faisnis a chur ar fil a lireodh na himpleachta at ag sealbh
luath an Bharla ar shealbh na Gaeilge sa chomhthacs dtheangach a tuairiscodh san SCT. Sa
tuarascil seo cuirimid anails ar fil ar thionchar an dtheangachais ar chumas sa Ghaeilge agus
sa Bharla i measc cainteoir ga dchais sa Ghaeltacht chomhaimseartha. Leagamar romhainn
sa taighde seo anails teangeolaochta a dhanamh, mar sin, ar shealbh teanga gasr a tgadh le
Gaeilge amhin sa bhaile.
D dhshlna d bhfuil promhthortha an taighde seo maidir le laghd sa sealbh Gaeilge, agus
d bhr sin, maidir le hinmharthanacht na Gaeltachta, thugamar faoin taighde dfhonn largas nos
grinne a thabhairt do mhuintir na Gaeltachta, do mhuintir na hireann agus do lucht labhartha
mionteangacha ar fud an domhain, maidir le cins an tsealbhaithe mionteanga a thuiscint agus
maidir le modhanna sealbhaithe iomlin a mholadh coiscim tosaigh an bheartais dchais an
tuiscint (Lenoach et al. 2012: 17). Is fearrde tuismitheoir, minteoir, ceannair pobail agus lucht
polasaithe oideachais agus eile stit an t-eolas seo a bheith ar fil dibh le bonn faisnise a bheith
faoi na beartais a dfhadfa a thionscnamh mar mhalairt bhisigh ar na dla seo.
Is tuarascil seo ar chainteoir ga a bhfuil Gaeilge amhin acu sa bhaile. Roghnaomar ceantar
Chois Fharraige agus Dheisceart Chonamara i gCo. na Gaillimhe mar cheantar taighde. Roghnaodh
an ceantar seo mar gheall go bhfaightear ann an dls agus na catadin is airde maidir le sealbh
baile na Gaeilge; is an ceantar is ceannasa Gaeilge d bhfuil ann. Lirtear san SCT go bhfuil
cna ar thuairim is 60% de chainteoir dchais Gaeilge na nGaeltachta ar fad sa cheantar seo (sna
14 toghroinn a bhaineann le Catagir A i gCois Fharraige agus i nDeisceart Chonamara).1* I dtortha
an tsuirbh seo ar an gceantar dchais is m at ann cuirimid ar fil faisnis ar an sealbh Gaeilge
Is ard at i gceist sna tr Chatagir Gaeltachta an rang a rinneadh san SCT ar phrifl na gcainteor Gaeilge sa
Ghaeltacht Oifigiil. Catagir A: ceantar ina bhfaightear an lon is m Gaeilgeoir gnomhacha. Catagir B: ceantar ina
bhfuil an t-aistri go Barla faoi lnseol. Catagir C: ceantar ina bhfuil an t-aistri go Barla curtha i gcrch sa phobal
tr chile (c is moite de sheanfhondir eisceachtla).
1*
1.1 Modheolaocht
is fearr at le fil daoisghrpa 712 bliain, agus cuirimid an sealbh Gaeilge sin i gcomparid le
sealbh an Bharla i measc na bpist canna. Maidir le leath eile an aoisghrpa chomhaimseartha
seo sa Ghaeltacht (Catagir A), na pist a thgtar le Barla (n le Barla agus Gaeilge), is cinnte
gur sle i bhfad an leibhal gnthachtla i sealbh na Gaeilge a fhaightear ina measc sid, n an
leibhal gnthachtla a thuairisctear i measc phist an tsuirbh seo, a thgtar le Gaeilge amhin.
T gach coslacht air gurb an ghnthachtil Ghaeilge a thuairisctear anseo, don leath is fearr
den aoisghrpa seo sa Ghaeilge, gurb is airde at ar fil n is fearr a bhfadfa bheith ag sil li i
sampla den lon seo i gcins na Gaeltachta mar at faoi lthair.
1.1 Modheolaocht
Bh ocht gcim sa tionscadal seo:
1. Tstlacha agus measnuithe a dhearadh ar chumas Gaeilge agus ar chumas Barla.
2. Na tstlacha agus na measnuithe a chur i bhfeidhm tr fhuaimthaifeadadh agallamh na

bpist ina scoil sa bhliain 2010 roimh shos an tsamhraidh.
3. Trascrobh a dhanamh ar na tstlacha agus na measnuithe as na hagallaimh thaifeadta

do gach piste.
4. Faisnis teangeolaochta a bhaint as bhar taifeadta agus as trascrbhinn na n-agallamh de

rir tscair roghnaithe a aicmodh de rir na rims agsla teangeolaochta.
5. Faisnis teangeolaochta agus staitistiil na dtscair teangeolaochta agus socheolaochta
a ionchur i mbunachar sonra romhaireachta.
6. Anails a dhanamh ar an bhfeidhm agus ar an easpa feidhme teangeolaochta sna tscair

cainnochtaithe dfhonn an ghnthachtil teanga i gcs na Gaeilge agus an Bharla a thomhas;
thugamar scril achoimreach don ghnthachtil Ghaeilge agus scril achoimreach don
ghnthachtil Bharla.
7. Comparid a dhanamh ar an ngnthachtil sa d theanga dfhonn an cumas dtheangach
a thomhas; bhunaomar scrinnacs dtheangach ar scril an d theanga.
8. Tuarascil a scrobh bunaithe ar an anails.
1.1.1 Dearadh na dtstlacha agus na measnuithe

Bhunaomar anails an tionscadail ar thaifeadta ina ndearna na pist cur sos agus pl ar phictirleabhair. Mar sin de, bh dh chim i ngach agallamh taifeadta:
(a) I dtosach diarr an t-agallir ar na pist cur sos a dhanamh ar an eachtraocht a bh
liri sa phictir-leabhar, agus an scal a bhain leis a insint.
(b) Ina dhiaidh sin, thug an t-agallir treoir don phiste dul siar ar an bpictir-leabhar canna in
ind li / leis agus ceisteanna agsla a fhreagairt agus tstlacha agsla a chomhlonadh
bunaithe ar an scal canna agus ar na pictiir channa.
Cuireadh an modh oibre seo i bhfeidhm i gcs an d theanga in agallaimh a raibh bearna coicse
eatarthu; taifeadadh agallamh Gaeilge n Barla ar dts agus ansin tuairim is coics ina dhiaidh
sin taifeadadh agallamh sa teanga eile. I scoil amhin bigean do na hagallir an d theanga
a thaifeadadh in aon l amhin de cheal ama. Bh ceithre phictir-leabhar i gceist as an tsraith
channa: The Little Red Train: Runaway Train; Race to the Finish; Little Red Train to the Rescue;
Green Light for the Little Red Train (Blathwayt 1995, 2003, 2006, 2007). Taifeadadh leath na bpist
don agallamh Gaeilge i dtosach agus a leath don agallamh Barla i dtosach. Bh leabhar agsil
amhin de na ceithre phictir-leabhar ag gach piste do gach teanga ar leith; rud a dfhg roinnt
chothrom idir ord na n-agallamh agus rogha aon leabhair ar leith. T, mar shampla, ceathr cuid
na n-agallamh i nGaeilge agus ceathr cuid i mBarla ar an leabhar Runaway Train n An Traein
1. Ramhr
gan Coscn mar a tugadh air sna hagallaimh Ghaeilge. Roghnaomar an tsraith seo de bharr gur
fheil an t-bhar don aoisghrpa agus go raibh a oiread sin eachtra agus gnomhaochta i bpictiir
na leabhar, rud a thabharfadh deis do na pist cur sos n reacaireacht a dhanamh ar bhar na
leabhar. Chldaomar na tacsanna clite sna leabhair le greamin bhna ionas nach mbeadh na
pist in ann aon tacs a lamh agus go mbeadh srian ar aon ionchur lite n ionchur teanga ar
leith.
Rinneamar iarracht modh aonteangach a bhaint amach sa d theanga ar leith chomh mr agus
ab fhidir. Dradh leis na pist gur leabhair Fraincise a bh sna pictir-leabhair (sa chaoi agus
nach mbeadh modh na Gaeilge ag cur isteach ar an modh aonteangach sa Bharla agus nach
mbeadh modh an Bharla ag cur isteach ar an modh aonteangach sa Ghaeilge) agus iarradh ar na
hagallir labhairt leo go haonteangach, i nGaeilge amhin n i mBarla amhin. Dhromar ar an
modh aonteangach sa d theanga ar leith chun bonn cu comparide a sholthar don mheasn
agus chun go mbeimis in ann teacht ar bhuaic-leibhal an chumais at ag na pist sa d theanga
ar leith. Thuigeamar agus sinn ag tos leis an tionscadal gurbh fhusa do na pist clo le modh
aonteangach sa Bharla seachas sa Ghaeilge, mar at coitianta i gcomhthacs mionteangacha
(mrtheanga sa mhodh aonteangach vs. mionteanga sa mhodh dtheangach), ach go ndearnadh
iarracht chomhfhiosach i gcaitheamh chur i bhfeidhm na n-agallamh an d chumas a idirdheal.
N hin le r gur chuir na pist fin modh aonteangach i bhfeidhm sna hagallaimh. Biondil gur
chuireadar modh aonteangach i bhfeidhm sa Bharla agus nr chuireadar i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge
, ach amhin i gcs pist eisceachtla.
Dhearamar ceistneoir gearr a cuireadh ar mhinteoir amhin (go hiondil an promhoide) i gcs
gach scoile ar leith maidir le trithe sochtheangeolaochta agus clra socheolaochta na bpist. T
liosta i dTbla 1 de na rims faisnise a bailodh agus rims socheolaochta bhartha eile.
Ginearlta
Scoil
Baile
Scoil
it chnaithe
Aois
Gnas
Sisial scoile (teanga an tsisialaithe, cimheas Gaeilgeoir)
Lon cainteoir gnomhacha Gaeilge as iomln na ndalta sa rang

Gnthachtil acadil
Tuismitheoir (it chnaithe, cinel cainteora, sl bheatha)

Lon dearthireacha/deirfiracha
Teicneolaocht na faisnise (teilifs, romhair, X-box, Playstation, Wii, srl.)
Tbla 1 Rims sochtheangeolaochta a bailodh leis an gceistneoir.
Is iad na cig thrith a fuarthas n gceistneoir seo agus a bhaineann le tortha an taighde: aois,
gnas, cumas acadil, taith theilifse (.i. taith ar theicneolaocht na faisnise go ginearlta),
cimheas na nGaeilgeoir i scoil na bpist (lon na gcainteoir gnomhacha Gaeilge i gcomparid
leis an lon iomln i ranganna na ndalta, .i. Gaeilgeoir le hais Barlir sa rang (agus sa scoil)).
Bhaineamar leas as an bhfaisnis a thuairiscigh na minteoir ar chins sisialta,
sochtheangeolaochta agus oideachasla na bpist mar bhonn don chatagiri socheolaochta
i gcomhair na hanailse ar shealbh na Gaeilge agus an Bharla faoi seach a lirigh na pist sna
tstlacha teangeolaochta a bhain leis an tionscadal. Cainteoir dchais Gaeilge n nGaeltacht
iad tuismitheoir phist an tionscadail seo. Roghnaodh pist don tionscadal ar shonraigh na
minteoir dinn gur Gaeilge amhin a bh labhairt ag a muintir leo sa bhaile. 50 piste at i
sampla iomln an tionscadail, as ocht scoil, pist at idir 7 agus 12 bliain daois. Cailn 24 duine
dobh agus buachaill an 26 duine eile.
1.1 Modheolaocht
Sa tionscadal seo, cloodh le gnthrialacha eitice taighde a bhaineann le suirbh a rechtil i

measc pist, go hirithe i gcs aithne na bpist agus na scoileanna a cheilt i liri na faisnise. Pl
neamhlochtach at chur i lthair sa taighde ar fad agus n dhantar ceasacht ar aon duine n ar
dhream ar leith. Cuirtear tortha socheolaochta agus sochtheangeolaochta i lthair sa saothar seo
agus nl aon duine aonair inaitheanta n n phlitear mionsonra indibhidila.
1.1.2 Na hagallaimh
Cuireadh dh agallamh ar na pist. Bh dh phirt i ngach agallamh; an chad phirt, an t-agallamh

aonarach, ina raibh piste amhin ag caint (i nGaeilge agus i mBarla faoi seach) agus an dara pirt
ina raibh beirt phist as an scoil channa ag caint le chile (i nGaeilge agus i mBarla faoi seach).
Thug Colm Malid, Acadamh na hOllscolaochta Gaeilge, an Cheathr Rua, comhairle agus
cnamh maidir le gntha teicnila a bhain le taifeadadh an bhair agus le stril na dtaifeadta.
Bh dh chuid sna hagallaimh aonaracha. Tar is na pist a chur ar a suaimhneas agus comhr
beag ginearlta a bheith idir an t-agallir agus an piste, sa chad chuid den agallamh iarradh ar an
bpiste scal a insint bunaithe ar na pictiir sa leabhar a roghnaodh agus bunaithe ar chpla ceist
a socraodh i sceideal an agallra. Insint n ba struchtrtha a bh sa dara cuid den agallamh a bh
fs bunaithe ar an bpictir-leabhar, inar iarradh ar an bpiste ceisteanna a fhreagairt agus, i dtasc
amhin, ceisteanna a chur (fach Aguisn AD).
Is iad an bheirt phromhagallir a rinne na hagallaimh Belinda McHale agus Laoise N Thuairisg.
Rinne an bheirt phromhagallir leath iomln a gcuid agallamh i nGaeilge agus an leath eile i
mBarla.2* De cheal ama, thug Brian Curnin agus Conchr Giollagin cnamh do na
promhagallir sna hagallaimh a rinneadh i scoil amhin. Is iomln na dtaifeadta a rinne na
hagallir n 69 uair agus 20 nimad. Caitheadh formhr an ama ar na hagallaimh aonaracha
(breis is 29 uair an chloig ar na cinn Ghaeilge agus breis is 20 uair ar na cinn Bharla).
De rir na minteoir, n raibh aon fhadhbanna cumarside n isteachta n sainriachtanais teanga
ag na pist, c is moite de phiste amhin a raibh beagn briotaola air. Ba scoileanna i gCatagir
A de Ghaeltacht na Gaillimhe a roghnaodh don suirbh seo. Seo an Chatagir A is m sa tr agus
is ionann sin is a r gurb ann is airde at dls Gaeilge sa tr. Roghnaodh scoileanna i gcngaracht
a chile, agus nach raibh ar theorainn Chatagir B n C, n go raibh lon 50 dalta sroichte againn.
1.1.3 Anails na dtaifeadta agus cruth an bhunachair shonra
Chun riachtanais na heitice a chomhlonadh tugadh cd aitheantais do gach piste. Rinneadh

trascrobh ar na taifeadta ar fad mar bhunchim don anails. Sholthair na daoine seo a leanas na
trascrbhinn: Anne N Choirbn, Paula N Chionnaith, Mairad N Laocha agus Tams Ptervry.
Cuimsonn na trascrbhinn ina n-iomline 1,830 leathanach (522,870 focal). Sheiceil Tams
Ptervry trascrbhinn gach agallaimh agus dathsheiceil Tams Ptervry agus Brian Curnin
iad i gcomhairle le chile. Rinneamar anails ar na trascrbhinn ar na hagallaimh aonaracha (idir
agallaimh Ghaeilge agus Bharla) a chuimsonn tuairim is 82% (428,953 focal) den bhar taifeadta
agus trascrofa ar fad.
Rinneamar anails ar na hagallaimh Ghaeilge de rir na naoi rimse teangeolaochta seo a leanas:
foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic, lofacht, inscne ghramadil, claochl
tosaigh agus foghraocht. Is i gCaibidil 1 a chuirimid tortha na hanailse Gaeilge i lthair. Drmid
i gCaibidil 2 ar scagadh na n-agallamh Barla. Maidir leis an mBarla, rinneamar anails ar na s
rimse seo a leanas: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic agus lofacht.
1.1.4 Cumas comparideach sa d theanga
I gCaibidil 3 danaimid comparid dhreach idir an cumas sa d theanga de rir na s rimse

Maidir le tortha an taighde, n bhfuarthas aon tionchar staitistiil ag ord teanga na n-agallamh (agallamh Gaeilge i
dtosach n agallamh Barla i dtosach) ar thortha teangeolaochta na bpist, n ag c acu den bheirt phromhagallir
a rinne an t-agallamh.
2*
1. Ramhr
teangeolaochta inar fidir sin a dhanamh: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic
agus lofacht. Tugann an chomparid dhreach bonn staitistiil mionsonrach a lironn staid an
chumais at ag na pist sna teangacha i gcomhthacs an dtheangachais. Shainomar freisin
rims inar fidir comparid indreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga. Dhromar ar na rims
teangeolaochta ina bhfuil fianaise dathruithe a lironn claonadh i dtreo na teanga eile (bodh fors
inmhenach i gceist n fors faoi anil na teanga eile). Rangaomar athruithe inmhenacha eile at
mchu de rir chras na Gaeilge traidisinta (bodh sin ina chaighden itiil traidisinta n ina
chaighden lrnach). C go mbainimid leas as an tarma athruithe inmhenacha ag tagairt do na
hathruithe seo, tuigimid go bhfuil suntas le tabhairt do lon ard na n-athruithe seo i gcomhthacs
an dtheangachais agus go deimhin, i gcs cuid acu, mar gheall ar an dtheangachas.
N mr aitheantas a thabhairt do na point seo a leanas i gcs teanga mhionlaigh:
T cumas Gaeilge rasnta forbartha ag cuid mhaith de mhuintir na bpist (i gcomparid

leis na pist), .i. t cumas Gaeilge rasnta traidisinta ag cuid mhaith de na tuismitheoir
agus de na gline fsta.
T cdmheascadh suntasach ar sil ina gcuid Gaeilge ag muintir na bpist agus ag daoine
eile sa phobal na sealbhaonn na pist a gcuid Gaeilge.
T s dshlnach agus achrannach sprioc shealbhaithe a aimsi sa Ghaeilge, don sealbhir

agus don taighdeoir, de bharr go bhfuil an piste ag tabhairt faoin sealbh i gcomhthacs
at chomh mr faoi anil an chdmheasctha, an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe n easnamhaigh,
agus faoi anil shealbh na mrtheanga.
D bhr sin, nuair a deirimid go bhfuil leagan n foirm theangeolaochta ar leith mchu n gur
seachfhoirm at inti (mar a thugaimid uirthi sa saothar seo), is ard at i gceist nach bhfreagraonn
s don Ghaeilge Thraidisinta (.i. noirm ghline sinsir na gcainteoir dchais Gaeilge) n nach
bhfreagraonn s do (leagan de) Ghaeilge an Chaighdein Oifigiil. T foirmeacha mchu n
seachfhoirmeacha coitianta i ngnthchaint an lae inniu, go hirithe acu sid a rugadh i ndiaidh
tuairim is 1980. Admhatear go bhfuil an sprioc ag sorchorra i gcs na Gaeilge, is an toradh at ar
an bhforas sin is bhar don suirbh seo: go bhfuil teorainn ar an sealbh idirghlineach sa Ghaeilge
i ngeall ar fheidhmilacht shisialta an Bharla (agus ar fheidhmilacht an Bharla sna mein).
Baineann s le cins an dtheangachais agothroim i bpobal mionteanga go coitianta gur fidir norm
a aithint i sealbh na mrtheanga ach go bhfuil s deacair a leithid a aithint i sealbh na mionteanga.
Chomh maith leis sin, mar is coitianta ars sa choibhneas idir mrtheanga agus mionteanga, i gcs
shealbh na Gaeilge de, nl na cimeanna normlta n na rta mionsonracha ar eolas. Ina dhiaidh
sin fin, tugann an lann idirnisinta le fios go mbonn formhr an tsealbhaithe curtha i gcrch ag an
aois at ag dalta an staidir seo. tharla go bhfuil formhr thortha an staidir seo ag teacht leis an
gclaonadh canna, n bhraitheann an pl rmhr ar aon trith theangeolaochta ar leith agus nl an
anails n na tortha i dtuilleama corrthrith theangeoaochta a maireann a crsa sealbhaithe nos
faide n an gnth. Chomh maith leis sin, mar a lirtear sa saothar seo, n fidir cimeanna agus rta i
sealbh iomln na Gaeilge a cheapadh bunaithe ar an nglin g reatha (de bharr chins coiteanna an
tsealbhaithe laghdaithe chomhaimseartha mar a thaispenfar sa tuarascil seo).
T anails i gCaibidil 5 go dt Caibidil 8 ar an bhfaisnis chomparideach teangeolaochta de rir
ceithre cinn de na cins socheolaochta a bhailomar faoi na pist. Roghnaomar aois, gnas,
gnthachtil acadil agus taith theilifse mar thama anailse. C go ndearnamar anails iomln
ar na tama seo, nor chuimsomar ach na point ba shuntasa agus na point a thugann liri
soilir ar an gcaidreamh at idir an d theanga.
1.1.5 Tortha na tuarascla
Conclid ar thionchar an dtheangachais ar na rims teangeolaochta agus sochtheangeolaochta

at i gCaibidil 9. Sa chaibidil dheireanach, Caibidil 10, plimid na himpleachta a eascraonn as staid
reatha shealbh na Gaeilge don phobal ina maireann na cainteoir dchais sa Ghaeltacht agus na
1.2 Cumas agus ceannas sa dtheangachas
himpleachta don tr ar fad. Chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar na fadhbanna a lirtear sa taighde seo,
cuirimid molta ar fil chun treoir a thabhairt dibh sid at ag iarraidh an Ghaeilge dhchais a
sheachadadh chun na gline ige. Cuirimid molta ar fil freisin don Roinn Oideachais agus Scileanna.
Is leas phobal na Gaeilge ina gcins radla teanga at faoi thrcht i gCaibidil 9 agus 10 mar sin.
Sa phl ar an dtheangachas n mr na hocht mbunfhric seo a mheabhr:
chomh maith leis na buntist praiticila, eacnamaochta, pearsanta, sisialta agus

cultrtha a thugann scil a bheith ag duine i dteanga bhreise, is minic gur m na buntist
cogneolaochta n na mbhuntist cogneolaochta a bhonn ag cainteoir dtheangacha le
hais cainteoir aonteangacha
bonn cumas agothrom ag formhr mr cainteoir dtheangacha idir an d theanga at

acu: an teanga cheannasach a thugtar ar an teanga is cumasa; is an dtheangachas
agothrom an gns uiloch, rud a chiallaonn, ar an gcuma channa, gurb an
dtheangachas ceannasach an gns uiloch (.i. teanga amhin cheannasach agus teanga
eile faoi cheannas)
an teanga is laige n an teanga lag ag cainteoir dtheangach, is iondil gur l go mr a

chumas inti n an cumas a bhonn ag cainteoir aonteangach
is iondil gurb treocht an tionchair theangeolaochta n n teanga cheannasach go
dt an teanga lag; is sin le r gur m an tionchar teangeolaochta a imronn an teanga
cheannasach ar an teanga lag n an bealach eile timpeall
is sa teanga is m cumas is fusa don duine feidhmi, agus d bhr sin is is tisce le duine
a fheidhmi go hiondil, sa chaint n sa scrobh
n hionann dtheangachas an aonarin agus dtheangachas na socha
is fidir an dtheangachas breisitheach a thabhairt ar an dtheangachas buntisteach gan

mbhuntiste a bheith in aon teanga, don aonarn n don tsocha, agus an dtheangachas
dealaitheach a thabhairt ar an dtheangachas mbhuntisteach, don aonarn n don
tsocha; is minic gnithe buntisteacha agus breisitheacha a bheith i gceist, go hirithe i
gcs na mrtheanga, agus gnithe mbhuntisteacha agus dealaitheacha araon a bheith i
gceist, go hirithe i gcs na mionteanga
is tr mhodh an dtheangachais, san aonarn n sa tsocha, is iondla a chailltear teangacha,

mar at siad gcailleadh go hirithe sna saolta seo.
Sa taighde seo, tugaimid faoin gcumas dtheangach sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla a thomhas sa
ghlin g at in ardranganna bhunscoileanna Ghaeltacht Chatagir A i gCo. na Gaillimhe. T
fianaise carnadh le blianta beaga anuas go bhfuil cumas ard sa Bharla ag an nglin g seo,
agus go bhfuil athruithe substaintila ina gcuid Gaeilge le hais na ngln rompu. San SCT, i gcs
Ghaeltacht Chatagir A (chomh maith leis an nGaeltacht Oifigiil ar fad), thuairiscigh formhr
na ndalta menscoile gur fearr a gcumas Barla n Gaeilge. T a fhios le fada gur fearr cumas
litearthachta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge ag formhr mhuintir g agus mhenaosta na Gaeltachta.
Is seo an chad tionscadal ar chumas labhartha dtheangach GaeilgeBarla a rinneadh in
irinn. T an taighde seo bunaithe ar shampla de phist ga at dtgil le Gaeilge amhin, .i.
go haonteangach thaobh ionchur na dtuist (ach cdmheascadh san ireamh go hiondil), agus
a bhfuil Gaeilge dhchas ag a muintir. Ba iad na tr bhuncheist taighde a bh le freagairt againn
maidir leis an aoisghrpa seo:
1. An bhfuil na dtheangir GaeilgeBarla cothrom n agothrom ina gcumas?
2. An bhfuil cumas teanga amhin i gceannas ar chumas teanga eile?
1. Ramhr
3. An bhfuil rian an tsealbhaithe dhtheangaigh le sonr ar an ngnthachtil sa d theanga,

go hirithe i dtaobh na Gaeilge de, agus c na rims gramada agus teangeolaochta at i
gceist?
Bh focheist taighde thbhachtach freisin ann, ach nrbh acmhainn dinn ach beagn sonra a
thioms ina taobh:
An bhfuil rian ag cins sochtheangeolaochta n socheolaochta ar leibhil agsla a
bhaintear amach sa ghnthachtil dhtheangach?
Is an modh labhartha an bunmhodh i gcumas teanga. Nuair a labhraonn daoine lironn siad a
gcumas ina dteanga n ina dteangacha. Is labhairt na teanga an cumas is bunsa sa chumarsid. Agus
chun measn a dhanamh ar an dtheangachas is labhairt na teanga n na dteangacha an tomhas
is tbhachta. Is sin le r, is an modh labhartha is tbhachta a mheasn sa chumas dtheangach.
Is fidir tabhairt faoin measn sin ar mhodhanna agsla. T lirithe sa taighde idirnisinta
gur slat tomhais shimpl agus iontaofa tuairisc daoine ar a gcumas i dteangacha, mar shampla,
tuairisc tuismitheoir, agus fintuairisc daoine ga agus daoine fsta. (Ach nl an fhintuairisc chomh
hiontaofa maidir le cumas cainteoir i dteangacha agsla a bheith cothrom le chile.)
Sa tionscadal seo rinneadh na pist a thaifeadadh in agallaimh a bh drithe ar an gcumas labhartha

agus iad ag eachtraocht faoi phictir-leabhar ina raibh pictiir den saol uirbeach agus de shaol
na tuaithe. Chomh maith leis sin, taifeadadh na pist agus iad ag freagairt ceisteanna tstlacha
teangeolaochta cu, agus iad ag cumadh ceisteanna, bunaithe ar an bpictir-leabhar ionas gur
aimsodh struchtir agus leaganacha agsla gramada don taighde. Bunaithe ar thrascrbhinn na
n-agallamh anailsodh an cumas teangeolaochta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla faoi seach. Is fidir
cumas gach piste i rimse inchomparide sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla a chur i gcomrtas le chile.
I measn ilrimseach mar seo, lirtear, sa tionscadal seo agus sa taighde idirnisinta, gur fidir
le cainteoir a bheith ceannasach i dTeanga A i rims ar leith teangeolaochta agus na cainteoir
canna a bheith ceannasach i dTeanga B i rims teangeolaochta eile.
I ndiaidh tortha na hanailse sna rims agsla teangeolaochta a chuntas don d theanga faoi
seach (m.sh. iolra an ainmfhocail agus infhilleadh an bhriathair), is fidir na rims teangeolaochta
sin a shuimi don d theanga faoi seach mar liri ar an gcumas ginearlta. Is fidir ansin cumas
ginearlta an phiste i dteanga ar leith a thabhairt. Ansin is fidir toradh iomln teangeolaochta
sa d theanga a chur i gcomparid le chile do gach piste ar leith agus d bhr sin dfhoghrpa,
mar shampla, do gach aoisghrpa agus gach gnas. Cainteoir ag a bhfuil an tsuim n an scril
i bhfoisceacht d chile sa d theanga, is fidir a mhaomh gur cainteoir measartha cothrom
dtheangach . Cainteoir nach bhfuil an toradh suimithe gar d chile sa d theanga aige matear
gur cainteoir agothrom . Cainteoir ag a bhfuil suim n scril Teanga A cuid mhaith nos airde n
scril Teanga B, matear go bhfuil s ceannasach i dTeanga A (n go bhfuil Teanga A ceannasach
ina chumas n ina ghnthachtil). Bunaithe ar an anails sin, mheasnaomar cim n scla
cothroime / agothroime an dtheangachais sna cainteoir, .i. a scrinnacs dtheangach, agus
dimpleachtaomar ceannasaocht teanga amhin ar an teanga eile.
1.2.1 Cumas, ceannas agus laghd sa mhionteangachas
N mr a mheabhr sa phl ar an mionteangachas na seacht mbunfhric seo:

bonn an mhrtheanga a bheag n a mhr uile-lithreach
bonn cdmheascadh i bhfeidhm go hiondil sa mhionteanga, ach bonn modh aonteangach,

gan chdmheascadh, go hiondil sa mhrtheanga
is fidir le cdmheascadh cur as do ghnthachtil an tsealbhaithe
is fidir le cd n teanga mheasctha teacht chun cinn mar chaint choiteann sa mhionteanga
bonn an dtheangachas aontreoch comhuaineach i bhfeidhm le linn an tsealbhaithe
go minic, .i. aontreoch (g don mhionteangir an mhrtheanga a shealbh, gan g don

mhrtheangir an mhionteanga a shealbh) agus comhuaineach (.i. sealbh for-g na
mrtheanga, comhuaineach leis an mionteanga)
i gcomhthacs mar seo, is minic n is iondil gur cumasa a shealbhatear an mhrtheanga

n an mhionteanga, agus is an mhrtheanga a bhonn ceannasach, agus is minic gur
sealbh laghdaithe a bhonn i gceist sa mhionteanga
idir dh theanga i gcomhthacs dtheangach is iondil gurb an treocht tionchair agus

cdmheasctha a bhonn ann n: an rian is m a bheith ag an teanga at ceannasach ar an
teanga is l cumas n an teanga laghdaithe (.i. teanga cheannasach teanga laghdaithe).
I gcomhthacs an dtheangachais is casta agus deacair cumas a mheasn. T s tbhachtach ach go

hirithe slat tomhais a bhun a chaduair ar chumas dtheangir eile (sa d theanga channa ach go
hirithe). I gcomhthacs an mhionteangachais, go hirithe m t tionchar suntasach na mrtheanga
n sealbh laghdaithe ar bun i bpobal ar feadh achar blianta, t deacrachta breise i gceist le measn
na mionteanga. Is doilirede sprioc shealbhaithe na mionteanga a bheith ag athr go mr faoi
thionchar na mrtheanga agus faoi anil an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe. Card at ceart thaobh
feidhme agus tuisceana de sa mhionteanga at go mr faoi thionchar na mrtheanga? Lirtear
sna deacrachta breise sainmhnithe agus measnaithe seo sa mhionteanga (i gcontrrthacht le
caighden sprice measartha cinnte sa mhrtheanga), na deacrachta at ag pobal mionteanga agus
iad ag iarraidh leannachas cumais a ghabhil sa seachadadh idir na gline cainteoir.
De riteach praiticiil ar na fadhbanna seo sa tionscadal seo, mheasnaomar cumas Gaeilge
na bpist de rir na Gaeilge Traidisinta (mar at cur sos uirthi sa litrocht chuimsitheach
chanineolaochta) agus/n na Gaeilge caighdena (mar at s sa Chaighden Oifigiil (1957 agus
eagrin eile) agus i ngnth-thacsleabhair) mar ba chu. Lirtear sa mhodh seo, ar a laghad, an
t-athr mr at le sonr sa Ghaeilge Iarthraidisinta. N mhatear anseo gur liri ar laghd cumais
gach athr ar leith sa Ghaeilge Iarthraidisinta; ach a dtabhairt le chile, is liri ar easpa iad, mar
a ghlactar leis sa litrocht ar an sealbh laghdaithe agus ar bhs teangacha. Is fidir feidhmilacht
irithe a bhaint amach i dteanga mheasctha, fhor-chdmheasctha n laghdaithe, ach is iondla,
i mionphobail ar fud an domhain ach go hirithe, go leanann cumarsid cumas; mar at ag tarl
daos g Ghaeltacht Chatagir A agus a bhformhr ag Barlireacht le chile.
Nuair a charntar le chile lon mr thrithe agsla na Gaeilge Iarthraidisinta, mar at liostaithe
agus plite i bhfoilseachin acadla le blianta beaga anuas, lirtear bearna cumais agus
feidhmilachta idir an Ghaeilge Iarthraidisinta agus an Ghaeilge Thraidisinta. T athruithe sa
Ghaeilge Iarthraidisinta de bharr thionchar na mrtheanga agus an chdmheasctha. T athruithe
eile sa Ghaeilge Iarthraidisinta ag titim amach de bharr an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe go promha;
agus athruithe eile inti de bharr meascn den d chinse sin. Braitheann c acu an athr tr
thionchar an chdmheasctha n an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe n an meascn den phire (n cins
eile) at i gceist in aon athr ar leith, braitheann sin ar chleachtas an phobail le scr n dh scr
bliain anuas. Ar limh amhin, t cras pragmataice na Gaeilge ghalld le roinnt gln anuas, m.sh.
you know a bheith ag dlithri an bhfuil fhios agad agus t fhios agad. D bhr sin, cainteoir g
nach bhfuil marcir dioscrsa na Gaeilge, fearacht t fhios agad, sa chaint aige, is fidir a mhaomh
nach bhfuair s an deis iad a shealbh na fhoins sealbhaithe, agus nach sealbh laghdaithe ann
fin at i gceist. Is fidir an rud canna a iteamh i dtaobh mhr an chlsail choibhneasta indrigh a
bheith cailleadh agus an mhr dhreach teacht ina hionad. Ar an limh eile de, i gcaint fhormhr
na gcainteoir menaosta t cim chomparide na haidiachta fs bisiil ina gcras deilbhochta,
m.sh. beag nos l. Cainteoir g nach bhfuil cim chomparide na haidiachta bisiil aige, m.sh. m
deir s nos beag in ionad nos l, mamid sa tionscadal seo gur liri sin ar an sealbh laghdaithe.
Is fidir, ar ndigh, an toradh canna, n toradh gaolmhar, a bheith ag an athr trasghlineach i
dtreo na mrtheanga, m.sh. t fhios agad you know (i nglin na tuismitheoireachta), agus ag an
athr de bharr an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe n de bharr dhoth an tsealbhaithe, m.sh. nos l nos
beag (sa ghlin is ige); agus is minic nach furasta, n nach g, n nach fidir an d mheicnocht a
scaradh chile. Feidhmonn siad i bpirt i gcomhthacs an mhionteangachais.
1. Ramhr
1.2.2 Foins agus litrocht

T litrocht leathan bhorril ar ghnithe go leor den dtheangachas, den mhionteangachas agus
de bhs teangacha, agus n fidir a lua anseo ach toghadh beag d bhfuil ar fil. T a bhfuil plite
thuas bhun i dtaobh na Gaeilge ach go hirithe ar Dorian (1973, 1977, 1978, 1981), Lenoach,
Giollagin agus Curnin (2012), Mac Con Raoi (2011), Nance (2013), Curnin (2007, 2009,
2011, 2015 le teacht), Giollagin agus Mac Donnacha et al. (2007, SCT), Smith-Christmas agus
Smakman (2009), agus ar Sture Ureland (1991).
Nos faide bhaile, spon Schmidt (1985) an tsochtheangeolaocht agus an ghramadach i laghd
agus i mbs Dhearbal san Astril (agus, nos nua-aois, Simpson agus Wigglesworth (2008) maidir
le teangacha dchasacha eile san Astril); lirigh Trudgill (1977) laghd agus bs na hAlbinise sa
Ghrig; lithrigh Jones (1998; 2001, 2005) fianaise dhoshanta, faoi seach, ar laghd agus ar bhs
na Breatnaise sa Bhreatain Bheag agus Gheirs ar Oilen Gheansa.
T fianaise den srt canna ar laghd agus ar bhs na Fraincise i Louisiana ag Dubois agus Noetzel
(2006). T borradh faoin staidar ar theangacha oidhreachta i Stit Aontaithe Mheirice agus san
Eoraip agus tis an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe lithri go hititheach ag Montrul (2008) i gcomhthacs
na Spinniseoir go hirithe. T tortha an taighde fhadtarmaigh mhrthaibhsigh thbhachtaigh
a rinneadh i Miami, Florida, ar Spinniseoir, t sin tugtha le chile ag na heagarthir McCardle
agus Hoff (2006) agus pl ar chrsa ionchuir don sealbh in Pearson, Fernndez, Lewedeg agus
Oller (1997). Sampla de chs na nGearminiseoir thall i Stit Aontaithe Mheirice is ea saothar de
Leeuw, Schmid agus Mennen (2010) agus na Risiseoir ag Polinsky (2008).
N taise do Fhrainciseoir i gCeanada , m.sh. King (2008) agus Mougeon agus Beniak (1991);
n do na bundchasaigh, m.sh. Wright, Taylor agus Macarthur (2000) ar an Ionuit. T muintir
na hOllainne saothraoch ar chs a dteangacha oidhreachta fin, m.sh. Boumans (2006) ar an
Araibis. T itimh fhianaise-bhunaithe i leith an tsealbhaithe aonteangaigh luaith sa mhionteanga
ag Gathercole agus Thomas (2009) i gcomhthacs na Breatnaise. T pl argna ag Matras (2009)
ar thortha teangeolaochta an dtheangachais agus an mhionteangachais agus pl ar phriseas an
tsealbhaithe dhtheangaigh (agothroim) ag Yip agus Matthews (2007).
T an fhianaise is cuimsith ag Byers-Heinlein (2013) maidir le tionchar diltach a bheith ag an

gcdmheascadh ar ghnthachtil a bhfoclra i measc pist dtheangacha, chomh maith le pl ar
an dar nach bhfuarthas fianaise ar an tionchar diltach seo i dtionscadail taighde eile. Plann
Calvet (2006) an claonadh ginearlta at ann, gurb teanga an phobail n an tsisialaithe a bhonn
ceannasach i ngnthachtil an tsealbhaithe, agus d bhr sin nach teanga an teaghlaigh a bhonn
ceannasach sa chomhthacs sin. T pl ginearlta ag Crystal (2000) ar fheiniman an bhis i gcs
teangacha. T gainne an dtheangachais chothroim lirithe ag, m.sh., Flecken (2010), Gearminis
Ollainnis, agus Sheng, Lu agus Gollan (2013), MandairnisBarla. T staid mhsheasmhach agus
trithe forbhis an dtheangachais socheolaochta samhaltaithe ag, m.sh. Abrams agus Strogatz
(2003), ag Castell, Eguluz agus Miguel (2006) agus ag Minett agus Wang (2008) agus an cras
teangeolaochta domhanda n an iceolaocht teanga is cs le de Swaan (2001).
Ar mhaithe le soliteacht don litheoir, seachnamid an iomad tagairt acadla a chur sa saothar
seo trd sos tharla go bhfuil go leor d mbaineann le hbhar ar fil i Lenoach et al. (2012)
agus i bhfoilseachin dar eile, fearacht Dressler (1996), Dubois agus Melanon (1997), Dubois
agus Noetzel (2006), Fishman (1989, 1991, 2001), Francis (2005), Gathercole agus Thomas
(2009), Hagge (2009), Hill agus May (2013), Jones (1998), Koven (2007), Krauss (1992, 2006),
agus Montrul (2008). Maidir leis an anails teangeolaochta, ars seachnamid liost tagairt
agus bunamid an pl ar shaothair chanineolaochta agus theangeolaochta, mar shampla, de
Bhaldraithe (1945, 1953), Curnin (2007), hAnluain (1960) agus An Caighden Oifigiil
(1957).
10
1.3 Clra sochtheangeolaochta an staidir

Sa litrocht sochtheangeolaochta is fidir teacht ar largas at bhartha do thama an staidir
seo. I measc na dtuiscint a saothraodh sa tsochtheangeolaocht agus a thugann laspairt dinn ar
chinel an dtheangachais a chleachtann na daoine ga at faoi chaibidil sa taighde seo t:
Athruithe sisialta agus dimeagrafaochta a thann i gcion ar chomhdhanamh an phobail
sa Ghaeltacht
Anails ar an laghd ar sheachadadh na Gaeilge ghlin go glin taobh istigh den teaghlach
agus na himpleachta at aige seo do bhonn sisialta na Gaeilge taobh amuigh den teaghlach,
.i. an saol sisialta ina gcleachtann an t-aos g an Ghaeilge le chile
Anails ar an bpointe gaolmhar a fhachann le scagadh a dhanamh ar impleachta an

chreimidh at ag teacht ar dhls an phobail Ghaeilge sa Ghaeltacht
Liri ar ghnthachtil oideachais dalta i scoileanna sa Ghaeltacht le hais gnthachtil
dalta i scoileanna eile
Anails ar ifeacht na bpolasaithe agus an chuir chuige oideachais a chuirtear i bhfearas

dfhonn tac le fors pearsanta agus acadil aos g na Gaeltachta.
Thugamar faoin staidar seo dfhonn liri n ba chuimsith a fhil ar impleachta an luathdhtheangachais (Gaeilge agus Barla) do shealbh na Gaeilge dchais i measc cainteoir ga
Gaeltachta.
1.3.1 Athruithe sisialta agus dimeagrafaochta
I saothair U Riagin (1997), Hindley (1990) agus san SCT (2007) plitear impleachta na
n-athruithe sisialta a thit amach na 1970 i leith ach go hirithe ar chomhdhanamh an phobail
sa Ghaeltacht. Thinig na hathruithe seo i dtreis n trimhse sin ar aghaidh, i measc cins
eile, de bharr na bpolasaithe a bh ag an sttchras chun nua-aoisi a dhanamh ar an mbonn
socheacnamaochta a bh faoin bpobal traidisinta sna ceantair oifigila Ghaeltachta. Bh an Stt ag
iarraidh an sprioc seo a bhaint amach tr pholasaithe tionsclaochta Ghaeltarra ireann/dars na
Gaeltachta a dfhach le fostaocht i rimse na dantsaochta go hirithe a choth. Nor fachadh
chuige, fach, ar aon bhealach cuimsitheach, le polasaithe n le straitis a chumadh agus a chur i
bhfeidhm a rachadh i ngleic le himpleachta na n-athruithe sisialta a deascrdh as na hathruithe
socheacnamaochta seo, dfhonn iad a bhainisti chun leas na Gaeltachta mar rigin Gaeilge sa
trimhse d n, go deimhin, n am sin i leith.
Tugann Riagin (1997: 141) liri ar an mbealach inar nascadh pobail bheaga Ghaeltachta le
grasin shisialta, eacnamaochta, oideachais agus imirce a mhadaigh teagmhil na bpobal
itiil le domhan an Bharla sa rigin, sa tr agus sa chomhthacs idirnisinta ina bhfeidhmonn
siad. Ba a rannphirtocht sna grasin nua Bharla seo, dar le Riagin, a chuir treise le
priseas an aistrithe teanga sa Ghaeltacht. Maonn Hindley (1990) freisin gurbh iad na frsa nua
socheacnamaochta a chothaigh teacht chun cinn an Bharla i ngrasin shisialta na Gaeltachta
agus go raibh na hathruithe sisialta a thinig as na frsa seo ag cur le himeall na Gaeilge mar
theanga shisialta sna pobail seo.
San SCT (2007) t anails ar dhileadh sochthreolaochta na gCatagir A, B agus C sna contaetha
agsla Gaeltachta agus scagadh ar thortha Shuirbh na nDaoine ga i gCuid 4 den SCT mar a
lirtear go bhfuil grasin lidre Bharla ag feidhmi i ngach cuid den Ghaeltacht, fi sna ceantair
ina bhfaightear an liri ar na grasin is m Gaeilge, is sin Catagir A (fach Caibidil 36 san SCT).
1.3.2 Laghd ar sheachadadh na Gaeilge sa bhaile
I saothair agsla taighde a scag seachadadh baile na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht (Mac Donnacha et al.
2005, Giollagin, 2002, 2005, 2011 agus an SCT 2007) lirtear gur deacair teacht ar cheantar
11
1. Ramhr
sa Ghaeltacht ina dtgtar breis is duine as beirt le Gaeilge sa bhaile. Is sin le r, fi sna ceantair
is m Gaeilge, go mbonn cainteoir ga baile Gaeilge rannphirteach i ngrasin shisialta
chomhaoiseacha ina mbonn ar a laghad leath na bpist ina gcainteoir aonteangacha Barla go
dt go bhfoghlaimeoidh siad Gaeilge ar scoil ach go hirithe.
1.3.3 Creimeadh ar dhls an phobail Ghaeilge
Sna saothair channa (Mac Donnacha et al. 2005, Giollagin 2005, 2011 agus an SCT 2007) lirtear
go bhfuil creimeadh suntasach dhanamh ar dhls na bpobal Gaeilge sna ceantair ina bhfuil an
Ghaeilge labhairt mar ghns sisialta i measc cuid shuntasach den phobal. T cna ar phist an
staidir seo i gceantar a bhaineann le Catagir A, i gCois Fharraige agus i nDeisceart Chonamara.
I gcs cheantair Chatagir A, is an phrifl sochtheangeolaochta at liri gur ns le mrchuid
ghlin na seantuismitheoir an Ghaeilge a labhairt go promha ina gcuid grasn sisialta agus
teaghlaigh; gur ns measctha Gaeilge n Barla a labhairt i gcs na gline tuismitheoireachta /
menaosta; agus gur ns mionlaigh i gcs an aosa ig an Ghaeilge a labhairt go sisialta. Is sin le
r gur l agus gur laige an deis shisialta a chuireann an pobal itiil ar fil do labhairt na Gaeilge
mar ghns pobail anois n an deis a bh ann do na gline roimhe seo. D bharr sin, nl an tacaocht
channa le fil n bpobal do shealbh agus do shaothr na Gaeilge ghlin go glin le hais mar a
cuireadh ar fil do na gline roimhe sin. Ciallaonn s seo gur l na deiseanna, na rims agus na
comhthacsanna a bhonn ar fil do na gasir an Ghaeilge a chleachtadh agus a labhairt go sisialta
agus na scileanna teanga at acu sa Ghaeilge a thabhairt chun forbartha d bharr. Cloiseann siad
agus labhraonn siad nos l Gaeilge n na gline a thinig rompu; mar sin n thagann an fors
agus an fhorbairt channa ar na scileanna teanga agus a thinig ar na gline roimhe sin. Tuigtear
thaobh lann na sochtheangeolaochta de, maidir leis an laghd ar lon na gcainteoir baile Gaeilge
agus le creimeadh dhls na gcainteoir Gaeilge sa phobal, go mbonn impleacht dhiltach ag na
laig sisialta seo dacmhainn an phobail cainteoir cumasacha Gaeilge a choth.
1.3.4 An ghnthachtil oideachais i scoileanna sa Ghaeltacht
Sa chur sos at ag Harris et al. (2006) ar chuid de thstlacha cumais Gaeilge, lironn s gur
fearr a dirigh le scolir i scoileanna ln-Ghaeilge sa Ghalltacht n le scolir Gaeltachta, c nach
bhfreastalaonn ach catadn an-bheag pist ar Ghaelscoileanna agus an Ghaeilge sealbhaithe
acu sa bhaile ( Riagin 1997). Tharraing Mac Donnacha et al. (2005) agus an SCT (Fochaibidil
19.3) aird ar imn na dtuismitheoir Gaeltachta i ngeall nach bhfuil ag ir le cainteoir ga dchais
leibhal ardchumais a bhaint amach ina dteanga dhchais agus nach bhfuil an saibhreas teanga
acu a mbeif ag sil leis chainteoir dchais. I mbreithinas na ndaoine ga at san SCT (Fochaibidil
14.6) lirigh siad gur fearr an Barla at acu n an Ghaeilge agus n bhragnaonn siad an largas
at ag tuismitheoir ar na ceisteanna seo. T pl san SCT (2007: 500) mar gheall ar an bhar seo:
T ag ir leis na scoileanna Gaeltachta ina gcuid iarrachta dul i ngleic le gn amhin den
dshln seo, .i. an cumas Gaeilge go ginearlta i measc na ndalta a threisi sa chaoi is go
mbonn Gaeilge lofa n Gaeilge mhaith ag formhr na ndalta ar chrochn a gcuid blianta
scolaochta dibh. ... Tugann s seo (agus impleachta thaighde Harris 2006) le fios go
mbfhidir go mbonn an iarracht a chuirtear isteach i mineadh na Gaeilge do dhalta
chlra neamh-Ghaeilge i scoileanna Gaeltachta, agus an meascn teanga a bhonn i gceist
sna scoileanna sin, ag baint de chumas na ndalta at dtgil le Gaeilge ardchumas acadil
a bhaint amach ina dteanga dhchais. ... Nuair a chuirtear faisnis thaighde Harris (2006),
Curnin (2007) agus breithinas na ndaoine ga fin gur fearr an Barla n an Ghaeilge at
acu (fach Fochaibidil 14.6) taobh le breithinas na dtuismitheoir Gaeltachta ar acmhainn
Ghaeilge na gline ige feictear go bhfuil ceisteanna cinninacha teangeolaocha mscailt
faoi na cuspir agus na cleachtais at bhfeidhmi i gcs an oideachais Ghaeltachta.
Is lir, freisin, nach bhfuil ag ir leis an gcras oideachais sa Ghaeltacht ar chor ar bith
cainteoir gnomhacha Gaeilge a dhanamh de na dalta a thagann chun na scoile gan aon
Ghaeilge. Go deimhin, t fianaise ann Mhac Donnacha et al. (2005) agus n suirbh ar na
daoine ga (Caibidil 15) gurb a mhalairt at ag tarl, .i. go dtreisonn a rannphirtocht sa
12
chras oideachais i gceantair Ghaeltachta sid an Bharla i measc daoine ga Gaeltachta

at dtgil le Gaeilge.
1.3.5 Polasaithe oideachais sa Ghaeltacht
Dronn na saothair sin thuas uile aird ar ghnithe agsla den easnamh a bhaineann leis an
solthar a dhanann an cras oideachais ar an gcainteoir dchais sa Ghaeltacht ( Cinnide et
al. 2001; Mac Donnacha et al. 2005; Mac Donnacha 2005; Flatharta 2007; agus SCT 2007).
N lir polasa oideachais Gaeltachta a bheith ann. N lir idirdheal a bheith dhanamh idir
riachtanais na gcainteoir dchais agus na bhfoghlaimeoir Gaeilge. N lir cn struchtr n cn
bainisti oideachais at ndanamh ar an scolaocht do chainteoir dchais Gaeilge. N ann do
churaclam a dhronn ar riachtanais na gcainteoir dchais Gaeilge. I dtaighde a cuireadh i gcrch
glin shin (Sture Ureland 1991) lirodh nach raibh ag ir leis an gcur chuige i scoileanna sa
Ghaeltacht scileanna litearthachta sa Ghaeilge a fhorbairt i measc na ndalta a bh inchurtha leis
na scileanna litearthachta a bh bhforbairt acu i gcs an Bharla. N lir cn straitis a cuireadh i
bhfearas n am sin i leith chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar na dshlin a bhaineann leis an rimse seo
den ghnthachtil oideachais. Is cosil go deimhin nach ceist reatha oideachais mbhuntiste seo
na litearthachta sa mhionteanga thaobh lucht polasa de.
1.3.6 Teanga dhchais, teanga phromhil, teanga na forbartha pearsanta
T doilire i bpolasaithe an chrais oideachais sa Ghaeltacht i lthair na huaire toisc gur deacair
a shainmhni i gcomhthacs an chainteora dchais (Mac Donnacha 2005; Flatharta 2007), rud
a chuireann leis na castachta a bhaineann leis an taith at ag an aos g sa Ghaeltacht air. C acu
mnla dobh seo a leanas a dfhadfa a chur i bhfeidhm a dfheilfeadh aos g na Gaeltachta agus a
dfhreastaldh ar na spriocanna oideachais at ag an gcras oideachais sa Ghaeltacht maidir leis
an nGaeilge?
a) An tumoideachas dtheangach do mhrtheangir;
b) An t-oideachas oidhreachta framhaithe sa mhrtheanga;
c) An t-oideachas dtheangach mionteanga agus mrtheanga;

d) An t-oideachas mionteanga mar chad teanga;
e) An tumoideachas mionteanga;
f) Meascn dobh sin.
Sa taighde seo leagamar romhainn anails a dhanamh ar an toradh teangeolaochta dtheangach

san aos g (.i. an cumas sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla) a eascraonn as an taith at ag cainteoir ga
dchais ar chrsa teaghlaigh, pobail agus oideachais, chomh maith le rims cumarside nach
iad. thaobh an oideachais de, bainfimid leas as tortha an taighde seo le mnla imlneach cu
oideachais a roghn agus a dhearadh daos g na Gaeltachta mar is mithid teacht ar shaini cruinn
ar chumas comparideach na gcainteoir ga dchais dfhonn cur chuige oideachais a mholadh ina
leith. Chumamar tstlacha a dfhach leis an innilacht i leith tscair agsla teangeolaochta
a scagadh sa chaoi is go mbeimis in ann tomhas a dhanamh ar an acmhainn dhtheangach sa
Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla.
Sa litrocht ar lann na teangeolaochta glactar leis go mbaineann an fhorbairt lacsach agus priseil
na gcoincheap agus na gcastachta gramada sa chaint le cimeanna san fhors cogneolaochta. Is
aidhm an staidir seo mar sin tortha agus bonn anailse a sholthar a chuirfeadh ar r gcumas
tomhas a dhanamh arb ionann a gcad teanga agus an bonn don teanga phromhil at ag
cainteoir baile Gaeilge, is sin, c acu teanga phromhil (is oirina) ag an aos g: Gaeilge n
Barla (n meascn dobh). N g gurb ionann an teanga dhchais agus an teanga phromhil i
gcs an dtheangachais mhionteanga. Is ard at sa teanga phromhil an teanga is feidhmila at
ag piste le tabhairt faoin bhforbairt phearsanta agus faoin bhfors cogneolaochta. Is annamh an
13
1. Ramhr
chothromaocht chumais sa dtheangachas. Is an ttal a deascair as taighde Sheng et al. (2013:

14) ar dhtheangachas na Mandairnise agus an Bharla: The current result underscores the
notion that perfectly balanced bilinguals may be more of a fantasy than reality ... .
1.4 Sainmhnithe
Anseo sos t liosta sainmhnithe de tharma tbhachtacha at sa saothar seo.
T1 agus T2: Sa saothar seo, is an chiall a thugaimid do T1 n bunteanga na cumarside

n maitrs na cumarside. Agus is an chiall a thugaimid do T2 n an teanga bhreise sa
chumarsid sin. D bhr sin, mar shampla, i gcomhr Gaeilge is an Ghaeilge an T1 agus
tugtar T2 ar fhocail Bharla i gcomhr Gaeilge. Ar an gcuma channa, i gcomhr Barla, is
an Barla an T1 agus tugtar T2 ar fhocail Ghaeilge sa chomhr Barla.3*
Focal T1 Gaeilge: focal Gaeilge a mbaintear leas as i gcomhr Gaeilge.
Focal T2 Gaeilge: focal Gaeilge a mbaintear leas as i gcomhr Barla.
Focal T1 Barla: focal Barla a mbaintear leas as i gcomhr Barla.
Focal T2 Barla: focal Barla a mbaintear leas as i gcomhr Gaeilge.
Teanga phromhil: an teanga is feidhmila at ag duine thaobh na forbartha pearsanta

agus cogneolaochtla agus na hidirghnomhaochta sisialta de.
Teanga thnaisteach: teanga eile a bhfuil feidhm n acmhainn ag an duine uirthi nach
gcomhlonann na riachtanais a bhaineann leis an bhfors peasanta, cogneolaochtil agus
sisialaithe chomh hiomln leis an teanga phromhil.
Seachfhoirm an tarma nua a thugaimid sa saothar seo ar fhoirm iarthraidisinta sa
Ghaeilge chomhaimseartha nach dtagann le gns na Gaeilge Traidisinta n na Gaeilge
Caighdena; n, sa Bharla, foirm nach dtagann le gnthnoirm an Bharla (n Bharla na
hireann).
Tugtar leagan mchu ar leagan earrideach agus ar leagan iarthraidisinta araon. C nach
furasta i gcna sa Ghaeilge leagan earrideach agus leagan iarthraidisinta a idirdheal
chile, is leagan earrideach at i gceist le leagan ar cosil nach gcloonn s le haon chras
gramada (.i. n chloonn s le cras traidisinta, n caighdenach, n iarthraidisinta n
laghdaithe).
Ar an gcuma channa tugtar seach-leagan ar chomhrir n ar bhr at mchu de rir na
Gaeilge Traidisinta.
Ar an gcuma channa tugtar seachshimeantaic ar shimeantaic n ar bhr at mchu de

rir na Gaeilge Traidisinta; fach Fochaibidil 5.4.1.
Comhchlaonadh: simpli n athr i dtreo na teanga eile i rims agsla teangeolaochta;

fach, mar shampla, an t-aicmi i bhFochaibidil 4.3.2.
Comhartha (token): is an bhr a bhaintear as comhartha n eiseamlir (amhin) i
gcomhthacs (amhin), mar is gns sa teangeolaocht.
Leama (lemma): fach an mni i bhFochaibidil 2.1.
Leagan imscrofa (circumlocutory): fach an pl i bhFochaibidil 3.2.3.
Lipad isiil don saothar seo at i gceist sa bhr seo. N hionann an chiall seo agus an bhr a bhaintear go hiondil
as an tarma T1 (Teanga 1), .i. an chad teanga a labhraonn piste. Is ionann sin agus an mhthairtheanga. Is an
bhr a bhaintear go hiondil as an tarma T2 (Teanga 2) n an teanga a dfhoghlaim duine i gcomhthacs eile seachas
sealbh promhil na mthairtheanga.
3*
14
1.4 Sainmhnithe
Buntuiseal: foirm an ainmfhocail ar ionann agus an tuiseal ainmneach (agus a

fheidhmtear go minic sa suomh ginideach); fach, mar shampla, Fochaibidil 2.9.1.
Piste menach n dalta menach: tagraonn luach menach don toradh at ar an men
i sraith faisnise uimhrila. Is fidir a r gurb luach an phiste mhenaigh n an dalta
mhenaigh an toradh at ar an men i measc thortha dhalta an taighde seo.
Z-scr (Z-score): lon na ndiall caighdenach at toradh ar leith mhen thortha an
ghrpa, fach an pl i bhFochaibidil 6.10.
P-luach (p-value): an dchlacht go bhfaighf toradh i sampla a bheadh ar a laghad chomh

foircneach leis an toradh a fhaightear, nuair at an tsainhipitis (H0) for, fach an pl i
bhFochaibidil 5.10.
An tsamhail lneach ghinearlta (general linear model): fach an pl i bhFochaibidil 9.3.2.

Cainteoir dchais Gaeilge: duine a thgtar le Gaeilge i bpobal Gaeilge agus gurb an
Ghaeilge an teanga a labhraonn a thuismitheoir() leis mar phromhtheanga bhaile. Sa
saothar seo seachnamid ceisteanna sainmhnithe faoin rud is cainteoir dchais n
leathchainteoir n fochainteoir ann mar gur fidir leis na ceisteanna seo a bheith straeil
i gcomhthacs chastachta an dtheangachais.
Cainteoir laghdaithe: duine a bhfuil sealbh laghdaithe danta aige ar theanga.
Infheidhmi, priseas an infheidhmithe: an priseas trna mbaineann piste (n aon

duine) feidhmilacht amach i dteanga, is sin, priseas i dtreo acmhainne iomlnache
feidhm sochtheangeolaochta.
Litheoireacht bhreise
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T. agus Ungerleider, C. (2010) A systematic review and metaanalysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism, Review of Educational Research 80, 2: 20745.
Fishman, J. A. (1989) Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective. Clevedon:

Multilingual Matters.
Fishman, J. A. (1991) Reversing Language Shift. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Fishman, J. A. (eag.) (2001) Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Reversing Language Shift
Revisited: A 21st century perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hickey, T.M. (2012) ILARSP: A Grammatical Profile of Irish In Ball, M. agus Fletcher, P. (eag.). The
Languages of LARSP. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. 14966.
Lenoach, C., Giollagin, C. agus Curnin, B. (eag.) (2012) An Chonair Chaoch: an Mionteangachas
sa Dtheangachas. Indreabhn: Leabhar Breac.
Nic Eoin, M. (2013) Saothr na sochtheangeolaochta; An tSochtheangeolaocht: feidhm agus
tuairisc ( hIfearnin, N Neachtain); An Chonair Chaoch: An mionteangachas sa dtheangachas
(Lenoach, Giollagin, Curnin). igse 38: 30624.
Curnin, B. (2009) Mionteang na Gaeilge in Cathin, B. (eag.) Sochtheangeolaocht na Gaeilge:

Lachta Cholm Cille 39. Maigh Nuad: An Sagart. 90153.
SCT - Giollagin, C., Mac Donnacha, S., N Chualin, F., N Shaghdha, A. agus OBrien, M. (2007)
Staidar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch ar sid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht: Tuarascil Chrochnaitheach.
BC: Oifig an tSolthair.
15
Introduction
This research report was commissioned by An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus

Gaelscolaochta (COGG) and awarded in 2009 to the National University of Ireland Galway in
collaboration with the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. COGG requested that the research
should examine the nature of the acquisition of Irish among young native speakers in their current
circumstances, in the context of the sociolinguistic pressures brought to light in the results of the
Comprehensive Linguistic Study of the Use of Irish in the Gaeltacht (CLS 2007; Staidar Cuimsitheach
Teangeolaoch ar sid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht). The CLS demonstrated that language acquisition
in the current social context is highly fragile among Gaeltacht families. COGG requested a detailed
analysis of the internal linguistic features of native Irish as spoken by young speakers (an analysis
that supplements the external sociolinguistic analysis of social trends and self-reported bilingual
ability highlighted in the CLS). In combination, the CLS and this report provide a reasonably complete
description of quantitative and qualitative aspects of contemporary Gaeltacht circumstances, from
both a community and linguistic perspective. Therefore, the purpose of this research report is, as
it were, to put qualitative flesh on the quantitative bones of the CLS an up-to-date linguistic
description complementing the sociological analysis.
Among the trends noted in the CLS, two were of particular importance: the decrease in the
acquisition of Irish as a home language and the centrality of English-language socialisation among
young speakers. In this research, we were asked to provide data on the implications of early
English acquisition on the acquisition of Irish in the bilingual context evidenced in the CLS. This
report provides an analysis of the effect of bilingualism on both the Irish- and English-language
ability of young Irish native speakers in the contemporary Gaeltacht, focusing on the linguistic
acquisition of children whose home language was exclusively Irish.
As challenging as the main conclusions of this research are regarding the reduction in the acquisition
of Irish, and consequently their impact on the sustainability of the Gaeltacht, this research was
undertaken in order to provide clear analysis for Gaeltacht communities, for the Irish people
and for speakers of minority languages internationally, in order to understand the condition of
minority language acquisition with a view to recommending approaches aimed at full acquisition
understanding is the initial step on the road to a more hopeful outcome (coiscim tosaigh an
bheartais dchais an tuiscint, Lenoach et al. 2012: 17). Parents, teachers, community leaders as
well as policy makers in education and other state sectors can enhance the likely outcomes of their
actions based on the information presented in this research report, thus informing approaches
aimed at improving the current situation.
This research reports findings are based on the analysis of the speech of children whose home
language is exclusively Irish. The region of Cois Fharraige and South Conamara in Co. Galway
were chosen for this research. This area was chosen because it exhibits the highest density and
percentage of home acquisition of Irish: this is the strongest Irish-speaking area left. The CLS shows
that approximately 60% of all native speakers of Irish in the entire Gaeltacht live in this area (in the
14 Electoral Divisions which encompass Category A in Cois Fharraige and South Conamara).1* The
results of this survey present analysis of the best contemporary achievement in the acquisition of
The three Gaeltacht Categories refer to the classification set out in the CLS of the Irish-speaker profiles found in the
Official Gaeltacht. Category A: area containing the highest levels of active Irish speakers. Category B: area where shift
to English is well established. Category C: area where shift to English has been completed in the community in general
(except for some older Irish speakers).
1*
16
1.1 Methodology
Irish in the 712 year-old age group, in this, the area with the highest number of native speakers of
Irish, and we compare this Irish acquisition to the acquisition of English among the same children.
There is no doubt that the quality of attainment in Irish acquisition in the Gaeltacht (Category A
in this instance) among children whose home-language is English (or both Irish and English), and
who represent half the relative age cohort, is significantly lower than the attainment of Irish found
in the results of the exclusive Irish age cohort in this survey. The attainment reported here, for
the best half of the age cohort (for Irish), is as good as it gets or the best that one can reasonably
expect to find in a sample this size in the current circumstances of Irish.
1.1 Methodology
There were eight main procedures involved in this study:
1. Developing tests and assessment procedures of Irish and English ability.
2. Sound recording of interviews with the children containing the tests and assessment data.
3. Production of transcripts of the sound recordings of tests and assessments from each
childs interview.
4. Extraction of linguistic data from the recorded and transcribed interview material
according to variables chosen to reflect relevant linguistic categories.
5. Production of a computerised database of statistical and linguistic data according to

linguistic and social variables.
6. Analysis of the presence and absence of linguistic functionality according to variables
chosen to quantify linguistic achievement in Irish and English; a summary score was given
for achievement in Irish and another for achievement in English.
7. Comparison of the achievement in both languages in order to estimate bilingual ability; a

bilingual score index was developed for both languages based on the language scores.
8. Writing up our report based on the analysis.
1.1.1 Development of testing and assessment tools

We based the analysis in this study on recordings of children as they described and discussed
picture books. There were two steps to each recorded interview:
(a) First, the interviewer asked the children to describe the action shown in a picture book and
to narrate the story illustrated by the pictures.
(b) Then, the interviewer asked the child to go back over the picture book, to answer specific
questions and to complete certain tests based on the story and on the same pictures.
The same process was used for both languages, with a gap of two weeks between interviews;
either the Irish or English interview took place first, with the interview in the other language
approximately two weeks later. In one school interviewers had to undertake both interviews on
the same day due to time constraints. Four picture books from the same series were used: The
Little Red Train: Runaway Train; Race to the Finish; Little Red Train to the Rescue; Green Light for the
Little Red Train (Blathwayt 1995, 2003, 2006, 2007). Half of the children were initially interviewed
in Irish, and the other half in English. A different book of the four was used by each child for each
language; this meant a balance between the order of interviews and the choice of book. A fourth of
the interviews in Irish and a fourth of those in English, for example, made use of the book Runaway
Train. This series was chosen because the material was appropriate for the pupils age group and
because of the number of events and activities represented in the pictures, all of which would
give the children the opportunity to describe or narrate the story in the books. The printed text
17
1. Introduction
accompanying the pictures was covered with white stickers in order to completely hide the text,
so that the children would not be able to read any text and so that any textual or other linguistic
input would be restricted.
An effort was made to undertake the interviews in as monolingual a mode as possible for each of
the two languages. The children were told that the picture books were written in French (so that
an Irish language mode would not impact on the English language mode, or, mutatis mutandis, an
English mode on the Irish mode), and the interviewers were instructed to speak monolingually,
either exclusively in Irish or exclusively in English. A monolingual approach to each language was
chosen to provide a suitable basis for the comparative analysis and to enable an assessment of the
highest attainment levels and abilities of the children in each of the two languages separately. At
the beginning of the study it was clear to us that it was easier for the children to use an exclusive
monolingual mode in English rather than in Irish, as is common in the case of minority languages
(majority language in monolingual mode vs. minority language in bilingual mode), although a
conscious effort was made throughout the interviews to access ability in each language separately.
This is not to say that the children themselves employed an exclusive monolingual mode in the
interviews. Most often the children employed a monolingual mode in English. In contrast, they
generally employed a bilingual language mode in Irish except for a few pupils.
We prepared a questionnaire on the sociolinguistic traits and sociological background of the
children. This questionnaire was completed with one of the teachers (usually the school principal)
in each school. Table 1 contains the categories from the questionnaire results as well as other
relevant sociological information.
General
School
Home
School
Place of Residence
Age
Gender
School socialisation (language of socialisation, proportion of Irish speakers)
Academic attainment
Parents (place of residence, type of speaker, occupation)
Number of siblings
Information technology (television, computers, X-box, Playstation, Wii, etc.)
Table 1 Sociolinguistic information collected through questionnaire.
The five characteristics drawn from this questionnaire and relevant to the results of this research
are: age, gender, academic ability, exposure to television (i.e. exposure to information technology
generally), and the ratio of Irish speakers in the school classroom of the child (number of active
speakers of Irish in comparison with the number of children in the students class (and school)).
The data reported by teachers on the social, sociolinguistic and educational backgrounds of the
children were used for the sociological categorisation of the analysis of the level of acquisition
of Irish and English respectively as demonstrated by the children in the linguistic assessments
undertaken for this study. The parents (of all the children who were assessed in this study) are all
native speakers of Irish from the Gaeltacht. The children were chosen to participate in the study
on the basis of the teachers report that the children were spoken to exclusively in Irish by their
parents at home. The study contains a total sample of 50 children, aged between 7 and 12 years of
age, from eight schools. There are 24 girls and 26 boys in the sample.
Normal ethical guidelines for undertaking research with children were followed in this study,
especially with regard to the anonymity of the children and the schools in the presentation of the
results. This research does not find fault with or lay blame on any particular individual or group.
Sociological and sociolinguistic insights are the focus of this work and no individual or his or her
personal details are discussed.
18
1.1 Methodology
1.1.2 Interviews
The children were interviewed twice. Each interview was in two parts; first, an individual interview
with a child on his or her own (in Irish and English separately), and second, two children from
the same school speaking together (in Irish and English separately). Colm Malid, Acadamh
na hOllscolaochta Gaeilge, in An Cheathr Rua, provided advice and assistance with technical
aspects of the recordings and their storage.
Each individual interview contained two sections. After putting the children at ease and following a
short general conversation between the interviewer and child, each child was asked in the first part
of the interview to tell a story based on the pictures in the chosen book, using questions prepared
in advance for the interviewer. A more structured discussion, still based on the picture book, was
sought in the second part of the interview, where the child was required to respond to specific
questions, and in one task, the child was requested to formulate questions (See Aguisn AD).
Interviews were carried out by the main interviewers Belinda McHale and Laoise N Thuairisg.
Both main interviewers completed half their interviews in English and half in Irish.2* Due to time
pressures, Brian Curnin and Conchr Giollagin assisted the main interviewers in one school.
In total the recordings of interviews consist of 69 hours and 20 minutes of speech. Most of the time
was spent on the individual interviews (more than 29 hours of interviews in Irish and more than
20 hours in English).
The teachers confirm that the children assessed in this report had no communicative or aural
difficulties or specific language impairment, apart from one child whose pronunciation in both
languages was slightly non-optimal. Schools in the Category A Gaeltacht in Co. Galway were
selected for this survey. This survey area represents the largest Category A area in the country and
thus contains the greatest density of Irish speakers in the country. Schools in proximity to each
other, but not coterminous with Category B or C boundaries, were selected until the quota of 50
pupils was reached.
1.1.3 Analysis of recordings and development of the database
Consistent with ethical requirements, a unique identifier was assigned to each child. All the
interviews were initially transcribed and these transcripts formed the basis for analysis. The
following people assisted in transcribing the recordings: Anne N Choirbn, Paula N Chionnaith,
Mairad N Laocha and Tams Ptervry. The transcripts contain a total of 1,830 pages (522,870
words). Tams Ptervry checked the transcripts of each interview, which were then reviewed
by Tams Ptervry and Brian Curnin together. An analysis was carried out on the transcripts
of individual interviews (both Irish and English interviews) which represent approximately 82%
(428,953 words) of the recorded and transcribed material.
Analysis was carried out on the Irish-language interviews according to the following nine linguistic
features: vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, fluency, grammatical gender,
initial mutations and phonology. Chapter 1 presents the results of the analysis of the data from
the Irish-language interviews, and Chapter 2 covers the analysis of material from the interviews
in English. As concerns the English-language interviews, analysis was undertaken on the following
six linguistic features: vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and fluency.
1.1.4 Comparative ability in both languages
Chapter 3 presents the direct comparison of the ability in the two languages for those linguistic
features where direct comparison is possible: vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics,
pragmatics and fluency. Direct comparison provides a detailed statistical basis for establishing
With regard to the research results, no statistically significant effect on the childrens linguistic attainment results
was found for the language order of the interviews (Irish interview first or English interview first); neither was any
statistically significant difference found between the childrens linguistic attainment according to which of the two
main interviewers carried out the interview.
2*
19
1. Introduction
childrens relative ability in each language, in the context of bilingualism. Categories where an
indirect comparison can be made between the two languages are also defined. We focused on
those linguistic categories where there is evidence indicative of change towards the other language
(either through internal development or through contact-induced influence of the other language).
Other internal changes were categorised as inappropriate based on the accepted norms of Irish
(whether traditional local standard or national standard). Although we use the term internal
changes to refer to these changes, it is important to highlight the significance of high incidences
of such changes in the context of bilingualism, and indeed, for some of these changes, arising from
bilingualism. For a minority language, it is important to note the following:
Many of the parents of the children in the study have a relatively well-developed ability in
Irish (in comparison with that of the children), i.e. many of the parents and other adults
have a competence in Irish at a level that can be considered traditional.
The parents and the community employ a significant level of codeswitching in Irish; these
represent the speakers from whom the children acquire their Irish.
It is both challenging and complicated to identify the target of acquisition, for both the
child and researcher alike, because the child is acquiring language in a context of such a
high level of codeswitching, of reduced or incomplete acquisition and of majority-language
acquisition.
For these reasons, when a specific linguistic form or variant is referred to in this study as
inappropriate or that it is a divergent form, this implies that the form does not concur with
Traditional Irish (i.e. the norms of previous generations of native speakers of Irish) or with a version
of Standard Irish. Both inappropriate forms and divergent forms are common in the vernacular,
especially among those born after approximately 1980. For Irish there is a constantly moving
target. The consequences of this reality are the focus of this survey: that there is a constraint on
the intergenerational transmission of Irish related to interference from the social functionality of
English (and the prevalence of English in the media). In the context of unbalanced bilingualism in
a minority-language community, one finds that norms can be identified with regard to acquisition
of the majority language, but it is much more difficult to identify a norm in the acquisition of the
minority language. Additionally, as is often the case in majority and minority language contact, the
normal milestones in the acquisition of Irish and detailed phases of acquisition of Irish have not
been thoroughly established. International scholarship, however, shows that most acquisition has
been completed by the age of the subjects of this study (at the time the data were collected from
them). Since most of the results of this study point to the same underlying trends, the discussion
is not overly dependent on any particular linguistic feature, and neither is the analysis dependent
on the attainment in a few linguistic features whose acquisition requires a longer timescale. Also,
as is demonstrated in this study, it is not possible to define such milestones and phases in full
acquisition of Irish based on the current generation of young native speakers (because of the
prevalence of contemporary reduced acquisition as shall be demonstrated in this report).
Chapters 5 to 8 of this report analyse comparative linguistic data according to four of the
sociological variables pertaining to the children. Age, gender, academic ability and exposure to
television were selected as variables for analysis. Although a full analysis was carried out on
each of these variables, only the most significant points and those which clearly demonstrate the
relation between the two languages are included in this report.
1.1.5 Results of the report
Chapter 9 covers conclusions relating to the impact of bilingualism on linguistic and sociolinguistic
attainment. In the final chapter, Chapter 10, we discuss the implications of the current state of
Irish acquisition for the Gaeltacht communities, where native speakers still remain, and for the
whole country. In order to address these challenges we put forward a series of recommendations
20
1.2 Ability and dominance in bilingualism
to guide those who wish to transmit Irish to the next generation. Recommendations are also made
for the benefit of the Department of Education and Skills. Chapters 9 and 10, therefore, focus on
how best to support the Irish-speaking community based on a realistic assessment of its current
circumstances.
When discussing bilingualism, it is necessary to emphasise the following eight basic facts:
as well as the practical, economic, personal, social and cultural advantages associated
with an ability in an additional language, bilinguals are often found to have certain cognitive
advantages over monolinguals
there is usually an imbalance in linguistic ability for most bilinguals between their two
languages: the more competent language is referred to as the dominant language;
unbalanced bilingualism is the universal norm as is, therefore, dominant bilingualism
(i.e. one dominant language and one dominated language)
a bilinguals competence in his or her weaker language or weak language is generally far
less developed than a monolingual speakers competence
linguistic influence or language interference generally proceeds from the dominant

language to the weaker language; that is to say that the dominant language influences the
weaker language more than the other way around
the language of greater ability is easier for a person to use; the person therefore uses it
more often, both in speech and writing
individual bilingualism and societal bilingualism are distinct entities
additive bilingualism refers to advantageous bilingualism without disadvantage to

either language, with regard to the individual or society, and subtractive bilingualism
refers to disadvantageous bilingualism, with regard to the individual or society; from a
majority language perspective, bilingualism can often be additive and advantageous, but
from the perspective of minority languages, bilingualism can often be both subtractive and
disadvantageous
it is bilingualism, either individual or societal, which most often leads to language death,
as can be seen in many cases today.
In this research we propose to assess the bilingual ability in Irish and English among pupils in
the senior classes of primary schools in the Category A Gaeltacht of Co. Galway. Evidence has
been gathered over recent years which indicates that this young generation has a high level of
ability in English, and that their Irish is substantially different to that of older generations. In the
CLS, a majority of secondary school pupils in Gaeltacht Category A (as well as in all other official
Gaeltacht areas) reported that their ability in English was better than their ability in Irish. It has
been known for quite some time that literacy levels in English are higher than those in Irish for the
majority of young and middle-aged people in the Gaeltacht.
This is the first study undertaken in Ireland of spoken bilinguals IrishEnglish competence. This
research is based on a sample of children who are being raised through Irish exclusively, i.e. parent
input is monolingual (but generally with code-switching), and the parents are native speakers of
Irish. We sought to answer three research questions relating to this age group:
1. Are IrishEnglish bilinguals balanced or unbalanced in their linguistic ability?
2. Is ability in one language dominant over the ability in the other?
21
1. Introduction
3. Is there evidence of bilingual acquisition on the linguistic achievement in both languages,

especially with regard to Irish, and if so, in which grammatical and linguistic domains?
There was also an important additional research question, for which only a small amount of
evidence was available:
Is there evidence for sociolinguistic or sociological conditioning on the various levels of
bilingual attainment?
Speech is the primary mode in general language competence. When people speak, they demonstrate
their ability in their language or languages, and this ability is the most basic of communicative
abilities. Therefore, in order to assess bilingualism, it is most important to focus on analysing
spoken language or languages, the most important linguistic skill in bilingual competence.
Such assessment can be accomplished using a variety of methods. International research has
demonstrated that self-assessment in language ability is a simple and reliable measure, including
parental reports or the self-reports of young people and adults on their own abilities (with the
exception of self-report of balanced ability in more than one language).
In this study, the children were recorded in interviews focusing on their spoken ability while
narrating and discussing stories about pictures in picture books depicting aspects of urban and
rural life. In addition, the children were recorded answering questions for relevant linguistic
assessment, and they were required to produce questions, based on the picture books. These
procedures were designed to elicit evidence of their linguistic ability in particular grammatical
structures and language forms of research interest. Based on the transcripts of these interviews,
the childrens ability in English and Irish was analysed. The linguistic ability of each child in
comparable domains in Irish and English can thus be compared. This type of multifaceted analysis,
in this study and in similar international research, demonstrates that it is possible for speakers to
be dominant in Language A in certain linguistic domains and for the same speakers to be dominant
in Language B in other linguistic domains.
Following the assessment of each language for various linguistic categories (e.g. nominal plural
and verb inflection), the achievement in these linguistic categories can be collated and summed
up for each language and scored to indicate general competence. The general competence of each
child in each language can then be established. The total linguistic outcomes of the analysis in
each language can be compared for each child, and it is therefore possible to group children, for
example, by age and gender. A speaker who attains a similar result or score in each language can
be said to be a relatively balanced bilingual, while a speaker whose scores are not similar in both
languages can be said to be an unbalanced bilingual. A speaker whose result or score in Language A
is considerably higher than that of Language B can be said to be dominant in Language A (in other
words, Language A is dominant in terms of the speakers competence or attainment). Based on this
analysis, a level or scale of balanced / unbalanced bilingualism in speakers, i.e. a bilingual score
index, was produced, and we established the dominance of one language over the other.
1.2.1 Ability, dominance and reduction in minority languages
It is important to remind ourselves of the following seven basic realities of the minority language
condition:
the majority language is more or less ubiquitous
codeswitching is especially common in the minority language, while the majority language
is generally used in a monolingual mode, normally without codeswitching
codeswitching can impede language attainment in acquisition
a mixed language or code can arise as the vernacular in the minority language speech
community
22
simultaneous, unidirectional bilingualism often arises during the process of acquisition:

simultaneous (acquisition of majority language at a very young age, simultaneously with
the minority language); unidirectional (the minority language speaker must acquire the
majority language, although the majority language speaker does not have to learn the
minority language)
in this type of context, the acquisition of the majority language is often or typically more
effective, the majority language is typically dominant, and the minority language is
typically characterised by incomplete acquisition
in relation to the two languages in a bilingual situation the typical direction of influence
and codeswitching is that the dominant language has the greatest influence on the
language of least competence or the language of incomplete acquisition (i.e. dominant
language reduced language).
In the context of bilingualism linguistic ability is complex and difficult to assess. It is especially
important, therefore, to initially establish a method of comparison with other bilinguals
competence (in the same two languages). In the case of minority languages, especially where the
majority language has had a substantial influence or where incomplete acquisition has been a
feature in the community over the years, there are further difficulties as to the assessment of the
minority language. It is unclear what the target of acquisition is for a minority language which is
undergoing considerable change under the influence of a majority language and where acquisition
is often incomplete. What is correct, both functionally and in comprehension, in a minority
language which is significantly influenced by a majority language? These additional challenges
regarding definition and assessment for minority languages highlight (in contrast to the relatively
certain, standard targets in ultimate attainment established for the majority language) the
difficulties faced by minority language communities who desire to foster an ongoing competence
through language transmission between the generations.
As a practical solution for the problems addressed in this study, the ability in Irish of the children
was assessed with reference to either Traditional Irish (as described in the comprehensive dialect
literature) or standard Irish (as defined by the Official Standard (An Caighden Oifigiil 1957 and
other editions) and found in standard textbooks) as was appropriate. By virtue of this method, at least,
the significant change which is evident in Post-traditional Irish becomes clear. It is not claimed here
that reduced ability is implicated in every change in Post-traditional Irish; but taken together, these
changes provide clear evidence of deficiency, as set out in the literature on incomplete acquisition and
on language death. Speakers of mixed or weakened languages, or heavily codeswitched languages,
can still acquire a certain level of functionality, but it is most likely, especially in minority language
communities around the world, that competence determines communication. This is the case with
young speakers in the Category A Gaeltacht, most of whom speak English to each other.
When the many various features of Post-traditional Irish are collated, as have been identified and
discussed in recent years in different academic publications, a gap has been demonstrated in ability
and functionality between Post-traditional Irish and Traditional Irish. Some developments in Posttraditional Irish have arisen from the influence of the majority language and codeswitching; other
changes are due primarily to incomplete acquisition; still others, through a combination of these
two factors. Which of the above influences, due to codeswitching, incomplete acquisition, or a
combination of both (or other causes), is responsible for any particular change depends on speech
practices in the community for the past twenty or forty years. On the one hand, the anglicisation of
the pragmatic system of Irish has been taking place for several generations, e.g. you know replacing
an bhfuil fhios agad (do you know) and t fhios agad (you know). Therefore, in the case of a
young speaker lacking Irish discourse markers, such as t fhios agad, it is possible to determine
that these were lacking from his or her sources of acquisition, rather than their absence being
an instance of incomplete acquisition. A similar analysis can be applied to the loss of the indirect
relative particle, which is being replaced by the direct relative particle. In morphology, on the
other hand, most middle-aged speakers still produce the comparative forms of the adjective, e.g.
23
1. Introduction
beag nos l (small smaller). A young speaker who does not produce comparative forms as
part of his or her repertoire, e.g. using nos beag instead of nos l, is considered in this study to
be demonstrating incomplete acquisition. It is possible, of course, to reach the same or a similar
outcome due to a transgenerational change towards the majority language, e.g. t fhios agad you
know (in the parental generation), and change due to incomplete acquisition or language attrition,
e.g. nos l nos beag (in the younger generation); and it is often difficult or unnecessary to
distinguish between the two processes. They operate in tandem in the minority language context.
1.2.2 Sources and literature
There is a wide, abundant literature covering various aspects of bilingualism, the minority
language condition and language death; for reasons of space it is possible to mention here only a
small selection of references. Much of what has been discussed above with regard to Irish has been
based on Dorian (1973, 1977, 1978, 1981), Lenoach, Giollagin and Curnin (2012), Mac Con
Raoi (2011), Nance (2013), Curnin (2007, 2009, 2011), Giollagin and Mac Donnacha et al.
(2007, CLS), Smith-Christmas and Smakman (2009), and on Sture Ureland (1991).
Further afield, Schmidt (1985) examined the sociolinguistics and grammar of the reduction and
loss of Dyirbal in Australia (and more recently Simpson and Wigglesworth (2008) on other native
Australian languages); Trudgill (1977) described the reduction and death of Albanian in Greece;
Jones (1998; 2001, 2005) presented incontrovertible evidence for the reduction and death of,
respectively, Welsh in Wales and Jersey Norman French on the island of Jersey.
There is similar evidence on the reduction and death of French in Louisiana in Dubois and Noetzel
(2006). Heritage languages in the United States and Europe are increasingly the focus of research,
with the thesis of incomplete acquisition investigated especially persuasively by Montrul (2008)
in the context of Spanish speakers. The results of the important groundbreaking long-term
research of Spanish speakers in Miami, Florida, are reported by editors McCardle and Hoff (2006)
and the discussion of the role of input in acquisition is presented in Pearson, Fernndez, Lewedeg
and Oller (1997). De Leeuw, Schmid and Mennen (2010) consider German speakers in the United
States, while Polinsky (2008) examines Russian speakers.
Similar outcomes are reported for French speakers in Canada, e.g. King (2008) and Mougeon
and Beniak (1991); and for the autochthonous peoples of North America, e.g. Wright, Taylor and
Macarthur (2000) on Inuit. Dutch researchers are particularly productive with regard to their
own heritage languages, e.g. Boumans (2006) on Arabic. Gathercole and Thomas (2009), in the
context of Welsh, present a persuasive evidence-based argument in favour of early monolingual
acquisition in the minority language. There is an astute discussion in Matras (2009) on the
linguistic outcomes of bilingualism and minority languages, and on the process of (unbalanced)
bilingual acquisition in Yip and Matthews (2007).
The most comprehensive evidence to date on the negative impact of codeswitching on attainment
in vocabulary for bilingual children is presented in Byers-Heinlein (2013), along with discussion
of the absence of such positive evidence of this negative association in previous studies. Calvet
(2006) explores the general tendency that the general language of the community or of socialisation
usually becomes dominant in acquisition, and that therefore the language spoken in the childs
particular family does not determine language dominance. Crystal (2000) presents a general
outline of the phenomenon of language death. The rarity of balanced bilingualism is evidenced in,
e.g. Flecken (2010) for GermanDutch, and Sheng, Lu and Gollan (2013), for MandarinEnglish.
The instability and tipping-point characteristics of societal bilingualism are considered in, e.g.
Abrams and Strogatz (2003), Castell, Eguluz and Miguel (2006) and Minett and Wang (2008),
while de Swaan (2001) looks at the world linguistic system, or the ecology of languages.
For the convenience of the reader we avoid copious use of academic references throughout this
report, since much relevant material is already available in Lenoach et al. (2012) and in the
publications of other authors, such as Dressler (1996), Dubois and Melanon (1997), Dubois and
24
1.3 Sociolinguistic background to the study
Noetzel (2006), Fishman (1989, 1991, 2001), Francis (2005), Gathercole and Thomas (2009),
Hagge (2009), Hill and May (2013), Jones (1998), Koven (2007), Krauss (1992, 2006), and
Montrul (2008). As for the linguistic analysis, we also avoid citing references and base our analysis
on dialect and linguistic studies, for example, de Bhaldraithe (1945, 1953), Curnin (2007),
hAnluain (1960) and the Official Standard (An Caighden Oifigiil 1957).
The sociolinguistic literature provides a relevant background to the theme of this research. Among
the insights which have emerged from sociolinguistics with relevance to analysing the nature of
the bilingualism practiced by the young people in this study are:
Social and demographic changes to the composition of Gaeltacht communities
Analysis of the reduction in family transmission of Irish and the implications of this for the
social basis of Irish outside the family, i.e. the social use of Irish by young people within
their own peer groups
Analysis of the corresponding implications of the erosion of the percentage of the

community who are active Irish speakers in the Gaeltacht
Comparison of educational attainment in Gaeltacht schools with attainment in other

schools
Analysis of the effectiveness of policies and educational approaches which are implemented
in order to promote the personal and academic development of young people in the Gaeltacht.
This study was undertaken to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the implications
of early bilingualism (in Irish and English) for the acquisition of native Irish by young speakers in
the Gaeltacht.
1.3.1 Social and demographic changes
Riagin (1997), Hindley (1990) and the CLS (2007) all consider the implications of social changes
which have occurred since the 1970s especially, as they impact on the composition of Gaeltacht
communities. These trends have strengthened and accelerated since then, due, among other
things, to the State policy of modernisation of the socioeconomic basis to official Gaeltacht areas
and their traditional communities. The State sought to achieve this goal through the industrial
policies of Gaeltarra ireann/dars na Gaeltachta, by supporting employment in manufacturing.
No comprehensive consideration, however, was given at that time, or indeed, has been instigated
since, to developing or implementing policies or strategies to manage the implications of social
change arising from these socioeconomic developments and to help sustain the Gaeltacht as an
Irish-speaking region.
Riagin (1997: 141) describes how small Gaeltacht communities became connected to social,
economic and educational networks and how patterns of migration increased local communities
contacts and interactions with the English-speaking world at regional, national and international
levels. Participation in these new English-speaking networks, according to Riagin, strengthened
the process of language shift in the Gaeltacht. Hindley (1990) also states that new socioeconomic
forces promoted an increase in the use of English in Gaeltacht social networks, concomitantly
undermining and marginalising the use of Irish.
The analysis in the CLS (2007), which defines Category A, B and C areas in the several Gaeltacht
counties, and the review of outcomes from the Survey of Young People in Part 4 of the CLS,
demonstrate that all Gaeltacht areas include substantial English-speaking networks, even in the
areas which contain the most significant Irish-speaking networks (see Chapters 36 in the CLS).
25
1. Introduction
1.3.2 Weakening of acquisition of Irish in the home
Various research studies focusing on the acquisition of Irish in the Gaeltacht (Mac Donnacha et
al. 2005, Giollagin, 2002, 2005, 2011 and the CLS 2007) have shown that it is now difficult
to find a Gaeltacht area where more than one child in two are being raised speaking Irish. This
means that even in the areas where Irish is most prevalent, young native home-speakers of Irish
are participating in social networks where at least half of their peers are monolingual English
speakers who remain practically monolingual prior to the opportunity of learning Irish at school.
1.3.3 Erosion in the social density of community Irish speakers
The same research (Mac Donnacha et al. 2005, Giollagin 2005, 2011 and the CLS 2007) shows
that there is an ongoing, marked erosion in the social density of Irish speakers in those communities
where Irish is a normal medium of communication among a significant section of the population.
The children assessed in this research live in the Category A Gaeltacht region of Cois Fharraige
and South Conamara. The sociolinguistic profile as defined for Category A is that a majority of
the generation of grandparents speak Irish primarily in their social and family networks; that
the practice is more mixed for parental and the middle-aged group; and that the social use of
Irish is confined to a minority in the younger age group. In other words, the social foundations
that the community provides to this generation of Irish speakers via general linguistic input is
more limited and weaker than that of previous generations. The implication of this progressive
erosion from one generation to the next in the social foundation of Irish is that there is less
support from the community for the acquisition and development of Irish than there had been for
previous generations. This means that there are fewer opportunities, domains and contexts for
young people to practice and speak Irish communally, in comparison to such contexts for older
generations, and therefore to develop the linguistic skills they have in Irish. They hear and speak
less Irish than previous generations: their linguistic attainment and development therefore does
not reach levels comparable to those of earlier generations. Sociolinguistic research has shown
that both a decrease in the number of home speakers of Irish and the erosion in the density of Irish
speakers in the community have negative implications for the ability of the community to produce
competent Irish speakers, due to these social fragilities and weaknesses.
1.3.4 Educational performance in schools in the Gaeltacht
Harris et al. (2006) reported that Irish-medium school pupils in the Galltacht outperformed their
Gaeltacht school peers on some measures of ability in Irish, despite the fact that only a very small
percentage of Gaelscoileanna students acquire Irish at home ( Riagin 1997). Mac Donnacha
et al. (2005) and the CLS (Section 19.3) drew attention to Gaeltacht parent concerns that young
native speakers are not reaching a high level of ability in their native language and that they
lack a wealth or richness (saibhreas) in Irish, i.e. the breadth, depth and facility of linguistic
competence normally expected of native speakers. The self-assessment carried out by the young
people who were surveyed in the CLS (Section 14.6) reported that their English is better than their
Irish, which also tallies with the perception of parents. The CLS (2007: 500) addresses this issue
(translated from Irish):
Gaeltacht schools are succeeding in their efforts to come to grips with one aspect of this
challenge: to strengthen the general competence in Irish among the pupils so that the vast
majority of students have fluent Irish or good Irish by the time they leave school. ... This
(and the implications of Harris 2006) leads to the conclusion that the teaching of Irish to
students as a second language in the Gaeltacht and the linguistic complexity present in
such schools may have negative implications for the ultimate academic outcomes relating
to native linguistic attainment for children raised through Irish. ... When the evidence from
Harris (2006), Curnin (2007) and young peoples own opinion that their English is
better than their Irish (see Section 14.6) is considered in the light of Gaeltacht parents
assessment of the Irish ability of the young generation, critical linguistic issues are raised
concerning the aims and the practices of Gaeltacht education.
26
It is also obvious that the Gaeltacht education system is in no way succeeding in transforming
into active Irish speakers, those who begin school without ability in Irish. Indeed, data
from Mac Donnacha et al. (2005) and from the survey of young people (Chapter 15) show
that the opposite is happening: the participation of English speakers in the education
system in Gaeltacht areas is reinforcing the use of English among young people who are
being reared speaking Irish.
1.3.5 Education policies in the Gaeltacht
All of these studies, cited above, highlight different systemic aspects of the deficiency in educational
provision for Gaeltacht native speakers ( Cinnide et al. 2001; Mac Donnacha et al. 2005; Mac
Donnacha 2005; Flatharta 2007; CLS 2007). There appears to be no specific Gaeltacht education
policy: no difference appears to be recognised between the requirements of native speakers
and of learners of Irish. There appears to be no clear structure to, or educational management
of, the teaching of home speakers of Irish. There is no curriculum which seeks to address the
requirements of native speakers of Irish. Research carried out a generation ago (Sture Ureland
1991) showed that Gaeltacht schools were not succeeding in developing student literacy in Irish
to the same level as English. Since then, there has been no recognisable strategy in place to address
these challenges in educational attainment. It seems, indeed, that this minority-language literacy
disadvantage is not currently an issue for educational policy makers.
1.3.6 Native language, primary language, language of personal development
There is a lack of clarity in the policies of the education system in the Gaeltacht at present since it is
so difficult to define from the perspective of the native speaker (Mac Donnacha 2005; Flatharta
2007). Which of the following models could be applied to meet young peoples requirements in
the Gaeltacht and to meet the aims of the education system in the Gaeltacht relating to Irish?
a) Bilingual immersion education for majority language speakers;
b) Heritage language education embedded in the majority language;

c) Bilingual education in minority and majority language;
d) Minority language education with the minority language as first language;

e) Minority language immersion;
f) Some combination of the above.
This study seeks to analyse the linguistic outcome, in Irish and English competencies, of
young bilinguals acquisition, the acquisition which results from the interactions young native
speakers have with their families, communities and schooling, as well as with domains of wider
communication. The outcomes of this research underpin our outline recommendations for the
development of appropriate educational structures for young Irish speakers in the Gaeltacht,
insofar as it is necessary to initially define relative levels of ability in native speakers in advance
of proposing any particular educational approach. We thus devised various assessment tools to
assess bilingual competence in specific linguistic variables for both Irish and English.
Language science research attests that lexical development and conceptual and grammatical
processing in speech are associated with milestones in cognitive development. The aim of this
study is to provide data and a basis for analysis so that it can be determined whether Irish is likely
to form the basis for the primary language of home-speakers of Irish, or which language might
correspond to the primary (and most fit-for-purpose) language of young speakers: Irish or English
(or a mixture of both). In the case of minority bilingualism, the native language and the primary
language are not necessarily one and the same. The primary language is the one which is most
functional in personal and cognitive development and growth. Research by Sheng et al. (2013: 14)
27
1. Introduction
on Mandarin and English bilingualism concludes that: The current result underscores the notion
that perfectly balanced bilinguals may be more of a fantasy than reality ... .
1.4 Definitions
Below is a list of definitions of basic terms used in this study.
L1 and L2: In this study, L1 refers to the basic or matrix language of communication. L2
refers to an additional language additional to the main language (L1) of communication.
Therefore, in a conversation in Irish, for example, Irish is the L1 and L2 describes English
words used in Irish conversation. Similarly, in a conversation in English, English is the L1
and L2 refers to Irish words in English conversation.3*
Irish L1 word: an Irish word used in Irish conversation.
Irish L2 word: an Irish word used in English conversation.
English L1 word: an English word used in English conversation.

English L2 word: an English word used in Irish conversation.
Primary language: a persons most functional language in terms of personal and cognitive
development and social interactions.
Secondary language: a separate language in which a person has some ability or functionality
but which does not serve the requirements for personal and cognitive development, and
for socialisation.
Divergent form: a new Irish term (seachfhoirm) proposed in this study to refer to
post-traditional forms in contemporary Irish which do not conform with norms or rules
in Traditional or Standard Irish; or, in English, to refer to forms which are not typical of
English usage (in Ireland).
Inappropriate structure or usage: refers to either an erroneous linguistic form or a

divergent form. Although it is not always a straightforward matter to distinguish erroneous
forms from post-traditional forms in Irish, a form is considered erroneous when it does
not obviously correspond to any grammatical system (i.e. it does not correspond to either
a traditional, standard, post-traditional or reduced grammatical system).
Similarly, sub-usage refers to a syntactic structure or semantic usage which is inappropriate

according to Traditional Irish.
Similarly, subsemantic usage refers to semantic usage which is inappropriate according
to Traditional Irish; see Section 5.4.1.
Convergence: simplification or change towards the structure of the other language in

various linguistic features; see, for example, the classification in Section 4.3.2.
Token: an instance (in context) of a specific type, as normally defined in linguistics.
Lemma: see the explanation in Section 2.1.
Circumlocutory usage: see the discussion in Section 3.2.3.
Basic case: the form of the noun identical to the nominal case (and often functioning in the
genitive position); see, for example, Section 2.9.1.
We employ this definition as a convenient term in this study. Normally the term L1 (Language 1) refers to a childs
first language, i.e. mother tongue, and L2 (Language 2) to a language learnt outside the context of initial mothertongue acquisition.
3*
28
1.4 Definitions
Average child or average pupil: the average value refers to the result that is average for
the relevant numerical data series. It can be said that the value for the average child or the
average pupil corresponds to the average result in the pupils scores in this research.
Z-score: The z-score associated with a given result is the number of standard deviations
that the result is from the group mean.
P-value: the probability that a sample result will be at least as extreme as the result found,
when the null hypothesis (H0) is true; see the discussion in Section 5.10.
The general linear model: see the discussion in Section 9.3.2.
Native speaker of Irish: a person who was raised through the medium of Irish in an Irishspeaking community and whose parent(s) speak(s) Irish as the main home language.
This study does not seek to assign or discuss more specifically definitions such as native
speaker, semi-speaker, sub-speaker, which can be rather unproductive in the context of
bilingual complexities.
Reduced speaker: a person who has acquired a language through reduced acquisition.
Functionalisation: the process through which a child (or any person) attains functionality
in a language, that is, the process towards acquiring a full or completely functional
competence in a language as a sociolinguistic resource.
Additional reading
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T. and Ungerleider, C. (2010) A systematic review and metaanalysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism, Review of Educational Research 80, 2:
20745.

Fishman, J. A. (ed.) (2001) Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Reversing Language Shift
Hickey, T.M. (2012) ILARSP: A Grammatical Profile of Irish In Ball, M. and Fletcher, P. (ed.s). The
Lenoach, C., Giollagin, C. and Curnin, B. (ed.s) (2012) An Chonair Chaoch: an Mionteangachas
Nic Eoin, M. (2013) Saothr na sochtheangeolaochta; An tSochtheangeolaocht: feidhm agus
tuairisc ( hIfearnin, N Neachtain); An Chonair Chaoch: An mionteangachas sa dtheangachas
(Lenoach, Giollagin, Curnin). igse 38: 30624.
Curnin, B. (2009) Mionteang na Gaeilge in Cathin, B. (ed.) Sochtheangeolaocht na Gaeilge:

Lachta Cholm Cille 39. Maynooth: An Sagart. 90153.
CLS Giollagin, C., Mac Donnacha, S., N Chualin, F., N Shaghdha, A. and OBrien, M.
(2007) Staidar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaoch ar sid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht: Tuarascil
Chrochnaitheach. Dublin: The Stationery Office.
29
Gaeilge
Liri agus anails teangeolaochta at sa chaibidil seo ar staid na Gaeilge mar at s i measc na
bpist a tgadh le Gaeilge amhin sa Ghaeltacht agus a bhfuil Gaeilge dhchas ag a muintir. N
hacmhainn i dtuairisc mar seo, fach, anails chuimsitheach a thabhairt ar gach gn ar leith. Sa
saothar seo tr chile, n fidir pl domhain a dhanamh ar gach gn ab inspise ach is mian linn
tortha ginearlta ionadaocha a thabhairt mar is cu i suirbh d leithid seo. Danfaimid anails i
ndiaidh a chile sa chaibidil seo ar ghnithe irithe de na naoi rimse teangeolaochta seo a leanas:
foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic, lofacht, foghraocht, inscne agus claochl
tosaigh. Cuimsonn an rimse leathan seo gnithe lrnacha de struchtr na teanga a lironn go
hirithe innilacht na bpist i mbun rims cumarside agus rims ar leith castachta. Ar limh
amhin, lironn innilacht ard sna struchtir agsla seo cumas ard ginearlta an chainteora
sa teanga agus, ar an limh eile de, m bhonn easpa innilachta sna struchtir channa i gceist,
lironn sin cumas teoranta ginearlta an chainteora sa teanga. I ndeireadh na caibidle tugaimid
achoimre ar an anails ar na rims teangeolaochta Gaeilge. Is seo an chaibidil is mionsonra agus
is faide sa tuairisc seo. N fhgann sin nach bhfuil gnithe inspise go leor i nGaeilge na ndalta
nach scrdatear anseo.
2.1 Foclir (leama)
Ar dts drmid ar fhoclir Gaeilge na gcainteoir le linn an agallaimh tr Ghaeilge. T dh chur

chuige coitianta in anails ar lon foclra: cur chuige na gnthleicsime agus cur chuige an leama.
T buntiste i gcur chuige an leama mar go gcuimstear ilghnitheacht moirfeolaochta ann. Is
cur chuige an leama a roghnaodh anseo leis an bhfoclir a chainnocht. Tugadh faoin bhfoclir
a thomhas tr mhodh na leama a labhair gach piste ina agallamh a chomhaireamh. Is seo an
sainmhni at againn ar an tarma leama: foirm pharaidme agsil de leicsim; is sin go
simpl, leaganacha agsla gramada den bhunfhocal canna. Is sainmhni seo a chuimsonn
mid foclra agus leithead deilbhochta. Mar shampla, i gcorpas ina bhfuil:
capall (uimhir uatha) x2, capall (suomh gin. uatha) x1, capaill (gin. uatha) x1, caiple (iolra)
x2, capaill (iolra) x2, capall (gin. iolra) x1
t 9 gcomhartha n 9 bhfocal ann, agus 1 leicsim amhin (gach leagan den fhocal canna at
sa leicsim) agus t 5 leama ann. Is iad na cig leama: capall (uatha); capaill (gin. uatha); caiple
(iolra); capaill (iolra); capall (gin. iolra).
2.1.1 Lon na leama
Sna hagallaimh ar fad i nGaeilge, is 3027 leama lon iomln na leama ar fad a chuir na dalta ar fad
le chile i bhfeidhm. T na leama T2 (Barla) agus na leama mchu (fach 2.1.3) san ireamh san
fhigir seo. Ar an men bh 415 leama ag na pist. N lena r ar bhealach eile, is lon na leama
a lirigh an piste menach n 415 leama. Tar is na figiir seo a chalabr, is sin na leama T2
(21.5% den chorpas) agus na leama mchu (c. 8% den chorpas) a bhaint astu, tagann laghd ar
iomln na leama go dt 2133. Sin laghd suntasach de 29.5%. Danann an calabr canna laghd
de 11% (ar leama T2 8.6% dobh agus ar leama mchu 2.4% dobh) ar lon menach na leama i
measc na bpist, is sin 415 leama sos go 367 leama.
30
2.1 Foclir (leama)
Bhunaomar Cairt 1 ar na leama calabraithe. Lirtear i gCairt 1, n taobh cl go dt an taobh deas,

dileadh na bpist de rir lon ardaitheach na leama calabraithe: n bpiste is l lon leama
calabraithe ar chl go dt an piste is airde lon leama calabraithe ar thaobh na limhe deise. T na
pist rangaithe ina dtr fhoghrpa:
Foghrpa A (ar thaobh na limhe cl den chad lne bhriste ingearach): t lon seal
comparideach leama calabraithe acu
Foghrpa B (i lr na laride): t lon menach leama calabraithe acu
Foghrpa C (ar thaobh na limhe deise den dara lne bhriste ingearach): t lon
comparideach ard leama calabraithe acu.
T 22% de na dalta i gcuid tosaigh (seal) an chuair, mar at, i bhFoghrpa A (men 284). T 70%
de na dalta i gcuid lrnach (menach) an chuair, mar at, i bhFoghrpa B (men 381); agus t 8%
i gcuid deiridh (ard) an chuair, mar at, i bhFoghrpa C (men 516).
Cairt 1 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir leama calabraithe sa Ghaeilge (.i. Leama T1 Cu).
Maidir leis an difrocht idir lon na leama ar fad agus lon na leama calabraithe, t laghd n
cng 15% i bhFoghrpa A go dt 10.7% i bhFoghrpa B, agus go dt 7.7% i bhFoghrpa C.
Tugann an liri i gCairt 2 faoin anails maidir leis an gcng i bhFoghrpa C a mhionsonr. Mar a
lirtear i gCairt 2, is cosil gurb an phromhchis at le cng na difrochta idir lon na leama ar
fad agus lon na leama calabraithe i bhFoghrpa C, le hais an d fhoghrpa eile, n go bhfuil lon
leama Gaeilge nos airde i bhFoghrpa C agus go bhfuil an lon coibhneasta leama Barla agus
leama mchu rasnta cobhsa ag na tr fhoghrpa.
Cairt 2 Lon na gcinelacha leama T2 agus na leama mchu sa Ghaeilge.
Bunaithe ar an litrocht chanineolaochta agus ar r dtaith fin, rinneamar scagadh trimhsiil

ar na focail Bharla sna hagallaimh Ghaeilge. Sa scagadh sin didirdhealaomar tr chinel iasachta
de rir na trimhse ar tugadh isteach sa teanga labhartha iad:
31
2. Gaeilge
Leama T2 (Barla) roimh na 1990, .i. nua-iasachta seanbhunaithe, m.sh. bicycle, watchil,
liftil
Leama T2 (Barla) le linn na 1990, m.sh. treasure, depends, looseileann

Leama T2 (Barla) le linn na 2000te, m.sh. quackil, sweatil, badgers
Is ar an idirdheal seo a bhunaomar an fhaisnis agus an anails at i gCairt 2.
2.1.2 Leama T2 sa Ghaeilge
21.5% de na leama sna hagallaimh Ghaeilge is leama T2 (Barla) iad. Is ainmfhocail 63% dobh
(Cairt 3).
Cairt 3 Rang gramadil na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge.
thaobh gael sa deilbhocht de, chuir na pist 19.6% de na leama T2 i bhfeidhm de rir chras
gramada na Gaeilge, m.sh. backil back. Is is m a ghaelaodar, na hainmhfhocail bhriathartha
(84%), na briathra (73%) agus na haidiachta briathartha (59%). Ar an taobh eile den scal nor
ghaelaodar ach 5% de na hainmfhocail thaobh na deilbhochta de, m.sh. tyreanna tyre(s), c
gurb iad sid an rang is lonmhaire i measc na leama T2.
Rangaomar na leama T2 de rir na dtr thrimhse: roimh na 1990, le linn na 1990, agus le linn
na 2000te. Baineann 35.9% de na focail seo (24.2% ar an men) le nua-iasachta seanbhunaithe
a thinig isteach sa chaint sa trimhse roimh na 1990. Baineann 7.4% dobh (8.2% ar an men)
leis na 1990. Baineann an chuid is m acu, 56.7% (67.6% ar an men) leis na 2000te. I gCairt 4, i
ndileadh na bpist in ord, n taobh cl go dt an taobh deas, de rir lon na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge,
t ard sch cimnitheach i gceist, ach amhin ag deireadh an chuair (ar thaobh na limhe deise).
Cairt 4 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na leama T2 (Barla) sa Ghaeilge.
Is bhar spise an difrocht mhr (12.9%) at idir catadn na leama T2 i measc na leama ar fad
le chile (21.5%), agus catadn na leama T2 i measc na leama ar fad a bh ag an bpiste menach
(8.6%). Is an chis at leis an difrocht seo n lon ard na leama T2 a chuir grpa beag cainteoir
32
2.2 Deilbhocht
i bhfeidhm. Is sin, t breis focal Barla ag lon beag de na pist at liri sna barra faisnise ar
thaobh na limhe deise i gCairt 4.
Rinneamar anails ar na leama ar fad maidir le c mhad cainteoir a dirt gach leama. Lirtear i
gCairt 5 lon comparideach na leama T1 agus T2 agus lon na bpist a chuir na leama i bhfeidhm.
Is lir, mar a bheif ag sil leis, gur ag pist indibhidila at formhr na leama T1 agus T2 (uimhir
1 ar ais X i gCairt 5). Is ag pist indibhidila mar sin a bh 51% de na leama Gaeilge agus 43.5%
de na leama Barla. Is lir, ar an taobh eile, nach mrn leama a bh ag deichnir pist (uimhir
10 ar dheis ar ais X i gCairt 5).
Cairt 5 Lon leama T1 agus T2 de rir lon na bpist a chuir i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge iad.
I gCairt 6 danaimid scagadh comparideach ar lon na gcinelacha leama T2. Scagaimid na focail
Bharla a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge de rir tr thrimhse agsla agus de rir lon na bpist a
raibh na cinelacha sin acu. T athliri anseo gur ag pist indibhidila at formhr na leama T2.
Cairt 6 Cinelacha leama T2 de rir trimhse iasachta agus lon na bpist a chuir i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge iad.
2.1.3 Leama mchu
Baineann leaganacha mchu deilbhochta le c. 10% de na leama ar leama T1 (Gaeilge) iad.

Nl teacht ach ar chpla leagan mchu (<0.5%) i measc leama T2 (Barla) sa Ghaeilge (m.sh.
wheelbairle < wheelbarrow). T leaganacha mchu deilbhochta ag leibhil an tamhain agus an
fhoircinn i gcs na n-ainmfhocal (38% de na leama mchu), na mbriathra (35% de na leama
mchu), na n-aidiachta (17% de na leama mchu), na n-ainmneacha briathartha (8% de na
leama mchu) agus i gcs na ramhfhocal (3% de na leama mchu) freisin.
2.2 Deilbhocht
Anseo drmid ar dheilbhocht na leama Gaeilge de rir na gcatagir gramadla lena mbaineann
siad: an t-ainmfhocal, an briathar, an aidiacht, an t-ainm briathartha agus an ramhfhocal.
33
2. Gaeilge
Is ainmfhocail iad beagnach leath (47.6%) na leama ar fad. Lirtear i dTbla 2 gur i gcatagir an
bhriathair agus i gcatagir na haidiachta at an chuid is m de na seachfhoirmeacha, leama at
mchu thaobh na deilbhochta de, agus lirtear freisin gur i gcatagir an ainmfhocail agus an
ainm bhriathartha at an rta is airde de na leama T2 (Barla).
Catagir
ghramadil
% Leama % Mchu % Mchu

Difrocht % T2
(iomln) (menach)
(iomln)
% T2
Difrocht
(menach)
Ainmfhocal
47.6
9.9
1.7
8.2
28
12.7
15.3
Ainm
Briathartha
12
7.2
4.2
27.2
10.3
16.9
Briathar
Aidiacht
Ramhfhocal
17.2
8
12
16.5
14.3
-
6.9
9.6
10.3
Tbla 2 Catadin na leama iomlna, na leama mchu agus na leama T2.
8.6
19.4
8.9
2.5
6.7
1.1
6.1
12.7
7.8
Is bhar spise an difrocht at idir catadin iomlna agus catadin mhenacha na leama; fach
na colin uaine (an difrocht idir catadin iomlna agus catadin mhenacha) sa tbla thuas. Is
slat tomhais an figir seo dathr sa deilbhocht agus dsid focal T2 (Barla) sa Ghaeilge.
2.2.1 An t-ainmfhocal
Is ainmfhocail 47.6% de na leama ar fad. Lirtear i dTbla 3 go bhfuil an chuid is m (72%)

dobh san uimhir uatha agus go bhfuil an chuid eile (28%) dobh san uimhir iolra. Is leama T2
28% (12.7% ar an men) de na hainmfhocail. Bh seachfhoirmeacha i gcs 9.9% (1.7% ar an
men) de na hainmfhocail T1 agus T2 araon n i gcs 13.8% de na hainmfhocail T1. Is coitianta
seachfhoirmeacha san uimhir iolra seachas san uimhir uatha.
Uimhir uatha
Uimhir iolra
% Leama
% Seachfhoirm
(iomln)
% Seachfhoirm
(menach)
% T2 (iomln)
% T2
(menach)
72
2.4
0.5
30.7
13.3
28
24
11.4
22.7
Tbla 3 Catadin na leama mchu agus na leama T2 i measc na n-ainmfhocal de rir uimhreach.
10.8
Ainmneach uimhir uatha

I gcaint Ghaeilge na ndalta, is leama T2 at in 30.7% (13.3% ar an men) de na leama san
ainmneach uimhir uatha. Is a bh mchu: 2.4% (0.5% ar an men) de na leama ar fad, n 3.3%
(0.6% ar an men) de na leama T1 amhin. I gcs 19 (38%) dalta a taifeadadh, bh seachfhoirmeacha
dainmfhocail san ainmneach uatha.
As measc na seachfhoirmeacha, taifeadadh botin foghraochta agus deilbhochta i dtamhain na
leama ochtar pist:
ainmhe < ainmh; bign < vaign; beithe < b; ciorca < ciorcal;
deachras < deacracht; eanga < eangach;
feirmeire < feirmeoir (feilmara na canna); foirge < foirgneamh;

pistar < paisinar (peaisinara na canna); tos < tosach.
Ag piste amhin at na seach-leaganacha:
tiomin ~ tiomint ~ tiomaeo ~ tiomnda < tiomna.
34
2.2 Deilbhocht
T fianaise ar fhoirm an ghinidigh n caol na frimhe i suomh an ainmnigh uatha ag 13 dalta:

bid < bd; blais < blas; cathrach < cathair; cnoic < cnoc; droichid < droichead;
fir < far; feirme < feirm; fir < fear; scoile < scoil.
Ainmneach uimhir iolra

T lon ard leama T2, 22.7% (10.8% ar an men), san ainmneach uimhir iolra. T 24% dobh ar
fad (11.4% ar an men), n 31% (13.4% ar an men) de na hainmfhocail iolra T1, mchu thaobh
na deilbhochta de. Nl teacht ar bhotin deilbhochta i measc na leama T2 ach i sampla amhin:
passangerses < passengers.
I measc na sampla mchu t leama ina bhfuil an uimhir uatha i suomh an iolra:
b < beithgh; garra < garranta; slabhra < slabhra.
I gcs dh fhocal, b agus iasc, tarlaonn go bhfgann dalta tamhan an uatha gan athr agus go
gcuireann siad foirceann an iolra leis:
banna ~ bacha < beithgh; iasca ~ iascanna ~ iascanna ~ iascacha < isc.
In dh chs eile t tamhan an fhocail fin mchu:
adin < adain; rotharthir ~ rothaor < rothathe.
Is bhar spise iad na leaganacha iolra mchu a bhaineann le heaspa foghraochta i ndeilbhocht na
Gaeilge (fach 2.7). Easpa caol consan at i gceist i bhformhr na seachfhoirmeacha easpacha seo:
buicada < buicid; buidala ~ buidalacha() < buidil;
caora ~ caoracha < caoire/; capla < caiple; cnoca ~ cnoca < cnoic;
faochanna < faochain; faoilena < faoilein; fearanna < fir;
faranna cornin fir < bileanna fir (uimhir uatha ginideach na canna);
gadhra < gadhair; gasra < gasir; pollanna < poill;
rothara ~ rotharanna < rothair; ananna() ~ ana < in (anacha na canna).
Ar cheann de na tortha is suntasa i gcomhthacs an iolra t foirceann iolra an Bharla s a bheith

ar ainmfhocail Ghaeilge (6 chomhartha); an foirceann chur leis an tamhan uatha:
dorasaz < doirse; garraoz < garranta; gaz < gabha; simlarz < simlir;
stblaz < stbla;
n i gcs an fhocail duine chur leis an tamhan iolra mrialta:

daoinoz < daoine/.
T sampla den -s iolra seo ag cigear buachaill, ag a raibh cumas seal acadil, i dtr cinn de na
hocht scoil a bh rannphirteach.
I gcs 5.8% (4.5% ar an men) de leaganacha iolra na leama ainmfhoclacha T1, is foirmeacha dchannaithe iad, is sin is foirmeacha iad nach mbaineann le canint thraidisinta cheantar na
ndalta. Baineann leis an gcatagir seo, foircinn iolra de rir na Gaeilge caighdenaithe n de rir
canna eile:
35
2. Gaeilge
-anna < -anna4;* -eoga ~ -ga < -eoga ~ -ga; in < anacha.
Chatagiromar na sampla caighdenaithe seo i measc na sampla cu don anails.
Ginideach uatha
T laghd suntasach ar sid na foirme ginid sa Ghaeilge tr chile agus is foirm an ainmnigh a
sheasann i suomh an ghinidigh go coitianta. T an t-athr seo ceangailte le hathruithe comhrire
(fach 2.3.6) agus le hathruithe foghraochta (fach 2.7).
As na 671 leama at san uimhir uatha (sa suomh ainmneach agus ginideach) nl ach 32 leama i
bhfoirm an tuisil ghinidigh. Seo a leanas na leaganacha ginideacha uatha ba mhinice ar bhain na
dalta feidhm astu:
bthair (16 piste), rin (8), tosaigh (8), adhmaid (5), traenach (5).
Mar gheall ar iginnteacht de bharr saor-rogha i gcomhthacsanna irithe idir an fhoirm ainmneach
agus an fhoirm ghinideach i gcanint thraidisinta cheantar na bpist, baintear tortha staitistila
anseo as na leama ginideacha a sheasann i struchtr ginideach dh ainmfhocal, m.sh. cosa an fhir;
cosa fir.5**As na leama ar fad sa suomh ginideach seo agus a bhfuil foirm ar leith ginidigh acu, t
33.2% dobh (20.8% ar an men) i bhfoirm an ghinidigh. Is i bhfoirm an tuisil ainmnigh a fhgtar
an chuid eile de na leama seo.
Ginideach iolra
N bhfuarthas ach dh leama i bhfoirm an ghinidigh iolra. T an fhoirm ghinideach iolra lachan
(< lacha) ag seachtar agus beithoch (< b n beithoch) ag seachtar eile. N fidir an fhoirm
beithoch a chur san anails staitistiil, fach, mar ba athr ar chaint an agallra ba mhinice a bh i
gceist sna comhartha sin.
Ainmfhocail i gcomhthacsanna eile
T 89.2% (83.4% ar an men) de na hainmfhocail san fhoirm uatha tar is bunuimhreacha (cu,
m.sh. tr chaora) agus t an chuid eile san fhoirm iolra (mchu, m.sh. tr caiple). Fuarthas toradh
cu n bsle i gcs ainmfhocal tar is an fhorainm cheistigh c mhad. T 72% (76.9% ar an men)
dobh san fhoirm uatha (cu, m.sh. c mhad caora) agus an chuid eile san fhoirm iolra (mchu,
m.sh. c mhad caiple). Nl ach sampla amhin (c. 1%) dainmfhocal san uimhir iolra tar is na
haidiachta iginnte chuile.
2.2.2 An briathar
Is briathra 17.2% de na leama ar fad. Baineann 31.4% acu leis an aimsir lithreach, 25.4% leis
an modh coinnollach, 24.3% leis an aimsir chaite, 15.6% leis an aimsir fhistineach, 3.3% leis an
modh ordaitheach. Nl ach 8.6% diomln (2.5% ar an men) na mbriathra finideacha ina leama
T2. thaobh na deilbhochta de, t 16.5% mchu sna briathra ar fad (6.9% ar an men), n 18.1%
mchu de leama T1 na mbriathra.
Rimni mchu
Lirigh na pist malartaocht idir an d rimni i gcomparid le rimni na canna traidisinta.
38 leama bhriathartha, n 8% de na leama briathartha ar fad, at rimnithe go mchu. Maidir leis
na briathra seo at mchu thaobh an rimnithe de, baineann 68.4% dobh leis an dara rimni
ach go rimnonn na pist iad de rir rialacha a bhaineann leis an gcad rimni; baineann 31.6%
dobh leis an gcad rimni ach go rimnonn na pist iad de rir rialacha a bhaineann leis an dara
rimni. Ciallaonn s seo go rimnonn na pist nos m foirmeacha mchu i gcs na mbriathra
at sa dara rimni n sa chad rimni; t claonadh soilir i dtreo foirmeacha an chad rimnithe
a ghinearl. Sampla mchu de bhriathra an chad rimnithe is ea:
Ach t sampla den fhoirceann -anna sa chanint thraidisinta in Iarthar Chonamara freisin.
N bhactar san anails ghinideach staitistiil le dla eile, m.sh. timpeall an fhir; ag feicel an fhir, ag feicel fir.
4*
5**
36
2.2 Deilbhocht
danaonn, gheobhidh, tgaonn;

agus sampla mchu de bhriathra an dara rimni is ea:
tosann, oibreann, imfidh.
Is de rir an chad rimnithe a rimnonn na pist formhr (73.8%) na leama briathartha T2

agus feidhmonn siad an chuid eile (26.2%) de rir chras gramadil an Bharla.
An fhoirm thite agus an fhoirm scartha

I gcs na leama briathartha, is at san fhoirm thite: 72 leama, 13.7% (7.1% ar an men). Baineann
a leath seo (52%) leis an modh coinnollach, baineann an tr cuid dobh (31%) leis an aimsir
chaite, 16% leis an aimsir lithreach, agus an chuid eile (c. 1%) leis an aimsir ghnthlithreach.
Maidir leis an modh coinnollach sa chad agus sa dara pearsa, lirigh 14 dalta (28%) foirmeacha
tite amhin, 23 dalta (46%) foirmeacha scartha amhin, agus 13 dalta (26%) idir fhoirmeacha
tite agus fhoirmeacha scartha (Tbla 4).
Lon dalta
Tite amhin
Scartha amhin
Tite agus scartha
An chad agus
an dara pearsa
14
23
13
An chad
phearsa
11
22
17
Tbla 4 Foirmeacha scartha agus tite sa mhodh coinnollach.
An dara pearsa
11
9
3
I measc na sampla mchu t leagan spisiil den bhriathar substainteach:

bheadhfainn (< bheinn).
Is ag dalta amhin a bh sampla den fhoirm seo. As na naoi leama thite san aimsir chaite t ocht
gcinn sa tr pearsa iolra (-adar) agus ceann sa chad phearsa iolra (-amar; leagan caighdenach
seachas cannach).
An briathar mrialta foirmeacha neamhsplecha

Is sna briathra mrialta seo a leanas a fhaightear foirmeacha mchu sa suomh neamhsplech: beir,
abair, faigh, feic, tar (teara na canna), agus tigh (tirigh sa chanint). Is san aimsir chaite agus sa
mhodh coinnollach a fhaightear na seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta seo.
T 8.8% de na foirmeacha neamhsplecha mchu ag an bpiste menach. Tugaimid catadn na

sampla cu, na foirmeacha mchu agus na foirmeacha canna i dTbla 5. Maidir le bheir agus
bhfaighfeadh, chuireamar i gcatagir ar leith iad mar gur foirmeacha canna iad at rasnta
imeallach agus nor comhaireadh iad i gcs an ln iomlin.
37
2. Gaeilge
Leagan
chonaic
Caite
chuaigh
Coinnollach
Caite
Coinnollach
66
gheobhfadh
rug
thiocfadh
darfadh
ghabhfadh
Fistineach
Mchu
Iomln % Cu
Foirm mhchu
31
32
96.9
bhfaca
ffadh
[bh]faighfeadh
75
bhreith
bheir
43
13
10
go dtabharfadh 5
go mbarfadh
barfaidh
Foirm eile
channa
Cu
44
14
11
11
4
7
1
7
97.7
92.9
73
90.9
75
71.4
0
29
ndeachaigh
thagfadh, tagfadh
rfadh
thinn
ghabhfainn
tugfadh
breithfinn
beirfidh, breithfidh
Tbla 5 An briathar mrialta; neamhsplech (thuas), briathra mrialta eile (thos).*
T sampla annamha dfhoirmeacha splecha i suomh na leaganacha neamhsplecha i gcs bhfaca

< chonaic agus ndeachaigh < chuaigh:
n[D]eachaigh an duine a bh ar bord [...]
[B]hfaca daoine Dnall ag rith [...]
T sampla de thamhan an ainm bhriathartha in ionad thamhan na haimsire caite san fhocal bhreith
(< rug n < bheir sa chanint):
E-, bhreith, bhreith e-, Dnall ar an ar na rill ar an traein.
T tamhan an ainm bhriathartha in ionad thamhan an fhistinigh san fhoirm choinnollach rfadh
(< darfadh):
Rfadh m leob goil isteach [...]
T tamhan an lithrigh in ionad thamhan an fhistinigh i gcs beirfidh (< barfaidh), thinn (<
ghabhfainn) agus thagfadh (< thiocfadh):
[A]gus beirfidh m greim ar an ladder.
Thinn isteach le taobh an balla [...] (.i. I would go...)

So nuair a thagfadh Sen go sciorrfadh s [...]
T tamhan an ainm bhriathartha in ionad thamhan an fhistinigh i gcs

go mbreithfidh (< go mbarfaidh).
T tamhan an lithrigh i suomh thamhan an fhistinigh i gcs
go tugfadh (< go dtabharfadh); go dteagfadh ~ go tagfadh (< go dtiocfadh);

go mbeirfidh (< go mbarfaidh).
Lirtear i dTbla 5 lon na gcomhartha agsla maidir leis na briathra seo.
T leaganacha freisin nach bhfuil cu de rir Chaighden na Gaeilge ach at framhaithe i gcanint
thraidisinta cheantar na bpist. T faighfeadh ~ [bh]faighfeadh (< gheobhadh) ag trir agus bheir
(< rug) ag ceathrar dalta.7**
T an leagan ghabh (at rialta thaobh an tamhain gabh de) coitianta i measc na bpist.
Mar a dradh thuas san fhochaibidil seo, nor comhaireadh na sampla seo i lon iomln Thbla 5.
6*
7**
38
2.2 Deilbhocht
An briathar mrialta foirmeacha splecha

T seachfhoirmeacha sa suomh splech diltach (i ndiaidh n agus nor), ceisteach (i ndiaidh an
agus ar) agus fo-ordaitheach (i ndiaidh go) sna briathra feic agus tigh. Is san aimsir chaite at na
seachfhoirmeacha.
Ar an men, i suomh splech an bhriathair, t 40.2% mchu de na foirmeacha briathartha mrialta.

T leaganacha freisin nach bhfuil cu de rir Chaighden na Gaeilge ach at framhaithe i gcanint
thraidisinta cheantar na bpist:
n rinne (< n dhearna); go rinne (< go ndearna);
go ngeobhfadh ~ go gheobhfadh (< go bhfaighfeadh);
go gheobhaidh ~ go ngeobhaidh (< go bhfaighfidh);

nor bheir (< nor rug).
Daicmomar iad seo mar fhoirmeacha cu. Cuirimid catadn na sampla cu, na seachfhoirmeacha
(gan na mreanna briathartha a thabhairt) agus leaganacha na canna ar fil i dTbla 6.
Leagan
Cu
Mchu Ttal
% Cu
n/go (n)d(h)earna
12
12
100
100
n fhaca
Caite
n/an/ go
(n)d(h)eachaigh
Coinnollach
Fistineach
go bhfaighfeadh
go bhfaighfidh
23
15
6
Tbla 6 Foirmeacha splecha an bhriathair mhrialta.
16
27
0
39
42
6
59
36
Foirm
mhchu
Foirm eile
channa
rinne
chonaic
chuaigh
gheobhfadh
100
T sampla dfhoirmeacha neamhsplecha i suomh na leaganacha splecha:

n chonaic ~ nor chonaic (< n fhaca);
n chuaigh ~ nor chuaigh (< n dheachaigh); go chuaigh (< go ndeachaigh).
Mar sin is fidir an tamhan traidisinta neamhsplech a fhil sa suomh splech i gcs gach briathar
den aicme mhrialta seo: dan, feic, tigh agus faigh.
Saorbhriathar
Nl ach 12 sampla (11 leicsim) dsid an tsaorbhriathair i measc 12 piste (24%). Sin lon seal
(2.3%) i measc na leama briathartha ar fad. T s cinn dobh san aimsir lithreach, tr cinn san
aimsir fhistineach agus pire san aimsir chaite. T dh leama eile, ag piste amhin, i bhfoirm an
tsaorbhriathair (caillfear (< caillfidh), deirfear (< deir siad)) agus ciall ghnomhach leo:
[C]aillfear s an traein.
Bonn lacha deirfear quack quack you know.
T an chuma ar an gcatadn seal seo dfheidhmi an tsaorbhriathair, ach go hirithe, gur claonadh
chun meatha at i gceist sa chatagir seo de chras an bhriathair.
39
2. Gaeilge
2.2.3 An aidiacht
Is aidiachta iad 8% de na leama ar fad. Is leama T2 iad 19.4% diomln na n-aidiachta (6.7%
ar an men) agus n bhaineann aon seachfhoirm leis na leama T2 seo. I measc na leama T1, t
seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta i gcs 14.3% de na haidiachta ar fad (4% ar an men). Is ar an
mbreischim agus ar uimhir iolra na haidiachta a dhreoimid sna sleachta thos.
An bhreischim
Is iad na haidiachta a chuireamar i mbunachar bhreischim na haidiachta n na haidiachta ag
a raibh ar a laghad cig chomhartha in iomln na leama ar fil dibh; t 13 aidiacht lacsacha i
gceist sa bhunachar seo. Nuair a anailstear gns an phiste mhenaigh, feictear gurb ard a bh
cu aige: 60.6% de chomhartha na n-aidiachta breischime seo. Lirtear i gCairt 7 gur i gcs
11 ceann de na haidiachta seo a bh seachfhoirmeacha, ina measc sid bunleagan na haidiachta
(m.sh. nos seal) in it fhoirm na breischime. N raibh seachfhoirmeacha i gcs na n-aidiachta
gar agus maith.
Cairt 7 Lon na bhfoirmeacha mchu i suomh na breischime agus bunleagan na haidiachta.
Is iad na foirmeacha breischime is minice at mchu n foirmeacha a fhreagraonn do:

sala (92.7% mchu),
deirge (80.6% mchu),

bine (75.6% mchu),
dathla (72.1% mchu).
Is gnthaidiachta rialta iad bn, salach agus dathil agus baineann dearg le fo-aicme rasnta
coitianta. Baineann bn leis an aicme rialta is simpl agus baineann salach agus dearg go hirithe le
fo-aicm nos casta n sin. Mar sin t catadin ardaitheacha na bhfoirmeacha mchu ag freagairt
don chastacht ghramadil: ard ar sheachfhoirmeacha de rir castacht ghramada. Is an ns
mchu is coitianta bunleagan na haidiachta a fheidhmi i ndiaidh na mre aidiachtla nos, m.sh.
nos bn, nos salach. Sin ns at ag an bpiste menach i gcs 42.8% de chomhartha na n-aidiachta
seo. Is bhar spise freisin nach bhfuil na haidiachta mr agus beag cu ag gach piste. Aidiachta
mr agus beag at bunsach agus coitianta sa chaint ach at mrialta thaobh na gramada de.
I measc na n-athruithe is suimila t foirceann comparideach -er an Bharla (salachaer agus
salacher) a taifeadadh ag beirt bhuachaill. Cuirtear sonra na bhfoirmeacha seo i lthair i dTbla
7, ach gan an bunleagan sa bhreischim (m.sh. nos mr) a thabhairt ars.
40
2.2 Deilbhocht
Lon dalta,
cu
Lon dalta,
mchu
Iomln % Cu
Seachfhoirmeacha eile
salach
38
41
bn
11
34
45
24
salacha, salacha, salachach, salacher,

salachaer, saileach
dearg
dathil
mall
lidir
seal
deas
beag
bu
mr
fada
gar
maith
12
29
29
4
7
29
37
37
14
14
37
31
31
19
16
2
3
11
7
7
2
0
0
38
43
48
45
6
10
40
44
44
16
14
37
Tbla 7 Foirmeacha breischime na n-aidiachta.
19
28
60
64
67
dearga
bna, bnaithe, bin, bna

dathile
malla
70
deasa
84
mire
73
84
88
100
beaga
100
T claonadh i measc na bpist an bhreischim a chur in il tr chlaochl tosaigh seachas tr athr

deilbhochta, m.sh. nos mhr, nos bheag, nos bhn (le taobh nos mr, nos beag, nos bn). Fach
an pl ar an bhfors suntasach seo i bhFochaibidil 2.9.3. (C go bhfuil geal agus nos gile n is gile
coitianta sa chanint, n raibh an cimni nos gile n is gile in aon chomhthacs ag aon phiste.)
T leagan bige ag na pist de bhreischim ar an aidiacht beag. Nor chuireamar san ireamh
i lon na leaganacha mchu. Is cosil go mbaineann an leagan seo bige leis an leama beige,
leagan traidisinta breischime i gceantar na bpist. bhar spise eile is ea easpa na leaganacha
traidisinta breischime buocha agus buchte (na bunchime bu), an t-aon d leagan at cu de
rir na canna. Is an leagan caighdenach, bunfhoirm na haidiachta, at i bhfeidhm ag 37 dalta
agus an leagan buthe at ag seachtar. Daicmomar an d leagan seo i measc na bhfoirmeacha cu
ach lironn an fheidhm a bhaintear as an mbunfhoirm bu i ndiaidh na mre nos an bhuntreocht
is coitianta i gcs na breischime.
T an choslacht ar an sliocht seo a leanas go bhfuil an piste iginnte maidir le feidhmi chras
bhreischim na haidiachta; agus, chomh maith le bunchim na haidiachta a chur i bhfearas don
bhreischim, is cosil go bhfuil an rimr an- ag obair in ionad na breischime.
T an cat sin ssta agus t an... t an cailn... an cailn sin an-ssta. Nos... no-, ssta. Nos...
nos ssta. Agus t an gairdn eile nos em... mr... nos fada. T... t an teach sin em... nl s...
t s nos airde. Agus t an fear sin an-, an-lidir. Agus t an traein sin nos, nos malla, nos
em... mall. T an gairdn sin an-, an-salach. T an fear sin an-, an-dathil. T an traein sin an-,
an-dearg. Agus t an ghrian an-, an-bn. T s nos m n... nos m. Agus t an solas eile
dubh. Agus t an fear sin an-, an-ssta.
Nl ach aidiacht T2 amhin, exciting, i suomh na breischime. Sa chs sin is struchtr comparideach
bunaithe ar an mBarla a chuir an piste ag obair:
nos m exciting (< more exciting).
Lirtear i gCairt 8 go bhfuil an rimse iomln infheidhme, idir 0% agus 100%, de (sheach-)
fhoirmeacha na haidiachta breischime ag na pist. T gach foirm cu ag duine amhin acu (2%),
an chad dalta ar chl ar an ais chothromnach sa chairt (dalta B10c), agus is foirmeacha mchu
amhin at ag beirt (4%), an bheirt deiridh ar dheis ar an ais chothromnach sa chairt (dalta
B07b, B10e) ag a bhfuil 100% mchu.
41
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 8 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chatadin na n-aidiachta breischime mchu.
De rir an dilidh seo, is cosil gurb iad na pist is m a chuireann feidhmi mchu ag obair go
ginearlta an dream is m a chuireann an bunleagan (m.sh. nos mr) ag obair (an phirt uaine
de na barra faisnise, at suntasach ar thaobh na limhe deise i gCairt 8). Ar an limh eile de,
t seachfhoirmeacha eile (an chuid bhu de na barra faisnise at go hirithe i lr an dilidh,
agus ar thaobh na limhe cl den dileadh), t sin nos minice i measc na bpist a bhfuil nos m
foirmeacha cu acu.
Uimhir iolra na haidiachta
Cuireann na pist leaganacha iolra de rir Chaighden na Gaeilge in sid i gcs thart ar leath
(44.2% ar an men) de chomhartha na n-aidiachta at i suomh an iolra; aidiachta aonsiollacha ar
an mrgir iad seo a infhilleann na pist san iolra go roghnach. Is iad bunleaganacha na n-aidiachta
a mbaineann na pist feidhm astu i gcs na leaganacha eile. C go dtagann na bunleaganacha
seo salach ar an gcaighden, m.sh. na beithgh mr (< na beithgh mhra), na crainnte mr (< na
crainnte mra), t siad le fil i gcanint thraidisinta cheantar na bpist (Cairt 9).
Cairt 9 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir uimhir iolra na haidiachta.
2.2.4 An t-ainm briathartha

Is ainmneacha briathartha iad 12% de na leama ar fad. Is leama T2 iad 27.2% diomln na
n-ainmneacha briathartha ag na pist ar fad (10.3% ar an men ag an bpiste aonair). Fuarthas
seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta i measc na leama T1 amhin, ag 33 piste as an 50 san iomln: i
9.4% (3.4% ar an men) de na hainmneacha briathartha.
Ainm briathartha T1
Fuair muid idir 2 agus 48 sampla dainm briathartha gach piste (50 dalta). Lirigh 33 dalta (66%)
idir 1 agus 3 seachfhoirm. Is seachfhoirmeacha iad 9.4% (men ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha
ag leibhal aonair) n 3.4% (men ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha le chile) de na leama T1
ar ainmneacha briathartha iad.
1. Aimsir lithreach (beireann) n -an (m.s.h. leagan), fi Barla -in (m.s.h. catchin):
a. N raibh s fs in ann beireann suas [...]
42
2.2 Deilbhocht
2. Aimsir chaite (dirt, tharla, thug (ordaitheach freisin)):

a. t siad ag dirt hip-hip-hurray.
b. dfhadfadh rud eicnt a tharla.
c. bh daoin tug amach tu dho na ainmh [...]
3. Ordaitheach, dara pearsa (abair, bain, beir, coinnigh, fan, tiomin, tig):
a. t s abair e-... seachain, t na caoire tocht ...
b. nuair a bonn s a beir ar an... ar an e-, an... gual.
4. Eile (beireacht, beireachtil, beirint, beiriint):
a. t an bd ag iarraidh beireachtil ar an carr
(T tuairisc go bhfuil na foirmeacha ainm bhriathartha beireacht agus beireachtil sa chanint

thraidisinta in Oilein rann.)
Ainm briathartha T2
I gcs 65 as 76 de na leama is an foirceann -il a chuireann na gasir leis an bhframh T2 chun
foirm ainm bhriathartha iasachta a dhanamh. Is foirceann -ing an Bharla at ag na pist le
seacht leama acu agus n chuireann siad foirceann ar bith le ceithre leama:
1. -il

a. agus t madadh ag e-... barkil.

b. Bh siad beepil air.
2. -ing

a. bonn m em... playing leis an [sic] clocha [...]
a. bh s relax ar an beach [...]
3.

b. [i bhfochlsal] An bhfuil m in ann use mo...
2.2.5 An ramhfhocal
irtear 12% de na leama ar fad ina ramhfhocail. T 8.9% diomln na ramhfhocal (1.1% ar an
men) ina leama T2. Mar gheall ar an agslacht agus ar an iginnteacht anailseach a bhaineann
leis na cinelacha seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta seo n chuirimid figir staitistiil ar fil anseo ar
chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha.
Ramhfhocal simpl
Catagir sheachfhoirme at i gcaint na ngasr is ea an tr pearsa uatha firinscneach den fhorainm
ramhfhoclach a chur ag obair mar ramhfhocal simpl. Mar shampla, dh a chur ag obair mar
ramhfhocal simpl in ionad dho:
Thug m cnamh dh mo dheaide tiirt an ola.
Sa chorpas ar fad t tr shampla bheirt phist sa scoil channa den dh seo mar ramhfhocal
43
2. Gaeilge
simpl. Maidir le uaidh (< ), t uaidh mar ramhfhocal simpl i gcanint thraidisinta cheantar na
bpist. Ach mar ramhfhocal simpl t uaidh nos coitianta ag cuid de na pist n ns na canna.
I gcs an ramhfhocail thr, tarlaonn go gcuirtear leagan an ramhfhocail a fhaightear roimh an alt
sa Ghaeilge thraidisinta ag obair mar ramhfhocal simpl: trd (< thr sa chanint), m.sh.
Ghabh an traein ansin trd... trd an... trd it bh neart tithe.
Cuireann cuid de na dalta dobhriathar i suomh an ramhfhocail shimpl i gcs istigh (< i / isteach
i), n istigh i gan ur8* sna sampla seo:
Chonaic s... a chara... eile istigh bd [n istigh i bd]
Caithfidh t cur gual istigh sin [n istigh i sin] agus t tine ann.
Is forchaighden at le sonr i gcs s cionn (< os cionn sa Chaighden, as cionn sa chanint):

Agus bh s s goil s cionn droichead ...
Maidir le foirmeacha traidisinta na bhforainmneacha ramhfhoclacha, is cuid spise an fhoirm

mheititisithe apug sa tr pearsa iolra den ramhfhocal ag. Taifeadadh an fhoirm apug ag beirt
bhuachaill san iomln, as dh scoil agsla. Is an fhoirm apuc is gaire d sa chanint thraidisinta.
Ramhfhocal leis an alt

I nGaeilge na bpist is seachfhoirm shuimiil shuntasach scaradh an ramhfhocail chomhthite,
m.sh. le an (scartha) in ionad leis an (comhthite); n faoi an (dh shiolla) in ionad faoin; n uaidh
an (dh shiolla) mar dh fhocal in ionad uaidhn (aon siolla amhin) n n. C nach bhfuil ach
12.7% ar an men de na sampla a bhaineann leis an ranng seo scartha, is ag 32% de na pist (16
duine) at na sampla scartha seo. T sampla de chig ramhfhocal san uimhir uatha i gceist agus
ramhfhocal amhin san uimhir iolra (Tbla 8).
Comhthite
Leama
Uatha
Iolra
Lon dalta
Seachfhoirm scartha
% Dalta
Leama
Lon dalta
Lon dalta (iomln)
% Dalta
d(h)on
43
86
dh an
12
faoin
18
36
faoi an
sa
48
96
46
92
18
sna
11
leis an
36
22
dho an
[d]on an
in an
4
1
uaidh an
11
22
i na
an
le an
sa na
Tbla 8 Ramhfhocail scartha agus chomhthite leis an alt.
2
1
4.3
I dTbla 8 lirtear catadin na ndalta a bhfuil foirmeacha comhthite agus seachfhoirmeacha

scartha acu leis an alt. Nor iromar le na (agus leis na) i meastachn na gcatadn seachfhoirmeacha
toisc gach aon leagan a bheith coitianta sa chanint thraidisinta. C go bhfuil na foirmeacha
comhthite i bhfad nos coitianta n na foirmeacha scartha ina measc, is minic na foirmeacha
scartha de na ramhfhocail agus d(h)o ag na dalta. T an leagan comhthite chomh maith leis
an leagan scartha den ramhfhocal canna in sid ag 15 dalta agus t an leagan scartha amhin
Fach an pl ar Shimeantaic na Gaeilge mar a bhfuil sampla de istigh mar ramhfhocal simpl (2.4.1).
8*
44
2.2 Deilbhocht
de ramhfhocal ar leith in sid ag 11 dalta. T an t-athr seo feicelach i gcs n. As na 18 dalta

a bhfuil leagan den ramhfhocal seo aige/aici leis an alt, t an leagan scartha ag 11 duine acu (.i.
61% uaidh an, an (~ n) vs. 39% n amhin). As an 11 duine seo t idir leaganacha comhthite
agus leaganacha scartha ag ceathrar acu agus t na leaganacha scartha amhin ag seachtar acu.
An forainm ramhfhoclach
I seachfhoirm eile deilbhochta scarann na pist an phearsa n ramhfhocal i gcs an fhorainm
ramhfhoclaigh (thraidisinta). Mar a lirtear i dTbla 9, i gcs 13 (26%) piste, t sampla de
sheacht leama ramhfhocail san uimhir uatha, i ngach pearsa, agus dh leama ramhfhocail sa tr
pearsa uimhir iolra.
Tite
Leama
Iolra
Leama
Lon dalta
% Dalta
48
96
le
trd
26
52
trd
liom
uirthi
romhat
romham
Iomln
% Dalta
leis
chuige/aige
Uatha
Lon dalta
Seachfhoirm scartha
uathu
trothu
40
27
54
19
ar
roimh th
26
0
ag
le mise
38
13
80
roimh m
iad
trd iad
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
13
Tbla 9 Forainmneacha ramhfhoclacha tite agus seachfhoirmeacha scartha.
2
2
2
2
2
6
4
26
Is annamh a bhonn seachfhoirm scartha na bhforainmneacha ramhfhoclacha i gcomhr na

ndalta. Nl ach aon sampla amhin na tr phiste dhag a raibh sampla acu. T s spisiil, fach,
nach bhfuil ach an leagan scartha ar fil sa bhunachar ina iomline de romham agus de trothu. Sa
chomhthacs seo is fi a lua go bhfuil sampla amhin den leama le roimh fin: le fin (< leis fin).
Ramhfhocal T2
Is leama T2 7.2% de na leama ramhfhocal. Fuarthas ocht leagan ramhfhoclacha Barla sa
Ghaeilge:
after, apart from, as, behind, of, past, to agus (on) top of.
T sampla den fhrsa Barla as in i bhfeidhm dhobhriathartha agus den ramhfhocal comhshuite
instead of freisin i bhfeidhm cnaisc neamhfhinidigh. Seo a leanas roinnt sampla ramhfhoclacha
Barla ina gcomhthacs:
goil after an thraein [sic].
ach apart from sin, nl a fhios am mrn faoi.

agus t cut i i mbehind ansin.
cta of Dnall
like uair a chloig tar is sin like... half past four n rud icint
bh s... ag cur go side to side
Chuaigh Dnall ar an top e-... of an mbd
45
2. Gaeilge
garra beag on top cno- kinda... yeah, slibhte.
As in c mid duine at ar na capaill?

Instead of a chrochadh.
Cuid suntais gur ramhfhocail ag a bhfuil simeantaic rasnta casta a bhformhr seo, ramhfhocail
a shealbhatear nos dana n ramhfhocail bhunsacha fearacht ag, ar.
2.2.6 B an ghuta sna forainmneacha sealbhacha 1ua m agus 2ua t/d
Sa chanint thraidisinta bitear an guta sa chad agus sa dara pearsa uatha den fhorainm
sealbhach roimh ghuta. I gcs an dara pearsa uatha, is t a fhreagraonn do do go traidisinta ach
is d at fairsing sa chaint anois. As an iomln, t foirmeacha cu (mathair, duncail) ag trir agus
seachfhoirmeacha (mo athair, mo uncail) ag 12 duine de na pist i gcs an athraithe fineolaochta
seo. Duine amhin a bhain leas as an d leagan, s shampla chu agus aon seachfhoirm amhin. Is
beag malartaocht at i measc na ndalta sa chs seo. D bhr sin, 69% (11 dalta as 16 dalta) de na
pist a chuir seachfhoirm i bhfeidhm sa sampla seo.
2.2.7 Mreanna briathartha
Anseo plimid athruithe at ag teacht i dtreis i gcs na mreanna briathartha. T seachfhoirmeacha

suntasacha le sonr i measc na mreanna briathartha m, d, mara/mura, d. T an mhr d roimh
bhriathar sa mhodh coinnollach ag 17 piste, mar is cu sa Ghaeilge, m.sh. d mbeadh, ach an
mhr m at ag seachtar (14%) sa suomh canna, m.sh. m bheadh, rud nach bhfuil le fil ach go
heisceachtil sa chanint itiil thraidisinta. Chomh maith leis sin, t an d leagan, m n d, ag
dalta amhin sa suomh coinnollach seo.
Fors eile at ag titim amach i gcaint na bpist i gcs na mreanna briathartha is ea m n a chur
in it mura (Caighden) n mara (canint) roimh bhriathar. T mara n mura ag naonr agus t
m n ag ceathrar (31%):
m n thabharfadh siad cnamh dhom.
M n bhonn s bisteach.
Nl an d leagan ag an dalta canna. Fors eile at ag teacht leis an seachphatrn canna is ea an

mhr dhiltach n a sid in ineacht leis an mr d san fhoirm n d roimh bhriathar a thosaonn
ar ghuta san aimsir chaite, m.sh. n dl in it nor l. Sa suomh seo, aimsir chaite roimh ghuta,
taifeadadh nor i gcs 44 dalta agus n d i gcs 16 dalta (34%). T an d leagan ag 13 dalta agus t
n d amhin, gan aon nor, ag trir.
2.2.8 Comhfhocail dr croch -rud
Ceann de na nulacha is suimila sa chorpas is ea -rud a chur mar dhara cuid de chomhfhocal.
Taifeadadh 15 leama ag seisear dalta cigear buachaill agus cailn amhin agus is leama T2
an chad phirt i 10 gcinn de na 15 leama sin (Tbla 10).
Dalta
Sampla
B09a
tine-rud
B10e
tine-rud
B09b
B10d
B11c
C11f
caoire-rud
iron-rud
tarracir-rud, traffic-rud
beep-rud, boot-rud, chain-rud, horn-rud, min-rud, passanger-rud, rotha-rud, rusty-rud,

spray-rud, stick-rud, tine-rud
Tbla 10 Leama ina bhfuil an iarmhr -rud mar dhara cuid i gcomhfhocal.
46
2.3 Comhrir
Mar is lir Thbla 10, t comhfhocal amhin an duine ag ceathrar buachaill agus dh chomhfhocal
eile ag buachaill eile ach t 11 comhfhocal ag an gcailn, m.sh.:
Just cuireann siad e-, kinda min-rud isteach sa(n)... kinda tine-rud a bonns anseo... is
tifidh s suas an traein... agus ansin... bonn... like... na ruda se/i-, kinda beep-rud ann
ach kinda horn-rud at ann... agus an... wheel... agus... t() kinda... is kinda stick-rud agus
bonn bonn sibh a(?)... bonn s a moveil mar sin cosil le... em... rud a bonns ar carr, an
gearstick. [C11f]
Baineann na tr chomhartha de tine-rud le comhthacs na ceiste a cuireadh ar na dalta maidir leis

an gcaoi a n-oibronn an tseantraein guail agus a hinneall. Leagan iarmhreach an -rud seo at
bunaithe ar an bhfrsa ainmfhoclach Barla {Ainm + thing}, m.sh. stick thing, traffic thing. Is sin
le r, t ord na mball sa chomhfhocal seachfhoirme Gaeilge ag leanint ord fhrsa ainmfhoclach
an Bharla. I gcuid shuntasach de na sampla seo t ard tuine le sonr ar -rud. Is cosil an t-ard
tuine seo leis an ard tuine a chloistear ar {Ainm + stuff} at le sonr sa Bharla faoi anil athruithe
comhaimseartha i mBarla Mheirice. Feidhmonn an struchtr seo sa Bharla comhaimseartha ar
dh bhealach go promha, .i. i gcrsa stle a bhaineann le rchis agus mar mheicnocht chitimh
lacsach.
2.3 Comhrir
Drmid anseo ar chomhrir na Gaeilge sna rims seo a leanas: cuspir ainmfhoclach an ainm
bhriathartha i bhfochlsail, cuspir forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha sa tr pearsa (i bhfochlsail,
agus sa timchaint leannach), an chlaoninsint, an fochlsal ceisteach, an clsal coibhneasta dreach
agus indreach, stuchtir an ghinidigh, an forainm in ionad iad leis an gcopail, agslacht ceisteanna,
agus sampla eile dathr comhrire. I dTbla 11, tugaimid na catadin as iomln na sampla a
bhaineann le cur i bhfeidhm cu i gcs na s cinn de na mnla comhrire seo arbh ion dinn cuntas
catagireach a dhanamh ina leith.
Rims comhrire
% Cu
Cuspir ainmfhoclach an ainm bhriathartha i bhfochlsail
69.3
Fochlsal ceisteach
86.5
Cuspir forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha leannaigh sa tr pearsa

Claoninsint
Clsal coibhneasta indreach

Clsal coibhneasta dreach
Struchtir ghinidigh
An forainm in ionad iad leis an gcopail

agslacht ceisteanna
Sampla eile dathr comhrire
40.6
63.9
7.3
87.6
Tbla 11 Cuntas catadnach ar sh cinn as deich gcinn de mhnla comhrire Gaeilge.
2.3.1 Cuspir ainmfhoclach agus forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha i bhfochlsal

Aicmodh fochlsail an chuspra ainmfhoclaigh leis an ainm briathartha a bh ag na pist de rir
chomhrir thraidisinta na Gaeilge, m.sh.:
Cu:
Bh orm... em... tairne a chur ann.
Seachfhoirm: chaith s... goil go dt an carr agus tigel an carr.
Chuir an piste menach an struchtr i bhfeidhm go cu i gcs 77.2% den mhnla seo. Lironn
na dalta difrocht i gcatadin na sampla cu ag brath ar c acu an cuspir ainmfhoclach n
forainmneach at i gcuspir an ainm bhriathartha, m.sh.:
47
2. Gaeilge
Cuspir ainmfhoclach (cu): Rinne s dearmad... an brake... a chur air.

Cuspir forainmneach (cu): Trilfaidh siad a stopadh
Ainm briathartha le hainmfhocal

thaobh chomhrir chu na Gaeilge de, t thart ar dh thrian (69.3%) de na sampla cu ina bhfuil
ainmfhocal i bhfeidhm an chuspra. Foirmeacha cu amhin at ag 21 piste agus seachfhoirmeacha
amhin at ag naonr as na 50 piste ar fad agus t sid mheasctha ag 20 dalta acu (Cairt 10). I
gcs an struchtir chomhrire seo, mar sin, is m dalta (29) a chuireann mnla mchu ag obair
(ar a laghad cuid den am) n na dalta (21) a chuireann an mnla cu i bhfeidhm go catagireach.
Cairt 10 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chur i bhfeidhm cu chomhrir an ainm bhriathartha le cuspir ainmfhoclach
i bhfochlsal.
I gcs an fhrsa a chiallaonn fix, chomh maith le caoi a chur ar X, glactar le feidhmi cur caoi ar
X mar fhrsa in iomln na sampla cu sa chuntas i dTbla 11 agus i gCairt 10 tharla go bhfuil a
leithid rasnta coitianta sa chaint. D bhr sin aicmodh an sampla seo a leanas mar leagan cu:
bh muid ag iarraidh ruda le haghaidh cur caoi ar ruda sa mbaile.
Fuarthas sampla den d mhnla comhrire in sid, fi san abairt channa:
caithfidh t na bolta a bhaint dhon tyre agus ansin tarraingt amach an tyre.
Sa sampla seo thos feictear an d mhnla comhrire seo in aon abairt amhin, an mnla
ainmfhoclach mchu (mar aon le braiteoireacht, .i. stadanna agus athr sa chaint) i dtosach agus
an mnla forainmneach cu ina dhiaidh:
Le haghaidh glanadh an an traein a ghlanadh.
Ainm briathartha le forainm pearsanta sa tr pearsa

Is m na sampla cu at sa mhnla forainmneach n mar at sa mhnla ainmfhoclach. Is sin, t an
mnla a dhanamh i bhfeidhm i gcs 90% de na sampla ag an bpiste menach agus t an mnla
rud a dhanamh i gcs 69.3% ag an bpiste menach, bearna de 20.7% i gcs fheidhm chu an
mhnla seo idir an struchtr forainmneach agus an struchtr ainmfhoclach. T seachfhoirmeacha
ag ochtar (15%) as 49 dalta a lirigh sampla den struchtr forainmneach seo. I gcs triir acu,
is sampla mchu amhin a dfheidhmigh siad, is sin forainm ina chuspir tar is an ainm
bhriathartha. Seo a leanas cpla sampla den chomhrir mhchu:
bh s triail em... bain n bthar iad.
bh siad ag iarraidh ithe .
Is fi a lua gur i gcomhthacs ainm bhriathartha T2 a fhaightear thart ar thrian de na

seachfhoirmeacha seo:
bonn daoine in ann useil iad.
48
2.3 Comhrir
bheadh t in ann ringeil .

caithfidh t watchil iad.
T an cimheas seo ag teacht leis an gcatadn 27.2% diomln na n-ainmneacha briathartha

(10.3% ar an men) at ina leama T2. T sampla amhin ag piste amhin den fhorainm siad
(ainmn) in ionad an fhorainm iad (cuspir) sa chomhrir mhchu:
Bheadh m in ann stopadh agus cur siad isteach.
(is sin sa bhr agus iad a chur isteach).
2.3.2 Cuspir forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha leannaigh sa tr pearsa

Rinneamar anails ar chomhrir an ainm bhriathartha sa timchaint leannach agus an forainm
sa tr pearsa ina chuspir aige, m.sh. t Dnall leanacht it a bhfuil ag feidhmi ina chuspir
forainmneach ag an ainm briathartha leanacht de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta, in ionad t Dnall
ag leanacht sa Ghaeilge iarthraidisinta (agus sa 3 pearsa iolra t Dnall ag leanacht iad chomh
maith go hannamh le t Dnall iad a leanacht). Fuarthas sampla de leaganacha cu (m.sh. bh m
(dh) dhanamh) agus seachfhoirmeacha (m.sh. bh m ag danamh ) 27 piste. Leaganacha
cu a bh in 40.6% de na sampla ar fad ag an bpiste menach (59.4% seachfhoirmeacha ag an
bpiste menach). Fgann sin cimheas nos airde de sheachfhoirmeacha n foirmeacha cu. As na
pist ar taifeadadh sampla acu bh leaganacha cu amhin ag cigear, seachfhoirmeacha amhin
ag 12 agus idir leaganacha cu agus sheachfhoirmeacha ag deichnir acu. Fgann seo cimheas
de tuairim is 1 : 4 maidir le leagan cu ar limh amhin le hais seachfhoirmeacha n meascn ar
an limh eile. Is sin le r go bhfuil thart ar an gcigi cuid de na dalta a dhanann idirdheal
catagireach de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta idir comhrir an fhorainm agus an ainmfhocail i mnla
chuspir an ainm bhriathartha leannaigh seo.
I measc na seachfhoirmeacha seo, chomh maith le mnla mar t Dnall ag leanacht iad, i gcs an
fhorainm sa 3 pearsa iolra, t mnla annamh mar t Dnall iad a leanacht sa bhr channa, m.sh.:
bh na anacha agus na caoire agus na beithgh uilig iad a leanacht. (.i. bh na hanacha
agus na caoire agus na beithgh uilig leanacht)
t mada iad a leanacht. (mada = madra)
t na daoine dhe iad a tharraingt [...] (sa bhr t na daoine a thinig dhen traein dtarraingt)
Is dcha go mbaineann buns na seachfhoirme seo le hanalach ar an struchtr cuspireach

fochlsail, cumasc idir comhrir fochlsail agus comhrir leannach promhchlsail:
ba mhaith liom iad a leanacht : t m dh leanacht t m iad a leanacht.
2.3.3 An chlaoninsint
Plimid anseo toradh na hanailse ar ritis na bpist nuair a lorg na hagallir abairt uathu sa
chlaoninsint. Diarr na hagallir ar na pist le linn an agallaimh ts a chur le habairt mar seo:
Dirt (duine) go ... agus an abairt a chrochn bunaithe ar rud a cheapfadh an piste a darfadh
carachtar sa phictir sa scal sa phictirleabhar. As na 36 dalta ar iarradh orthu seo a dhanamh
bh freagra sa chlaoninsint chu ag 23 dalta (63.9%). Is leagan den insint dhreach a chuir 11 piste
i bhfeidhm in ionad na claoninsinte, m.sh.:
Dirt Dnall go cuir isteach na caoire!
I measc na seachfhoirmeacha is bhar spise iad na sampla a lirigh easpa comhfhreagrachta

claoninsinte idir uimhir an chlsail tosaigh agus an fhochlsail:
49
2. Gaeilge
Dirt Dnall go raibh caoire in front uainn. (.i. Dirt D. go raibh caoire os a gcomhair ( t
caoire os r gcomhair))
Dirt Dnall go dtabharfaidh muid linn na caiple seo.
Dirt Dnall gur bhfaighidh muid ceann de na caiple sin mar t siad an-sciobtha.
Bh aimsir n modh an bhriathair mchu ag pist, m.sh.:
Dirt s e- go mbeidh [s] in ann [iad a choinneil] anseo ag na caiple mar go bhfaca s na
caiple.
Nor irigh le piste amhin an tasc seo a chur i gcrch:
Dirt Diarmad go e- dirt Diarmad go dirt Diarmad e- go go se- go seachain an

go seachain an Nl a fhios am.
2.3.4 An fochlsal ceisteach (m n go in ionad an)
San fhochlsal ceisteach in it na mre ceist an faightear na mreanna briathartha m n go sa

Ghaeilge iarthraidisinta (i 13.5% de shampla an phiste mhenaigh). As na 20 piste a bhfuarthas
sampla dfhochlsal ceisteach acu, fuarthas seachfhoirmeacha ag ceathrar acu (20%) beirt ag a
raibh an mhr bhriathartha m agus beirt eile ag a raibh go, m.sh.:
iarrfadh m dho m bheadh an fuinneog oscailte. (.i. dfhiafrinn dh an raibh an fhuinneog
oscailte)
ag breathn m t s in ann cur caoi air.
bhreathnaigh s air, breathn go raibh an brake fs ann. (.i. fachaint an raibh an coscn
fs air)
Nl a fhios am go ndanfadh s ag an traein. (.i. nl fhios am an sroichfidh s an traein in
am)
I gcs na mre m (in ionad an), is cosil gurb tionchar fheidhm fho-ordaitheach mhr if an
Bharla is bonn li. Agus is cosil, i gcs na mre go in ionad an roimh fhochlsal ceisteach, gurb
ard at i gceist n ginearl ar an bhfeidhm ghinearlta fho-ordaitheach at ag an mr go.
2.3.5 An clsal coibhneasta
Rinneadh anails ar leith ar na sampla mchu a bhaineann leis an gclsal coibhneasta dreach agus
ar na sampla cu agus na seachfhoirmeacha a bhaineann leis an gclsal coibhneasta indreach.

I gcs na gclsal coibhneasta dreach, t formhr dobh de rir an chrais chu thaobh na
comhrire de. Is athr spisiil na forainmneacha ceisteacha c n card a chur i bhfeidhm in
ionad na mre coibhneasta a ag ts clsail choibhneasta dhrigh. T 14 sampla ag an trir pist ar
taifeadadh sampla den fhors seo acu, m.sh.:
na daoine c a bh ag tibhair cnamh dh [...] (.i. na daoine a bh ag tabhairt )
san geata card a bh oscailte. (.i. sa ngeata a bh oscailte)
fuair m used d sin card a bh s ag iarraidh. (.i. chuaigh m i gcleachtadh ar a raibh

uaidh)
50
2.3 Comhrir
I gcs roinnt mhaith de na sampla seo, seasann c do who agus card do what ina macasamhlacha
dabairt Barla. D bhr sin, is cosil go bhfuil tionchar an Bharla i gceist san fhors seo.
Clsal coibhneasta indreach (briathar mrialta splech)

T doth an chlsail choibhneasta indrigh ar cheann de na trithe is forleithne i gcaint na bpist
agus ar cheann de na trithe is soilire ar shimpli teangeolaochta sa Ghaeilge iarthraidisinta.
De na 42 dalta a bhfuarthas sampla de chlsal coibhneasta leis an mbriathar mrialta splech
san fheidhm indreach acu bh sampla cu ag trir, m.sh. an t-am deireanach a raibh an jack air.
Seachfhoirmeacha at i 92.7% de shampla an phiste mhenaigh. Is an gnthphatrn i measc na
bpist n leagan dreach a chur i suomh an leagain indrigh thraidisinta. Aon leagan coibhneasta
amhin mar sin a bhfuil feidhm leis ag formhr mr na bpist. I measc cins eile, baineann cur
i bhfeidhm an leagain dhrigh sa suomh indreach le heaspa an uraithe go ginearlta sa chaint
iarthraidisinta. (Daicmomar easpa uraithe, bodh simhi ann n as, ina leagan den choibhneasta
dreach don anails seo.) Chomh maith leis sin, is fors spisiil an mhr bhriathartha go a theacht
in ionad a. Fuarthas dh shampla den fhors seo ag beirt, san fheidhm indreach:
an ceann... go bhfuil na drioball thuas air.
lad amhin e- go bhfuil carr aige.
Agus sampla de go i bhfeidhm sa choibhneasta dreach:

an fear go raibh ag driveil.
2.3.6 Struchtir an ghinidigh

Danaimid anails ar dh fhors i structhir an ghinidigh san fhochaibidil seo: feidhmi an ailt
dhbailte sa suomh ginideach agus feidhm ramhfhocal sa struchtr sealbhach.
An t-alt dbailte
I gcs an struchtir chinnte {Ainmfhocal + an + Ainmfhocal}, cuireann an piste menach an t-alt
roimh an gcad ainmfhocal, mar aon leis an alt a chur roimh an dara hainmfhocal, i gcs 16.1% de
na sampla ar fad, .i. {an + Ainmfhocal + an + Ainmfhocal}, m.sh. an simlar an teach, an cloigeann
an muc. Lirtear i gCairt 11 go bhfuarthas sampla den alt dbailte seo sa struchtr ginideach
26 dalta, n 52% de na pist ar fad.
Cairt 11 Ord ardaitheach catadnach na bpist de rir an ailt dhbailte sa struchtr ginideach.
Struchtr sealbhach ramhfhoclach

Sa chaint iarthraidisinta, in ionad struchtr na Gaeilge traidisinta, fearacht cloigeann na
gcaorach, cuirtear ramhfhocal i bhfeidhm sa bhr shealbhach i bhfrsa ainmfhoclach, m.sh. an
cloigeann dhe na caoire. Baineann an fors seo le hathruithe deilbhochta (cailleadh foirmeacha
ginideacha na n-ainmfhocal; fach 2.2.1). Lirtear i gCairt 12 c nach bhfuil ramhfhocal ach i 8.3%
de na sampla ar fad ag an bpiste menach, is i measc 20 dalta, n 40% de na pist, a fuarthas
sampla den fhors seo. Is iad na ramhfhocail a fhaightear sa struchtr ginideach ramhfhoclach:
ag (dalta amhin), ar (dalta amhin), le (cigear dalta) agus dho is coitianta (18 dalta).
51
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 12 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon an struchtir shealbhaigh ramhfhoclaigh.
Is an ramhfhocal dho is coitianta sa struchtr seo (fuaimni go; is ionann agus de sa Chaighden,
chomh maith le do). T 48 sampla de ag 18 piste:
na cloigeann dho na caoire [...]; na lmha dho na daoin [...];
na tail dho na banna [...].
18 sampla chigear pist a taifeadadh den ramhfhocal le san fheidhm shealbhach:

cosa le caoir [...]; lmha le daoin [...]; cleit leis na in [...].
Bh sampla amhin den ramhfhocal ar ag dalta amhin agus sampla amhin den ramhfhocal ag
ag dalta eile:
na cosa ar na beith [...]; an wings ag na lachana [...].
Dfhadfa tabhairt faoin trith seo, struchtr sealbhach ramhfhoclach, a mhni ar bhonn
thionchar chras an Bharla.
2.3.7 An forainm in ionad iad leis an gcopail; alt uatha mchu
I roinnt clsal copaile sa chorpas is bhar suntais an easpa comhfhreagrachta uimhr idir an
forainm agus an t-ainmfhocal a dtagraonn an forainm d. T sampla ag seachtar, 14% de na pist
ar fad, duimhir uatha an fhorainm a bheith ag tagairt dainmfhocal san uimhir iolra. I gcs roinnt
de na sampla seo, lean na pist mnla cainte sin / n siod / a bh ag an agallir roimh
ainmfhocal san uatha. Bh 46.2% de na 26 sampla mhchu thaobh comhfhreagrachta uimhr de
ag duine amhin de na pist:
Sin lmha an fear.; Siod na anacha.; Siod na cearca.
Fors eile is fi a lua anseo is ea an easpa comhfhreagrachta uimhr at idir an t-alt agus an
t-ainmfhocal a dtann s leis. T sampla annamha de leagan uatha an ailt roimh ainmfhocail san
uimhir iolra ag seisear, is sin 12% de na pist:
Sin an daoine.; Sin an duilleoga glasa.
Dfhadfa tabhairt faoin trith seo a mhni ar bhonn thionchar chras an Bharla, mar a bhfuil
aon fhoirm amhin ag an alt cinnte the, m.sh. the table, the tables.
2.3.8 agslacht ceisteanna
Diarr na hagallir ar na pist ceisteanna a chur orthu faoi phictiir sa leabhar le linn an agallaimh
struchtrtha. Sa ranng seo cuirimid i lthair toradh na hanailse a rinneadh ar agslacht na
gceisteanna a bh ag na pist sa chuid seo den agallamh struchtrtha.
52
2.4 Simeantaic
Ar an men chuir na pist cig cheist ar na hagallir. Rinneadh anails ar agslacht cheisteanna
na ndalta tr chinelacha na bhforainmneacha ceisteacha a chuntas. Cuimsodh san fhigir
agslachta seo na ceisteanna dar ts briathar substainteach (m.sh. an bhfuil), copail (m.sh. ar) n
gnthbhriathar (m.sh. an ritheann). Is an chaoi ar tugadh faoin agslacht a chainnocht, lon
na gceisteanna a chomhaireamh do gach piste ar leith agus sin a roinnt ar na cinelacha agsla
struchtir sna ceisteanna sin. I gcs phiste C08c, mar shampla, bh seacht gceist aici agus tr
chinel ceisteanna agus bionann seo agus catadn 42.8 don agslacht.
Is 53.4% rta agslachta na gceisteanna a lirigh an piste menach. Is cuar foisteanach at i
ndileadh na ndalta agus iad in ord ardaitheach an rta agslachta (Cairt 13).
Cairt 13 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir rta agslachta na gceisteanna sa Ghaeilge.
2.3.9 Sampla eile dathr comhrire

San fhochaibidil seo plimid dolaim agsil de na hathruithe foris seo a leanas:
dobhriathar idir an mhr agus an briathar, m.sh. go just osann
an aidiacht sean tar is an ainmfhocail, m.sh. an traein sean (in ionad an tseantraein)
cnuasach sampla eile.
T sampla ag ceathrar pist inar cuireadh dobhriathar idir an mhr bhriathartha agus an briathar.
Is iad beagnach, just agus bfhidir na dobhriathra at i gceist sna sampla seo:
Go beagnach bhfuair [...]; go bfhidir mbualfadh [...]; go just osann siad [...].
I gcs na 17 piste a raibh sampla den aidiacht sean i bhfeidhm aitreabideach acu, chuir trir an
aidiacht sean i ndiaidh an ainmfhocail:
an traein sean [...]; Sin an bean sean.
Seo a leanas cnuasach de shampla eile comhrire mchu:
danfaidh rud eile Dnall [...] (.i. danfaidh Dnall rud eile)
thug s go baile na daoine sln. (.i. thug s na daoine abhaile sln)
nl s i gcna an rud canna ag tarl [...] (.i. nl an rud canna ag tarl i gcna)
2.4 Simeantaic
Drmid san fhochaibidil seo ar shimeantaic na Gaeilge de rir na dtama seo a leanas: an
ramhfhocal, an briathar agus nathanna cainte.
2.4.1 An ramhfhocal
Fuarthas 60 sampla 32 (64%) piste dsid mhchu ramhfhocail ar leith. Bh 1.2% de na

ramhfhocail i bhfeidhm mhchu ag an bpiste menach. C go bhfuil rta na sampla mchu
53
2. Gaeilge
seal, t sampla forleathan i measc na bpist. Mar a lirtear i gCairt 14, fuarthas na sampla is
m dfheidhm mhchu i measc na mbriathra a dtann ramhfhocail leo (fach an pl thos san
fhochaibidil seo).
Cairt 14 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon sampla dfheidhmi mchu na ramhfhocal.
An ramhfhocal le briathar
Is iad seo a leanas na briathra a bhfuil sampla dfheidhmi mchu na ramhfhocal leo: abair le, beir
ar, iarr ar, tabhair do, breathnaigh ar agus cuimhnigh ar. Is dcha gurb tionchar an ramhfhocail
Bharla to (.i. say goodbye to) in it an ramhfhocail le, at le sonr i bhfeidhmi an ramhfhocail
do, i ndiaidh an bhriathair abair:
darfaidh s sln dho daoine [...]
Chuir piste amhin ag i bhfeidhm in it ar i ndiaidh beir:

Agus t seisear at ag beireacht ag an...
Dfhadfa tionchar an Bharla (ask help from as; ask from ) a thabhairt faoi deara sa
bhriathar iarr ar. Is iad na ramhfhocail as agus in it ar a chuir beirt i bhfeidhm agus nor chuir
duine de na pist ramhfhocal ar bith i bhfeidhm:
agus bh s ag iarraidh cnamh as an fear.
diarr s fear [...]
Fach:
diarr s ceann dho na fir ar na caiple [...] (.i. diarr s ar dhuine de na fir a bh ar na caiple
[])
Diarr s ar an duine a bh toma an helicopter le haghaidh lift [...] (.i. diarr s marcaocht
ar an duine a bh ag tiomint an helicopter);
agus fach an pl ar le haghaidh thos san fhochaibidil seo.
Bh an ramhfhocal ag in it do leis an mbriathar tabhair ag piste amhin i bhforainm

ramhfhoclach (am in ionad dhom n an leagan giortaithe om):
cnamh a thiirt am goil isteach [...]
T sampla deaspa ramhfhocail i gcs an bhriathair breathnaigh ar, m.sh.:

Bh go leor daoine ag breathn an traein.
54
2.4 Simeantaic
Is cs annamh n imeallach seachas feidhm mhchu a lirtear in easpa an ramhfhocail maidir

leis an mbriathar cuimhnigh ar:
Nl m in ann cuimhni an t-ainm at air.
T sampla freisin de ramhfhocal a fheidhmi i ndiaidh briathair nach ngabhann ramhfhocal leis
sa Ghaeilge thraidisinta:
Seachain ar na caoire [...] (fach watch out for; n leagan mar seachain th fin ar na
caoire);
ag cuart le haghaidh iasc [...] (fach searching / looking for).
Frsa ramhfhoclacha
Chuir duine de na pist ag in it ar i bhfeidhm mar chuid dfhorainm ramhfhoclach:
t deifir aige. (< t deifir air)
Taifeadadh easpa ramhfhocail i bhfrsa eile:
b muid cuairt [...] (< b muid ar cuairt; b = bonn)
An ramhfhocal ar in ionad i i bhfrsa dobhriathartha ama at sa sampla anseo thos:

ar samhradh [...] (< sa samhradh)
Ramhfhocal le haidiacht
Taifeadadh dh shampla bheirt phist dfheidhmi ramhfhocail imeallaigh (i gcs go dt) n
ramhfhocail mhchu (i gcs uaidh) leis an aidiacht gar:
gar uaidh cloch.
go mbeadh siad in ann goil gar go dt .
Athr i bhfeidhm an ramhfhocail

Taifeadadh sampla a lirigh athr i bhfeidhm an ramhfhocail nach mbaineann le briathar ar
leith, le frsa ar leith n le haidiacht ar leith 22 piste. T teacht ar an ramhfhocal go dt sa chiall
ag i gcs trir pist:
agus stop s anseo go dt stisin eile.
t Dnall go dt an traein.
stop an helicopter go dt an... go dt an... an far.
T an dobhriathar istigh sa chiall i n isteach i ag piste amhin:9*

istigh an helicopter [...]
fuair s istigh an traein ar an deireadh.
Lirigh trir pist sampla den ramhfhocal comhshuite as cionn (< os cionn sa Chaighden) sa
chiall ar, ar bharr, n thar (fach on top of an Bharla):
T an b ar... as cionn an cnoc.
gabhfaidh s as cionn an traein.
gabh s as cionn an tarracir [...]
Maidir le istigh, fach an pl ar na ramhfhocail thaobh na deilbhochta (2.2.5).
9*
55
2. Gaeilge
Chuir siad as cionn na clocha iad. (.i. chuir siad ar na clocha iad (.i. chuir siad na brga ar
na clocha))
Agus bh s as goil as cionn droichead.
Bh na ramhfhocail chomhshuite in aghaidh n ar aghaidh ag beirt sa chiall roimh n chun

tosaigh ar:
t caoire i do aghaidh. (.i. t caoire romhat)
go bhfuair siad i bhfad ar aghaidh iad. (.i. go ndeachaigh siad i bhfad un tosaigh orthu)10*
T teacht ar an ramhfhocal comhshuite le haghaidh i gciall an ramhfhocail le ag trir dalta:

t s teacht suas le haghaidh plean.
go dtiocfaidh an duine nua suas le haghaidh plean.

deireann s sin le haghaidh duine.
Taifeadadh an ramhfhocal mar i bhfeidhm mar gheall ar phiste amhin:
nl siad in ann a goil thar mar caoire. (.i. nl siad in ann a ghoil thart mar gheall ar chaoire
[a bheith ar an mbthar])
Chuir beirt an ramhfhocal ar in it i sa fhrsa i lr (fach Barla on the middle of...):

ar lr an bhthair.; ar lr dhon bhthar.
T sampla den fhorainm ramhfhoclach ag sa chiall ar ag piste amhin:
T m ag danamh dearmad ar na cuide focla Gaeilge at acub. (.i. Gaeilge at orthu)
T an ramhfhocal le ag cigear sa chiall le haghaidh n do n ar son. Is giorr an fors seo ar

an ramhfhocal comhshuite le haghaidh (le-h agus leaghaidh sa chaint; fach sos san fhochaibidil
seo):
ag danamh it leis an crab. (.i. le haghaidh an phortin, n don phortn)
ag iarraidh fil it le Dnall. (.i. ag iarraidh it a fhil dho Dhnall)
danaonn siad ruda le teachanna scait leob. (.i. danann siad ruda le haghaidh tithe astu
[n leo] scait [.i. as crainn n le crainn])
Is tionchar an Bharla at le sonr sa ramhfhocal le a fheidhmi sa chiall ar feadh chun trimhse

ama san am at le teacht a chur in il. I gcs beirte a taifeadadh sampla de seo, m.sh.:
cheap siad go mbeadh siad ann le posa. (.i. ar feadh posa)
Taifeadadh le haghaidh sa chiall chuig, ag, go dt n chomh fada le bheirt phist:

thosaigh siad ag ritheacht le haghaidh Dnall [...]
an bhfuil cead aige lift le haghaidh an helicopter.
Tabhair faoi deara an trith choitianta sa chorpas seo, an forainm simpl ina chuspir ag an ramhfhocal comhshuite,
.i. ar aghaidh iad in it ar a n-aghaidh (c gur ar aghaidh orthu an bhr at leis an riteas anseo). Sampla coitianta is
ea le haghaidh / iad c go bhfuil siad seo le fil sa chaint thraidisinta chomh maith. T an mnla neamhthraidisnta
seo leis an bhforainm ag teacht le comhrir sheachfhoirmeach chuspir forainmneach an ainm bhriathartha (2.3.2)
agus le tionchar an Bharla.
10*
56
2.4 Simeantaic
T le haghaidh sa chiall ar ag trir, i bhfeidhm for mar at sa Bharla:

nl fhios am an Gaeilge le haghaidh...
nl really aon ainm ainn le haghaidh fs.
An ramhfhocal comhshuite le haghaidh i bhfeidhm imeallach thraidisinta

Scagaimid anseo sampla dfheidhmi an ramhfhocail chomhshuite le haghaidh sa chiall do n
ar son at imeallach sa chanint thraidisinta i gceantar na bpist. T s an-choitianta i measc na
bpist le haghaidh a sid in it do n ar son:
Cuid le haghaidh gasr beaga.
cairpad le haghaidh na Gaeilgeoir.
t dh seat ann le haghaidh dh duine.
ag iarraidh cnamh le haghaidh an traein.
I gcs 27 piste, t sampla ann a lironn feidhmi an ramhfhocail chomhshuite le haghaidh sa

bhr aidhme, fearacht for an Bharla:
t siad em... ag goil le haghaidh an uachtar reoite. (.i. they are going for ice cream)
Ag eitilt timpeall le haghaidh bia. (.i. flying around for food)
Diarr s ar an duine a bh toma an helicopter le haghaidh lift [...] (.i. diarr s marcaocht
ar an duine a bh ag tiomint an helicopter, fach ask for)
Agus fach:
Gearrann daoine crainnte le haghaidh an tine. (.i. People cut trees for the fire)
Sa chanint thraidisinta, is sid imeallach freisin le haghaidh a chur i bhfeidhm in it ar feadh

n do chun trimhse ama a chur in il ach t s an-choitianta sa chorpas, m.sh.:
fanacht le haghaidh posa.
Bh air su sos le haghaidh cupla nimad.
bonn siad ainn le haghaidh an gheimhreadh.
2.4.2 An briathar
Breathnaigh agus faigh mar bhriathra cnta

Glactar le breathnaigh agus faigh ina mbriathra cnta sa chanint thraidisinta i gceantar na
bpist. T sampla ag 11 piste dfheidhmi breathnaigh sa bhr seo, m.sh:
breathnaonn s [ar] ns an leora.
T sampla den fhocal seo sa ghnthfheidhm agus mar bhriathar cnta san abairt channa freisin:
T s ag breathn ar na feirmeoir agus nl s ag breathn go bhfuil s [ag] goil ar chor ar

bith.
Taifeadadh faigh mar bhriathar cnta 17 piste (34% dobh le hais 2% le irigh), m.sh.:
fuair siad... psn beag suas leis an traein.
57
2. Gaeilge
N bhfuarthas sampla dfheidhmi an bhriathair chnta irigh ach dhuine amhin, dalta deich
mbliana daois. Tuairiscodh go raibh an-chumas acadil ag an dalta seo agus nach raibh ach
rochtain theoranta ar an teilifs sa teach. Seo a leanas an sampla:
bh m ag ir nos airde agus nos airde.
An briathar substainteach agus an chopail

Fuarthas s shampla dsid an bhriathair shubstaintigh i bhfeidhm na copaile san aimsir lithreach
chigear pist as an scoil channa. C go bhfuil feidhm ar leith leis an gcopail, tagraonn s do
chilocht sheasmhach de ghnth. T sampla dfheidhmi an bhriathair shubstaintigh in it na
copaile i dtagairt ite, rud at le fil i gcanint thraidisinta cheantar na bpist. Eiseamlir den
fheidhm seo is ea:
T mo athair as an it seo ach t mo mhthair as [...]
T sampla eile ag beirt dfheidhm na copaile i suomh an bhriathair shubstaintigh:

n shin rud rmhaith [...]
ba feirm beagnach gach it anseo [...]
Agus fach:
n chead ainn [...]
Aimsir mhchu
In ionad t an lithrigh, bhain beirt phist leas as aimsir ghnthlithreach an bhriathair
shubstaintigh bonn, m.sh.:
bonn s istigh sa traein agus bonn s [ag] cur smacht air anois.
Timchaint fhistineach le goil

I gcs goil roimh ainm briathartha, t 52 sampla den timchaint fhistineach. T an timchaint seo le
sonr i gcaint leath (50%) de na pist. T an leagan neamhthraidisinta goil ag goil / goil a ghoil
(fearacht going to go an Bharla) in sid ag cigear (10%; ceann an duine ag B10a, B10h, C08d,
C09d, C10c). Is iad seo a leanas sampla dsid na timchainte seo:
T s ag goil a ghoil ar an traein.
T na caiple ag dul goil craiceilte.
2.4.3 Cn dath?
Fuarthas dh sheachfhoirm faoi thionchar leagan an Bharla ag piste amhin, cailn at naoi
mbliana daois. Tabhair faoi deara go bhfuil an ramhfhocal ar ar lr sa d shampla agus go bhfuil
an choslacht air gur fochlsal ceisteach at sa struchtr dar ts an bhfuil:
Cn dath an bhfuil gruaig an duine (.i. What colour is the persons hair?)
Cn dath an bhfuil an... veain? (.i. What colour is the van?)
tharla nach bhfuil aon sampla eile sa chorpas dfheidhmi an choibhneasta indrigh i suomh an
choibhneasta dhrigh, is is diche gur fochlsal ceisteach seachas clsal coibhneasta indreach
at sna fochlsail dar ts an bhfuil anseo, c gurb ionann fuaimni do a bhfuil sa chaint agus go
bhfadfadh neodr igin a bheith i gceist.
58
2.5 Pragmataic
2.4.4 Sln a fhgil

Rinneadh anails ar an leas a bhain na pist as an mbeannacht ina n-aithris ar an gcuid sin den
scal ina raibh daoine sna pictiir ag fgil sln lena chile. Fuarthas sampla 21 piste. N raibh
leagan traidisinta den bheannacht ach ag duine amhin. Bh leaganacha de sln a r ag 18 agus
leaganacha de waveil sln ag duine de na pist. Bh an leagan t s abair bye ag buachaill a bh
11 bliain daois.
2.4.5 An bhfuil cead ag ...?
Is athr i dtreo fheidhm an Bharla at le sonr sa fhrsa an bhfuil cead ag ... ? Tionchar fheidhm
an Bharla can (subject) have (can = permission) at le sonr i sampla ag naonr:
An bhfuil cead ainn cnamh? (.i. An fidir cnamh a thabhairt dinn?)
An bhfuil cead aige sob? (.i. An fidir sob a thabhairt d?)
An bhfuil cead am up close? An bhfuil cead am breathn gar d?
An bhfuil cead aige lift le haghaidh an helicopter? (.i. An fidir leis bealach a fhil chomh
fada leis an helicopter?)
Is digh gur bunaithe ar an athr seo thuas is fidir leagan leis an mbriathar fad a thuiscint sa
sampla seo:
an bhfadfaidh m lift... go dt an traein... beag dearg? (.i. an fidir liom marcaocht a fhil
chomh fada leis an traein bheag dhearg?)
2.4.6 Sampla eile de thionchar an Bharla
Sonramid san fhochaibidil seo cnuasach beag sampla simeantaice inar fidir tionchar an Bharla
ar an nGaeilge a aithint:
ar ball shin [...] (< a while ago)
just is maith liom nos fhearr . (< I like it better)
go ndanfadh s ag an traein [...] (< that he would make it to the train)
Fach:
ag danamh caislein amach as gainneamh [...] (< out of sand)
n bhm ag caint faoi anacha chomh mr sin. (fach that much).
2.5 Pragmataic
Gnithe de phragmataic na Gaeilge is bhar don fhochaibidil seo: na focail phragmataice a dtugtar
marcir dioscrsa orthu. Drmid freisin ar mhinicocht sid na bhfocal Barla yeah, yes, yep,
agus ar chd na bhfreagra a thugann na pist ar cheisteanna dnta.
2.5.1 Marcir dioscrsa
Rinneadh anails ar mhinicocht 16 marcir dioscrsa, seacht gcinn acu as Barla agus naoi
gcinn as Gaeilge, a bh sa chomhr Gaeilge ag na pist. Ba iad na marcir ba choitianta, in ord
minicochta (Cairt 15):
well, cinel, just, like, kinda, (ar) ns, really, an bhfuil a fhios ad.
59
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 15 Minicocht na marcir dioscrsa sa chomhr Gaeilge.
T ord agsil le sonr ach dri ar lon na ndalta a bhfuil na marcir seo acu. Is iad na focail at
ag an lon is m dalta, in ord minicochta (Cairt 16):
just, well, cinel, (ar) ns, really, like, an bhfuil a fhios ad.
Cairt 16 Marcir dioscrsa de rir lon na bpist.
Is i ngeall ar ardmhinicocht na marcir kinda agus like a bheith ag lon rasnta beag dalta nach
bhfuil kinda agus like chomh hard ar liosta na minicochta de rir an ln is m dalta mar a lirtear
i gCairt 16.
Bh 17.1 marcir dioscrsa in sid ag an bpiste menach. Nor bhain beirt (C11a, C08b) feidhm
as focail den chinel seo agus ba 98 marcir dioscrsa an lon is m sampla (.i. comhartha) a bh
ag an bpiste (C11f) ba mh marcir dioscrsa (Cairt 17).
60
2.5 Pragmataic
Cairt 17 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na marcir dioscrsa sa chomhr Gaeilge.
C gur focail Ghaeilge at sa mharcir dioscrsa agus stuf, daicmomar ina mharcir dioscrsa
Barla i ngeall ar gur aistrichn dreach at ann ar and stuff (like that). Is minic a fheidhmonn
(ar) ns mar aistrichn ar like.
2.5.2 Na focail yeah, yes, yep
Faightear na focail yeah, yes, yep sa chomhr Gaeilge i bhfreagra dearfacha ar cheisteanna agus
mar dheimhnichn ar ritis. Is an leagan yeah is coitianta i measc na ndalta agus bh s ag 46
piste (92%). Bh teacht ar yep i gcs deichniir (20%) agus bhain beirt (4%) leas as an bhfocal
yes (cailn agus buachaill). Bh 10.3 leagan de na tr fhocal seo in sid ag an bpiste menach. Nor
taifeadadh aon sampla ag trir buachaill san aoisghrpa is ige (Cairt 18). Buachaill is coitianta i
measc an scr dalta is sle lon na bhfocal yeah, yes, yep (ar chl i gCairt 18): 15 buachaill : 5 cailn.
T dileadh gnis ms cothrom sa scr dalta is airde lon na bhfocal yeah, yes, yep (ar dheis i gCairt
18): 8 buachaill : 12 cailn.
Cairt 18 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na gcomhartha de yeah, yes agus yep sa Ghaeilge.
2.5.3 Freagra ar cheisteanna dnta
Rinneadh anails ar c acu i mBarla (yeah, yes, yep) n i nGaeilge (athr ar bhriathar na ceiste (n
sea, fach thos)) a thug na pist freagra ar cheisteanna dnta sa chomhr Gaeilge. Is 9.6 freagra
as Barla agus 16.9 freagra as Gaeilge a lirigh an piste menach. T rimse leathan le tabhairt
faoi deara maidir le dileadh na bpist sa chomhthacs seo (Cairt 19). Buachaill is coitianta i
measc an scr dalta is airde catadn freagra i nGaeilge (ar dheis i gCairt 19): 15 buachaill : 5
cailn.
61
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 19 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chatadn na bhfreagra i nGaeilge ar cheist dhnta.
I measc na bhfreagra a tugadh i nGaeilge t sampla den fhocal sea i suomhanna gramadla nach
bhfuil copail sa cheist, it nach mbeadh sea cu sa Ghaeilge thraidisinta. Fuarthas 19 sampla den
sid seo ochtar pist, m.sh.:
- An aithnonn t ? (agallir)
- Sea.
Is leathn seo ar fheidhm sea at faoi thionchar yeah agus yes an Bharla. Thugamar suntas do
thrith eile at coitianta sa chaint chomhaimseartha agus i nGaeilge na bpist: freagra dtheangach
a thabhairt ar cheist dhnta. Fuarthas 62 sampla den trith seo 25 piste (50%) (Cairt 20).
Cairt 20 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na bhfreagra dtheangacha ar cheist dhnta sa chomhr Gaeilge.
Daicmomar freagra dtheangacha mar seo faoi dh, .i. mar fhreagra Gaeilge agus mar fhreagra
Barla. Freagra Gaeilge roimh an bhfocal Barla an t-ord focal at le sonr i gcs 71% de na sampla
seo (Gaeilge+Barla i gCairt 20), m.sh.:
Fach:
T, yeah.
T m a cheapadh go bhfuil, yeah.
T an ns seo cothrom go maith thaobh gnis de: 11 cailn : 9 buachaill. Is an focal Barla a
thagann ar dts sa chuid eile de na sampla (Barla+Gaeilge i gCairt 20), m.sh.:
Yeah. Taitnonn.
Cailn is coitianta a bhfuil an t-ord seo acu: 9 cailn : 4 buachaill. Is fidir an claonadh gnis at
liri san fhianaise a leagan amach go hachomair mar seo:
T, yeah.

Yeah, t.
Cailn Buachaill
Cailn >> Buachaill
T, mar sin, tr mhnla dhearbhaithe i gcras comhr Gaeilge na ndalta at faoi chaibidil anseo.
Mar shampla, de dhearbh ar an raibh ... t (a) bh, (b) yeah, yes, yep, (c) sea, n meascn de ghnithe
den chras seo, mar a lirodh sna sampla thuas.
62
2.6 Lofacht
2.6 Lofacht
Cuirimid tortha na hanailse a rinneadh ar lofacht na bpist sa Ghaeilge ar fil san fhochaibidil
seo. Plimid anseo an lofacht agus an mhlofacht sa chomhr Gaeilge de rir na ngnithe seo: (1)
trithe lofachta agus mlofachta i nimad samplach reacaireachta, a phlimid i bhFochaibidil
2.6.1.; (2) ritis maidir le heaspa foclra agus ritis eile mheititheangeolaochta maidir leis an str
focal Gaeilge, a phlimid i bhFochaibidil 2.6.2.
2.6.1 Trithe lofachta agus mlofachta
Tgadh nimad samplach dinsint scil as na taifeadta ar an gcomhr Gaeilge chun anails a
dhanamh ar lofacht na bpist. Roghnaodh an nimad reacaireachta seo as sliocht reacaireachta
a iarradh ar an dalta a dhanamh bunaithe ar phictiir sa leabhar. Nor baineadh an sliocht seo
as ts na reacaireachta a bh ag na dalta sa chaoi is nach mbeadh dbartal ts scil i gceist san
anails. Mar sin is as gar do lr na haithrise a baineadh an sliocht. I gcpla cs norbh fhidir sliocht
nimid as a chile de reacaireacht an dalta a fhil sa chorpas. Sna csanna seo baineadh caint an
agallra as sliocht leannach an dalta chun nimad iomln reacaireachta a sholthar don phiste
sin. Rinneadh anails ar na gnithe seo a leanas sa nimad reacaireachta a bh ag gach dalta ar
leith chun teacht ar liri ar chrsa lofachta agus mlofachta:
(a) lon na bhfocal;
(b) stad gearr agus stad fada in abairt;
(c) bearna i dtirgeadh focail, bodh an focal crochnaithe n n bodh (m.sh. thinig an tr-,
traein) .i. focal bearnaithe;
(d) fad bhaint as an bhfuaimni de bharr dbartaola (m.sh. feicimmm anseooo);
(e) intriachta dbartaola (e- agus em-).
Lon na bhfocal
Dirt an piste menach 112.2 focal sa nimad a anailsodh. Bh difrocht 115 focal idir an lon
ab sle agus an lon ab airde focal (Cairt 21).
Cairt 21 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na bhfocal i nimad reacaireachta sa Ghaeilge.
Stad gearr agus stad fada in abairt

Comhaireadh lon na stadanna a bh idir focail in abairt sa nimad reacaireachta ag gach dalta.
Rinneadh idirdheal idir stad gearr (fad nos l n tr shoicind) agus stad fada (fad tr shoicind
n nos m). Rinne an piste menach 6.46 stad gearr agus 0.98 stad fada sa nimad samplach
(Cairt 22).
63
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 22 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na stadanna gearra agus fada sa reacaireacht Ghaeilge.
Focail bhearnaithe
Fuarthas suas le s fhocal bhearnaithe sa nimad samplach i measc na bpist. 1.5 focal bearnaithe
a bh ag an dalta menach. Nor taifeadadh sampla den trith seo 17 piste (34%) (Cairt 23).
Cairt 23 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na bhfocal bearnaithe sa Ghaeilge.
Fuaimni fadaithe
Fuarthas suas le naoi gcomhartha dfhuaimni fadaithe i measc na bpist. Nor taifeadadh sampla
ar bith den trith seo 20 dalta (40%). Lirigh an piste menach 1.46 fuaimni fadaithe sa
sampla (Cairt 24). Cailn an seisear is airde lon na gcomhartha fadaithe seo (ar dheis i gCairt 24).
Cairt 24 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na gcomhartha den fhuaimni fadaithe sa Ghaeilge.
Intriachta dbartaola
Fuarthas suas le deich n-intriacht dbartaola (e- agus em) i measc na bpist. Nor taifeadadh
sampla den trith seo chigear (10%). Lirigh an piste menach 3.3 intriacht dbartaola (Cairt
25).
64
2.6 Lofacht
Cairt 25 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na n-intriachta dbartaola sa Ghaeilge.
2.6.2 Ritis i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal

Drmid anseo ar ritis na ndalta maidir lena n-easpa foclra agus ar a gcuid riteas
meititheangeolaochta maidir leis an str focal Gaeilge at acu. Is as an gcorpas iomln d gcuid
agallamh sa Ghaeilge a tgadh an t-bhar seo (agus n as an nimad samplach reacaireachta
amhin, n hionann agus an fhianaise don phl i 2.6.1). Is dearmad ar fhocail Ghaeilge at i gceist
anseo n easpa tirgthe an fhocail Ghaeilge. Is iad seo a leanas sampla de na ritis at i gceist san
fho-rang seo:
(a) Fintuarascil ar easpa cumais (sa Ghaeilge):
an... coinn... em... kinda squeak freisin kinda like... like I dont know really. (maidir leis an
torann a dhanfadh coinn)
Nl a fhios agam card an Gaeilge air.
Nl m go maith ag aige i nGaeilge.
T m ag danamh dearmad ar na cuide focla Gaeilge at acub.

Nl a fhios am ariamh i Gaeilge.
Nl a fhios am card hedgehog ar bith i nGaeilge.
(b) Fintuarascil ar dhrir idir a gcumas sa Ghaeilge agus a gcumas a bheith nos fearr sa
Bharla:
T a fhios am i Barla. Ach nl a fhios am i Gaeilge .
(c) Moill n braiteoireacht i dtirgeadh an tarma chu Gaeilge:
N cnocin iad ach cn t-ainm at orthub ar chor ar bith? N cnocin iad ach t siad cinel
suas dreach. [.i. alltracha]
Em... sin, em... soch-, em... soch-, em... em... em... su-, t a fhios am just n... Sochn em...
suochin... sciathin, sciathin!
Comhaireadh lon mhacasamhlacha na riteas seo ((a)(c)) i measc na bpist aonaracha. Lirigh
an piste menach dh shampla (Cairt 26).
65
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 26 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na sampla de ritis i leith a gcuid cumas foclra sa Ghaeilge.
N raibh aon riteas den srt seo le fil sa chorpas i gcs 12 dalta (24%).
2.7 Foghraocht: raladh r leathan agus caol
Plimid anseo thos anails foghraochta ar na fuaimeanna a dtagraonn an litir r dibh mar a
raltar iad i gcomhr Gaeilge na bpist. Is fuaimeanna so-aitheanta iad seo ag a bhfuil impleachta
soch-chultrtha agus impleachta i dtaobh teagmhil idir teangacha in go leor teangacha sa domhan.
Rinneadh an anails ar shampla nimad reacaireachta i gcs gach piste. An nimad samplach
canna a bh i gceist san anails ar an lofacht (2.6). Nor comhaireadh lon na gcomhartha ach
anailsodh an fhuaim ar leith a bheith ann n gan a bheith ann. Bailodh comhartha den fhuaimni
traidisinta, an cnagach leathan [r] agus caol [r] sa Ghaeilge, agus comhartha ina raibh fuaimni
neamhthraidisinta, foghar a dtabharfaimid r aisfhillte [] an Bharla mar lipad comair anseo air,
in it na bhfoghar traidisinta. Fuarthas r chaol agus r leathan na Gaeilge ag 70% agus 20% de na
pist, faoi seach, agus r aisfhillte an Bharla ag 90% de na dalta (Cairt 27).
Cairt 27 Catadn na bpist ag a raibh foghair r na Gaeilge agus an Bharla.
I gcs 14 piste (28%), n bhfuarthas comhartha ar bith de r na Gaeilge, caol n leathan, sa nimad
reacaireachta. Ar an taobh eile den scal, is r na Gaeilge amhin a bh ag cigear (10%), agus
is buachaill gach duine den chigear sin. Meascn na gcras fuaimeanna Barla agus Gaeilge a
taifeadadh i gcs an chuid is m (62%) de na pist (Cairt 28).
Cairt 28 Dileadh na bpist de rir raladh na bhfoghar r i nimad samplach.
66
2.7 Foghraocht: raladh r leathan agus caol / 2.8 Inscne ghramadil
T dh chim fhorbartha le sonr san fhianaise seo i gCairt 28. Is lir go bhfuil r leathan na Gaeilge
imithe as caint fhormhr na bpist agus r an Bharla tagtha ina hit. T sciar suntasach de na
pist at forbartha nos faide i dtreo an Bharla mar go bhfuil r an Bharla acu in it r chaol na
Gaeilge. Fgann sin an scla impleachtil seo i dtreis: m t r leathan na Gaeilge ag dalta, beidh r
chaol aige/aici (ach amhin B10g).
2.8 Inscne ghramadil
Drmid anseo thos ar inscne na bhforainmneacha pearsanta in abairt copaileacha a thosaonn

ar leagan igin den fhorainm taispentach seo n sin .i. siod/seo/sin an ... n siod/seo/sin an ....
Bailodh 400 sampla ag 48 piste. Lirigh an piste menach 8.3 comhartha. Nor cuireadh san
ireamh san anails seo na naoi bhfrsa a bh ag ochtar pist ina raibh tagairt fhorainmneach
dainmfhocal Barla sa fhrsa canna. Thagair an forainm firinscneach do na focail Bharla seo
ach amhin i gcs an fhocail speedboat, ar thagair an forainm baininscneach d mar at coitianta
sa Ghaeilge i gcs soithigh mar bhd.
Bh tagairt de rir inscne na Gaeilge cruinn i 71.2% de na sampla ag an bpiste menach. T difrocht
shuntasach 50% idir na pist is faide ghns tagartha na Gaeilge agus na pist is gaire do ghns na
Gaeilge. Bh beirt a bh go hiomln cruinn sa rimse seo (Cairt 29).
Cairt 29 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chatadin na sampla cruinne inscne sa Ghaeilge.
I gcs Ghaeilge na bpist, t claonadh lidir forainm firinscneach a chur roimh ainmfhocal
baininscneach. Is forainm firinscneach a thagair dainmfhocal baininscneach a bh i 83% de na
seachfhoirmeacha ar fad. I measc na bhfocal a ndearnadh anails orthu, agus at suimithe i gCairt
29, t focal amhin, bd, at firinscneach thaobh na deilbhochta de ach a dtagraonn forainm
baininscneach d sa chanint thraidisinta i gceantar na bpist (m.sh. siod an bd). As na 33
piste a raibh sampla de thagairt fhorainmneach don fhocal seo acu sa fhrsa copaileach seo bh
forainm firinscneach ag 26 dalta (78.8%) agus bh an forainm baininscneach ag an gcuid eile.
C gurb an claonadh is m at ann a chur in it , t sampla d mhalairt de chlaonadh .i. a chur

in it . Bh tagairt fhirinscneach do 19 focal bhaininscneacha agus bh tagairt bhaininscneach do
sheacht bhfocal fhirinscneacha. T na focail a bhfuil ar a laghad cig shampla dobh ann liostaithe
i dTbla 12.
Tagairt
Siod an
Focal
spir
traein
c(h)earc
lacha
Lon
cu
10
12
8
Lon
sampla
6
13
36
33
14
% Cu
16.7
23.1
28.6
36.4
Tagairt
Siod an
Focal
crann
iasc
Lon
cu
23
16
Lon
sampla
31
21
% Cu
74.2
76.2
57.1
Tbla 12 Ainmfhocail choitianta sa chorpas agus catadin a dtagartha cu.
67
2. Gaeilge
T an d fhocal b agus cearc spisiil sa liosta seo. Is ainmfhocail iad a thagraonn do ghnas
ainmhithe at cuibheasach coitianta faoin tuath in irinn. T 36 sampla den fhocal b i gceist agus
nl tagairt bhaininscneach ach ag deich gcomhartha (28.6%) dobh. T 33 sampla den fhocal cearc
i gceist agus nl tagairt bhaininscneach ach le 12 comhartha (36.4%) dobh, is sin t tagairt
bhaininscneach don fhocal cearc ag 12 piste as 33. An catadn seal den tagairt ndrtha
inscneach at leis an d fhocal seo, is liri ar athr tbhachtach i nGaeilge na bpist le hais na
Gaeilge traidisinta.
2.9 An claochl tosaigh
Drmid anseo thos ar na claochluithe tosaigh sa Ghaeilge sna rims gramadla seo a leanas: an
t-ainmfhocal, an briathar, an aidiacht, an forainm sealbhach, an aidiacht uimhreach, rimreanna
ainmfhoclacha agus an t-ainm briathartha. Plimid freisin seachfhoirmeacha agus foirmeacha
nulacha agus tionchar an chlaochaithe tosaigh ar fhocail Bharla sa chomhr Gaeilge. I gcur i
lthair na gcairteacha a bhaineann leis na claochluithe tosaigh, baintear leas as lipad achoimrithe
a lironn rims agsla na gclaochluithe, m.sh. seasann carr Dhna(i)ll do gach comhartha sa
chorpas dainmfhocal cinnte sa suomh ginideach, nl s i gceist leis na lipid go bhfuarthas an
frsa fin, m.sh. carr Dhna(i)ll, ag aon duine ar leith.
As 5011 comhartha ina raibh claochl tosaigh i bhfeidhm, n ina mbeif ag sil le claochl tosaigh
de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta, bh 57.3% cu ag an bpiste menach. Fuarthas an toradh menach
ab sle (30.7%) i rimse na haidiachta i ndiaidh an ainmfhocail agus fuarthas an toradh menach
ab airde (88.1%) i rimse na bhforainmneacha sealbhacha (Cairt 30).
Cairt 30 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu de rir rimse gramada.
I gcuair Chairt 31 a thagraonn do na rims gramada seo, is lir go bhfuil polar chumas na bpist
thaobh cruinnis de le tabhairt faoi deara. T lon na sampla luaite sna libn do gach rimse.
Cairt 31 Catadin chu na gclaochluithe tosaigh de rir rims gramada in ord ardaitheach neamhsplech do gach
rimse ar leith.
Na lnte treochta is l cimeanna i gCairt 31 is iad is m comhartha .i. an t-ainmfhocal agus an

briathar, rud a fhgann gur gaire a ndileadh don fhorghns thaobh na staitistice tuarascla
(seachas dileadh at bunaithe ar lon cuibheasach beag comhartha). Is lir gurb an briathar is
m a mbonn claochl tosaigh cu air, mar gheall, is cosil, gur leis is m at feidhm ghramada i
68
gcras na gclaochluithe tosaigh. Fach go bhfuil claochluithe tosaigh iomarcach thaobh feidhme
de leis an ainmfhocal. Mar shampla, t feidhm chontrrtha sa bhriathar le bris seachas bhris, rud
nach bhfuil i gceist san ainmfhocal le brg seachas bhrg. Chomh maith leis sin is mar aonad cille
a fheidhmonn cnaisc agus mreanna roimh an mbriathar, m.sh. n thann.
2.9.1 An t-ainmfhocal
I gcs na sampla ina mbeif ag sil le claochl tosaigh ar thslitir ainmfhocail, bh 35.2% cu ag an
bpiste menach. I gCairt 32 lirmid catadin na gclaochluithe cu ar an ainmfhocal de rir na
ndla agsla seo a leanas (agus, idir libn, an lipad a thugaimid sa chairt do gach rimse, m.sh.
seasann carr Dhna(i)ll do gach comhartha sa chorpas dainmfhocal cinnte sa suomh ginideach):
simhi ar an ainmfhocal cinnte sa suomh ginideach (carr Dhna(i)ll);
ur ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh an ailt ghinidigh iolra (na mbeithoch);

t- roimh ainmfhocal firinscneach i ndiaidh an ailt (an t-uisce);
simhi ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh den/don (den/don charr);
h roimh ghuta i ndiaidh an ailt iolra (na hin/hanacha);
simhi ar ainmfhocal baininscneach i ndiaidh an ailt sa bhuntuiseal (an bhean);

simhi ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh ramhfhocail shimpl (ar cheann);
ur ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh an ailt faoi rir ag ramhfhocal simpl (ag an ngeata);

simhi ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh an ailt ghinidigh fhirinscnigh (an fhir/fhear);
ur ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh an ramhfhocail i (i gceann).
Lirtear i gCairt 32 nach bhfuarthas oiread agus sampla amhin cu i measc ainmneacha pearsanta
sa suomh ginideach (m.sh. carr Dhna(i)ll) as 15 sampla. I gcs ainmfhocal faoi rir ramhfhocal
a chuireann ur ar an tschonsan (i gceann), bh 65.3% de na 128 sampla cu.
Cairt 32 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu ar an ainmfhocal.
Plimid leis na rims seo thuas de rir na bhfotheideal seo a leanas:
- an t-ainmfhocal sa bhuntuiseal ainmneach (an t-uisce, na hin/hanacha, an bhean)
- an t-ainmfhocal sa suomh ginideach (an fhir/fhear, na mbeithoch, carr Dhna(i)ll)
69
2. Gaeilge
- an t-ainmfhocal faoi rir ag ramhfhocal (don/den charr, ar cheann, ag an ngeata, i gceann)
An t-ainmfhocal sa bhuntuiseal
T catadn menach (31.1%) na sampla cu beagn nos sle i rimse seo an ainmfhocail sa
bhuntuiseal n catadn menach na sampla cu ar leibhal na n-ainmfhocal ar fad (35.2%). Is
iad na claochluithe tosaigh at i gceist san fhochaibidil seo:
t- roimh ghuta san uatha firinscneach
h roimh ghuta san iolra agus simhi ar thschonsan ainmfhocail bhaininscnigh i ndiaidh
an ailt.
T dh ghn den fhianaise liri i gCairt 33:
catadin iomlna na gcomhartha cu sa chorpas (barra faisnise oriste)
catadin na bpist nach bhfuarthas aon chomhartha cu sna rims seo acu (barra
faisnise uaine) i measc na bpist a raibh comhartha a bhaineann le hbhar acu.
Cairt 33 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu leis an ainmfhocal sa bhuntuiseal i measc na bpist agus catadin na
bpist gan sampla de na claochluithe tosaigh cu.
Taobh amuigh de na rims thuasluaite, bh sampla dfhoris mhchu eile i measc na n-ainmfhocal
sa bhuntuiseal. Ceann de na foris seo is ea simhi a chur ar thschonsan ainmfhocail fhirinscnigh
i ndiaidh an ailt san uimhir uatha (m.sh. an fhear). Fuarthas 17 sampla den fhors seo 14 piste
(28%). Is athr eile tschonsan ainmfhocail a chlaochl sa bhuntuiseal san uimhir iolra (m.sh.
na dtraenacha). Taifeadadh ocht sampla den trith seo sheachtar (14%).
An t-ainmfhocal sa suomh ginideach
Plimid anseo tr rimse a bhaineann le claochl tosaigh ar an ainmfhocal sa suomh ginideach. T
catadn menach (20%) na sampla cu nos sle sa rimse seo n catadn menach na sampla
cu ar leibhal na n-ainmfhocal ar fad (35.2%). T dh ghn den fhianaise liri i gCairt 34:
70
Cairt 34 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu leis an ainmfhocal sa suomh ginideach agus catadin na bpist gan
sampla de na claochluithe tosaigh cu.
Is lir mar sin fhianaise an chorpais seo go bhfuil:
doth iomln ar fheidhmi an tsimhithe ar ainmfhocal cinnte sa suomh ginideach

meath rasnta suntasach ar fheidhmi an uraithe sa tuiseal ginideach iolra.
Ach is lir go bhfuil teacht rasnta minic ar shimhi ar an ainmfhocal firinscneach i ndiaidh an
ailt sa tuiseal ginideach uatha.
An t-ainmfhocal faoi rir ag ramhfhocal
Plimid anseo:
na claochluithe tosaigh a thagann i gceist ar an ainmfhocal i ndiaidh an ramhfhocail

shimpl
na claochluithe tosaigh i ndiaidh an ailt at faoi rir ag an ramhfhocal simpl.
T catadn menach (47.3%) na sampla cu i rimse na n-ainmfhocal faoi rir ag ramhfhocal

nos airde n catadn menach na sampla cu ar leibhal na n-ainmfhocal ar fad (35.2%). T dh
ghn den fhianaise liri i gCairt 35:
Cairt 35 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu leis an ainmfhocal faoi rir ag ramhfhocal i measc na bpist agus
catadin na bpist gan sampla de na claochluithe tosaigh cu.
71
2. Gaeilge
Mar sin, bonn na claochluithe tosaigh seo in easnamh sa chorpas nos minice n a mhalairt ach d
annaimhe an fheidhm seo t s ar fil i measc fhormhr na bpist.
2.9.2 An briathar
I gcs na sampla ina mbeif ag sil sa Ghaeilge thraidisinta le claochl tosaigh ar thslitir an
bhriathair, bh 83.1% cu ag an bpiste menach. Lirtear i gCairt 36 catadin na gclaochluithe
cu ar an mbriathar de rir na ndla agsla seo a leanas (agus, idir libn, an lipad a thugaimid
sna cairteanna do gach rimse, m.sh. seasann a mbonn do gach comhartha sa chorpas de bhriathar
sa choibhneasta indreach):
ur sa choibhneasta indreach (a mbonn);
easpa na mre d roimh ghuta i ndiaidh na mre dilta san aimsir chaite (nor l);
simhi ar an mbriathar sa mhodh coinnollach (chaithfeadh);
ur i ndiaidh na gcnasc mara agus sula (mara, sula);
ur i ndiaidh an chnaisc choinnollaigh dh (dh gcaithfeadh);
ur i ndiaidh an chnaisc dhiltaigh nach i ngach aimsir agus modh (nach dtann);
ur i ndiaidh an chnaisc go i ngach aimsir agus modh (go dtann);
simhi i ndiaidh an chnaisc choinnollaigh m (m chaitheann);

ur i ndiaidh na mre ceist an (an dtann);
simhi i ndiaidh na mre dilta n (n thann);
d roimh ghuta n fh- san aimsir chaite agus sa mhodh coinnollach (dirigh);11*
simhi san aimsir chaite (chaith);
simhi i ndiaidh na mre dilta n(or) san aimsir chaite (nor chuir).
Cairt 36 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu ar an mbriathar.
Is i gcs na gclsal coibhneasta indreach a fuarthas an catadn ab sle (28%) de shampla cu na

gclaochluithe tosaigh.
Is fidir caitheamh le d roimh bhriathar mar chuid de chras na gclaochluithe tosaigh, agus ag feidhmi mar
shimhi ar leith.
11*
72
Mreanna briathartha, an aimsir lithreach

Lirtear i gCairt 37 go bhfaightear catadn ard (89.1%) de shampla cu i gcs na gcnasc agus
na mreanna briathartha san aimsir lithreach i measc na bpist. Fuarthas an catadn ab airde
(94%) dfheidhmi cu i gcs an tsimhithe ar an mbriathar i ndiaidh na mre briathartha n (n
thann).
Cairt 37 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu san aimsir lithreach.
An aimsir chaite
Fuarthas catadn ard (87.7%) sampla cu san aimsir chaite ag na pist. Is is suntasa anseo
n an raladh mchu a bhaineann leis an mr d roimh ghuta i ndiaidh na mre dilta san aimsir
chaite (n dl/ nor dl in it nor l). Mar a lirtear i gCairt 38, ba iad na seachfhoirmeacha n dl
agus nor dl a bh i 38.4% de na sampla ar fad. Taifeadadh na seachfhoirmeacha seo ag 54% de
na pist agus nl ach na seachfhoirmeacha seo amhin ag 38% dobh.
Cairt 38 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu san aimsir chaite.
An modh coinnollach
Lirtear i gCairt 39 go bhfuarthas catadn n bsle, 75.5%, de shampla cu i measc na mbriathra
sa mhodh coinnollach.
73
2. Gaeilge
Cairt 39 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu sa mhodh coinnollach.
M chaitheann, mara/sula gcaitheann

I gcs shampla na gclaochluithe tar is na mreanna briathartha m, mara agus sula, bh catadn
ard cu (83%) ag na pist. Fuarthas sampla den mhr bhriathartha m 27 piste. N bhfuarthas
sampla de sula n mara a bhainfeadh le hbhar ach naonr (Cairt 40).
Cairt 40 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu i ndiaidh m agus mura/sula.
An clsal coibhneasta indreach (an briathar rialta)

Sna sampla de chlaochl tosaigh ar bhriathar rialta i gclsal coibhneasta indreach n raibh ach
28% dobh cu ag na pist. Is 29 piste a taifeadadh na sampla agus n raibh sampla cu ar bith
ag 18 (62.1%) acu. Fach an pl i bhFochaibidil 2.3.5.
2.9.3 An aidiacht
Plimid san fhochaibidil seo simhi na haidiachta in dh chomhthacs:
i ndiaidh an ainmfhocail bhaininscnigh sa bhuntuiseal (bean mhr)
i ndiaidh ainmfhocail iolra dar croch consan caol (stairiil, m.sh. -igh) n s/-z (m.sh. fir
mhra, bacaigh mhra, leoraos/z mhra).
Leis an d chomhthacs a thabhairt le chile, bh simhi cu i 30.7% de na sampla seo ag an

bpiste menach (Cairt 41).
74
Cairt 41 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu ar an aidiacht i ndiaidh an ainmfhocail.
Taobh amuigh de na rims thuasluaite, bh sampla de thr fhors sheachfhoirmeacha i measc na

n-aidiachta: (a) simhi mstairiil ar aidiacht fhirinscneach; (b) simhi mstairiil ar aidiacht
iolra; (c) simhi mstairiil ar aidiacht i suomh na breischime.
(a) Fuarthas simhi ar thschonsan aidiachta i ndiaidh ainmfhocail fhirinscnigh uatha sa
bhuntuiseal, m.sh. an fear mhr. Fuarthas 17 sampla 11 piste (22%) den fhors seo.
(b) Taobh amuigh de chomhthacs na gconsan a chuireann simhi stairiil i bhfeidhm (m.sh.
fir mhra), fuarthas simhi ar thschonsan aidiachta i ndiaidh ainmfhocail iolra eile sa
bhuntuiseal, m.sh. na crainnte mhra. Taifeadadh 21 sampla ag deichnir (20%) den fhors
seo.
(c) Fuarthas simhi ar thschonsan aidiachta i suomh na breischime ag ceathrar (8%),

m.sh. nos bhu, nos mhr. Nor chuireamar san ireamh anseo an simhi sa leagan nos
fhearr at traidisinta i gceantar na bpist agus a fuarthas ag cigear (13.5%) sa chorpas.
2.9.4 An forainm sealbhach
Fuarthas claoch tosaigh cu ar thslitir ainmfhocail faoi rir forainm shealbhaigh i gcs 88.1%
de na sampla ag an bpiste menach, m.sh. mo theach; ach sampla mchu is ea do bd agus do
deirfir.
2.9.5 An uimhir
I gcs an phiste mhenaigh, fuarthas claoch tosaigh cu ar 54.4% de na sampla a bhain le tslitir
ainmfhocail a bh faoi rir ag uimhir. Fuarthas sampla den orduimhir lon beag pist, 12 duine
dobh, mar a raibh h roimh ghuta i gceist. Bailodh sampla den bhunuimhir 47 piste (Cairt 42)
mar a raibh simhi agus ur i gceist.
Cairt 42 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh ar ainmfhocal faoi rir uimhreach.
75
2. Gaeilge
Rinneadh anails freisin ar h roimh ghuta ar bhunuimhir a thosaonn ar ghuta tar is na mre
uimhr a (bodh a le haireachtil n n bodh), m.sh. (a) hocht. Chuir na pist h roimh an nguta go
cu i 56% de na sampla.
2.9.6 An aidiacht iginnte agus na rimreanna r- agus an-
Lirtear i gCairt 43 catadin raladh an tsimhithe ar thschonsan focail faoi rir na n-aidiachta
iginnte aon agus chuile agus i ndiaidh na rimreanna r- (n ro-) agus an-. Fuarthas simhi cu
i gcs 63.4% de na sampla seo tr chile.
Cairt 43 Claochl tosaigh ar thslitir focal faoi rir aidiachta iginnte n rimre.
2.9.7 Claochl ar an ainm briathartha i ndiaidh an fhorainm shealbhaigh

Chuir an piste menach claoch tosaigh cu ar thschonsan ainm bhriathartha faoi rir an fhorainm
shealbhaigh i gcs 63.1% de shampla an chorpais. Taifeadadh sampla den rimse claochluithe
tosaigh seo 13 piste, m.sh. chaitheamh (cu); ach dh (firinscneach) danamh (mchu).
2.9.8 Focail Bharla sa chomhr Gaeilge agus an claochl tosaigh
Fuarthas 58 focal Barla sa chomhr Gaeilge i suomh claochlaithe tosaigh agus tschonsan
inchlaochlaithe acu. Cuireadh claochl tosaigh ar 13 focal dobh (22.4%; seacht leicsim) agus fgadh
an chuid eile gan chlaochl. T na focail seo ar a bhfuarthas claochl tosaigh liri i dTbla 13.
Claochlaithe
Gan chlaochl
Iomln Sampla
% Claochlaithe
back
12
33
catchil
50
bicycle
carriage
bangil
meetil
pressil
4
1
1
1
4
4
8
5
1
1
1
Tbla 13 Focail Bharla ar cuireadh claochl tosaigh i bhfeidhm orthu.
50
20
100
100
100
Tugaimid sampla anseo dfhocail Bharla claochlaithe i gcomhthacs:

c mid ruda at istigh sa mback an veain?
Bh... tr... charriage ar... an... traein...
Bheadh an... traein ag goil go Dublin n rud eicnt is... n mheetilfeadh t suas go brch .
phressil m like uimhir a a haon [.i. cnaipe ar an raidi].
76
2.10 Achoimre
2.10 Achoimre
Sa chaibidil seo rinneadh anails ar Ghaeilge na ndalta de rir na naoi rimse teangeolaochta seo
a leanas: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic, lofacht, foghraocht, inscne, agus
claochl tosaigh.
1. Cuireadh staitistic tuarasclacha i lthair maidir leis an bhfoclir i dtarma leama. Tagann
laghd ar lon menach na leama i measc na gcainteoir 415 (iomln) go 367 (calabraithe), nuair
a bhaintear leama T2 (8.6%) agus leama earrideacha (2.4%; c. 8% de na leama Gaeilge) dobh.
Lirtear tr ghrpa cainteoir ag a bhfuil lon menach leama seal (284), nos airde (381) agus
cuibheasach ard (516). Pladh cinel na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge. Baineann catadn ard (67.6%
ar an men) de na leama T2 leis na 2000te. Ardaonn lon an-bheag de na dalta na catadin
iomlna seo de na leama T2 agus de na leama earrideacha go suaithinseach.
2. Pladh deilbhocht Ghaeilge na ndalta. San ainmfhocal t 3.3% (0.6% ar an men) de na leama
T1 earrideach. Baineann na leaganacha earrideacha seo le 19 dalta. thaobh na deilbhochta de,
is seachfhoirmeacha iad 31% (.i. 112/361; 13.4% ar an men) de na hainmfhocail iolra Ghaeilge.
Nl de sheachfhoirm dheilbhochta T2 ach sampla amhin. Maidir leis an nginideach uatha, as na
leama ar fad a sheasann i suomh an ghinidigh uatha, i struchtr ginideach dh ainmfhocal, agus a
bhfuil foirm ar leith ghinidigh acu, seasann 33.2% (20.8% ar an men) acu i bhfoirm an ghinidigh.
Is i bhfoirm an tuisil ainmnigh a fhgtar an chuid eile de na leama seo. Tar is bunuimhreach,
raltar 89.2% (83.4% ar an men) de na hainmfhocail i bhfoirm uatha (foirm chu de rir na
canna) ach raltar an chuid eile san iolra (seachfhoirm de rir na canna).
Is seachfhoirmeacha iad 18.1% de leama na mbriathra thaobh na deilbhochta de: seachrimni

(go hirithe an Chad Rimni a bheith in ionad an Dara Rimni); foirm scartha in ionad na foirme
tite (14 dalta (28%) leaganacha tite amhin, 23 dalta (46%) leaganacha scartha amhin, agus
13 dalta (26%) idir leaganacha tite agus scartha); an briathar mrialta (8.8% de na foirmeacha
neamhsplecha mchu, m.sh. ffadh in ionad gheofadh; 37.6% ar an men de na foirmeacha
splecha mchu, m.sh. n chonaic). dar suntais is ea ganntanas an tsaorbhriathair.
San aidiacht, fuarthas fianaise ar laghd sa sealbh ar chim na comparide. Bh 40% di seo
mchruinn ag an bpiste menach, arbh an tseachfhoirm is coitianta bunleagan na haidiachta a
chur i bhfeidhm, m.sh. nos beag. San ainm briathartha, fuarthas 9.4% (3.4% ar an men) dobh
mchruinn thaobh na deilbhochta de. Cuireadh an foirceann -il le 85.5% de na hainmneacha
briathartha iasachta. Foris agsla a fuarthas i rimse an ramhfhocail is ea: 3 pearsa
firinscneach an fhorainm ramhfhoclaigh in ionad an ramhfhocail shimpl, m.sh. dh in ionad an
ramhfhocail shimpl dho; istigh (i) in ionad an ramhfhocail shimpl i; bunfhoirm an ramhfhocail
roimh an alt in ionad foirm chomhthite an ramhfhocail, m.sh. le an in ionad leis an; bunfhoirm le
forainm in ionad an fhorainm ramhfhoclaigh, m.sh. iad in ionad uathu; leama Barla 8.6% de na
leama ramhfhoclacha. Maidir leis na forainmneacha sealbhacha, sa chad agus sa dara pearsa,
roimh ghuta, mo agus do an gns, n bhfuarthas m agus d ach go heisceachtil. Sna mreanna
briathartha, t m in ionad d coitianta, agus m n in ionad mara n mura, agus n d in ionad
nor. Ar deireadh, fuarthas cinel measctha comhfhocal bunaithe ar -rud, m.sh. boot-rud, caoirerud.
3. Anailsodh rims irithe comhrire i gcaint Ghaeilge na ndalta: an t-ainm briathartha

le hainmfhocal cuspireach i bhfochlsal (m.sh. an obair a dhanamh, 69.3% cu); an t-ainm
briathartha le forainm 3 pearsa cuspireach i bhfochlsal (m.sh. a dhanamh, 90% cu ag an
bpiste menach); an t-ainm briathartha sa timchaint leannach le forainm 3 pearsa cuspireach
(m.sh. t m dh ndanamh, 40.6% cu ag an bpiste menach; mchu: t m ag danamh iad
>> t m iad a dhanamh); an chlaoninsint indreach (de na dalta a bhfuarthas sampla uathu,
63.9% cu); an fochlsal ceisteach (de na dalta a bhfuarthas sampla uathu: an cu ag 80%; m
n go mchu ag 20%); an clsal coibhneasta indreach (7.3% cu); an clsal coibhneasta dreach
(sampla measartha annamha de c agus card mar fhorainm coibhneasta); struchtr an ghinidigh
(87.6% cu): an t-alt dbailte ag 52% agus ginideach ramhfhoclach ag 40% de na faisniseoir; an
77
2. Gaeilge
forainm sa tr pearsa agus comhfhreagracht uimhreach in abairt; agslacht ceisteanna (53.4%

an rta agslachta ag an bpiste menach); agus sampla eile dathr comhrire.
4. Anailsodh tr rimse simeantaice: an ramhfhocal (sampla mchu ag 53% de na pist); an

briathar (irigh an-ghann mar bhriathar cnta; doth na copaile; forfheidhm bonn; (ag) goil (ag)
goil); agus frsa agsla.
5. Rinneadh anails ar chrsa pragmataice i nGaeilge na ndalta thaobh: marcir dioscrsa

Gaeilge agus Barla (cinn Bharla ceannasach); yeah ~ yes ~ yep (ag 92% de na pist; 10.3 leama
ag an bhfaisniseoir menach); freagra ar cheisteanna dnta (c. an tr cuid dobh as Barla;
freagra dtheangacha ag 50% de na pist; sea seachfhoirmeach ag 16% de na pist).
6. Rinneadh anails ar lofacht na ndalta de rir na ngnithe seo: (1) trithe lofachta (lon
focal) agus mlofachta (stadanna (6.46 stad gearr agus 0.98 stad fada ag an bpiste menach),
focail bhearnaithe (1.5 ag an bpiste menach), fuaimni fadaithe (1.46 ag an bpiste menach),
intriachta dbartaola (3.3 ag an bpiste menach)) i nimad samplach reacaireachta; (2) ritis
maidir le heaspa foclra agus ritis eile mheititheangeolaochta (dh shampla ag an bpiste
menach).
7. Anailsodh foghraocht fhuaimeanna r na ndalta i nimad samplach reacaireachta. Fuarthas
r chaol agus r leathan na Gaeilge ag 70% agus 20% de na pist, faoi seach, agus r aisfhillte an
Bharla ag 90% de na dalta.
8. Maidir le hinscne thagartha na bhforainmneacha in abairt copaileacha, bh inscne chruinn i

71.2% de na sampla ag an bpiste menach.
9. San anails ar na claochluithe tosaigh tr chile fuarthas 57.3% cu ag an bpiste menach.

Rinneadh scagadh sna rims gramadla seo: an t-ainmfhocal (35.2% cu ag an bpiste menach;
0/15 sampla cu i gcs ainmneacha pearsanta sa suomh ginideach; faoi rir ag ramhfhocal,
catadn menach: 47.3% cu); an briathar (raladh is airde i measc an tsampla lnfhianaithe:
83.1% cu ag an bpiste menach; i ndiaidh na mre briathartha n ab airde: 94% cu); an aidiacht
(i ndiaidh an ainmfhocail: 30.7%, an toradh menach ab sle), an forainm sealbhach (88.1%, an
toradh menach ab airde); an aidiacht uimhreach (54.4% cu ag an bpiste menach); rimreanna
ainmfhoclacha; an t-ainm briathartha i ndiaidh an fhorainm shealbhaigh (63.1% cu ag an bpiste
menach); focail Bharla inchlaochlaithe (25.9% dobh claochlaithe). T doth liri i gcaint na
ndalta mar sin ar go leor de chras chlaochluithe tosaigh na Gaeilge Traidisinta.
de Bhaldraithe, T. (1977, an chad eagrn 1953) Gaeilge Chois Fhairrge: An deilbhocht. BC:
Institiid Ard-Linn Bhaile tha Cliath.
Mac Con Raoi, C. (2011) Mo Scal Fin i mo Dh Theanga Fin: Teanga, Cdmheascadh, Pearsa
agus Finilacht i Reacaireacht Dtheangir ga as Gaeltacht Thr Chonaill. Trchtas
neamhfhoilsithe MA, Ollscoil na hireann, Gaillimh.
Curnin, B. (2007) The Irish of Iorras Aithneach, County Galway. Iml. IIV. BC: Institiid ArdLinn Bhaile tha Cliath.
Domagin, G. (2013) Cinel agus feidhm an chdaistrithe i nGaeilge chomhaimseartha na

Gaeltachta: Cs-staidar ar cheantar Ghort an Choirce, igse 38: 199245.
78
Barla
Liri agus anails teangeolaochta ar shealbh an Bharla sa Ghaeltacht chomhaimseartha at

sa chaibidil seo bunaithe ar Bharla phist an tsuirbh seo. Danfar anails i ndiaidh a chile ar
ghnithe de na s rimse teangeolaochta seo a leanas: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic,
pragmataic agus lofacht. Cuimsonn an rimse leathan seo gnithe lrnacha den struchtr teanga
a lironn go hirithe innilacht na gcainteoir i mbun rims cumarside agus rims ar leith
castachta. Lironn innilacht ard a bheith ag cainteoir sna struchtir agsla seo cumas ard
ginearlta sa teanga agus, ar an limh eile de, lireodh easpa innilachta sna struchtir channa
cumas teoranta ginearlta sa teanga.
3.1 Foclir (leama)
San fhochaibidil seo plimid lon na leama a chuir na dalta i bhfeidhm le linn an agallaimh tr
Bharla. Mar shampla, corpas ina bhfuil child (x2), childs, children (x3), childrens t ceithre leama
ann ach nl ach leicsim amhin ann (agus seacht gcomhartha).
3.1.1 Lon na leama
Is lon na leama ar fad a chuir na dalta i bhfeidhm sa Bharla n 2630 leama. T na leama T2
(Gaeilge) agus na leama mchu san ireamh san fhigir seo. Lirigh na pist 384 leama ar an men.
Tar is na figiir seo a chalabr, is sin, na leama T2 (Gaeilge) agus na leama mchu a bhaint astu,
laghdatear an t-iomln go 2508 sa chorpas. Sin laghd 4.7% ar leama T2 (Gaeilge) 3.7% dobh agus c.
1% dobh ina leama mchu. Danann an calabr canna laghd 1.5%, 384 go 378, ar lon menach
na leama i measc na gcainteoir, 0.7% dobh ina leama T2 agus 0.8% dobh ar leama mchu iad.
Lirtear i gCairt 44 dileadh na bpist de rir lon ardaitheach na leama calabraithe a bh acu.
Is sin le r, t an t is l lon leama calabraithe ar thaobh na limhe cl (C07b) sa larid agus
cainteoir eile ina sraith ina dhiaidh go dt an t is airde lon leama calabraithe ar thaobh na limhe
deise (B10h). T na pist rangaithe ina dtr fhoghrpa: Foghrpa A (men 266) ag a bhfuil lon seal
leama calabraithe (ar thaobh na limhe cl den chad lne bhriste ingearach) agus Foghrpa B (men
376) ag a bhfuil lon menach leama calabraithe (i lr na laride) agus Foghrpa C (men 534) ag a
bhfuil lon ard leama calabraithe (ar thaobh na limhe deise den dara lne bhriste ingearach).
Faightear 6% de na dalta i gcuid tosaigh (seal) an chuair, .i. i bhFoghrpa A. Faightear 86% de
na dalta i gcuid lrnach (menach) an chuair, .i. i bhFoghrpa B; agus 8% i gcuid deiridh (ard) an
chuair, .i. i bhFoghrpa C. Laghdaonn an difrocht idir lon na leama ar fad agus lon na leama
calabraithe 15% i bhFoghrpa A go dt 10.7% i bhFoghrpa B agus go dt 7.7% i bhFoghrpa C
sa chuar. Is difrocht bheag seo.
Cairt 44 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir na leama calabraithe sa Bharla.
79
3. Barla
3.1.2 Leama T2 sa Bharla

Nl sa chomhr Barla ach 3.7% de lon iomln leama T2 (Gaeilge). Is ainmfhocail leath (49%)
dobh sin (Cairt 45).
Cairt 45 Rang gramadil na leama T2 sa Bharla.
Nl ach c. 2% de na focail T2 ar fad in sid de rir chras gramada an Bharla, m.sh. iolra an
Bharla i chicns, paisinars. I measc na bhfocal T2 is coitianta, t ainmneacha ainmhithe agus
isc (grinneog ag ceathrar, rn ag ceathrar, ronnach ag cigear) agus ainm ar bhd traidisinta i
gceantar na bpist (curach ag ochtar) at ina ghnth-iasacht sa Bharla.
Lirtear i gCairt 46 ord ardaitheach de rir lon na leama T2 a chuir na pist i bhfeidhm sa
Bharla. Tugann an larid le fios gur go heisceachtil a bhaineann na dalta scoile feidhm as nos
m n ceithre leama T2 sa Bharla.
Cairt 46 Dileadh na bpist de rir lon ardaitheach na leama T2 (Gaeilge) sa Bharla.
3.1.3 Leama mchu
Baineann leaganacha mchu deilbhochta le c. 1% de na leama T1 (Barla) ar fad. T leaganacha

mchu deilbhochta ag leibhil na n-ainmfhocal, na mbriathra agus na n-aidiachta.
3.2 Deilbhocht
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar dheilbhocht na leama Barla de rir na ranganna gramadla
lena mbaineann siad. Plimid crsa deilbhochta de rir an ainmfhocail, an bhriathair agus na
haidiachta.
3.2.1 An t-ainmhfhocal: an uimhir iolra mhrialta
Is iad seo a leanas na hainmfhocail a bhfuil sampla de sheachfhoirmeacha dobh ann, mar a bhfuil
tamhan an uatha agus foirceann (e)s an iolra: deers (< deer), fishes (< fish), mouses (< mice),
peoples (< people sa chiall daoine), sheeps (< sheep) agus womans (< women). T na focail jellyfish
agus starfish san ireamh chomh maith i lon na leama i gcs iolra an fhocail fish. T sampla
dfhoirceann -s an iolra le tamhan an iolra (feets < feet) ag piste amhin. I gCairt 47 lirtear lon
na bpist ag a bhfuil gach foirm iolra faoi seach.
80
3.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 47 Foirmeacha cu agus seachfhoirmeacha an ainmfhocail iolra.
Nl ach focal amhin, deer, a bhfuil nos m sampla den seachfhoirm n den fhoirm chu iolra i
gceist. N raibh ach an tseachfhoirm deers ag formhr na bpist (30 duine) agus malartaocht, is
sin feidhmi an d leagan, a taifeadadh i gcs na ndalta eile:
Em... theyre... theyre deer... deers.
Is suntasa de sheachfhoirm womans a bheith in it women ag duine de na pist:

That is the big house that the womans live in.
Is bhar spise eile focail nach bhfuil ach an leama uatha amhin dobh in sid sa Bharla
(cnuasainm) n gur ciall eile a bhaineann leis an leama iolra dobh. T sampla amhin diolra sna
focail oils agus metals, bh woods ag beirt sa chiall crainn (seachas sa chiall coillte n woods)
agus fuarthas sampla den iolra glasses sa chiall posa gloine (agus n spaclir) ag seachtar de
na dalta:
I was scraping the oils on the chains [...]
And there is some there is some there is some woods in his way.
there were a big pile of metals [...]
there were castles and lots of fish and broken glasses on the beach.
Is cosla sampla mar glasses le ns na Gaeilge, is sin leas a bhaint as focal fearacht gloineacha
sa chiall posa gloine. T sampla de leagan uatha an fhocail fox (dar croch s thaobh foghair de)
i bhfeidhm san uimhir iolra ag beirt:
These are the fox.
T ocht leama ainmfhoclacha san iolra ina leama Gaeilge (leama measctha, chicns, ina measc).
Sin 2.1% de na hainmfhocail iolra ar fad. T foirceann iolra an Bharla s ar thr leama (chicns,
paisinars, rns) agus iolra na Gaeilge ar na focail eile (iteacha, curacha, driseacha, faoilein,
ronnacha).
3.2.2 An briathar: an aimsir chaite mhrialta

Rinneadh anails ar na briathra mrialta, idir na leaganacha dearfacha agus diltacha, san aimsir
chaite shimpl. Bin an t-aon rimse briathartha a bhfuarthas seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta
ann. Fuarthas 21 briathar a raibh seachfhoirmeacha i measc na ndalta agus a raibh ar a laghad
cig shampla, idir fhoirmeacha cu agus sheachfhoirmeacha, ar fil dobh. Aicmodh na dalta de
rir mar a bh an fhoirm chu agus / n seachfhoirm acu gan dri ar lon na sampla.
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3. Barla
12% de na briathra dearfacha agus 8% de na briathra diltacha i measc bhriathra an fhoshampla

a bh ina seachfhoirmeacha. N bhfuarthas seachfhoirmeacha n iarracht freagra a sheachaint
i gcs na mbriathra come, give, have, agus put; is sin le r gur cu ar fad a bhodar seo. Nl
comhfhreagracht shoilir idir na seachfhoirmeacha dearfacha agus diltacha. Nor cuireadh an
briathar dive sa liosta i dTbla 14 mar go nglactar le dh leagan dhearfacha de san aimsir chaite,
dived agus dove. Bh an fhoirm dived ag 23, an fhoirm dove ag duine agus an tseachfhoirm doved ag
dalta amhin. Bh an timchaint did dive ag cigear in ionad an bhriathair shimpl. Rinneadh cuntas
freisin ar thimchaint, is sin leagan na haimsire caite a sheachaint agus leagan is gaire dfhoirm
na haimsire lithr a r tar is an bhriathair chnta did (he did go < he went). Is leis na briathra
dearfacha amhin a bhaineann feidhm seo na timchainte n seachaint an fhreagra dhrigh (Cairt
48).
Cairt 48 Catadin na mbriathra mrialta san aimsir chaite sa tseachfhoirm agus sa timchaint.
I dTbla 14 tugaimid cinelacha na seachfhoirmeacha san aimsir chaite dhearfach agus dhiltach
a bh ag na pist. Lon na ndalta a dirt an leagan at tugtha idir libn.
Dearfach
break
say
get
Tamhan lithreach + -ed
Tamhan caite + -ed
Neamhchaighden
breaked (2)
hold
holded (2)
set
setted (1)
throw
go
sink
see
throwed (4)
sinked (3)
fly
flied (10)
bring
bringed (1)
blow
tell
swim
catch
blowed (6)
swimmed (5)
catched (17)
sawed (2)
blewed (2)
-
branged (1)
-
sunk (4)
Diltach
-
didnt said (2)

didnt got (1)
-
didnt went (3)
didnt saw (8)
didnt told (2)
swum (1)
didnt brought (15)
Tbla 14 Seachfhoirmeacha na mbriathra mrialta san aimsir chaite dhearfach agus dhiltach.
I measc cuid de na pist t malart i gceist idir an tseachfhoirm agus an fhoirm chu ag an dalta
canna. T leagan na haimsire caite cu agus mchu den bhriathar catch ag seisear, den bhriathar
blow ag beirt, agus de break, sink, see agus set ag duine amhin faoi seach.
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3.2 Deilbhocht
Lirtear i gCairt 49 gurb iad na leaganacha cu is lonmhaire ag na dalta san aimsir chaite
dhearfach.
Cairt 49 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon cu na mbriathra mrialta san aimsir chaite dhearfach.
I gCairt 50, idir 75% agus 95%, is sin an rta dfhoirmeacha cu at ag na pist menacha (fach
lr na cairte) sna briathra mrialta san aimsir chaite. Foirmeacha cu amhin at ag seisear (ar
dheis sa chairt B12c C11e) agus c. 50%75% an rta cu ag deichnir at faoin men (ar chl sa
chairt B07c B10e).
Cairt 50 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chatadn na bhfoirmeacha cu sna briathra mrialta san aimsir chaite dhearfach.
3.2.3 An aidiacht
I gcim na comparide bh 12 aidiacht a raibh ar a laghad cig shampla san iomln ar fil dobh. Bh
86.6% de leaganacha na n-aidiachta seo cu ag an dalta menach. N bhfuarthas seachfhoirmeacha
i gcs na n-aidiachta fast, heavy, high n strong (.i. foirmeacha cu amhin). Is i gcs ocht gcinn
daidiachta an fhoshampla seo a fuarthas seachfhoirmeacha, bunleagan na haidiachta in it leagan
na comparide, n leaganacha timchainteacha i measc na bpist (Cairt 51).
Cairt 51 Aidiachta i gcim na comparide.
Nor cuireadh an aidiacht yellow i gCairt 51 mar go nglactar leis an d leagan yellower agus
more yellow go ginearlta. Bh an leagan yellower ag 39 agus an leagan more yellow ag cigear
de na pist. C gur aicmodh na leaganacha comparideacha more happy agus more pretty ina
seachfhoirmeacha, t teacht orthu i gcaint Bharla na hireann.
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3. Barla
Cuirimid ar fil i dTbla 15 na cinelacha seachfhoirmeacha a lirigh na dalta sa chim chomparide.

T lon na ndalta ag a raibh seachfhoirm ar leith (m.sh. beautifuler) idir libn sa tbla agus lon
na ndalta ag a raibh an bunleagan (m.sh. is pretty in ionad is prettier) chomh maith. Is bhar
spise an agslacht maidir le seachfhoirmeacha i gcim chomparide an fhocail dangerous.
T na leaganacha danger, more danger agus dangerously spisiil. Cuid suntais an sampla way
dangerous i measc na leaganacha imscrofa.
Seachfhoirm
Malairt leagain
beautiful
beautifuler (18)
pretty
more pretty (1)
good
gooder (11)
very good (1)
danger (1)
strong
big
happy
dangerous
far
yellow
more happy (2)

more happier (1)
dangerouser (10)
dangerously (2)
more danger (1)

dangerer (1)
more far away (3)

farer away (3)
furtherer (1)
more far (1)
far awayer (1)

farer (5)
yellower (39)
Bunleagan
3
very strong (1)

very big (1)
1
1
way dangerous (1)
very dangerous (1)
travelled more (1)

far, far, far away (1)
darker yellow (1)
bigger yellow (1)
Tbla 15 Seachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta i gcim na comparide, chomh maith le malairt leaganacha agus
bunleaganacha.
Is comhartha malartaochta idir foirmeacha cu agus seachfhoirmeacha an d leagan a bheith

ag an dalta canna. Nl ach forbheagn malartaochta pearsanta le sonr maidir le cimeanna
comparideacha na n-aidiachta; ceathrar dalta san iomln. T beautiful (bunleagan) chomh
maith le beautifuler ag beirt agus more dangerous chomh maith le dangerouser ag beirt eile.
T luachanna idir 0% agus 46% de sheachfhoirmeacha ag na pist de na haidiachta comparideacha
a phlamar thuas. Lirtear i gCairt 52 ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir chatadin na n-aidiachta
comparideacha nach bhfuil cu. Is ige na dalta is m foirmeacha nach bhfuil cu, is sin na
dalta is faide ar dheis, is ige iad n an mhen-aois. Nor cuireadh ceathrar dalta, nach raibh cig
shampla ar a laghad acu, san ireamh. Nl oiread agus seachfhoirm amhin ag 12 dalta.
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3.3 Comhrir
Cairt 52 Pist in ord ardaitheach de rir chatadin na n-aidiachta comparideacha nach bhfuil cu.
Lirtear i gCairt 53 an caidreamh at idir foirmeacha cu agus seachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta i

measc na bpist canna. Is m na foirmeacha cu at ag gach dalta n na seachfhoirmeacha.
Cairt 53 Pist in ord ardaitheach de rir lon na n-aidiachta comparideacha cu.
3.3 Comhrir
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar chomhrir an Bharla sna rims seo a leanas: an chlaoninsint, an
clsal coibhneasta, struchtr ginideach agus agslacht ceisteanna (Tbla 16).
Rims comhrire
An chlaoninsint
An clsal coibhneasta
Struchtr ginideach comhfhreagracht uimhreach

agslacht ceisteanna
% Cu
43.8
64.2
Tbla 16 Cuntas ar na ceithre rimse comhrire sa Bharla a ndearnadh anails orthu.
3.3.1 An chlaoninsint
San fhochaibidil seo cuirimid ar fil toradh na hanailse ar ritis na bpist nuair a iarradh orthu
abairt a chur sa chlaoninsint indreach. Is an tasc a bh le danamh ag na dalta, bunaithe ar chur
sos a bh le danamh acu ar phicti(i)r sa leabhar, ts a chur le habairt le (Person) said that ...
agus a chrochn. As na 32 dalta ar iarradh orthu an mnla seo a chur ag obair bh riteas cu ag
14 dalta (43.8%) acu. Is insint dhreach a bh i bhfreagra ochtar pist, m.sh.:
John said that wait for me.
Dermot said... that we are going on the horses.
Chuir ceathrar dalta briathar an chlsail chlaoninsinte sa ghn fhoirfe chaite mar is cu de rir
an Bharla chaighdenaigh. Bh briathar an chlsail chlaoninsinte ag deichnir pist san aimsir
chaite shimpl, trith a bhaineann le canint an Bharla in irinn agus trith a thagann le cras na
Gaeilge chomh maith canna. Aicmodh a leithid ina leagan cu, m.sh.:
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3. Barla
He said that the other train changed the tracks to the other direction.
Bh an ghn fhoirfe chaite ag beirt, m.sh.:
John said that the modern traindriver ... the modern traindriver had turned ... had turned
the tracks on them, so that they werent able to go the right direction.
3.3.2 An clsal coibhneasta
C go bhfuil what coibhneasta rasnta coitianta sa Bharla neamhchaighdenach go hirithe i

measc an aoisghrpa seo, nl aon sampla de what coibhneasta mchu sa chorpas seo. Is liri an
fheidhmilacht ard seo sa choibhneasta ar chumas forbartha sa Bharla (caighdenach). Is dol
suntais a mhinice is at an forainm coibhneasta roghnach that sa Bharla ag na pist. T sampla
den trith seo ag 13 (26%) piste, m.sh.:
where it shows the times that the trains leave.
3.3.3 Struchtr ginideach comhfhreagracht uimhreach

Rinneadh anails ar an struchtr ginideach mar a lirigh na pist le linn treoracha na hagallir
a bh drithe ar an struchtr ginideach. Taifeadadh riteas maidir le pictiir sa leabhar sa mhnla
seo 34 dalta, m.sh. These are the chickens legs. Trith shuntasach a lirigh cuid de na dalta
i gcruth an ghinidigh n an easpa comhfhreagrachta uimhr idir an briathar agus an t-ainmn
a dtagraonn s d. Bh 35.8% de na ritis mchu thaobh comhfhreagrachta uimhr de ag an
bpiste menach, m.sh.:
This is the birds wings.
N raibh sampla ar bith cu ag ochtar (23.5%) agus bh gach sampla cu ag 17 (50%) piste (Cairt 54).
Cairt 54 Comhfheagracht uimhreach idir briathar agus ainmn sa struchtr ginideach, in ord ardaitheach catadnach.
Bh malairt struchtir ag beirt dalta leis an tseilbh a liri, seachas struchtr an ghinidigh
ainmfhoclaigh, m.sh.:
Thats the leaves that the, em... the trees have.
This wings belong to the bird.
Thats the truck mans, the man who was in the truck thats his truck.
Bh ord focal mchu in dh shampla ag beirt sa struchtr ginideach:
These are the hands() man no these are the people on the trains hands.
Thats the truck mans, the man who was in the truck thats his truck.
T ord ghinideach na Gaeilge sa d shampla seo.
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3.4 Simeantaic
3.3.4 agslacht ceisteanna

Iarradh ar na pist ceisteanna a chur ar na hagallir maidir le picti(i)r sa leabhar. San fhochaibidil
seo cuirimid i lthair toradh na hanailse a rinneadh ar agslacht na gceisteanna a bh ag na dalta.
Chuir na pist cig cheist ar an men. Rinneadh anails ar agslacht na gceisteanna tr chuntas
a dhanamh ar na cinelacha agsla forainmneacha ceisteacha a bh ag na dalta. Cuimsodh
san fhigir agslachta seo chomh maith canna na ceisteanna dar ts briathar substainteach n
briathar gnomhach.
Rta agslachta ceisteanna de 62.6% a lirigh an piste menach. Lirtear i gCairt 55 cuar
foisteanach i ndileadh cobhsa na ndalta agus iad in ord ardaitheach a rta agslachta.
Cairt 55 Rta agslachta na gceisteanna sa Bharla in ord ardaitheach catadnach na bpist.
3.4 Simeantaic
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar shimeantaic an Bharla de rir na ngnithe seo a leanas: an
ramhfhocal, an inscne agus na forainmneacha iginnte much agus many.
3.4.1 An ramhfhocal
Lirtear i gCairt 56 go bhfuarthas 11 sampla 10 (20%) piste dfheidhm mhchu ramhfhocal.

Bh 0.2% de na ramhfhocail mchu ag an bpiste menach.
Cairt 56 Lon na ramhfhocal mchu sa chomhr Barla.
An ramhfhocal on in it at a chuir trir de na pist i bhfeidhm ar lorg na mbriathra yell, point agus
look. Mar gheall gur leis an ramhfhocal ar a ghabhann na briathra seo sa Ghaeilge, seans gur faoi
thionchar na Gaeilge a dfhadfa na sampla seo a mhni:
yelling on them [...]; pointing on some board [...]; they looked on the board [...].
Taifeadadh sampla dhalta dfheidhm dhbhroch same with. I lamh amhin ar an sampla is
fidir feidhm mhchu an ramhfhocail with a bheith i gceist leis an aidiacht same. Dfhadfadh s
go mbaineann an sampla seo leis an leagan Gaeilge canna le:
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3. Barla
When now they see that eh... Dermot and Jack are at the same place with them... so they
have to go in again... em... start again.
T teacht ar an ramhfhocal on sa chiall in i gcs piste amhin:

maybe the birds might go on the way of the train [...]
(Cp. dul sa mbealach ar sa Ghaeilge.) Bh an ramhfhocal in ag piste amhin sa chiall to:

we were going over in (ainm ite) [...]
Taifeadadh sampla suntasach amhin ag piste amhin ina raibh simeantaic na bhfocal Gaeilge
leis fin sa struchtr Barla with him:
he was doing the things with him [...] (.i. things by himself)
I gcs piste amhin, taifeadadh out of san it a mbeadh sil le leagan mar out, down (ramhfhocal,
Cairt 56):
and a man going out of the ladder.
T sampla de ahead from in it ahead of ag piste amhin:

[] is ahead from the other little red train.
Ag piste amhin bh dh ramhfhocal chomhchiallacha in ind:

There was a tractor under beneath it.
Is geall le comhdhanamh seo den d ramhfhocal beneath agus underneath. Bh easpa

ramhfhocal (about n of) roimh chlsal fo-ordaithe i gcs amhin:
They talk what they were doing in the class.
3.4.2 Inscne fhorainmneach
Bailodh sampla den fhorainm pearsanta firinscneach n baininscneach i dtagairt dainmhithe n

do nithe. Tagraodh diasc agus do ghliomach, dh rud bheo, sa d shampla thos leis an bhforainm
firinscneach ar aithris chras na Gaeilge:
my dad catched one and he was brown.
The lobster go in but he wont be able to go out.
I sampla amhin tagraonn an forainm firinscneach don ainmfhocal cow:12*

The cow thats running away from the train and hes scared.
Bh an sampla sin ag cainteoir ag a raibh an chontrrthacht inscne idir she agus he. Gan an forainm
neodrach it a chur san ireamh, fuarthas ceithre shampla cheathrar dalta dfhorainm a thagair
do thraein a bh sa scal. Forainm firinscneach a bh ag beirt agus forainm baininscneach a bh ag
beirt eile:
because of the red train, he won.
The new train came up on top of him and he... he catched up a-, all.
the train would drive through and she would break it.
Sampla spisiil a bhaineann le ceisteanna antraipeolaochta chomh maith le crsa simeantaice.
12*
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3.5 Pragmataic
if the train doesnt have that, she wont be able to work.
An d shampla ina bhfuil she ag tagairt don traein, is ar aithris chras tagartha na Gaeilge mar a
mbonn an forainm baininscneach ag tagairt do thraein. N raibh ach sampla amhin a dfhadfadh
a bheith ina fhorainm nach bhfuil neodrach ach gur thagair s do n nach feithicil . Thagair dalta
do ghli leis an bhforainm pearsanta he (sin mura raibh tagairt phearsanta dfhear at sa scal i
gceist). T s suntasach gur cheartaigh an dalta an forainm firinscneach leis an bhforainm neodrach
dreach ina dhiaidh sin:
I think its glue. So hed stop the... itd stop the train.
3.4.3 Na forainmneacha iginnte much agus many
Is bhar suntais a oiread sampla mchu at i gceist leis an bhforainm iginnte much san it a
mbeif ag sil le many (de bharr go ngabhann many sa chras caighdenach le tarma tagartha
iolra). Fuarthas sampla cu ag trir agus sampla mchu ag seachtar pist. Fgann s sin go
bhfuarthas seachfhoirmeacha ag 70% de na pist a raibh sampla den fhorainm seo acu, m.sh.:
there was not much fences around.
there is not much people.
Cause they dont score much goals and points.

How much dogs are there?
How much people can you see on the train?
Is contrrthacht at i gceist le much vs. many sa Bharla nach bhfuil i gceist le mid n mrn srl. sa
Ghaeilge agus is cosil go bhfuil tionchar na Gaeilge i gceist le feidhmi mchu {much + ainmfhocal
iolra} ag na dalta.
N bhfuarthas leagan mchu thaobh sid chu an fhocail many (vs. much) i measc na 23 piste ag
a raibh na forainmneacha iginnte seo. Ach bh uimhir mhchu an ainmfhocail ag piste amhin.
Bh uimhir uatha an ainmfhocail tar is an fhorainm sa sampla seo:
E-... is the is, did they put too many did they put too many hole in the in the chimney?
3.5 Pragmataic
Dh ghn de phragmataic an Bharla is bhar den fhochaibidil seo. Breathnamid ar na focail

phragmaitice a dtugtar marcir dioscrsa orthu agus ar mhinicocht sid na bhfocal Barla yeah,
yes, yep.
3.5.1 Marcir dioscrsa

Rinneadh anails ar mhinicocht 12 marcir dioscrsa, focal n frsa Barla gach ceann acu, a bh
in sid sa chomhr Barla ag na pist. Mar a lirtear i gCairt 57, ba iad na marcir ba choitianta,
in ord minicochta:
just, well, like, really, kinda.
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3. Barla
Cairt 57 Minicocht na marcir dioscrsa sa chomhr Barla.
T ord agsil le sonr ach dri ar lon na ndalta ag a bhfuil na marcir seo. Mar a lirtear i
gCairt 58, is iad na focail at ag an lon is m dalta, in ord minicochta:
just, really, well, kinda, or something, like.
Cairt 58 Marcir dioscrsa de rir lon na bpist sa chomhr Barla.
Bh 19.9 marcir dioscrsa in sid ag an bpiste menach. Fuarthas sampla de na marcir seo
na pist uile c is moite de dhuine amhin. Ba 104 marcir dioscrsa an lon ba mh sampla a bh
ag an bpiste ab airde a chleacht marcir dioscrsa, mar a lirtear i gCairt 59.
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3.6 Lofacht
Cairt 59 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na marcir dioscrsa sa chomhr Barla.
3.5.2 Na focail yeah, yes, yep
Faightear na focail yeah, yes, yep sa chomhr Barla i bhfreagra dearfacha ar cheisteanna agus mar
dheimhnichn ar ritis. Is an leagan yeah is coitianta ina measc agus taifeadadh sampla de i
gcs gach duine. Bh teacht ar yes ag 41 dalta (82%) agus ar yep i gcs ochtar pist (16%). Bh 35.7
focal den chinel seo in sid ag an bpiste menach (Cairt 60).
Cairt 60 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na gcomhartha de yeah, yes agus yep sa chomhr Barla.
3.6 Lofacht
Cuirimid ar fil san fhochaibidil seo tortha na hanailse a rinneadh ar lofacht na bpist sa Bharla.
Plimid anseo an lofacht agus an mhlofacht sa chomhr Barla de rir na dtr ghn seo: (1) trithe
lofachta agus mlofachta i nimad samplach reacaireachta, a phlimid i bhFochaibidil 3.6.1 agus,
sa chorpas tr chile, (2) ritis maidir le heaspa foclra agus (3) ritis mheititheangeolaochta
maidir leis an str focal Barla, a phlimid i bhFochaibidil 3.6.2.
Tgadh nimad samplach dinseacht scil as na taifeadta ar an gcomhr Barla chun anails a
dhanamh ar lofacht na bpist. Roghnaodh an nimad reacaireachta seo ar an gcaoi channa
leis an nimad samplach Gaeilge (fach 2.6.1). Rinneadh anails ar na gnithe seo a leanas
sa nimad reacaireachta ag gach dalta ar leith chun teacht ar liri ar chrsa lofachta agus
mlofachta:
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3. Barla
(a) lon na bhfocal;
(b) stad gearr agus stad fada in abairt;
(c) bearna i dtirgeadh focail, bodh an focal crochnaithe n n bodh (m.sh. And the fa-, fast
train is still running) .i. focal bearnaithe;
(d) fad bhaint as an bhfuaimni de bharr dbartaola (m.sh. Theyrrre eating.)
(e) intriachta dbartaola (e- agus em-).
Lon na bhfocal
Dirt an piste menach 101.4 focal sa nimad a anailsodh. Bh difrocht 99 focal idir an lon ab
sle agus an lon ab airde focal (Cairt 61).
Cairt 61 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na bhfocal i nimad reacaireachta sa Bharla.

Rinneadh idirdheal idir stad gearr (fad nos l n tr shoicind) agus stad fada (fad tr shoicind
n nos m). Rinne an piste menach 6.26 stad gearr agus 0.94 stad fada sa nimad samplach
(Cairt 62).
Cairt 62 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na stadanna gearra agus fada sa reacaireacht Bharla.
Focail bhearnaithe
Fuarthas suas le cig fhocal bhearnaithe sa nimad samplach i measc na bpist. Nor chrochnaigh
an dalta menach 1.3 focal. Nor taifeadadh sampla den trith seo 18 piste (36%) (Cairt 63).
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3.6 Lofacht
Cairt 63 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na bhfocal bearnaithe sa Bharla.
Fuaimni fadaithe
Fuarthas suas le naoi gcomhartha dfhuaimni fadaithe i measc na bpist. Nor taifeadadh sampla
ar bith den trith seo 20 dalta (40%). Lirigh an piste menach 1.36 fuaimni fadaithe sa
sampla (Cairt 64).
Cairt 64 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na gcomhartha den fhuaimni fadaithe sa Bharla.
Fuarthas suas le 15 intriacht dbartaola (e- agus em) i measc na bpist. Nor taifeadadh sampla
den trith seo 11 dalta (22%). Lirigh an piste menach 3.6 intriacht dbartaola (Cairt 65).
Cairt 65 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na n-intriachta dbartaola sa Bharla.

Drmid anseo ar ritis na ndalta maidir le heaspa foclra agus lena gcuid riteas
meititheangeolaochta maidir leis an str focal Barla. Is as an gcorpas iomln d gcuid agallamh sa
Bharla a tugadh an t-bhar seo (agus n as an nimad samplach reacaireachta amhin, n hionann
agus an fhianaise don phl i 3.6.1). Is dearmad ar fhocail Bharla at i gceist anseo n easpa tirgidh
an fhocail Bharla. Is iad seo a leanas sampla de na ritis at i gceist san fho-rang seo:
(a) Fintuarascil ar easpa cumais (sa Bharla):

This is the e- e- I dont know. Grinneog.
caught salmon and whatever ronnach is in English.
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3. Barla
This is the... I cant remember what its called in English. E-... Cant remember.
I only know them in Irish.
(b) Fintuarascil ar dhrir idir a gcumas sa Bharla agus a gcumas a bheith nos fearr sa
Ghaeilge:

Em I know it in Irish but dont know it in English. Rn.
(c) Moill n braiteoireacht i dtirgeadh an tarma chu Barla:

That is a e- I forgot the name of them.
Whats leathuair s [.i. leathuair tar is a s] in English?
Comhaireadh lon mhacasamhlacha na riteas seo ((a)(c)) i measc na bpist aonaracha. Is sampla
amhin a lirigh an piste menach (Cairt 66).
Cairt 66 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na sampla de ritis i leith a gcuid cumas foclra sa Bharla.
22 dalta (44%) nach raibh aon riteas den srt seo acu sa chorpas. Fuarthas an abairt
mheititheangeolaochta ba shuntasa fintuarascla sna hagallaimh, idir Bharla agus Ghaeilge, sa
sliocht comhr seo a leanas:
Agallir:
And there are some words in English that you dont understand?
Dalta (C10c): Yeah. But I think its more in Irish cause Irish is kinda harder. Its Irish is
harder to read and stuff.
Sa d riteas seo a leanas a dirt an piste canna (C10c), lirtear an eisrimneacht at le sonr
idir gnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus finilacht a bhaineann leis an nGaeilge.
I dont really mind which language but I like Irish more.
I like the two of them but Irish is better cause its, you know, my own language.
3.7 Achoimre
Rinneadh anails sa chaibidil seo ar an gcumas Barla sna s rimse teangeolaochta seo a leanas:
foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic agus lofacht.
1. Cuireadh staitistic tuarasclacha i lthair maidir leis an bhfoclir i dtarma leama. Is beag
laghd a dhanann calabr ar lon menach na leama. Laghdatear lon menach na leama i
measc na gcainteoir 384 (iomln) go 378 (calabraithe), ach leama T2 (0.7%; 3.7% den iomln)
agus leama earrideacha (0.8%) a bhaint dobh. Rinneadh tr ghrpa de na cainteoir, c nach
raibh difrocht mhr eatarthu: cainteoir ag a bhfuil lon menach nos sle (266), nos airde (376)
agus cuibheasach ard (534). Is go heisceachtil a bhaineann na dalta feidhm as nos m n ceithre
leama T2 sa Bharla.
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3.7 Achoimre
2. Pladh deilbhocht Bharla na ndalta. San ainmfhocal t cuntas ar dheacrachta in iolra

mrialta, go hirithe leis an bhfocal deer, focal a bhfuil deacrachta ag go leor Barlir ga lena
fhoirm chu, agus focail eile mar sheep agus mice. Ba an t-aon rimse briathartha a bhfuarthas
seachfhoirmeacha deilbhochta ann, an briathar mrialta. 12% de na briathra dearfacha agus 8%
de na briathra diltacha i measc bhriathra an fhoshampla a bh ina seachfhoirmeacha. Is iad an d
sheachfhoirm is coitianta: catched ag 17 dalta, agus didnt brought ag 15 dalta. Ag an deichnir is
airde seachfhoimreacha, is c. 50%75% an rta cu at acu. San aidiacht, bh 86.6% de leaganacha
na n-aidiachta foghrpaithe i gcim na comparide seo cu ag an dalta menach (luach idir 0%
de sheachfhoirmeacha ag na pist is cruinne gramadach agus 46% de sheachfhoirmeacha ag na
pist is m seachfhoirmeacha). Ciallaonn s seo go bhfuil nos m foirmeacha cu ag gach dalta
n seachfhoirmeacha.
3. Anailsodh rims irithe comhrire i gcaint Bharla na ndalta: an chlaoninsint (43.8% cu de
na dalta foghrpaithe); an clsal coibhneasta (gan aon sampla de what coibhneasta); struchtr
ginideach agus comhfhreagracht uimhreach (64.2% de ritis chu); agus agslacht ceisteanna
(rta de 62.6% ag an bpiste menach).
4. Anailsodh tr rimse simeantaice: an ramhfhocal (11 sampla mhchu 10 (20%) dalta); an
inscne fhorainmneach (he mchu in it it, go hirithe, ag lon beag dalta); agus na forainmneacha
iginnte {much + ainmfhocal iolra} (mchu ag seachtar as deichnir, .i. 70% de na dalta).
5. Rinneadh anails ar chrsa pragmataice i mBarla na ndalta thaobh: marcir dioscrsa

(focail Bharla amhin; 19.9 marcir dioscrsa ag an bpiste menach); minicocht sid na
bhfocal Barla yeah, yes, yep (35.7 dobh ag an bpiste menach).
6. Rinneadh anails ar lofacht na ndalta de rir na ngnithe seo: (1) trithe lofachta (lon focal:
101.4 focal ag an bpiste menach) agus mlofachta (stadanna (6.26 stad gearr agus 0.94 stad
fada ag an bpiste menach), focail bhearnaithe (1.3 ag an dalta menach), fuaimni fadaithe (1.36
ag an bpiste menach), intriachta dbartaola (3.6 ag an bpiste menach)) i nimad samplach
reacaireachta; (2) ritis maidir le heaspa foclra agus ritis eile mheititheangeolaochta (sampla
amhin ag an bpiste menach).
hIfearnin, T. agus N Neachtain, M. (eag.) (2012) An tSochtheangeolaocht: Feidhm agus Tuairisc.

BC: Cois Life.
95
An d theanga taobh le taobh
T Gaeilge agus Barla sealbh agus labhairt go comhuaineach i measc na bpist at faoi
chaibidil anseo i gcomhthacs ginearlta na taith at acu ar an gcinel dtheangachais shisialta
at sa Ghaeltacht chomhaimseartha. Is fidir dh chras teangeolaochta a fheidhmonn le chile
i gcomhthacs an dtheangachais a chur i gcomparid ghinearlta teangeolaochta lena chile ar
thr leibhal:
1. Comparid dhreach: gnithe teangeolaochta inchomparide le chile.
2. Comhshamhl: gnithe teangeolaochta i dteanga amhin a athraonn i dtreo crais at i

dteanga eile an chainteora.
3. Gnithe a eascraonn as an sealbh i gcomhthacs dtheangach: trithe suntasacha a

bhaineann le mnl n le srian ar shealbh agus ar fheidhm teanga, n na dteangacha, a
labhraonn na pist sa chomhthacs sisialta dtheangach.
Cuimsonn na tr leibhal seo go leor athruithe iarthraidisinta i nGaeilge na bpist ach go

hirithe. Bunaithe ar an aicmi ginearlta comair seo, i gcs leibhal 1, is iad seo a leanas na
rims teangeolaochta a ndanfar comparid dhreach eatarthu: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir,
simeantaic, pragmataic agus lofacht. Is mar athruithe ar leibhal 2, ach go hirithe, a aicmtear na
rims seo a leanas: inscne ghramadil, na claochluithe tosaigh agus an fhoghraocht. Ar leibhal 3
a aicmtear foris irithe sa deilbhocht agus sa chomhrir. Plifear na rims seo ina gceann agus
ina gceann sna fochaibidl seo sos.
4.1. Foclir
San fhochaibidil seo cuirimid men na leama a chuireann na dalta i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge agus
sa Bharla i gcomparid dhreach lena chile. N hionann menlon na leama a lironn cainteoir
i dteangacha agsla. Mar gheall ar thrithe teangeolaochta an infhillte a bheith nos tbhachta
sa Ghaeilge, bheif ag sil le breis leama sna hagallaimh Ghaeilge n sna hagallaimh Bharla. Ar
bhealach, foraonn comparid idir iomln menach leama na bpist sa d theanga an t-iteamh
seo. Is lon menach na leama a lirigh na pist sa Ghaeilge n 415 agus is lon menach na
leama sa Bharla a lirodar n 384. Tugann na figiir le fios go n-sideann na cainteoir ga 7%
nos m leama sa chomhr Gaeilge n sa chomhr Barla.
Ach anails a dhanamh ar chomhphirteanna na dtortha sa d theanga, tagann athr ar an
scal. Lirtear i gCairt 67 gurb lon na leama T2 agus lon na leama mchu is cis le lon ard
comparideach na leama sa chomhr Gaeilge. Tar is na leama T2 agus leama mchu a bhaint as
an ireamh, t an d theanga cothrom thaobh leama bhunteanga an chomhr (n fhaightear de
dhifrocht ach 2% nos m leama sa chomhr Barla). Tugann Cairt 67 le fios freisin gurb lon
ard na leama Barla a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge sna 2000te, na nua-iasachta is dana, an chis
is suntasa le lon nos airde leama a bheith sa chomhr Gaeilge.
96
4.1. Foclir
Cairt 67 Comhdhanamh na leama sa chomhr Barla i gomparid leis an gcomhr Gaeilge ag an bpiste menach.
I gCairt 68, at bunaithe ar na sonra at i gCairt 1 agus i gCairt 44 thuas agus at leagtha amach
ar an mnla canna, cuirimid i gcomparid le chile an dileadh at ar na pist ina gcomhr sa
d theanga. Lirtear na sonra de rir lon ardaitheach na leama calabraithe sa d theanga, ag
a bhfuil dh chuar chosla. Cuirimid an d chuar i lthair de rir ard na leama calabraithe go
neamhsplech ar a chile thaobh na bpist indibhidila sa d theanga. Mar sin, n fhreagraonn
ord na bpist sa Bharla (at lirithe ar ais X in uachtar na laride) dord na bpist sa Ghaeilge
(ais X in ochtar na laride).
Ag dh cheann na gcuar at an cumas is sle (an taobh cl) agus is airde (an taobh deas) i rimse
teangeolaochta seo an fhoclra.
Cairt 68 Ord ardaitheach na bpist de rir lon na leama calabraithe sa d theanga.
I gCairt 69 thos tugaimid an fhianaise channa ar bhonn na leama calabraithe Gaeilge a chur i
gcomparid leis na leama calabraithe Barla do gach cainteoir ar leith. T an comhthreo ginearlta
canna le haithint ar ard na lnte treochta sa d theanga, rud a fhgann go bhfuil gaol dearfach
idir lon na leama sa d theanga i measc na gcainteoir.
Cairt 69 Dileadh na bpist de rir lon ardaitheach na leama calabraithe sa Ghaeilge i gcomparid leis na leama
calabraithe Barla.
97
4. An d theanga taobh le taobh
Is fidir na pist a aicmi ina dtr fhoghrpa ar leith bunaithe ar dhileadh Chairt 69 agus ar
choibhneas na lnte treochta ach go hirithe. Ar thaobh na limhe cl t Foghrpa A (21 piste),
an foghrpa is m, ar airde a leama Barla n Gaeilge ar an men. I lr na laride t Foghrpa
B (16 piste) ina bhfuil lon na leama Barla agus Gaeilge cothrom. Ar thaobh na limhe deise t
Foghrpa C (13 piste), an foghrpa is l, ar airde a leama Gaeilge n Barla ar an men. Mar sin
thaobh chatadin na bpist de, i bhfoghrpa A, B, C, t 42%, 32% agus 26% faoi seach.
I gCairt 70, lirtear lon na leama T2 sa chomhr Gaeilge (.i. focail Bharla) agus sa chomhr
Barla (.i. focail Ghaeilge) de rir lon na bpist a chuir i bhfeidhm iad. Is lir go bhfuil feidhm i
bhfad nos leithne baint as acmhainn na bhfocal T2 (Barla) sa chomhr Gaeilge n acmhainn na
bhfocal T2 (Gaeilge) sa chomhr Barla.
Cairt 70 Lon na leama T2 sa d theanga de rir lon na bpist a bhain feidhm astu.
4.2 Deilbhocht
Is fidir ifeacht an dtheangachais ar dheilbhocht an d theanga a thuiscint tr anails a dhanamh
ar na cinelacha trithe deilbhochta seo a leanas:
(1) trithe lenar fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga;
(2) trithe ina bhfuil athr i dtreo na teanga eile;
(3) trithe eile ina bhfuil athr suntasach faoi rir an dtheangachais.
4.2.1 Comparid dhreach
T agslacht mhr idir cras deilbhochta na Gaeilge agus cras an Bharla. Ina dhiaidh sin fin, is
iad seo a leanas na haicm lenar fidir comparid rasnta dreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga:
(1) ainmfhocail san uimhir iolra;
(2) briathra mrialta dearfacha agus diltacha;

(3) aidiachta sa chim chomparide.
Ainmfhocail san uimhir iolra

I gCairt 71 lirtear toradh na comparide idir catadin sheachfhoirmeacha na n-ainmfhocal iolra
sa d theanga leith ar leith. T nos m seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla. Ar an iomln
t 20.5%, n ar leibhal an phiste mhenaigh 5.8%, nos m seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge n sa
Bharla.
98
4.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 71 Catadin sheachfhoirmeacha na n-ainmfhocal san uimhir iolra sa d theanga.
I gCairt 72 lirtear cointeanid na comparide idir catadin na leama seachfhoirmeacha iolra

sa Ghaeilge agus catadin na leama seachfhoirmeacha iolra sa Bharla, de rir an phiste. T
catadin na seachfhoirmeacha Barla beagn nos airde ag ceathrar pist (8%; ar chl in ochtar
sa chairt), t catadin an d theanga rasnta cothrom ag 13 piste (26%; i lr na cairte) agus
t catadin na seachfhoirmeacha Gaeilge nos airde ag 33 piste (66%; sa lr agus ar dheis in
uachtar sa chairt), seachtar (14%) dobh seo ag a bhfuil bearna rasnta mr idir an d theanga. T
lne threochta na Gaeilge ar fiar go suntasach, de bharr lon ard seachfhoirmeacha a bheith ag an
oiread dalta, ach lne threochta an Bharla ms cothrom agus seal de bharr lon comparideach
na bhfoirmeacha cu Barla.
Cairt 72 Comrtas ordaithe idir catadin na leama seachfhoirmeacha iolra sa d theanga de rir an phiste.
I gCairt 73 lirtear comhfhreagracht lag dhearfach idir catadin na seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge

agus sa Bharla de rir an phiste. Is cosil go bhfuil coibhneas dearfach idir cumas sa d theanga
liri sa rimse seo. Is sine na pist is l seachfhoimeacha (ar thaobh na limhe cl i gCairt 73).
Cairt 73 Catadin na seachfhoirmeacha ainm iolra sa d theanga de rir an phiste, ar bhonn ardaitheach na
seachfhoirmeacha Gaeilge.
I gCairt 74 lirtear comparid idir cuair de rir chatadin na leama seachfhoirmeacha at sa

Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla ag na pist. C go bhfuil claonadh ginearlta an-chosil sa d chuar t
siad agsil n hamhin in ard a bhfna ach i lon na ndalta a bhaineann leis na rims agsla
cumais. T ceathrar (8%) sa Bharla agus duine (2%) sa Ghaeilge sa chad rimse den chuar
mar a bhfuil na dalta nach raibh seachfhoirmeacha acu (ar chl i gCairt 74). T lon na ndalta
99
nos leithne sa Ghaeilge sa tr rimse, rimse na ndalta a lirigh catadn suntasach (>10%)
seachfhoirmeacha. T 27 dalta (54% diomln na ndalta) sa Ghaeilge agus cigear (10% diomln
na ndalta) sa Bharla sa rimse seo. I gCairt 74 t ord agsil ar na pist don d theanga. T noda
na ndalta don chomhr Barla (dearg) in uachtar ar an ais chothromnach agus noda na ndalta
don chomhr Gaeilge (gorm) in ochtar ar an ais chothromnach.
Cairt 74 Liri comparideach ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha ainm iolra sa d theanga, de rir an phiste.
An briathar mrialta
I gCairt 75 danaimid comparid idir seachfhoirmeacha na mbriathra mrialta, leaganacha
dearfacha agus diltacha (gan na leaganacha ceisteacha a chur san ireamh) a bhfuil sampla ag
cigear ar a laghad dobh sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Lirtear i gCairt 75 go bhfuil an difrocht idir
catadin na leaganacha neamhsplecha agus splecha nos suntasa sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla.
Cairt 75 Catadin na leaganacha cu neamhsplecha agus splecha sa d theanga.
C gur mar a chile at men chatadn cu na leaganacha neamhsplecha agus splecha sa d

theanga, lirtear i gCairt 76 gur beag comhfhreagracht a fhaightear eatarthu ar leibhal na bpist
aonaracha. T ard foisteanach sna lnte treochta agus is cosil go lironn sin gaol dearfach idir
cumas sa d theanga sa rimse seo.
100
4.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 76 Catadn na mbriathra mrialta cu sa d theanga in ord ardaitheach sa Ghaeilge.
Aidiachta sa chim chomparide

I gCairt 77 cuirimid i gcomparid na haidiachta Barla agus Gaeilge i gcim na comparide a
raibh ar a laghad cig shampla na hagallaimh ar fad ar fil dobh. Lirtear i gCairt 77 nach
bhfuarthas seachfhoirmeacha i gcs ceithre aidiacht sa Bharla agus i gcs pire sa Ghaeilge.
Fuarthas seachfhoirmeacha chomh maith le bunleagan na haidiachta in it leagan na comparide
i measc na bpist.
Cairt 77 Catadin mhchu (seachfhoirm agus bunleagan) daidiachta sa chim chomparide sa d theanga.
Lirtear i gCairt 78 leagan amach catadnach na sonra thuasluaite de rir na bpist. T

agslacht mhr idir an d theanga sna rims a chuimstear. (N bhfuarthas faisnis cheathrar i
gcs na n-aidiachta Barla mar nr cuireadh an cheist bhartha orthu.)
Cairt 78 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha mchu i measc na n-aidiachta comparideacha sa d theanga, de rir an phiste.
101
Ar an men t 16% sa Bharla agus 44.9% sa Ghaeilge dfhoirmeacha mchu comparideacha;

bearna de 28.9% idir an d theanga agus cumas an Bharla in uachtar. T comhfhreagracht lag
idir an d theanga ar leibhal na bpist aonaracha sa rimse seo (Cairt 79; n bhfuarthas faisnis
cheathrar i gcs na n-aidiachta Barla). Is cosil go bhfuil coibhneas dearfach idir cumas sa d
theanga liri sa rimse seo.
Cairt 79 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha mchu i measc na n-aidiachta comparideacha sa d theanga, de rir chatadin
ardaitheacha Ghaeilge an phiste.
I gCairt 80 lirtear an coibhneas agsil i gcim na comparide idir na foirmeacha cu agus

na seachfhoirmeacha sa d theanga: an dileadh sa Ghaeilge sa leath uachtair, ina bhfuil lon
suntasach seachfhoirmeacha, i gcomrtas leis an dileadh sa Bharla sa leath ochtair, mar a bhfuil
lon suntasach foirmeacha cu. (N bhfuarthas faisnis cheathrar i gcs na n-aidiachta Barla.)
Cairt 80 Lon na bhfoirmeacha mchu agus na bhfoirmeacha cu i mbreischim na haidiachta sa d theanga de rir
fhoirmeacha cu an phiste.
4.2.2 Comhchlaonadh
N fhaightear athruithe suntasacha lonmhara deilbhochta i dtreo na teanga eile ach amhin i gcs
athruithe sa Ghaeilge i dtreo an Bharla. T rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n /
agus athr i dtreo an Bharla le fil iontu liostaithe i dTbla 17. T cur sos rangaithe orthu sid sa
leabhar seo faoi uimhir thagartha na fochaibidle a thugtar sa tr coln.
102
4.3 Comhrir
Ranna cainte
Ainmfhocal
Briathar
Ramhfhocal
Forainm ramhfhoclach
Forainm
Mreanna briathartha
-rud i gcomhfhocal
Rimse deilbhochta
Seachfhoirmeacha iolra a bhaineann le
hathruithe foghraochta
Iolra le foirceann -s an Bharla
Easpa an ghinidigh uatha
Easpa an ghinidigh iolra
Iolra i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla

Rimni mchu
Foirm scartha
Scaradh an ramhfhocail agus an ailt

Foirm scartha
mo agus do in ionad m agus d
Seachfhoirmeacha
Tagairt
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.5
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
Tbla 17 Rims deilbhochta simpli n / agus n-athr i dtreo na teanga eile: Gaeilge i dtreo an Bharla.
Maidir le hanil na Gaeilge ar an mBarla, fach an pl ar iolra cnuasainmneacha fearacht glasses

(3.2.1) agus sampla mchu ramhfhocal (3.4.1).
4.2.3 Trithe eile a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu
Liostaithe i dTbla 18 t rims a bhfuil athruithe suntasacha deilbhochta sa Ghaeilge iontu

nach mbaineann go soilir le cras deilbhochta an Bharla ach a bhaineann, is cosil, le feidhm
shrianta na Gaeilge i gcomhthacs an dtheangachais. T cur sos rangaithe orthu sid sa leabhar
faoi thagairt na fochaibidle a thugtar sa cheathr coln.
Ranna cainte
Ainmfhocal
Ainm briathartha
Ramhfhocal simpl
Rimse deilbhochta Forimse deilbhochta
Tagairt
Ainmneach uatha
Uimhir iolra
Tamhan an uatha gan athr agus foirceann 2.2.1

an iolra leis
Uimhir uatha i suomh na huimhreach iolra

Tamhan mchu
Tbla 18 Rims deilbhochta a bhfuil simpli n laghd suntasach iontu.
2.2.4
2.2.5
4.3 Comhrir
Is fidir ifeacht an dtheangachais ar chomhrir an d theanga a thuiscint tr anails a dhanamh
ar na cinelacha trithe comhrire seo a leanas:
(2) trithe at ag athr i dtreo thrithe na teanga eile;
(3) trithe eile ina bhfuil athr suntasach faoi rir an dtheangachais.
103

Is iad seo a leanas rims na comhrire ar fidir comparid dhreach idir an d theanga a dhanamh
orthu san anails ar an gcorpas seo: (1) an chlaoninsint agus (2) agslacht na gceisteanna.
An chlaoninsint
San fhochaibidil seo tugaimid toradh na hanailse ar ritis na bpist nuair a iarradh orthu abairt
a chur sa chlaoninsint sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Is an tasc a bh le danamh ag na dalta n ts
a chur le habairt le Dirt (duine) go ... / (person) said that ... agus an abairt a chrochn. Cuireadh
an cheist seo ar 36 dalta le linn na n-agallamh Gaeilge agus ar 32 dalta le linn na n-agallamh Barla.
Thug 63.8% de 36 dalta freagra cu sa Ghaeilge agus 43.8% de 32 dalta freagra cu sa Bharla.
Chun tuiscint nos fearr a fhil ar an gcaidreamh at idir an d theanga sa chorpas, is fi dri ar
chomhdhanamh na riteas mchu. In ionad na claoninsinte is an insint dhreach a bh ag 30.6%
de na pist sa Ghaeilge agus 25% sa Bharla. Bh aimsir an bhriathair mchu ag piste amhin
(2.8%) sa Ghaeilge agus ag deichnir (31.2%) sa Bharla. Tharla nr irigh le piste amhin (2.8%)
an tasc seo a chur i gcrch sa Ghaeilge (Cairt 81).
Cairt 81 Catadin na gcinelacha riteas mchu as iomln na riteas sa chlaoninsint sa d theanga.
Lirtear san fhianaise seo n gcorpas go bhfuil cumas ionramhla nos fearr ag na dalta ar an
gclaoninsint maidir le haimsir de sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla ach go bhfuil catadn fheidhmi
phearsa na claoninsinte fin nos fearr de bheagn sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge.
agslacht ceisteanna
Iarradh ar na pist ceisteanna a chur faoi phicti(i)r sa leabhar le linn na n-agallamh struchtrtha.
Chuir na dalta cig cheist ar an men sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Rinneadh anails ar agslacht
na gceisteanna tr chomhaireamh na gcinelacha forainmneacha ceisteacha agsla a bh sna
ceisteanna. Comhaireadh na cinelacha ceisteanna seo sa rta agslachta seo chomh maith
canna: ceisteanna dar ts an briathar substainteach n dar ts an chopail, agus ceisteanna dar
ts briathar gnomhach.
Is iad 53.4% agus 62.4% rta agslachta na gceisteanna a lirigh an piste menach sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla faoi seach. Lirtear i gCairt 82 go bhfuil an rta agslachta nos airde de bheagn
ar an men sa Bharla. thaobh na Gaeilge de, t an bhearna idir an grpa ag a bhfuil an rta
agslachta is sle agus an grpa ag a bhfuil an rta agslachta is airde beaginn nos leithne n
mar at a macasamhail de bhearna idir an grpa is sle agus an grpa is airde sa Bharla. Is sin le
r go bhfuil fna na lne mena nos gire sa chairt don Ghaeilge.
104
4.3 Comhrir
Cairt 82 Rta agslachta na gceisteanna sa d theanga de rir rta ardaithigh sa d theanga go neamhsplech.
C gur beagnach mar a chile rta agslachta na gceisteanna sa d theanga, lirtear i gCairt 83
gur beag comhfhreagracht a fhaightear eatarthu ar leibhal na bpist aonaracha (m.sh., nuair a
leagtar na dalta amach de rir rta ardaithigh sa Ghaeilge mar at i gCairt 83).
Cairt 83 Rta agslachta na gceisteanna sa d theanga de rir rta ardaithigh sa Ghaeilge.
Lirtear san fhianaise seo n gcorpas go bhfuil cumas ionramhla nos leithne ag na dalta ar na
struchtir cheisteacha sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge.
4.3.2 Comhchlaonadh
Sa Ghaeilge a fhaightear formhr na n-athruithe suntasacha comhrire i dtreo an Bharla agus

n fhaightear ach beagn sa Bharla i dtreo na Gaeilge. T rims comhrire na Gaeilge, agus dh
rimse sa Bharla, a bhfuil simpli n / agus athr i dtreo na teanga eile le fil iontu, liostaithe i
dTbla 19. T cur sos rangaithe orthu sid sa leabhar seo faoi uimhir thagartha na fochaibidle a
thugtar sa cheathr coln.
Catagir comhrire
Ainm briathartha agus cuspir

Gaeilge
Barla
Ainm briathartha leannach

Fochlsal ceisteach
Clsal coibhneasta
Struchtr ginideach
Clsal coibhneasta
Struchtr ginideach
Fochatagir comhrire
Tagairt
Ainmfhocal i bhfochlsal
2.3.1
an n m
2.3.4
Forainm i bhfochlsal
Forainm sa tr pearsa
Dreach
Indreach
Alt dbailte
Ginideach ramhfhoclach
Lon that roghnach
truck mans
Tbla 19 Rims comhrire comhchlaonta chun na teanga eile.
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.5
2.3.4
2.3.6
2.3.6
3.3.2
3.3.3
105

Liostaithe i dTbla 20 t rims a bhfuil athruithe suntasacha comhrire sa Ghaeilge agus sa
Bharla iontu nach mbaineann go soilir le cras comhrire na teanga eile. T cur sos rangaithe
orthu sid sa leabhar faoi thagairt na fochaibidle a thugaimid sa cheathr coln.
Catagir comhrire
Gaeilge Comhfhreagracht uimhreach

Barla
Comhfhreagracht uimhreach
Fochatagir comhrire
Tagairt
in it iad leis an gcopail
2.3.7
Abairt chopaileach
Tbla 20 Rims comhrire ina bhfuil simpli n laghd sa d theanga.
3.3.3
4.4 Simeantaic
Is fidir ifeacht an dtheangachais ar shimeantaic an d theanga a thuiscint tr anails a dhanamh
ar na cinelacha trithe simeantaice seo a leanas:
(2) trithe at ag athr i dtreo thrithe na teanga eile.
As na rims simeantaice a cuireadh faoi anails i gCaibidil 2 agus 3, is i rimse fheidhmi na

ramhfhocal amhin is fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir simeantaic na Gaeilge agus
an Bharla.
An ramhfhocal
San fhochaibidil seo cuirimid i gcomparid le chile lon na ramhfhocal d bhfuil seachfhoirmeacha
suntasacha tugtha faoi deara i dtaifeadta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Taifeadadh 1.2 agus 0.2
ramhfhocal ag a raibh ciall athraithe i nGaeilge agus i mBarla an phiste mhenaigh, faoi seach.
Lirtear i gCairt 84 lon suntasach, 16 dalta (32%), nr taifeadadh aon sampla uathu i nGaeilge
n i mBarla. Ina ainneoin sin, nl comhfhreagracht shoilir idir na sampla Barla agus Gaeilge.
Cairt 84 Lon sheachfhoirmeacha na ramhfhocal in ord ardaitheach sa Ghaeilge.
4.4.2 Comhchlaonadh
Faightear athruithe simeantaice i dtreo na teanga eile sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla araon. Rims
simeantaice sa d theanga ina bhfadfadh comhchlaonadh i dtreo na teanga eile a bheith i gceist
leo, t aicmi teangeolaochta orthu sid sa leabhar seo faoi thagairt na fochaibidle a thugaimid sa
tr coln i dTbla 21.
106
4.4 Simeantaic / 4.5 Pragmataic
Gaeilge
Barla
Catagir simeantaice
Tagairt
Briathar
2.4.2
Inscne an fhorainm
3.4.2
Frsa
Sampla eile
Forainm iginnte many agus much
2.4.35
2.4.6
3.4.3
Tbla 21 Rims simeantaice n-athr i dtreo na teanga eile.
4.5 Pragmataic
Breathnamid ar ifeacht an dtheangachais shisialta ar phragmataic an d theanga ar bhonn
anailse ar na cinelacha trithe pragmataice seo a leanas:
(1) trithe ar fidir comparid dhreach idir an d theanga a dhanamh orthu;
(2) trithe eile teanga at ag athr i dtreo thrithe na teanga eile.
As na rims pragmataice a cuireadh faoi anails i gCaibidil 2 agus 3, is i rimse na bhfocal

pragmataice, n marcir dioscrsa, agus in sid na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep, is fidir comparid
dhreach a dhanamh idir an Ghaeilge agus an Barla.
Marcir dioscrsa
Danaimid comparid chomair chainnochtil anseo idir rims na marcir dioscrsa sa d
theanga de rir lon na ndalta a bhain leas astu. Baintear leas as go leor marcir dioscrsa
Barla sa chomhr Gaeilge ach i gcs an chomhr Barla nl oiread is sampla amhin de mharcir
dioscrsa Gaeilge ann (Cairt 85).
Cairt 85 Marcir dioscrsa sa d theanga de rir lon na bpist in ord ardaitheach sa chomhr Barla, agus na marcir
dioscrsa Gaeilge sa chomhr Gaeilge in ord ardaitheach.
I gCairt 86 lirtear lon na marcir dioscrsa in ord ardaitheach an chomhr Barla. Lironn
na lnte treochta comhfhreagracht seal idir lon na bhfocal pragmataice sa Bharla agus lon na
bhfocal pragmataice T1 sa Ghaeilge. T nos m comhfhreagrachta idir lon na bhfocal pragmataice
sa Bharla agus lon na bhfocal pragmataice T2 sa Ghaeilge.
107
Cairt 86 Lon marcir dioscrsa sa d theanga de rir oird ardaithigh sa chomhr Barla.
Tagann cig phointe shonracha chun solais sa chairt seo ach go hirithe maidir le feidhmi na
cumarside at mnlaithe ag an dtheangachas sisialta:
(a) pist ag a bhfuil idirdheal suaithinseach idir an lon marcir sa chomhr Gaeilge agus sa
chomhr Barla, agus an lon is airde sa chomhr Barla, rud is cosil a lireodh ceannas
comparideach a bheith ag pragmataic an Bharla san acmhainn chumarside at ag dalta
(m.sh. C08c, C08d, C10d, B11c, B10h);
(b) lon beag cainteoir ag a bhfuil lon na marcir dioscrsa nos airde sa chomhr Gaeilge
n sa chomhr Barla (m.sh. C12a, C10b, C11f); t C11f (an ceathr dalta isteach ar dheis
i gCairt 86) suntasach de bharr a mhad marcir dioscrsa Barla at sa chomhr Gaeilge
aici (nos m n an mid at sa chomhr Barla aici) agus ar a laghad comparideach
marcir dioscrsa Gaeilge at sa chomhr Gaeilge aici;
(c) lon suntasach na bpist a chuireann marcir dioscrsa ag obair sa chomhr Barla ach
nach gcuireann mrn d leithid ag obair sa chomhr Gaeilge (m.sh. B12c, B10b, C08b,
C11e, C10d)
(d) lon beag na bpist ag a bhfuil cothromaocht i lon comparideach na marcir sa d
theanga (m.sh. C11d, B07a), agus marcir dioscrsa Barla sa chomhr Gaeilge i gceannas
ag a bhformhr;
(e) lon pist nos l fs (beirt bhuachaill, 4%) ag a bhfuil nos m marcir Gaeilge sa
chomhr Gaeilge n an lon marcir Barla at sa chomhr Barla acu (B10c, B10d), rud is
cosil a lireodh ceannas comparideach a bheith ag pragmataic na Gaeilge san acmhainn
chumarside at acu.
Is is bonn do phointe (a) n gurb ard at sa ghnthphatrn ag na pist a bhfuil lon ard marcir
acu (ar thaobh na limhe deise i gCairt 87) n go bhfuil lon na marcir dioscrsa (idir leama
Gaeilge agus Barla) nos airde acu sa chomhr Barla n sa chomhr Gaeilge, .i. is iad na barra
faisnise dearga is airde acu.
Lirtear an patrn inchomparide i gCairt 87 i gcs agslacht na marcir dioscrsa in ord
ardaitheach an chomhr Barla.
Cairt 87 agslacht na marcir dioscrsa sa d theanga de rir oird ardaithigh sa chomhr Barla.
108
4.6 Lofacht
Fach i gCairt 87, mar shampla, maidir le pointe (e) thuas, dalta B10c agus B10d, a bhfuil agslacht
rasnta seal acu sa d theanga. Is cainteoir B10g an t-aon chainteoir amhin a bhfuil an barra
faisnise gorm (MD Gaeilge sa chomhr Gaeilge i gCairt 87) aige nos airde n an barra faisnise
dearg, agus t agslacht rasnta seal aigesean sa d theanga chomh maith.
Na focail yeah, yes, yep
Drmid anseo ar na focail dhearbhaithe yeah, yes agus yep i bhfreagra agus mar dheimhnichn
sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Bh 35.7 agus 10.3 focal den chinel seo i bhfeidhm ag an bpiste
menach sa chomhr Barla agus sa chomhr Gaeilge, faoi seach (Cairt 88).
Cairt 88 Lon menach na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa chomhr sa d theanga.
Bh beirt phist a raibh nos m focal Barla den chinel seo in sid acu sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla
(B10c, C08a) agus duine (C11e) a raibh an oiread canna aici sa d theanga (Cairt 89) agus is trir
iad seo a raibh nos l n an men acu sa chomhr Barla agus t nos l n an men ag C11e sa
chomhr Gaeilge agus nos m n an men ag B10c agus C08a sa chomhr Gaeilge.
Cairt 89 Lon na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa chomhr sa d theanga de rir oird ardaithigh sa Bharla.
Mar sin, t na focail dhearbhaithe seo nos coitianta sa chomhr Barla ag 47 piste (94%) de
bharr, go promha, go bhfuil cras dearbhaithe Gaeilge ag feidhmi sa chomhr Gaeilge in ind le
cras yeah, yes agus yep.
4.5.2 Comhchlaonadh sa Ghaeilge i dtreo an Bharla
I measc na ngnithe pragmataice a ndearnadh anails orthu sa saothar seo t liri thabhairt ar
athruithe sa Ghaeilge i dtreo an Bharla maidir leis na freagra ar cheisteanna dnta (fach 2.5.3).
4.6 Lofacht
San fhochaibidil seo danaimid comparid dhreach idir tortha na n-anails a rinneadh ar lofacht
na bpist sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Plimid anseo an lofacht agus an mhlofacht sa chomhr
sa d theanga de rir na ngnithe seo: (1) trithe lofachta agus mlofachta i nimad samplach
reacaireachta (a phlimid i bhFochaibidil 4.6.1), agus, sa chorpas tr chile, (2) ritis maidir le
109
heaspa foclra agus ritis eile mheititheangeolaochta maidir leis an str focal Gaeilge agus Barla,
a phlimid i bhFochaibidil 4.6.2.
San fhochaibidil seo danaimid tortha na Gaeilge agus an Bharla a chur i gcomparid le chile
maidir le trithe lofachta agus mlofachta sa nimad samplach ar leith reacaireachta. M
chuirtear iomln na dtscair le chile ((a) stad, (b) bearna, (c) fad, (d) intriacht) diomln na
bpist, is an t-iomln n 906 tscaire mlofachta sa Ghaeilge agus 846 tscaire mlofachta sa
Bharla. Is 18.1 tscaire mlofachta a bh ag an bpiste menach sa Ghaeilge agus 16.9 sa Bharla.
I gCairt 90 lirtear dileadh na bpist de rir mhid na bearna idir lon na dtscair mlofachta
sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. (N miste a mheabhr go bhfuil lon na bhfocal sa nimad samplach
Gaeilge nos airde de bheagn n lon na bhfocal sa nimad samplach Barla; fach thos san
fhochaibidil seo.) Is lir go bhfuil an bhearna i gCairt 90 nos m ar thaobh na limhe deise (mar
a bhfuil mlofacht na Gaeilge in uachtar) n ar thaobh na limhe cl (mar a bhfuil mlofacht an
Bharla in uachtar). Is an difrocht is m idir an Ghaeilge agus an Barla go bhfuil, mar eiseamlir,
13 tscaire mlofachta nos m sa Bharla ag an dalta is m i measc na ndalta a bhfuil nos m
tscair mlofachta acu sa Bharla (ar chl); agus t 22 tscaire mlofachta nos m sa Ghaeilge ag
an dalta is m i measc na ndalta a bhfuil nos m tscair mlofachta acu sa Ghaeilge (ar dheis). D
bhr sin is airde suim na dtscair mlofachta sa Ghaeilge (ar thaobh na limhe deise i gCairt 90)
agus is m an bhearna idir an mhlofacht sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla ag an bhfoghrpa canna (ar
thaobh na limhe deise i gCairt 90).
Cairt 90 Difrocht idir lon na dtscair mlofachta sa d theanga de rir na bearna idir an pire.
Nl coibhneas suntasach sa chorpas seo idir lon na dtscair mlofachta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla
ag leibhal an duine aonair. I gCairt 91 lirtear dileadh na bpist sa d theanga in ord lon na
dtscair mlofachta sa nimad samplach Gaeilge. Fanann lne threochta an Bharla cothrom,
gan coibhneas le hard lne threochta na Gaeilge.
Cairt 91 Lon na dtscair mlofachta sa d theanga in ord ardaitheach a ln sa Ghaeilge.
Lirtear, mar sin, tscair mlofachta ina n-iomline a bheith nos airde sa Ghaeilge.
110
4.6 Lofacht
Lon na bhfocal
Mar a lirtear i gCairt 92, ba 112.2 focal sa Ghaeilge agus 101.1 focal sa Bharla a bh i gcaint an
phiste mhenaigh sa nimad samplach reacaireachta. Bh bearna de 115 focal sa Ghaeilge agus
bearna de 99 focal sa Bharla idir an lon ab sle agus an lon ab airde focal. Ciallaonn s sin go
ndirt na pist nos m focal sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla ach go raibh an bhearna sa tirgilacht n
ba leithne sa Ghaeilge, idir an t ba mh lon focal agus an t ab sle lon focal, n an bhearna sa
Bharla.
Cairt 92 Lon menach na bhfocal i nimad reacaireachta sa d theanga.
T liri anseo ar chumas nos fearr thaobh na Gaeilge de a bheith ag na dalta ina n-iomline
maidir le lon ard tirgeadh focal, splachadh ar bhuntiste Gaeilge a fhaightear go hannamh sa
chorpas seo.

Rinneadh idirdheal idir stad gearr (fad nos l n tr shoicind) agus stad fada (fad tr shoicind n
nos m). Rinne an piste menach 6.46 stad gearr agus 0.98 stad fada sa Ghaeilge agus 6.26 stad
gearr agus 0.94 stad fada sa Bharla (Cairt 93).
Cairt 93 Lon menach na stadanna gearra agus na stadanna fada sa d theanga.
Focail bhearnaithe
Fuarthas suas le s fhocal bhearnaithe sa Ghaeilge agus cig fhocal bhearnaithe sa Bharla sa
nimad samplach i measc na bpist. Ag an dalta menach bh 1.5 focal bearnaithe sa Ghaeilge
agus 1.3 focal bearnaithe sa Bharla (Cairt 94).
111
Cairt 94 Uasmhid agus men na bhfocal bearnaithe sa d theanga.
Fuaimni fadaithe
Fuarthas suas le naoi gcomhartha dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Ghaeilge i measc na bpist agus suas
le s chomhartha dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Bharla. Bh 1.46 dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Ghaeilge agus
1.36 dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Bharla ag an bpiste menach (Cairt 95).
Cairt 95 Uasmhid agus men na gcomhartha den fhuaimni fadaithe sa d theanga.
Mar sin i gCairt 9395 t beagn nos m stadanna, focail bhearnaithe agus fuaimni fadaithe sa
Ghaeilge n sa Bharla; buntiste beag ag an mBarla is cosil.
Bh suas le deich n-intriacht dbartaola (e- agus em-) sa Ghaeilge agus suas le 15 cinn sa Bharla i
measc na bpist. Bh 3.3 intriacht dbartaola sa Ghaeilge agus 3.6 intriacht dbartaola sa Bharla
ag an bpiste menach (Cairt 96). In ainneoin threocht na dtortha seo, nor lirigh 11 duine aon
sampla den trith seo sa Bharla (fach Cairt 65, Fochaibidil 3.6.1); is cigear dalta nach raibh aon
intriacht dbartaola acu sa Ghaeilge (Cairt 25, Fochaibidil 2.6.1)). Is sin le r, c go bhfuil nos
m intriachta dbartaola ag an dalta menach sa Bharla, t lon nos m dalta sa Bharla nach
bhfuil aon intriacht dbartaola acu.
Cairt 96 Uasmhid agus men na n-intriachta dbartaola sa d theanga.
T liri anseo ar lofacht nos fearr thaobh na Gaeilge de a bheith ag na dalta ina n-iomline
maidir le lon nos l intriachta dbartaola (ach go bhfuil bonn nos teoranta thaobh na Gaeilge
112
4.7 Achoimre
de sa phointe seo, de bharr go bhfuil nos m dalta a bhfuil intriacht acu sa nimad samplach
Gaeilge n sa Bharla). Is splachadh seo ar bhuntiste Gaeilge a fhaightear go hannamh
sa chorpas seo, ach t tortha lon na bhfocal, mar a tugadh thuas, ag teacht leis an bhfianaise
dhearfach seo thaobh lofacht na Gaeilge de.
Drmid anseo ar ritis na ndalta maidir le heaspa foclra agus lena gcuid riteas
meititheangeolaochta maidir leis an str focal at acu sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Lirigh an
piste menach dh shampla sa Ghaeilge agus sampla amhin sa Bharla. San agallamh Gaeilge
agus Barla faoi seach, lirigh 38 (76%) agus 28 (56%) de na pist riteas den chinel seo.
I gCairt 97 lirtear dileadh na ndalta aonaracha in ord ardaitheach de rir lon na sampla sa
Bharla. Lirtear go bhfuil 17 duine nach ndanann riteas meititheangeolaochta cumais ach
amhin sa Ghaeilge. Is seachtar a rinne riteas den srt sin sa Bharla amhin.
Cairt 97 Lon na riteas meititheangeolaochta in ord lon na sampla sa Bharla.
Maidir leis na ritis seo a bheith nos coitianta ag dalta sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla, is fidir
comparid a dhanamh idir an d theanga i gCairt 97, .i. lon na ndalta a bhfuil nos m riteas
mar seo acu i dteanga amhin seachas a chile. Mar sin, is cimheas na ndalta idir an d theanga
n 28 (56%) sa Ghaeilge : 13 (26%) sa Bharla, rud a fhgann gurb taobh na Gaeilge is dilta at,
agus ionann is a dh oiread nos dilta n an Barla sa chimheas seo.
4.7 Achoimre
Pladh impleachta teangeolaochta an chinel dtheangachais shisialta at i rim sa Ghaeltacht

chomhaimseartha sa chaibidil seo. Rinneadh pl ar sh rimse teangeolaochta at inchomparide:
foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic, pragmataic agus lofacht. Rinneadh tagairt do thr
rimse a bhaineann leis an gcomhshamhl dtheangach: inscne ghramadil, na claochluithe
tosaigh agus an fhoghraocht; agus do dh rimse a eascraonn as an sealbh dtheangach: an
deilbhocht agus an chomhrir.
Lirodh go bhfuil feidhm i bhfad nos leithne baint as acmhainn na bhfocal T2 sa Ghaeilge n
acmhainn na bhfocal Gaeilge sa chomhr Barla. Mnonn lon na n-iasachta Barla sa Ghaeilge
agus lon na seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge an fth a bhfuil lon nos airde leama sa Ghaeilge le
hais an Bharla. Is lon menach na leama a lirigh na pist sa Ghaeilge n 415 agus is lon
menach na leama sa Bharla a lirodar n 384. Tugann na figiir le fios go n-sideann na
cainteoir ga 7% nos m leama sa chomhr Gaeilge n sa chomhr Barla. Bheif ag sil le lon
nos airde leama sa Ghaeilge de bharr go bhfuil trithe an infhillte nos suntasa sa Ghaeilge le
hais an Bharla. N fhaightear de dhifrocht ach 2% nos m leama sa chomhr Barla tar is na
leama T2 agus leama mchu a bhaint as an ireamh. Fgann sin go bhfuil an d theanga cothrom
thaobh leama bhunteanga an chomhr. Lironn dileadh na leama calabraithe coibhneas
dearfach sa d theanga.
113
Ar an iomln t 20.5%, n ar leibhal an phiste mhenaigh 5.8%, nos m seachfhoirmeacha sa

Ghaeilge n sa Bharla i gcs fhoirmeacha an ainmfhocail san iolra. Mar sin, lironn an chomparid
seo go bhfuil cumas nos airde ag na dalta ag priseil fhoirmeacha an ainmfhocail san iolra sa
Bharla le hais na Gaeilge. Is mar a chile men chatadn na leaganacha neamhsplecha agus
splecha sa d theanga (75.4% sa Bharla agus 75.9% sa Ghaeilge ag an dalta menach) i gcs
na mbriathra mrialta, ach t difrochta suntasacha le tabhairt faoi deara i gcs na bhfoirmeacha
splecha; lirodh nos m foirmeacha mchu i gcs na Gaeilge sna foirmeacha splecha. I gcs
chimeanna comparide na haidiachta, ar an men t 16% sa Bharla agus 44.9% sa Ghaeilge de
sheachfhoirmeacha comparideacha; bearna de 28.9% idir an d theanga agus cumas an Bharla
in uachtar.
Thug 63.8% de 36 dalta leagan cu ar iarratas a bhain leis an gclaoninsint sa Ghaeilge agus 43.8%
de 32 dalta leagan cu sa Bharla. In ionad na claoninsinte is an insint dhreach a bh ag 30.6% de
na pist sa Ghaeilge agus 25% sa Bharla, i gcs chomhdhanamh na riteas mchu. Lirtear san
fhianaise n gcorpas go bhfuil cumas ionramhla nos fearr ag na dalta ar an gclaoninsint maidir
le haimsir de sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla.
thaobh na dtstlacha a bhain le hagslacht na gceisteanna de, lirtear san fhianaise go bhfuil
cumas ionramhla nos leithne ag na dalta ar na struchtir cheisteacha sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge.
T ceannas comparideach ag pragmataic an Bharla san acmhainn chumarside at ag na dalta.

Baineann siad leas as go leor marcir dioscrsa Barla sa chomhr Gaeilge ach i gcs an chomhr
Barla nl oiread is sampla amhin de mharcir dioscrsa Gaeilge ann.
Sa nimad samplach reacaireachta bh 112.2 focal sa Ghaeilge agus 101.1 focal sa Bharla i
gcaint an phiste mhenaigh. San iomln t 906 tscaire mlofachta sa Ghaeilge agus 846 tscaire
mlofachta sa Bharla. Is 18.1 tscaire mlofachta a bh ag an bpiste menach sa Ghaeilge agus
16.9 sa Bharla. T liri anseo ar chumas nos fearr thaobh na Gaeilge de a bheith ag na dalta
ina n-iomline maidir le lon ard tirgeadh focal, splachadh ar bhuntiste Gaeilge sa rimse
teangeolaochta seo. Rinne an piste menach 6.46 stad gearr agus 0.98 stad fada sa Ghaeilge agus
6.26 stad gearr agus 0.94 stad fada sa Bharla. Ag an dalta menach bh 1.5 focal bearnaithe sa
Ghaeilge agus 1.3 focal bearnaithe sa Bharla. Bh 1.46 dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Ghaeilge agus 1.36
dfhuaimni fadaithe sa Bharla ag an bpiste menach. Bh 3.3 intriacht dbartaola sa Ghaeilge
agus 3.6 intriacht dbartaola sa Bharla ag an bpiste menach. I gcs ritis na ndalta maidir le
heaspa foclra agus lena gcuid riteas meititheangeolaochta maidir lena str focal sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla, lirigh 38 (76%), sa Ghaeilge, agus 28 (56%), sa Bharla, de na pist riteas den
chinel seo. Is cimheas mbhuntisteach na ndalta idir an d theanga n 28 (56%) sa Ghaeilge
: 13 (26%) sa Bharla, rud a fhgann gurb taobh na Gaeilge is dilta at.
T tagairt do rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil an choslacht orthu i bhfaisnis an staidir

seo gur athr i dtreo an Bharla at i gceist iontu. Is iad na trithe at i gceist: seachfhoirmeacha
iolra a bhaineann le hathruithe foghraochta; iolra le foirceann -s an Bharla; easpa an ghinidigh
uatha; easpa an ghinidigh iolra; iolra i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla; rimni agus foirm scartha
mhchu i gcs an bhriathair; scaradh mchu an ramhfhocail agus an ailt; foirm scartha mhchu i
gcs an fhorainm ramhfhoclaigh; mo agus do in ionad m agus d i gcs an fhorainm shealbhaigh;
seachfhoirmeacha i gcs na mreanna briathartha; agus -rud i gcomhfhocal, m.sh. stick-rud.
T rims a bhfuil athruithe suntasacha deilbhochta iontu sa Ghaeilge a bhaineann, is cosil, le
feidhm shrianta na Gaeilge i gcomhthacs an dtheangachais: foirmeacha uatha agus iolra an
ainmfhocail, deilbhocht an ainm bhriathartha agus an ramhfhocail shimpl.
T rims comhrire na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n / agus athr iontu i dtreo na teanga eile le fil
sna gnithe teangeolaochta seo a leanas: an t-ainm briathartha agus cuspir ainmfhoclach n
forainmneach i bhfochlsal; an t-ainm briathartha leannach le cuspir forainmneach; an fochlsal
ceisteach; an clsal coibhneasta; agus struchtr an ghinidigh. I gcs rims comhrire an Bharla
114
4.7 Achoimre
t simpli n / agus athr i dtreo na teanga eile le fil sna gnithe teangeolaochta seo a leanas: an
clsal coibhneasta; agus struchtr an ghinidigh.
T liri ar rims a bhfuil athruithe suntasacha comhrire sa Ghaeilge iontu nach mbaineann go
soilir le cras comhrire an Bharla ach a bhaineann, is cosil, le comhthacs an dtheangachais
i gcs chomhfhreagracht uimhreach na copaile.
T athruithe simeantaice i dtreo na teanga eile sa Ghaeilge sna rims a bhaineann leis an
mbriathar, leis an bhfrsa agus le sampla aonaracha, agus i gcs an Bharla sna rims a bhaineann
le hinscne an fhorainm agus leis na forainmneacha iginnte many agus much.
Maidir leis an gcras deimhnichin, t na focail dhearbhaithe yeah, yes agus yep nos coitianta sa
chomhr Barla ag 47 piste (94%) de bharr, go promha, go bhfuil cras dearbhaithe Gaeilge ag
feidhmi sa chomhr Gaeilge in ind le cras yeah, yes agus yep an Bharla.
Lirtear i dtortha na caibidle seo go bhfuil buntiste dtheangach an Bharla in uachtar sna
tscair agsla teangeolaochta a bh n-inichadh sa chomparid dhtheangach idir cumas an
Bharla agus na Gaeilge, c is moite de chuid de na tortha a bhaineann leis an gclaoninsint agus le
cuid de thscair na lofachta agus na mlofachta.
Bolonyai, A., (2009) Code-switching, imperfect acquisition, and attrition, i Bullock, B. E. agus
Toribio, A. J. (eag.) The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching. Cambridge: CUP.
25369.
Daller, M. H., Yildiz, C., de Jong, N. H., Kan, S. agus Babai, R. (2011) Language dominance in
Turkish-German bilinguals: Methodological aspects of measurements in structurally different
languages, International Journal of Bilingualism 15, 2: 21536.
de Houwer, A. (2009) Bilingual First Language Acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Matras, Y. (2009) Language Contact. Cambridge: CUP.
115
Aois
Drmid sa chaibidil seo ar an gcaidreamh at idir aois na gcainteoir ar limh amhin agus, ar an
limh eile de, a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir leagan amach comparideach
na leibhal teangeolaochta 13 a pladh i gCaibidil 4. Drtear ar thscair coitianta, is sin le
r, tscair a raibh sampla dobh ag ar a laghad 35 dalta (70% de na dalta). Na tscair nach
bhfuarthas sampla dobh ag 70% de na cainteoir ar a laghad, baineadh as an bpl anseo iad chun
ionadaocht na sonra a chosaint san anails. Is iad seo a leanas na tscair a baineadh amach:
na forainmneacha mo agus do in ionad m agus d (sampla 14 dalta); ainmfhocal briathartha
leannach agus forainm sa tr pearsa (sampla 27 dalta); na mreanna briathartha d agus
mara/mura (sampla 22 agus 12 dalta, faoi seach); an focal -rud i gcomhfhocal (sampla
chigear dalta); an clsal ceisteach (sampla 20 dalta); an clsal coibhneasta indreach (sampla
24 dalta; ach i gcs Chairt 109, 138, 167, 187 fgadh sonra maidir le feidhmi mchu an chlsail
dhrigh in ionad an chsail indrigh thraidisinta, .i. maid faisnise bu); agus an chlaoninsint
indreach (36 dalta sa Ghaeilge, 31 dalta sa Bharla).
Ghlac 50 dalta bunscoile pirt sa tionscadal taighde. Rangaodh na dalta, a bh idir 7 agus 12
bliain daois, i s aoisghrpa. Bh idir 4 agus 17 dalta i ngach aoisghrpa. Lirtear dileadh aois
na ndalta i dTbla 22.
Aois
Lon
% dalta
10
10
11
12
12
12
24
17
12
34
Tbla 22 Dileadh na bpist de rir aoise.
Fach freisin an pl i bhFochaibidil 9.3.2.
5.1 Foclir
Plimid go hachomair anseo an gaol at idir aois na bpist agus crsa foclra i gcs lon na leama
a chuir na cainteoir ga i bhfeidhm. Lirtear i lnte treochta na gcuar i gCairt 98 go dtagann ard
ar iomln na leama sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla le haois. Liri seo ar acmhainn foclra na
bpist a dhul i mid, n i bhfeabhas, go comhthreomhar sa d theanga de rir mar a thann na
pist in aois.
116
5.1 Foclir
Cairt 98 Lon na leama de rir aois na bpist.
I gCairt 99 lirtear go bhfuil gaol diltach ag aois na gcainteoir le catadn na leama mchu
sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Liri seo ar chruinneas foclra na bpist a dhul i bhfeabhas go
comhthreomhar sa d theanga de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 99 Catadn na leama mchu de rir aois na bpist.
N bhfuarthas caidreamh idir aois na ndalta agus catadn na leama T2 ina n-iomline sa Ghaeilge.
Lirtear i gCairt 100 go bhfuil gaol dearfach ag aois na bpist le hsid na leama T2 i gcs leama a
thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge sna 2000te agus gaol diltach i gcs leama a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge
roimh na 1990. Nl caidreamh idir aois na gcainteoir agus catadn na leama a thinig isteach
sa Ghaeilge sna 1990 (t dileadh seal cobhsa i gceist). Ba gh tuilleadh inichta a dhanamh
ar an mbunachar seo, ach faoi lthair is fidir dh bhuille faoi thuairim a thabhairt maidir leis an
bhfaisnis seo. Maidir le hard a theacht ar na focail Bharla is deireana at dtabhairt isteach
sa chaint (sna 2000te) de rir mar a thann na pist in aois, is fidir sin a thuiscint mar liri ar
chdmheascadh madaitheach comhaimseartha bisiil, a bhfuil drochimpleachta aige dfhors
acmhainn foclra sa Ghaeilge. Maidir le hsli a theacht ar na focail Bharla is faide at sa chaint
thraidisinta (roimh na 1990) de rir mar a thann na pist in aois, is fidir sin a thuiscint mar
liri ar shealbh foclra foirmelta (scoile) Gaeilge, m.sh. rothar in ionad bicycle, a bhfuil deaimpleachta aige dfhors acmhainn foclra sa Ghaeilge.
117
5. Aois
Cairt 100 Trimhse na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge mar chatadin de rir aois na bpist.
5.2 Deilbhocht
Danaimid cur sos anseo ar an mbaint at ag aois na bpist le deilbhocht na Gaeilge agus an
Bharla de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.2.
Is iad seo a leanas na ranguithe inar fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga: (1)
ainmfhocail san uimhir iolra, (2) briathra mrialta dearfacha agus diltacha agus (3) aidiachta sa
chim chomparideach.

I gCairt 101 lirtear go dtagann laghd ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha (leama T1 agus
T2) dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa d theanga de rir aois na bpist. Tagann laghd 13.4%
sa Ghaeilge agus laghd 5.8% sa Bharla ar chatadn na seachfhoirmeacha de rir aois na
gcainteoir. Liri seo ar chruinneas i ndeilbhocht an ainmfhocail iolra a dhul i bhfeabhas go
comhthreomhar sa d theanga de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 101 Catadin na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra de rir aois na bpist.
An briathar mrialta
I gCairt 102 lirtear an bhaint dhearfach at ag catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu de na briathra
mrialta le haois na bpist. T catadin nos airde de bheagn de rir beagnach gach aoisghrpa i
ngnthachtil na ndalta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge sa rimse deilbhochta seo.
118
5.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 102 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu sna briathra mrialta de rir aois na bpist.
Tagann an liri seo leis an bpl at i bhFochaibidil 4.2.1: an choslacht a bheith air go bhfuil
gaol dearfach idir cumas sa d theanga sa rimse seo. Liri seo ar chruinneas i ndeilbhocht an
bhriathair a dhul i bhfeabhas go comhthreomhar sa d theanga de rir mar a thann na pist in
aois.
Breischim na haidiachta
T gaol soilir diltach ag aois na gcainteoir le catadin sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta sa
bhreischim sa Ghaeilge a raibh ar a laghad cig shampla ag gach piste dobh. Tugtar laghd
suntasach faoi deara ar an difrocht idir catadin na seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge 76.9% ag
na dalta is ige go 40.6% ag na dalta is sine. Is ard beag a thagann ar lne threochta an chuair sa
Bharla (Cairt 103).
Cairt 103 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu daidiachta sa bhreischim de rir aoise.
Liri seo ar chruinneas i ndeilbhocht na haidiachta a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a
thann na pist in aois agus gan mrn athraithe a theacht ar an gcruinneas san aidiacht Bharla
(t sin rasnta cruinn cheana fin ag aois g).
5.2.2 Comhchlaonadh
Plimid san fhochaibidil seo rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n athr i dtreo an
Bharla le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil bonn sch mr sampla ionadaocha dobh le liri a thabhairt
ar an athr.
119
5. Aois
An t-ainmfhocal
In ainneoin aimhrialtacht an chuair i gCairt 104 t ceangal soilir diltach idir aois na bpist agus
lon na leama iolra mchu a bhaineann le hathruithe foghraochta i ndeilbhocht na Gaeilge, m.sh.
caol i bhfocal mar cnoca ~ cnoca < cnoic. slonn lon na seachfhoirmeacha go suntasach le haois.
Liri seo ar chruinneas i ndeilbhocht fineolaochta an ainmfhocail iolra a dhul i bhfeabhas sa
Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 104 Lon menach na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra a bhaineann le hathr foghraochta de rir
aois na bpist.
N bhaineann aois na bpist le hsid na bhfoirmeacha ginideacha i suomh an ghinidigh uatha n

le hsid leaganacha uatha n iolra dainmfhocal tar is c mhad agus cupla.
An briathar
N bhaineann aois na bpist le rimni mchu na mbriathra ach lirtear i gCairt 105 go bhfuil
ceangal dearfach idir an aois agus infhilleadh tite na mbriathra sa chad agus dara pearsa sa
mhodh coinnollach. Liri seo ar a gcumas i ndeilbhocht thite an bhriathair a dhul i bhfeabhas
sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 105 Catadin leaganacha tite na mbriathra sa chad agus sa dara pearsa den mhodh coinnollach de rir aois
na bpist.
An ramhfhocal
N bhaineann aois na bpist le scaradh mchu an ramhfhocail n alt n le scaradh an fhorainm
n ramhfhocal. Ciallaonn s seo nach bhfuil liri ar fheabhas i ndeilbhocht seo an ramhfhocail
sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
120
5.3 Comhrir
Na mreanna briathartha
I gCairt 106 lirtear caidreamh dearfach a bheith idir aois na bpist agus sid chu na mre
briathartha nor. Liri seo ar a gcumas i ndeilbhocht na mre briathartha a dhul i bhfeabhas sa
Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 106 Catadin fhoirmeacha cu na mre briathartha nor de rir aois na bpist.

Nor lirigh an anails gaol soilir a bheith ag aois na bpist le gnithe de dheilbhocht na Gaeilge
a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil r ndthain sampla ionadaocha againn
dobh sa chorpas le liri a thabhairt ar an athr.
5.3 Comhrir
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an gaol at ag aois na bpist le comhrir na Gaeilge agus an Bharla
de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.3.
Maidir le hagslacht na gceisteanna sa chomhr Gaeilge agus sa chomhr Barla, is gn

theangeolaochta inar fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga bunaithe ar lon
sampla ionadaocha na ndalta.
agslacht ceisteanna
I gCairt 107 lirtear ard de rir aoise ar lnte treochta na Gaeilge agus an Bharla maidir le
hagslacht ceisteanna na ndalta. Is liri seo ar a gcumas (comhrire) maidir le hagslacht
ceisteanna a dhul i bhfeabhas go comhthreomhar sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir mar a thann
na pist in aois.
121
5. Aois
Cairt 107 Catadin agslacht na gceisteanna de rir aois na bpist.
5.3.2 Comhchlaonadh
Plimid anseo rims comhrire sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla a bhfuil simpli n athr i dtreo na
teanga eile le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil r ndthain sampla ionadaocha dobh againn le liri a
thabhairt ar an athr.

I lnte treochta Chairt 108 lirtear go mbaineann sid chu an ainmfhocail i bhfochlsal agus an
fhorainm chuspirigh i bhfochlsal le hainm briathartha go dearfach le haois na bpist. Is liri
seo ar a gcumas comhrire san ainm briathartha a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a
thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 108 Ainm briathartha agus cuspir de rir aois na bpist.
An clsal coibhneasta dreach

I gCairt 109 lirtear lon menach na sampla mchu den chlsal coibhneasta dreach. Sna maid
faisnise bu lirtear sonra na sampla mchu den chlsal coibhneasta dreach in ionad an chsail
choibhneasta indrigh thraidisinta. Nl caidreamh suaithinseach idir aois na bpist agus lon
sampla mchu an chlsail choibhneasta dhrigh.
122
5.3 Comhrir
Cairt 109 Lon menach sampla sa chlsal coibhneasta dreach de rir aois na bpist.
An struchtr ginideach
In ainneoin aimhrialtachta sa chuar fin, lirtear i lne threochta Chairt 110 go bhfuil gaol
dearfach idir an struchtr ginideach cinnte cu agus aois na rannphirithe. Is liri seo ar a
gcumas comhrire san ainmfhocal a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in
aois.
Cairt 110 Catadin gan an t-alt dbailte sa struchtr ginideach le dh ainmfhocal chinnte de rir aois na bpist.
I gCairt 111 lirtear nach bhfuil gaol soilir idir catadn sampla an struchtir ghinidigh nach
sampla ramhfhoclacha iad agus aois na bpist. Is liri seo nach bhfuil mrn difrochta, de
rir aois na bpist, maidir leis an mbeagn sampla at sa ghinideach ramhfhoclach.
123
5. Aois
Cairt 111 Catadin na sampla cu nach bhfuil sa ghinideach ramhfhoclach de rir aois na bpist.
Clsal coibhneasta an Bharla

Nl caidreamh soilir idir sid an fhorainm choibhneasta that i struchtr roghnach sa Bharla
agus aois na bpist.

Drmid anseo ar rims comhrire eile, de rir Fhochaibidil 4.3.3.
Comhfhreagracht uimhreach sa Ghaeilge

I gCairt 112 lirtear nach bhfuil deacracht ag na pist le hsid chu na comhfhreagrachta idir
uimhir an fhorainm agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Ghaeilge ach amhin san aoisghrpa is
ige (m.sh. Seo na bosca mra). Is liri seo ar a gcumas maidir le comhfhreagracht uimhreach
a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 112 Lon menach na sampla mchu i gcomhfhreagracht uimhreach sa Ghaeilge de rir aois na bpist.
Comhfhreagracht uimhreach sa Bharla

I gCairt 113 lirtear go mbaineann comhfhreagracht uimhreach chu idir an briathar agus an
t-ainmfhocal a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla le haois (m.sh. These are the pigs head). Ard suntasach
de 35% de na sampla cu idir Aois 8 agus Aois 12 at le haithint sa chuar. Is liri seo ar a gcumas
maidir le comhfhreagracht uimhreach a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Bharla de rir mar a thann na pist
in aois.
124
5.4 Simeantaic
Cairt 113 Catadin na sampla cu sa chomhfhreagracht uimhreach roimh struchtr ginideach sa Bharla de rir aois
na bpist.
5.4 Simeantaic
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an bhaint at idir aois na bpist agus simeantaic na Gaeilge agus an
As na rims simeantaice a cuireadh faoi anails i gCaibidil 2 agus 3, is i rimse fheidhm na

an Bharla.
I gCairt 114 lirtear lon na ramhfhocal d bhfuil seachshimeantaic shuntasach tugtha faoi
deara i dtaifeadta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir aois na bpist. Lironn lnte treochta na
gcuar go dtagann ard beag sa Ghaeilge agus sli beag sa Bharla ar lon na sampla simeantaice
mchu de rir aois na bpist.
Cairt 114 Lon menach sheachfhoirmeacha na ramhfhocal de rir aois na bpist.
Lireodh s seo, c nach bhfuil mrn sampla i gceist ar fad le ttal cinnte a bhaint as, maidir le
simeantaic an ramhfhocail, feabhas a theacht ar an mBarla ach gan feabhas ar an nGaeilge, de
rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
125
5. Aois
5.4.2 Comhchlaonadh
Faightear athruithe simeantaice i dtreo na teanga eile sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla araon. Plimid
na rims simeantaice a bhfuil r ndthain sampla dobh againn le liri ionadaoch a thabhairt
ar an athr sa rimse teangeolaochta seo.
An briathar sa Ghaeilge
T sampla dsid breathnaigh agus faigh ina mbriathra cnta ag na dalta. Lirtear i lnte
treochta Chairt 115 thos go dtagann treisi ar sid an bhriathair faigh le haois agus nach bhfuil
caidreamh soilir idir sid an bhriathair chnta breathnaigh agus aois na gcainteoir.
Cairt 115 Lon menach na mbriathra cnta breathnaigh agus faigh de rir aois na bpist.
Nl baint shoilir ag an timchaint fhistineach le goil le haois na bpist.
5.5 Pragmataic
Breathnamid san fhochaibidil seo ar ifeacht an dtheangachais shisialta ar phragmataic an d

theanga thaobh aois na bpist de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.5.
San fhochaibidil seo danaimid anails chomparideach ar an gcaidreamh at ann idir aois na
bpist agus sid na bhfocal pragmataice, n marcir dioscrsa, agus ar sid na bhfocal yeah,
yes agus yep sa d theanga.
Focail phragmataice
I lnte treochta na gcuar i gCairt 116 lirtear caidreamh dearfach a bheith ag agslacht na marcir
dioscrsa T1 sa d theanga le haois na bpist. Is liri seo ar a gcumas maidir le pragmataic T1
a dhul i bhfeabhas go comhthreomhar sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir mar a thann na pist
in aois.
126
5.5 Pragmataic
Cairt 116 agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa d theanga de rir aois na bpist.
I gCairt 117 lirtear nach bhfuil baint shoilir ag catadn agslachta i measc na marcir
dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge le haois na bpist, c go bhfuil ard beag sa lne threochta.
Cairt 117 Catadin agslacht na marciri dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge de rir aois na bpist.
N fhaightear marcir dioscrsa Gaeilge sa chomhr Barla.

I gCairt 118 lirtear nach bhfuil caidreamh soilir idir aois na ndalta agus lon na bhfocal
dearbhaithe yeah, yes, agus yep, i bhfreagra agus mar dheimhnichn, ach ard sa Bharla agus
sli sa Ghaeilge a lirtear i lnte treochta na gcuar.
Cairt 118 Lon menach na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga de rir aois na bpist.
127
5. Aois

I gCairt 119 lirtear ard suntasach de rir aois na gcainteoir ar lon na bhfreagra traidisinta
Gaeilge i measc na gcinelacha freagra a thug na pist ar cheisteanna dnta (fach 2.5.3). Is liri
seo ar a gcumas maidir le freagra de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta a dhul i bhfeabhas de rir mar
a thann na pist in aois.
Cairt 119 Catadin freagra de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta ar cheisteanna dnta de rir aois na bpist.
5.6 Lofacht
Danaimid anails san fhochaibidil seo ar an mbaint at ag aois na bpist le lofacht sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla. Plimid anseo an lofacht agus an mhlofacht sa chomhr sa d theanga de rir
leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.6.
I gCairt 120 lirtear nach bhfuil caidreamh soilir idir lon na bhfocal a dirt na pist i nimad
reacaireachta sa d theanga agus a n-aois.
Cairt 120 Lon na bhfocal i nimad reacaireachta de rir aois na bpist.
I lnte treochta Chairt 121 lirtear go dtagann sli ar lon na dtrithe mlofachta sa d theanga
le haois. Is liri seo ar a gcumas maidir le lofacht a dhul i bhfeabhas go comhthreomhar sa
Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
128
5.6 Lofacht / 5.7 Foghraocht
Cairt 121 Lon menach na dtrithe mlofachta de rir aois na bpist.
I gCairt 122 lirtear nach bhfuil caidreamh soilir idir aois na bpist agus lon na riteas i leith
cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa Ghaeilge. Is ard beag a lirtear i lne threochta na riteas sa
Bharla.
Cairt 122 Lon menach na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir aois na bpist.
5.7 Foghraocht
Drmid san fhochaibidil seo ar an mbaint at ag aois na bpist leis na fuaimeanna a dtagraonn
an litir r dibh mar a raltar iad i gcomhr Gaeilge na bpist (fach 2.7). I lnte treochta Chairt
123 lirtear ard ar na fuaimeanna Gaelacha (foghar r caol agus foghar r leathan) agus sli ar
an bhfuaimni gallda (foghar r aisfhillte) i measc na gcainteoir de rir aoise. Is liri seo ar a
gcumas maidir le foghraocht r a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
129
5. Aois
Cairt 123 Lon menach na gcainteoir ag a bhfuil cinelacha na bhfoghar r de rir aoise.
5.8 Inscne
Drmid san fhochaibidil seo ar an mbaint at ag aois na bpist le hinscne na bhforainmneacha
pearsanta in abairt copaileacha sa Ghaeilge a thosaonn ar leagan igin den fhorainm taispentach
seo n sin .i. siod/seo/sin an ... n siod/seo/sin an ... (fach 2.8). I lne threochta Chairt 124
lirtear ard ar chatadin na sampla cu de rir aois na gcainteoir. Is liri seo ar a gcumas
maidir le hinscne fhorainmneach a dhul i bhfeabhas sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thann na pist in
aois.
Cairt 124 Ceatadin na sampla cu dinscne an fhorainm leis an gcopail sa Ghaeilge de rir aois na bpist.

Lirtear san fhochaibidil seo an bhaint at ag aois na bpist le catadin na sampla cu den
chlaochl tosaigh (fach Fochaibidil 2.9). Is lir lne threochta Chairt 125 go bhfuil ard ar
chatadn na sampla cu le haois. Is liri seo ar a gcumas maidir leis na claochluithe tosaigh sa
Ghaeilge a dhul i bhfeabhas de rir mar a thann na pist in aois.
130
5.8 Inscne / 5.9 An claochl tosaigh / 5.10 Achoimre
Cairt 125 Catadin chu na gclaochluithe tosaigh de rir aoise.
5.10 Achoimre
Lirtear sa chaibidil seo gaol dearfach a bheith idir aois na ndalta agus a ngnthachtil
teangeolaochta. Is liri seo ar a gcumas ginearlta a dhul i bhfeabhas, go comhthreomhar sa
Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla go minic, de rir mar a thann na pist in aois. Is minic an gaol sin a
bheith an-soilir, c go bhfuil measarthacht trithe ann nach lirtear iontu . T an gaol dearfach
sin le sonr go soilir sa scril ghinearlta teangeolaochta don d theanga. Fach freisin an pl i
bhFochaibidil 9.3.2. Is fidir dh lamh a dhanamh ar an ard foisteanach cumais dhtheangaigh
seo de rir aoise:
1. t cumas nos airde ag na dalta is sine de bharr feabhais leannaigh bliain i ndiaidh bliana
agus tiocfaidh feabhas d rir ar na dalta is ige (tuiscint an ama ralaoch);
2. t cumas nos airde ag na dalta is sine mar gur chumasa iad n na dalta is ige nuair a bh
na dalta is sine n bige (tuiscint an ama dhealraithigh, .i. nuair a bheidh na dalta is ige
nos sine n bheidh siad chomh maith leis na dalta is sine).
Is dcha gurb lamh (1) is m br anseo. Ach dfhadfadh cuid de lamh (2) a bheith i gceist
freisin.
T an gaol dearfach arna shonr sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla araon maidir le:
foclir: lon leama; lon leama nach bhfuil mchu;
deilbhocht: foirmeacha cu den ainmfhocal iolra; foirmeacha cu den bhriathar mrialta;

comhrir: agslacht ceisteanna;
pragmataic: lon agus agslacht na marcir dioscrsa;

lofacht: caint gan trithe mlofachta.
T an gaol dearfach sa Ghaeilge amhin maidir le:
foclir: lon leama Barla a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge sna 2000te; lon leama Gaeilge in
ionad leama Barla a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge roimh na 1990;
deilbhocht: catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu den aidiacht sa bhreischim; foirmeacha cu

den ainmfhocal iolra a bhaineann le hathr foghraochta; infhilleadh tite na mbriathra sa
mhodh coinnollach; sid chu na mre briathartha nor;
131
5. Aois
comhrir: leis an ainm briathartha (cuspir ainmfhoclach i bhfochlsal, agus cuspir

forainmneach i bhfochlsal); struchtr ginideach cinnte cu; sid chu na comhfhreagrachta
idir uimhir an fhorainm agus an ainmn;
pragmataic: lon agus agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 agus T2; lon na bhfreagra
traidisinta Gaeilge (cp. yeah, yes agus yep thos);
foghraocht na r-fhuaimeanna: lon menach na r-fhuaimeanna Gaelacha (cp. r-fhuaimeanna
thos);
inscne: forainm cu in abairt chopaile;
claochl tosaigh: sid chu ghinearlta agus sna forims go coitianta.
T an gaol dearfach sin sa Bharla amhin maidir le:
comhrir: comhfhreagracht uimhreach idir briathar agus ainmn ainmfhoclach.
T gaol diltach (ar gnthachtil dhearfach , .i. feabhas sa Ghaeilge) sa Ghaeilge amhin maidir le:
pragmataic: sli beag i lne threochta na bhfocal dearbhaithe yeah, yes agus yep i bhfreagra
agus mar dheimhnichn (cp. freagra traidisinta Gaeilge thuas);
foghraocht na r-fhuaimeanna: lon menach an r-fhuaimnithe ghallda (cp. r-fhuaimeanna

thuas).
Nuair a rinneadh anails sa tsamhail lneach ghinearlta ar an tionchar at ag Aois ar an tscaire

Claochl Tosaigh fuarthas toradh suntasach (P-luach = 0.019; gan tscair eile a thabhairt san
ireamh). Mar a lirtear sa chomhifeacht i dTbla 23, tugann gach ard aonaid (.i. bliain) san
Aois ard 2.817 sa Chlaochl Tosaigh.13* Is an chothromid chlchimnithe n Claochl Tosaigh
= 23.8 + 2.82 Aois.
Fistineoir
Comhifeacht
Y-thrasphointe 23.83
Aois
2.82
Earrid Chaighdenach
Chomhifeachta
Earrid
Chaighdenach T
P-luach
11.34
2.1
0.041
1.16
Tbla 23 Comhifeacht chomhghaolchin idir Claochl Tosaigh agus Aois.
2.43
0.019
Lirtear i gCairt 126 an bhaint at ag sid chu na gclaochluithe tosaigh sa Ghaeilge le haois na
gcainteoir ga.
Is ard at i gceist le P-luach in aon tstil staitistiil n an dchlacht go bhfaighf toradh i sampla a bheadh ar a
laghad chomh foircneach leis an toradh a fhaightear, nuair at an tsainhipitis (H0) for. Mar shampla, cuirimid i gcs
go bhfuilimid ag tstil H0 go bhfuil bonn airgid cothrom n cir (is sin le r go bhfaighfear 50% ceann agus 50%
clirseach nuair a chaitear an bonn in airde ar chrainn ars agus ars eile) le hais na hipitise malarta H1 go bhfuil
claonadh sa bhonn i dtreo an chinn. Cuir i gcs go bhfuaireamar 99 ceann as 100 caitheamh in airde an bhoinn.
Tuigimid go himfhiosach gur beag dchlacht go dtarldh a leithid d mbeadh H0 for. Is an dchlacht i ndirre go
100
bhfaighf ar a laghad 99 as 100 caitheamh le bonn cir n P =
2100 , uimhir fhorbheag ar fad. Tugtar P-luach na tstla
ar an uimhir seo, agus is tomhas ar neamhrir na sonra le H0. Go deimhin fin, tharla go bhfuil an P-luach chomh
beag sin, is fidir dilt do H0 agus glacadh le H1 go bhfuil claonadh chun thaobh an chinn sa bhonn. Glactar sa saothar
seo go bhfuil suntasacht staitistiil ag baint le P-luach < 0.05. D bhr sin, sa sampla at idir lmha anseo againn, it
a bhfuil P-luach de 0.019 le meastachn na fna 2.82, feicimid mura bhfuil aon ifeacht ag Aois ar Chlaochl Tosaigh,
n bheadh ach 19 seans as 1000 go bhfaighf fna shamplach ar a laghad chomh fada 0 (nid) agus a fuaireamar i
ndirre (2.82). Glacaimid go bhfuil an P-luach seo beag go leor le r go bhfuil s suntasach thaobh na staitistice de
mar go bhfuil s faoin scothphointe 5% a roghnamid mar leibhal suntasachta sa taighde seo. Maidir leis an tsamhail
lneach ghinearlta, fach an pl i bhFochaibidil 9.3.2.
13*
132
5.10 Achoimre
Cairt 126 Scaipghram ar chaomhghaolchn idir Claochl Tosaigh agus Aois.
Is lir go bhfuil malartaocht mhr timpeall ar an lne oirinaithe sa scaipghram. Nl de mhnichn

ag Aois ach ar 10.9% den mhalartaocht (comhifeacht chinntichin R-chearnaithe = 10.9).
I dTbla 24 lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide (is sin

na tscair ar fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga iontu) leis an tscaire
socheolaochta Aois san ord inar pladh iad sa chaibidil seo. Tugtar cur sos ar lidreacht an
chomhghaoil bunaithe ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at le fil in Aguisn E. Faightear
comhifeacht chomhghaolchin idir a nid agus 0.6 sna comhghaolchin idir na tscair
teangeolaochta agus na tscair socheolaochta. Is fidir lipid chilochtla a thabhairt ar na
luachanna ar mhaithe le soilireacht. Fgtar an bosca folamh m t an luach idir a nid agus 0.1
agus tugtar an-seal ar luach idir 0.101 agus 0.2, seal ar luach idir 0.201 agus 0.3, measartha
ar luach idir 0.301 agus 0.4, ard ar luach idir 0.401 agus 0.5 agus an-ard ar luach idir 0.501 agus
0.6. Cuirtear diltach ar an lipad freisin m thagraonn s do luach at diltach.14* Sa tbla thos
sna colin Gaeilge le hAois agus Barla le hAois scthatear na bosca a lironn an luach is m
(dearfach n diltach). N scthatear bosca m t cothromaocht (dhearfach n dhiltach) idir an
d theanga.
Rimse
Tscaire
Gaeilge le hAois
Barla le hAois
Lon leama
ard
measartha
ard
measartha
Foclir
Leama T1
seal
Deilbhocht
Briathar mrialta
seal
Comhrir
Simeantaic
Leama cu
Ainm iolra
Aidiacht bhreischime
agslacht ceisteanna
Ramhfhocal
seal
an-ard
an-seal
measartha
measartha
an-seal diltach
measartha
an-seal
Ciallaonn an rta comhghaoil a chomhthreomhaire is at dh shraith sonra: ciallaonn 0 nach bhfuil aon ghaol
eatarthu agus ciallaonn 1 go bhfuil gaol iomln dearfach idir na sraitheanna agus ciallaonn luach dearfach go bhfuil
gaol dearfach idir na sraitheanna (m ardaonn sraith amhin ardaonn an tsraith eile) agus ciallaonn luach lide a
bheith i gceist go bhfuil gaol diltach ann (m ardaonn sraith amhin slonn an tsraith eile).
14*
133
5. Aois
Rimse
Pragmataic
Lofacht
Tscaire
Gaeilge le hAois
Barla le hAois
agslacht na marcir dioscrsa
seal
an-seal
yeah, yes, yep
Lofacht lon focal

Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
an-seal diltach
seal
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal diltach
Tbla 24 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide le haois.
T gaol nos lidre idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus aois na gcainteoir i gcs cig thscaire sa
Ghaeilge agus i gcs seacht dtscaire sa Bharla. (Fach an pl ar aois i bhFochaibidil 9.3.2.) Is gaol
malartach a lironn lon na bhfocal yeah, yes, yep.
I dTbla 25 thos lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta, nach fidir comparid
dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga iontu, le haois na bpist. Baintear feidhm as an gcras
lipadaithe canna at mnithe do Thbla 24 thuas. T dath gorm ar na tscair a irodh sa scril
iomln agus dath uaine ar na tscair nr irodh in aon scril. Lironn infhilleadh tite na
mbriathra sa chad phearsa agus sa dara pearsa sa mhodh coinnollach sa Ghaeilge an gaol is
lidre le haois na gcainteoir.
Tscaire
Teanga
Teanga (G n B) le hAois
Marcir dioscrsa T1
an-seal
Claochluithe tosaigh
measartha
Inscne forainm
Foghraocht r-anna
Iolra ainmfhocal
Rimni briathair
Briathar tite
Ginideach Gaeilge
Ramhfhocal infhillte
Forainmn ramhfhoclach tite

An mhr bhriathartha nor
c mhad + uatha
Ainm briathartha cuspireach forainmneach

Ginideach cinnte
Coibhneasta that
Uimhir forainm
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
B
G
an-seal
measartha
seal
ard
measartha
seal
an-seal diltach
measartha
lag
ag goil ag sa timchaint fhistineach
faigh
breathnaigh
Freagra de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta
G
G
lag diltach
measartha
Tbla 25 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta eile le haois.
134
5.10 Achoimre
Jones, M. C. (1998) Language obsolescence and revitalization: linguistic change in two
sociolinguistically contrasting Welsh communities. Oxford.
Yip, V. agus Matthews, S. (2007) The Bilingual Child: early development and language contact.
Cambridge: CUP.
135
Gnas
Drmid sa chaibidil seo ar an ngaol at idir gnas na gcainteoir ar limh amhin agus, ar an
limh eile de, a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir leagan amach comparideach
na leibhal teangeolaochta 13 a pladh i gCaibidil 4. T dileadh cothrom, 26 buachaill agus 24
cailn, idir an d ghnas i measc shampla na ndalta.
Mar a dradh i gCaibidil 5, na tscair nach bhfuarthas sampla dobh 70% de na cainteoir ar a
laghad, baineadh iad as an bpl anseo chun ionadaocht na sonra a chosaint san anails.
6.1 Foclir
I gCairt 127 lirtear gur beag difrocht at le sonr idir lon na leama (T1 agus T2 san ireamh) a
bh ag na buachaill i gcomparid leis na cailn, i gcs a gcomhr sa d theanga. Is a chuimstear
mar sin sna barra faisnise gorma n iomln na leama idir Ghaeilge agus Bharla a bh sa
chomhr Gaeilge, agus is at i gceist sna barra faisnise dearga iomln na leama idir Bharla
agus Ghaeilge a bh i gcomhr Barla na bpist. T beaginn nos m difrochta idir an comhr
sa d theanga i measc na mbuachaill (33.8 nos m leama sa chomhr Gaeilge n sa chomhr
Barla) n an difrocht at idir an comhr sa d theanga i measc na gcailn (28.3 nos m leama
sa chomhr Gaeilge n sa chomhr Barla). Bhain na cailn leas as 2 leama nos m sa chomhr
Gaeilge agus 7.6 leama nos m sa chomhr Barla n na buachaill.
Cairt 127 Lon na gcinelacha leama de rir gnis.
Is beag difrocht (0.2%) thaobh gnis de at sa chimheas idir catadn na leama T2 i gcomhr
Gaeilge agus i gcomhr Barla na ndalta. Bh rta 1.4 nos m de leama T2 (Gaeilge) sa chomhr
Barla ag na buachaill n ag na cailn. Nuair a chuirtear cimheas T1 agus T2 na mbuachaill i
gcomparid le cimheas T1 agus T2 na gcailn, is rbheag an difrocht (0.1%) at idir an d ghnas.
Is beag difrocht (0.1%) at idir catadin na leama mchu sa Ghaeilge agus catadin na leama
mchu sa Bharla thaobh gnis de. Lironn na buachaill 0.2% nos m difrochta idir catadin
na leama mchu sa d theanga.
136
6.1 Foclir / 6.2 Deilbhocht
Is rbheag an difrocht a shonratear i gcomhr na mbuachaill agus na gcailn maidir le lon na

leama T2 a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge i dtrimhs agsla. T 2.2% nos m leama, a bhaineann
leis an trimhse roimh na 1990, ag na buachaill, agus t 1.6% agus 0.6% nos m leama a
bhaineann leis na 1990 agus na 2000te, faoi seach, ag na cailn.
6.2 Deilbhocht
Plimid anseo an bhaint at ag gnas na bpist le deilbhocht na Gaeilge agus an Bharla de rir
chim chomparideach.

I gCairt 128 lirtear nach bhfuil baint ag catadin na seachfhoirmeacha (leama T1 agus T2)
dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa d theanga le gnas na bpist. Is beag difrocht (0.3% sa
Ghaeilge agus 0.8% sa Bharla) a fheictear idir na cailn agus na buachaill sa rimse seo. Lironn
na buachaill 0.5% nos m difrochta idir catadn na seachfhoirmeacha sa d theanga.
Cairt 128 Catadn na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra de rir gnis.
Briathra mrialta
I gCairt 129 lirtear go bhfuil gaol idir gnas na bpist agus catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu
neamhsplecha agus splecha de na briathra mrialta san aimsir chaite sa d theanga. T 4.2%
nos m foirmeacha cu ag na buachaill sa Ghaeilge agus 6.1% nos m foirmeacha cu ag na cailn
sa Bharla. Is bhar spise freisin gur m an difrocht at idir catadn na bhfoirmeacha cu sa d
theanga i measc na gcailn (9.1%) n i measc na mbuachaill (1.2%). Is liri seo ar chumas nos
fearr maidir leis an mbriathar mrialta sa Ghaeilge a bheith ag na buachaill n na cailn.
137
6. Gnas
Cairt 129 Catadn na bhfoirmeacha cu sna briathra mrialta de rir gnis.
Aidiachta sa chim chomparideach

Is mar an gcanna at gnthachtil na mbuachaill agus na gcailn maidir le catadin na
seachfhoirmeacha daidiachta sa chim chomparideach. Is liri seo ar an gcumas canna
maidir leis an aidiacht chomparideach sa Ghaeilge a bheith ag na buachaill agus ag na cailn.
6.2.2 Comhchlaonadh
Plimid san fhochaibidil seo rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n athr i dtreo an
Bharla le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil bonn sch mr sampla ionadaocha dobh againn le liri a
An t-ainmfhocal
I gCairt 130 lirtear go bhfuil ceangal soilir idir gnas na bpist agus lon menach na leama
iolra mchu a bhaineann le hathruithe foghraochta i ndeilbhocht na Gaeilge, m.sh. caol i bhfocal
mar cnoca ~ cnoca (< cnoic). Is ag na cailn is m at seachfhoirmeacha menacha. Is liri
seo ar chumas nos fearr maidir le fineolaocht an ainmfhocail iolra sa Ghaeilge a bheith ag na
buachaill n na cailn.
Cairt 130 Lon menach seachfhoirmeacha foghraochta dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra de rir gnis.
I gCairt 131 lirtear gur i measc na mbuachaill a fuarthas na catadin ab airde de shampla
dfheidhmi bhuntuiseal an ainmfhocail i suomh an ghinidigh uatha.
138
6.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 131 Catadin an bhuntuisil i suomh an ghinidigh uatha de rir gnis.
T ceangal idir gnas na bpist agus feidhmi uimhir uatha an ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c mhad
agus cupla. Lirtear i gCairt 132 go bhfuarthas 13.5% nos m foirmeacha cu i measc na gcailn
n i measc na mbuachaill.
Cairt 132 Catadin duimhir uatha an ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla de rir gnis.
An briathar
Is beag difrocht, 1.5%, a bh idir buachaill agus cailn i rimni na mbriathra. Maidir le foirm
thite na mbriathra sa chad agus sa dara pearsa den mhodh coinnollach, lirtear i gCairt 133 go
gcuireann na buachaill 15.2% nos m foirmeacha tite sa mhodh coinnollach i bhfeidhm, is sin
1.5 oiread na gcailn.
Cairt 133 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha tite sa mhodh coinnollach de rir gnis.
139
6. Gnas
An ramhfhocal
N bhaineann scaradh an ramhfhocail agus an ailt le gnas sa chorpas seo. Fuarthas 0.5% nos m
leaganacha comhthite i measc na mbuachaill n i measc na gcailn.
Forainm ramhfhoclach
I gCairt 134 lirtear go bhfuarthas 6.4% nos m leaganacha tite de na forainmneacha
ramhfhoclacha i measc na mbuachaill n i measc na gcailn. Is liri seo ar chumas nos fearr
maidir leis an bhforainm ramhfhoclach sa Ghaeilge a bheith ag na buachaill n na cailn.
Cairt 134 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha tite de na forainmneacha ramhfhoclacha de rir gnis.
Mreanna briathartha
I gCairt 135 lirtear gurb iad na cailn is minice a chuireann n d in it nor. T 16.5% de dhifrocht
idir cailn agus buachaill sa rimse seo.
Cairt 135 Catadin fhoirmeacha cu na mre briathartha nor de rir gnis.

Nor lirigh an anails gaol soilir a bheith idir gnas na bpist agus gnithe de dheilbhocht
na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu (i ngnithe a bhfuil r ndthain sampla
ionadaocha againn dobh sa chorpas le liri a thabhairt orthu).
6.3 Comhrir
San fhochaibidil seo, de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.3, plimid an gaol at idir gnas na
gcainteoir agus comhrir an d theanga.
140
6.3 Comhrir

Is gn chomhrire amhin, agslacht na gceisteanna sa chomhr Gaeilge agus sa chomhr Barla,
inar fidir comparid dhreach, bunaithe ar lon sampla ionadaocha na ndalta, a dhanamh idir
an d theanga.
agslacht ceisteanna
I gCairt 136 lirtear nach bhfuil gaol idir agslacht na gceisteanna agus gnas na bpist ach
amhin gur lirigh na cailn 4.2% nos m agslachta sa Bharla.
Cairt 136 Catadin agslacht na gceisteanna de rir gnis.
6.3.2 Comhchlaonadh
teanga eile le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil r ndthain sampla ionadaocha againn dobh le liri a

I gCairt 137 lirtear go bhfuil difrocht 1.6% idir na cailn agus na buachaill maidir le hsid
chu an ainmfhocail at i gcuspir le hainm briathartha i bhfochlsal (m.sh. tairne a chur (cu))
agus gurb iad na cailn is fearr a ghnthaigh sa rimse seo. Is difrocht de 6.1% at idir an d
ghnas, buntiste baineann, maidir le feidhm chuspireach an fhorainm leis an ainm briathartha
i bhfochlsal.
Cairt 137 Ainm briathartha cuspireach de rir gnis.
De rir na sonra at sa bhunachar faisnise, c nach lirtear sa chairt anseo iad, t buntiste ag
na buachaill san ainm briathartha cuspireach leannach forainmneach (m.sh. leanacht (cu)).
141
6. Gnas

I gCairt 138 lirtear lon menach na sampla mchu den chlsal coibhneasta dreach i gcs na
mbuachaill agus na gcailn. Sna maid faisnise bu lirtear sonra na sampla mchu den chlsal
coibhneasta dreach in ionad an chsail choibhneasta indrigh thraidisinta.
Cairt 138 Lon menach mchu an chlsail choibhneasta dhrigh de rir gnis.
Struchtr ginideach
N bhfuarthas baint shoilir a bheith ag rimse an ghnis le cur i bhfeidhm an struchtir ghinidigh.
Ag na cailn bh 4% nos m foirmeacha cu, is sin, gan an t-alt a bheith ach roimh an dara
hainmfhocal sa suomh ginideach. Maidir le hsid an ghinidigh ramhfhoclaigh, fuarthas 7.8%
nos m sampla cu i measc na gcailn.
I gCairt 139 lirtear go mbaineann sid an fhorainm choibhneasta that i gcomhthacs roghnach
sa Bharla le gnas na bpist. Chuir na buachaill 2.8 nos m sampla den fhorainm coibhneasta
that i gcomhthacs roghnach sa Bharla i bhfeidhm n na cailn.
Cairt 139 Lon menach an chlsail choibhneasta sa Bharla le that roghnach de rir gnis.

Drmid anseo ar na rims comhrire a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu.

I gCairt 140 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag gnas na bpist le lon na sampla mchu comhfhreagrachta
idir uimhir an fhorainm agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Ghaeilge. Lirigh na buachaill 14.8
oiread nos m sampla mchu n na cailn.
142
6.4 Simeantaic
Cairt 140 Lon menach na comhfhreagrachta uimhr mchu sa Ghaeilge de rir gnis.
Comhfhreagracht uimhreach i struchtr ginideach an Bharla

I gCairt 141 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag gnas na bpist le heaspa comhfhreagrachta uimhr idir
an briathar agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla. Lirigh na buachaill 18% nos m
sampla cu sa rimse seo.
Cairt 141 Catadin comhfhreagracht uimhreach sa Bharla de rir gnis.
6.4 Simeantaic
San fhochaibidil seo, de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.4, plimid an bhaint at ag gnas na
bpist le simeantaic na Gaeilge agus an Bharla.

simeantaic an Bharla. N bhfuarthas baint shoilir a bheith ag gnas na rannphirithe le lon na
ramhfhocal d bhfuil seachfhoirmeacha suntasacha tugtha faoi deara i dtaifeadta sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla.
6.4.2 Comhchlaonadh
na rims simeantaice a bhfuil a ndthain sampla againn dobh le liri ionadaoch a thabhairt
143
6. Gnas
T sampla dsid breathnaigh agus faigh ina mbriathra cnta ag na dalta. Lirtear i gCairt 142
thos go bhfuil 2.9 oiread sampla den bhriathar cnta faigh agus 1.8 oiread sampla den bhriathar
cnta breathnaigh i bhfeidhm i measc na gcailn n i measc na mbuachaill.
Cairt 142 Lon menach na mbriathra cnta breathnaigh agus faigh de rir gnis.
Fuarthas 0.2 nos m sampla de thimchaint fhistineach le goil i measc na gcailn n i measc na
mbuachaill.
6.5 Pragmataic
Breathnamid ar ifeacht an dtheangachais shisialta ar phragmataic an d theanga thaobh

ghnas na bpist de, de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.5.
Danaimid anails chomparideach ar chaidreamh an ghnis ar sid na bhfocal pragmataice, is

sin na marcir dioscrsa, agus ar sid na bhfocal yeah, yes, yep sa d theanga.
Focail phragmataice
Lironn na cailn beaginn nos m agslachta sa Bharla agus lironn na buachaill beaginn
nos m agslachta sa Ghaeilge maidir le marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge agus sa
chomhr Barla (Cairt 143).
Cairt 143 agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa d theanga de rir gnis.
144
I gCairt 144 lirtear go mbaineann nos m agslachta i measc na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa

chomhr Gaeilge leis na buachaill.
6.5 Pragmataic
Cairt 144 Catadin agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge de rir gnis.

I gCairt 145 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag na focail yeah, yes, yep i bhfreagra agus mar dheimhnichn le
gnas na bpist sa Ghaeilge. Cuireann na cailn 1.7 oiread sampla dobh seo i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge.
Cairt 145 Lon menach na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga de rir gnis.

I gCairt 146 lirtear na cinelacha freagra a thug na pist ar cheisteanna dnta (fach 2.5.3).
Chuir na buachaill (17.4%) nos m, 1.3 oiread sampla de fhreagra de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta
i bhfeidhm n na cailn, rud a thagann le cimheas ard yeah, yes, yep na gcailn.
Cairt 146 Catadin na bhfreagra traidisinta ar cheisteanna dnta de rir gnis.
145
6. Gnas
6.6 Lofacht
Danaimid anails san fhochaibidil seo ar an mbaint at ag gnas na bpist le crsa lofachta sa
Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Plimid anseo an lofacht agus an mhlofacht sa chomhr sa d theanga
I gCairt 147 lirtear gur sa Ghaeilge ba mh a chuir na pist focail i bhfeidhm sa nimad
reacaireachta a breathnaodh. Lirigh na cailn difrocht nos suntasa, difrocht de 9.6%, idir an
d theanga.
Cairt 147 Lon menach na bhfocal sa nimad reacaireachta de rir gnis.
N bhfuarthas baint shoilir a bheith ag gnas na bpist le lon na dtrithe mlofachta sa d

theanga ach gur airde a lon menach i nGaeilge na gcailn.
I gCairt 148 lirtear lon na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir
ghnas na bpist. Lirigh na buachaill agus na cailn nos m sampla den trith seo sa Ghaeilge
n sa Bharla. C gur beag difrocht a bh eatarthu sa Bharla, lirigh na cailn 1.4 oiread sampla
den trith seo sa Ghaeilge, rud a thagann leis na marcir mlofachta a bheith nos airde sa Ghaeilge
ag na cailn.
Cairt 148 Lon menach na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir gnis.
146
6.6 Lofacht / 6.7 Foghraocht / 6.8 Inscne / 6.9 An claochl tosaigh / 6.10 Achoimre
6.7 Foghraocht
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar an mbaint at ag gnas na bpist leis na fuaimeanna a dtagraonn an
litir r dibh mar a raltar iad i gcomhr Gaeilge na bpist (fach 2.7). I gCairt 149 lirtear gur bhain
na buachaill 2.2 oiread leas as an r leathan agus lirigh na cailn 1.2 oiread sampla den r aisfhillte.
Cairt 149 Lon menach chinelacha na bhfoghar r de rir gnis.
6.8 Inscne
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar an mbaint at ag gnas na bpist le hinscne na bhforainmneacha
pearsanta in abairt copaileacha a thosaonn ar leagan igin den fhorainm taispentach seo n sin
.i. siod/seo/sin an ... n siod/seo/sin an ... (fach 2.8). N bhfuarthas aon bhaint shoilir a bheith
ag gnas na bpist leis an trith theangeolaochta seo.
San fhochaibidil seo lirtear an bhaint at ag gnas na bpist le catadin na sampla cu den
chlaochl tosaigh (fach 2.9). Bh 7.8%, is sin 1.1 oiread catadn cu, ag na buachaill sa rimse
teangeolaochta seo (Cairt 150).
Cairt 150 Catadn na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu de rir gnis.
6.10 Achoimre
Drodh sa chaibidil seo ar an ngaol at idir gnas na gcainteoir agus a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla de rir na leibhal teangeolaochta seo: foclir, deilbhocht, comhrir, simeantaic,
pragmataic, lofacht, foghraocht, inscne, agus claochl tosaigh. N thuairisctear de chontrrthacht
idir cumas na gcailn agus na mbuachaill, ar an mrgir, ach difrochta an-chaolchiseach. I
147
6. Gnas
gCairt 151 lirtear a laghad difrocht sa d theanga at idir Z-scranna comhthite na mbuachaill
le hais Z-scranna comhthite na gcailn.15*
Cairt 151 Larid bhosca ar Z-scranna comhthite na ndalta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir gnis.
Ag leibhal str focal n foclra, nor lirodh aon difrochta mra idir an d ghnas. I gcrsa
deilbhochta, is fidir roinnt difrochta (beaga) a aithint: sa bhriathar mrialta caite sa Ghaeilge
t 4.2% nos m foirmeacha cu ag na buachaill n ag na cailn agus sa Bharla 6.1% nos m
foirmeacha cu ag na cailn n ag na buachaill; i gcim chomparide na haidiachta, mar a lirtear
i gCairt 152, t nos l buachaill diall caighdenach faoin men n cailn. T lon menach na
n-ainmfhocal iolra foghraochta mchu nos airde ag na cailn; buntuiseal (in ionad an ghinidigh)
nos airde ag na buachaill; 13.5% nos m foirmeacha cu i measc na gcailn duimhir uatha an
ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla; cuireann na buachaill 15.2% nos m foirmeacha tite
den bhriathar i bhfeidhm agus 6.4% nos m leaganacha tite den fhorainm ramhfhoclach; is iad
na cailn is minice a chuireann n d in it nor.
Cairt 152 Catadin na n-aidiachta breischime cu sa Ghaeilge i histeagram normalaithe.

Is ard at i gceist leis an Z-scr a bhaineann le toradh aon dalta ar leith n lon na ndiall caighdenach at an toradh
sin mhen an ghrpa. T Z-scr isiil mar liri ar thoradh duine i gcoibhneas leis an ngrpa ar fad agus mar
liri ar thortha duine i dtstlacha agsla (lirtear sa Z-scr gur fearr a ironn le duine sa tstil is airde ina
bhfaigheann s Z-scr; nor gh gur sa tstil is airde ina bhfaigheann duine an buntoradh, gur ann is fearr a ironn
leis).
15*
148
6.10 Achoimre
Maidir le comhrir de, lirigh na cailn nos m agslacht ceisteanna sa Bharla n na buachaill;
t buntiste ag na cailn san ainm briathartha cuspireach forainmneach i bhfochlsal sa Ghaeilge;
t buntiste ag na buachaill san ainm briathartha cuspireach leannach forainmneach sa Ghaeilge;
nos m de leagan an ghinidigh ramhfhoclaigh ag na cailn; nos m de that coibhneasta roghnach ag
na buachaill sa Bharla; nos m sampla mchu ag na buachaill den chomhfhreagracht idir uimhir
an fhorainm agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Ghaeilge; nos m sampla cu ag na buachaill den
chomhfhreagracht uimhreach idir an briathar agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla.
thaobh simeantaice de, t nos m sampla de na briathra cnta faigh agus breathnaigh i
measc na gcailn; agus nos m sampla de thimchaint fhistineach le goil i measc na gcailin. Sa
phragmataic lirigh na cailn ar an men nos m sampla de na marcir dioscrsa sa Bharla
n na buachaill; cuireann na cailn nos m sampla dfhocail phragmatice Bharla i bhfeidhm sa
Ghaeilge; cuireann na cailn nos m sampla de yeah, yes, yep i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge; cuireann
na buachaill nos m sampla de fhreagra i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeilge de rir na Gaeilge traidisinta.
thaobh lofachta de, le lon menach focal lirigh na cailn buntiste nos suntasa sa Ghaeilge
ach lirodar mbhuntiste nos suntasa thaobh na dtrithe mlofachta de sa Ghaeilge agus
thaobh na riteas i leith na hacmhainne Gaeilge. San fhoghraocht, t nos m raladh den r leathan
ag na buachaill agus beagn nos m raladh den r aisfhillte ag na cailn. I rimse an chlaochlaithe
tosaigh, bh buntiste ag na buachaill go ginearlta agus i gcig rimse ghramadla ar leith maidir
le claochluithe tosaigh ach bh buntiste ag na cailn in dh rimse eile de na claochluithe tosaigh.
Lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide (is sin na tscair ar fidir
comparid dhreach a dhanamh orthu idir an d theanga) leis an tscaire socheolaochta Gnas
i dTbla 26 san ord inar pladh iad sa chaibidil seo. Tugtar cur sos ar lidreacht an chomhghaoil
bunaithe ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at liostaithe in Aguisn E.16* Ciallaonn cl gorm
gurb iad na buachaill is airde luach (dearfach n diltach) agus ciallaonn cl dearg gurb iad na
cailn is airde luach (dearfach n diltach) sna rims marcilte. Trd is trd is beag comhghaol a
aimstear idir na rims teangeolaochta inchomparide agus gnas na gcainteoir.
Rimse
Foclir
Tscaire
Gaeilge le Gnas
Barla le Gnas
Lon leama
Ainm iolra
an-seal
Leama T1
Leama cu
Deilbhocht Briathar mrialta

Comhrir
agslacht ceisteanna
Simeantaic Ramhfhocal
Pragmataic
Lofacht

yeah, yes, yep
Lofacht lon focal

Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
an-seal
measartha
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal
Tbla 26 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide le gnas.

Mar a mnodh i bhFochaibidil 5.10, faightear comhifeacht chomhghaolchin idir a nid agus 0.6 sna comhghaolchin
idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus na tscair socheolaochta. Is fidir lipid chilochtla a thabhairt ar na luachanna
ar mhaithe le soilireacht. Fgtar an bosca folamh m t an luach idir a nid agus 0.1 agus tugtar an-seal ar luach
idir 0.101 agus 0.2, seal ar luach idir 0.201 agus 0.3, measartha ar luach idir 0.301 agus 0.4, ard ar luach idir 0.401
agus 0.5 agus an-ard ar luach idir 0.501 agus 0.6. Cuirtear diltach ar an lipad freisin m thagraonn s do luach
at diltach. Scthatear sa tbla sna colin Gaeilge le Gnas agus Barla le Gnas na bosca a lironn an luach is m
(dearfach n diltach). N scthatear bosca m t cothromaocht (dhearfach n dhiltach) idir an d theanga.
16*
149
6. Gnas
T gaol nos lidre i gcs cig thscaire sa Ghaeilge idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus gnas na
gcainteoir agus t gaol nos lidre eatarthu sa Bharla i gcs tr thscaire. Is iad na focail yeah, yes,
yep sa Ghaeilge an tscaire is m a bhaineann le gnas na gcainteoir.
I dTbla 27 lirtear achoimre ar an mbaint at ag na tscair teangeolaochta, nach fidir

comparid dhreach a dhanamh orthu idir an d theanga, le gnas na bpist. Baintear feidhm as
an gcras lipadaithe canna at mnithe do Thbla 26 thuas. T dath gorm ar na tscair a irodh
sa scril iomln agus dath uaine ar na tscair nr irodh in aon scril. Lironn infhilleadh
tite na mbriathra sa chad agus dara pearsa den mhodh coinnollach sa Ghaeilge an gaol is lidre
le gnas na gcainteoir. Is gaol seal (seal, an-seal) at idir na rims teangeolaochta seo agus
gnas na gcainteoir.
Tscaire
Teanga
Teanga (G n B) le Gnas
Marciri dioscrsa T1
an-seal
seal
Inscne forainm
Foghraocht r-anna
Iolra ainmfhocal
Rimni briathair
Briathar tite
Ginideach Gaeilge

C mhad + uatha

Ginideach cinnte
Coibhneasta that
Uimhir forainm
faigh
breathnaigh
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
B
G
B
G
G
G
G
an-seal
an-seal
seal
seal
seal
seal
seal
seal
an-seal
an-seal
seal
an-seal
seal
seal
an-seal
seal
Tbla 27 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta eile le gnas.
Eckert, P. (2000) Linguistic Variation as Social Practice: The linguistic construction of identity in
Belten High. MA: Blackwell.
Gal, S. (2009) Language Change and Sex Roles in a Bilingual Community i Coupland, N. agus
Jaworski, A. (eag.) The New Sociolinguistics Reader. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. 45772.
150
Cumas acadil
Drmid sa chaibidil seo ar an gcaidreamh at idir cumas acadil na ndalta ar limh amhin agus, ar
an limh eile de, a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir leagan amach comparideach
na leibhal teangeolaochta 13 a pladh i gCaibidil 4. Rangaodh cumas acadil na ndalta i scla
cig chim de rir tuairisce mhinteoir i ngach scoil ar leith. Iarradh ar an minteoir tuairim a
thabhairt i leith chumas ginearlta acadil an dalta de rir scla ardaithigh cig phointe. Tugadh
an d aicme ab sle le chile don anails seo, toisc a laghad dalta a bheith iontu, agus rangatear
na dalta i gceithre aicme: Aicm 14 n gcumas is sle (1) go dt an cumas is airde (4). Tagraonn
uimhir ardaitheach an scla do dhalta at seal, measartha, ard, agus an-ard thaobh an chumais
acadil de. Lirtear dileadh chumas acadil na bpist, mar a tuairiscodh do na taighdeoir , i
dTbla 28.
Aicme Chumais
Lon Dalta
14
28
1
2
4
15
13
16
30
26
Tbla 28 Dileadh chumas acadil na bpist.
Mar a dradh i gCaibidil 5, na tscair nach bhfuarthas sampla dobh 70% ar a laghad de na
cainteoir baineadh as an bpl anseo iad chun ionadaocht na sonra a chosaint san anails.
7.1 Foclir
Plimid anseo an gaol at idir cumas acadil na bpist agus crsa foclra i gcs lon na leama a
chuir na cainteoir ga i bhfeidhm. I lnte treochta na gcuar lirtear ard nos m sa Ghaeilge n
sa Bharla i gCairt 153 a dfhadfadh a thabhairt le fios go n-ironn leis na pist a bhfuil cumas
maith acadil acu cur le lon na leama sa Ghaeilge.
Cairt 153 Lon na leama de rir cumais acadil.
151
7. Cumas acadil
Nl gaol chomh soilir sin i gcs chumas acadil an phiste agus lon na leama Barla at ag an
bpiste.
I gCairt 154 lirtear an gaol idir cumas acadil na ndalta agus catadin na leama T2 a chuir na
pist i bhfeidhm sa d theanga. T caidreamh an chumais acadil nos suaithins sa Ghaeilge n
sa Bharla i gcs chatadin na leama T2 a chuireann siad i bhfeidhm sna hagallaimh. Baineann
na dalta at seal thaobh an chumais acadil de leas as 3% nos m leama T2 sa Ghaeilge n
dalta a bhfuil cumas an-ard acadil acu. Is difrocht 1% at le tabhairt faoi deara i gcs na ndalta
a bhaineann leis na grpa canna cumais sa Bharla.
Cairt 154 Catadin na leama T2 de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 155 lirtear go bhfuil baint lag dhiltach ag cumas ard acadil le catadin na leama
mchu sa Bharla ach nach bhfuil mrn tionchair aige sa Ghaeilge.
Cairt 155 Catadin na leama mchu de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 156 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag sid na leama T2 leis an gcumas acadil i gcs leama
a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge sna 2000te. Is ard 6.2% ar chatadn leama na trimhse seo at
idir an grpa seal (Aicme 1) agus an grpa an-ard (Aicme 4). Is sli 4.3% agus 1.9% at ar na
leama T2 a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge roimh na 1990 agus sna 1990, faoi seach, at le sonr idir
na grpa canna.
152
7.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 156 Catadin na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge de rir trimhse agus cumais acadil.
7.2 Deilbhocht
Plimid anseo an bhaint at ag an gcumas acadil le deilbhocht na Gaeilge agus an Bharla de rir
chim chomparideach.
I gCairt 157 lirtear go dtagann laghd ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha (as bonn-tacar iomln
na leama T1 agus T2) dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa d theanga de rir mar a thagann ard ar
chumas acadil na bpist. Lironn na lnte treochta laghd at beagn nos suntasa sa Bharla
n sa Ghaeilge.
Cairt 157 Catadin na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra de rir cumais acadil.
An briathar mrialta
I gCairt 158 lirtear an bhaint at ag catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu de na briathra mrialta le
cumas acadil na bpist. Imronn an cumas acadil tionchar nos soilire ar ghnthachtil na
ndalta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge sa rimse deilbhochta seo. T nos m foirmeacha cu sa Ghaeilge
153
7. Cumas acadil
n ina gcuid Barla ag na dalta at nos sle go hacadil agus nos m foirmeacha cu sa Bharla n
ina gcuid Gaeilge ag na dalta at nos airde thaobh an chumais acadil de.
Cairt 158 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu sna briathra mrialta de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 159 lirtear go bhfuil baint shoilir ag cumas acadil le catadin sheachfhoirmeacha
na n-aidiachta sa bhreischim a raibh ar a laghad cig shampla ag gach piste dobh. T tionchar
nos soilire le sonr ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla. Tugtar laghd
suaithinseach faoi deara ar an difrocht idir catadin na seachfhoirmeacha sa Ghaeilge 38.3%
ag dalta at seal go 26% ag dalta at an-ard thaobh an chumais acadil de.
Cairt 159 Catadin na seachfhoirmeacha daidiachta sa bhreischim de rir cumais acadil.
7.2.2 Comhchlaonadh
San fhochaibidil seo plimid rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n athr i dtreo an
Bharla le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil bonn sch mr sampla ionadaocha againn dobh le liri a
An t-ainmfhocal
Nl ceangal soilir idir cumas acadil na ndalta agus lon na leama iolra mchu a bhaineann
le hathruithe foghraochta i ndeilbhocht na Gaeilge, m.sh. caol i bhfocal mar cnoca ~ cnoca
(< cnoic).
154
7.2 Deilbhocht
I gCairt 160 lirtear go bhfuil gaol diltach ag cumas ard acadil le feidhmi bhuntuiseal
an ainmfhocail i suomh an ghinidigh uatha. Is bhar spise an catadn ard sampla at sa
bhuntuiseal ag an dream is sle thaobh cumais acadil de.
Cairt 160 Catadin an bhuntuisil i suomh an ghinidigh uatha de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 161 lirtear go bhfuil ceangal idir cumas ard acadil agus feidhmi uimhir uatha an
ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla.
Cairt 161 Catadin duimhir uatha cu an ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla de rir cumais acadil.
An briathar
Nl baint ag cumas acadil na bpist le rimni cu na mbriathra ach t baint shoilir aige le foirm
thite na mbriathra sa chad agus dara pearsa sa mhodh coinnollach. Is iad na dalta is cumasa
thaobh acadlachta de is m a chuireann leaganacha tite na mbriathra i bhfeidhm (Cairt 162).
155
7. Cumas acadil
Cairt 162 Catadin na bhfoirmeacha tite sa mhodh coinnollach de rir cumais acadil.
An ramhfhocal
I gCairt 163 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag scaradh mchu an ramhfhocail n alt le cumas seal acadil
na bpist. C nach bhfuil liri soilir sa chuar, t claonadh ginearlta i dtreo an chumais aird i
measc na bpist thaobh chur i bhfeidhm na bhfoirmeacha cu.
Cairt 163 Catadin de leaganacha cu an ramhfhocail leis an alt de rir cumais acadil.
Nl baint shoilir ag cumas acadil na bpist le scaradh an fhorainm n ramhfhocal.

I gCairt 164 lirtear sa chuar ar sid na mre briathartha nor go bhfuil nos m foirmeacha cu
ag na dalta is cumasa.
156
7.3 Comhrir
Cairt 164 Catadin fhoirmeacha cu na mre briathartha nor de rir cumais acadil.

Nor lirigh an anails gaol soilir a bheith idir an cumas acadil agus gnithe de dheilbhocht na
Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil r ndthain sampla ionadaocha
againn dobh sa chorpas le liri a thabhairt ar an athr.
7.3 Comhrir
San fhochaibidil seo, de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.3, plimid an bhaint at ag an gcumas
acadil le comhrir an d theanga.
Is gn theangeolaochta agslacht na gceisteanna sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla, inar fidir comparid

dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga, bunaithe ar lon sampla ionadaocha na ndalta.
agslacht ceisteanna
I gCairt 165 lirtear go bhfuil gaol dearfach lag idir cumas acadil na ndalta agus agslacht na
gceisteanna a bh acu sa Bharla agus sa Ghaeilge. Is lir gur airde catadin na hagslachta sa
Bharla. Lirigh na dalta in Aicm 2 agus 3 catadin agslacht ceisteanna a bh gar d chile sa
Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. Lirigh na dalta is sle thaobh an chumais acadil de 26.1% nos m
agslachta sa Bharla agus lirigh na dalta is airde 16.5% nos m agslachta sa Bharla.
Cairt 165 Catadin agslacht na gceisteanna de rir cumais acadil.
157
7. Cumas acadil
7.3.2 Comhchlaonadh
Ainm briathartha agus cuspir i bhfochlsal

I lne threochta Chairt 166 lirtear ard beag i dtreo an ardchumais i gcs sid chu an
ainmfhocail at i gcuspir le hainm briathartha i bhfochlsal (m.sh. i leagan mar an carr a chur).
T lne threochta nos cothroime le tabhairt faoi deara i gcs na ranng cumais maidir le feidhm
chuspireach an fhorainm leis an ainm briathartha i bhfochlsal (m.sh. i leagan mar a chur).
Cairt 166 Catadin de chomhrir chu an ainm bhriathartha chuspirigh de rir cumais acadil.

choibhneasta indrigh thraidisinta. Nl caidreamh suaithinseach idir cumas acadil agus lon
sampla mchu an chlsail choibhneasta dhrigh, ach t cinel an chlsail mhchu ag freagairt do
chumas acadil: an mhr go in Aicme 1; an fhoirm choibhneasta indreach go hirithe in Aicme 4.
Cairt 167 Lon menach an chlsail choibhneasta dhrigh mhchu de rir cumais acadil.
T gns rasnta cobhsa sa chorpas maidir leis an struchtr ginideach cinnte de rir cumais acadil i
measc na ndalta ach gan baint shoilir a bheith ag rimse an chumais le cur i bhfeidhm an struchtir
seo. Nl aon bhaint ag cumas acadil le hsid an ghinidigh ramhfhoclaigh ach an oiread.
158
7.4 Simeantaic

I gCairt 168 lirtear go bhfuil baint ag sid an fhorainm choibhneasta that i gcomhthacs
roghnach sa Bharla le cumas acadil na bpist. T ard sa lne threochta agus is iad na dalta sa
d aicme is cumasa is m a fheidhmonn an trith seo.
Cairt 168 Lon menach chlsail choibhneasta an Bharla le that roghnach de rir cumais acadil.


Is deacair ttal a bhaint as an gcuar aimhrialta a bhaineann le cumas acadil na bpist agus lon
na sampla mchu comhfhreagrachta idir uimhir an fhorainm agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d
sa Ghaeilge; agus d bhr sin n lirtear an cuar seo i gcairt anseo.
Nl gaol soilir idir cumas acadil na bpist agus easpa comhfhreagrachta uimhr idir an briathar
agus an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla.
7.4 Simeantaic
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an gaol at idir cumas acadil na bpist agus simeantaic an d
theanga de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.4.

simeantaic an Bharla.
I gCairt 169 lirtear lon na ramhfhocal d bhfuil seach-leaganacha suntasacha tugtha faoi deara
i dtaifeadta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir chumas acadil na bpist. Lironn lnte treochta
na gcuar go dtagann ard sa Ghaeilge ar lon menach na sampla mchu de rir chumas acadil
na bpist.
159
7. Cumas acadil
Cairt 169 Lon menach sheach-leaganacha na ramhfhocal de rir cumais acadil.
7.4.2 Comhchlaonadh
na rims simeantaice a bhfuil r ndthain sampla againn dobh ar fil sa chorpas le liri
ionadaoch a thabhairt ar an athr sa rimse teangeolaochta seo.
T sampla dsid breathnaigh agus faigh ina mbriathra cnta ag na dalta. I gCairt 170 lirtear
go dtagann treisi ar fheidhm an bhriathair chnta faigh leis an gcumas acadil. Tagann laghd ar
fheidhm an bhriathair chnta breathnaigh de rir a chumasa agus at na dalta.
Cairt 170 Lon menach na mbriathra cnta breathnaigh agus faigh de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 171 n lirtear gaol soilir a bheith idir an timchaint fhistineach le goil agus cumas
acadil na bpist c go bhfuil titim sa lne threochta i dtreo an chumais aird.
160
7.5 Pragmataic
Cairt 171 Lon menach na sampla de thimchaint fhistineach le goil de rir cumais acadil.
7.5 Pragmataic
Breathnamid ar phragmataic an d theanga thaobh chumas acadil na bpist de de rir leagan
amach na Fochaibidle 4.5.
Dantar anails chomparideach ar thionchar an chumais acadil ar sid na bhfocal pragmataice,

n marcir dioscrsa, agus ar sid na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga.
Marcir dioscrsa
I gCairt 172 lirtear go bhfuil gaol dearfach ag agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr
Gaeilge agus go bhfuil gaol diltach ag agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Barla le
cumas acadil na bpist.
Cairt 172 agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa d theanga de rir cumais acadil.
I gCairt 173 lirtear baint shoilir dhearfach a bheith ag catadin agslacht na marcir
dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge le cumas acadil na bpist.
161
7. Cumas acadil
Cairt 173 Catadin agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge de rir cumais acadil.
Na focail yeah, yes agus yep

I gCairt 174 lirtear nach bhfuil caidreamh soilir idir cumas acadil na ndalta agus lon na
bhfocal dearbhaithe yeah, yes agus yep i bhfreagra agus mar dheimhnichn sa Ghaeilge agus sa
Bharla.
Cairt 174 Lon menach na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga de rir cumais acadil.

N imronn cumas acadil na bpist tionchar suaithinseach ar chras traidisinta na bhfreagra sa
Ghaeilge (fach 2.5.3).
7.6 Lofacht
San fhochaibidil seo danaimid anails ar an mbaint at ag cumas acadil na bpist le lofacht sa
I gCairt 175 lirtear go dtagann ard ar lon na bhfocal a dirt na pist i nimad reacaireachta
sa d theanga de rir ard ar chumas acadil na ndalta.
162
7.6 Lofacht / 7.7 Foghraocht
Cairt 175 Lon menach na bhfocal i nimad reacaireachta de rir cumais acadil.
Nl baint shoilir ag cumas acadil na bpist le lon na dtrithe mlofachta sa d theanga.
I gCairt 176 lirtear lon na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir
chumas acadil na bpist. Lironn an cuar Gaeilge agus lne threochta an chuair sli beag sa
Ghaeilge.
Cairt 176 Lon menach na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir cumais acadil.
7.7 Foghraocht
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar an mbaint at ag cumas acadil na bpist leis na fuaimeanna a
dtagraonn an litir r dibh mar a raltar iad i nimad reacaireachta Gaeilge na bpist (fach
Fochaibidil 2.7). I ngeall ar aimhrialtacht na gcuar, lirtear i gCairt 177 nach bhfuil baint shoilir
ag cumas acadil na bpist le cinelacha na bhfuaimeanna r sa Ghaeilge.
163
7. Cumas acadil
Cairt 177 Lon menach chinelacha na bhfoghar r de rir chumas acadil na bpist.
7.8 Inscne
Nl gaol soilir idir inscne na bhforainmneacha pearsanta in abairt copaileacha a thosaonn ar
leagan igin den fhorainm taispentach seo n sin agus cumas acadil na bpist.
San fhochaibidil seo lirtear an gaol at idir cumas acadil agus catadin na sampla cu den
chlaochl tosaigh (fach Fochaibidil 2.9). Sa lne threochta i gCairt 178 sonratear ard ar
chatadin na sampla cu de rir chumas acadil na ndalta.
Cairt 178 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh cu de rir cumais acadil.
7.10 Achoimre
Sa chaibidil seo pladh impleachta teangeolaochta an chaidrimh at idir cumas acadil na
gcainteoir ar limh amhin agus, ar an limh eile de, a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla.
Iarradh ar an minteoir tuairim a thabhairt i leith chumas ginearlta acadil an dalta de rir scla
ardaithigh cig phointe. Tugadh an d aicme ab sle le chile don anails seo, toisc a laghad dalta
a bheith iontu, agus rangaodh na dalta i gceithre aicme: Aicme 14 n gcumas is sle (1) go dt an
cumas is airde (4). Is catadin na ballraochta sna hAicm seo: Aicme 1 = 16%; Aicme 2 = 30%;
Aicme 3 = 28%; Aicme 4 = 26%.
Is cosil go bhfuil gaol dearfach idir cumas ard acadil agus lon ard leama sa Ghaeilge. T
caidreamh an chumais acadil nos suaithins sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla i gcs chatadin na
leama T2 a chuireann na dalta i bhfeidhm sna hagallaimh. T gaol idir sid na leama T2 agus
164
7.8 Inscne / 7.9 An claochl tosaigh / 7.10 Achoimre
an cumas acadil i gcs leama a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge sna 2000te. Is ard 6.2% ar chatadn
leama na trimhse seo at idir Aicme 1 agus Aicme 4.
T dealramh air go dtagann laghd ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir

iolra sa d theanga de rir ard ar chumas acadil na bpist. Faightear liri ar an mbaint at
ag catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu de na briathra mrialta le cumas acadil na bpist. Imronn
an cumas acadil tionchar nos soilire ar ghnthachtil na ndalta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge sa
rimse deilbhochta seo. Tugtar laghd suaithinseach faoi deara ar an difrocht idir catadin
sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta sa bhreischim sa Ghaeilge 38.3% ag dalta Aicme 1 go 26%
ag dalta Aicme 4.
Faightear liri ar an gceangal idir cumas ard acadil agus feidhmi uimhir uatha an ainmfhocail
i ndiaidh c mhad agus cupla. thaobh an bhriathair de, is iad na dalta is cumasa thaobh
acadlachta de is m a chuireann leaganacha tite na mbriathra sa mhodh coinnollach i bhfeidhm.
Tagann ard sa Ghaeilge ar chatadin na sampla cu i gcs an ramhfhocail roimh an alt de rir
chumas acadil na bpist.
Tagann treisi agobhsa ar fheidhm an bhriathair chnta faigh leis an gcumas acadil. Tagann
laghd ar fheidhm an bhriathair chnta breathnaigh de rir an chumais aird.
Ba ag an dream at in Aicme 2 thaobh an chumais acadil de a fuarthas an catadn ba mh focal

pragmataice T2 sa Ghaeilge. C is moite den ttal seo, taispenann an anails chomparideach nach
lirtear go n-imronn cumas acadil mrn tionchair ar rimse teangeolaochta seo na marcir
dioscrsa.
Lirodh san anails ar chrsa lofachta nach bhfuil baint shoilir lidir ag cumas acadil na bpist
le lon na dtrithe lofachta agus mlofachta sa d theanga.
Sonraodh san anails ar na claochluithe tosaigh go bhfuil gaol dearfach idir cumas ard acadil
agus raladh cu an chlaochlaithe.
Lirodh san anails seo nach bhfuil mrn tionchair ag cumas acadil na ndalta ar an ngnthachtil
a bh acu i mrchuid na dtscair agsla teanga sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. T tionchar irithe
liri i gcs:
lon na leama sa chomhr Gaeilge
lon na leama T2 i measc dalta ag a bhfuil cumas seal acadil
laghd ar sheachfhoirmeacha an ainmfhocail iolra i gcs dalta ag a bhfuil cumas ard acadil
catadin na bhfoirmeacha cu de na briathra mrialta
catadin sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta sa bhreischim
catadin an tsimhithe ar thschonsan aidiachta faoi rir an ainmfhocail bhaininscnigh.
Lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide (is sin na tscair ar

fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh eatarthu sa d theanga) leis an tscaire socheolaochta
Cumas Acadil i dTbla 29 san ord inar pladh iad sa chaibidil seo. Tugtar cur sos ar lidreacht
an chomhghaoil bunaithe ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at liostaithe in Aguisn E.17*
Mar a mnodh i bhFochaibidil 5.10, faightear comhifeacht chomhghaolchin idir a nid agus 0.6 sna
comhghaolchin idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus na tscair socheolaochta. Is fidir lipid chilochtla a
thabhairt ar na luachanna ar mhaithe le soilireacht. Fgtar an bosca folamh m t an luach idir a nid agus 0.1 agus
tugtar an-seal ar luach idir 0.101 agus 0.2, seal ar luach idir 0.201 agus 0.3, measartha ar luach idir 0.301 agus
0.4, ard ar luach idir 0.401 agus 0.5 agus an-ard ar luach idir 0.501 agus 0.6. Cuirtear diltach ar an lipad freisin
m thagraonn s do luach at diltach.
17*
165
7. Cumas acadil
Scthatear i dTbla 29 sna colin Gaeilge le Cumas agus Barla le Cumas na bosca a lironn
an luach is m (dearfach n diltach). N scthatear bosca m t cothromaocht (dhearfach n
dhiltach) idir an d theanga.
Rimse
Foclir
Tscaire
Gaeilge le Cumas
Barla le Cumas
Lon leama
seal
Ainm iolra
seal
agslacht ceisteanna
an-seal
seal
Leama T1
Leama cu
Deilbhocht Briathar mrialta
Comhrir
Simeantaic Ramhfhocal
Pragmataic
Lofacht

yeah, yes, yep
Lofacht lon focal

Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
an-seal
seal
an-seal diltach
an-seal
seal
measartha
seal
ard
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
seal
an-seal
Tbla 29 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide le cumas

acadil.
T gaol nos lidre idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus cumas acadil na gcainteoir i gcs tr
thscaire sa Ghaeilge agus i gcs seacht dtscaire sa Bharla. Is gaol malartach a lironn agslacht
na marcir dioscrsa agus is gaol cothrom at le feiceil i gcs na ramhfhocal.
I dTbla 30 lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta, nach fidir comparid

dhreach a dhanamh eatarthu sa d theanga, le cumas acadil na bpist. Baintear feidhm as an
gcras lipadaithe canna at mnithe do Thbla 29. T dath gorm ar na tscair a irodh sa scril
iomln agus dath uaine ar na tscair nr irodh in aon scril.
166
7.10 Achoimre
Tscaire
Teanga
Teanga (G n B) le Cumas
Marciri dioscrsa T1
ard
seal
Inscne forainm
Foghraocht r-anna
Iolra ainmfhocal
Rimni briathair
Briathar tite
Ginideach Gaeilge

c mhad + uatha
Ainm briathartha cuspireach

forainmneach
Ginideach cinnte
Coibhneasta that
Uimhir forainm
faigh
breathnaigh
ag goil ag
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
B
G
B
G
G
G
G
seal
seal
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal diltach
an-seal
an-seal diltach
an-seal
Tbla 30 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta le cumas acadil.
Eilers, R. E., Pearson, B. Z. agus Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (2006) Social Factors in Bilingual Development:
The Miami Experience, i Hoff, E. agus McCardle, P. (eag.) Childhood Bilingualism: Research on
Infancy through School Age. Multilingual Matters. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto. 2890.
Macleod, M., MacLeod, M., Thirkell, A. agus Coyle, D. 2014. Young Speakers Use of Gaelic in the
Primary Classroom: A Multi-perspectival Pilot Study. Le fil: http://www.soillse.ac.uk/
downloads/YoungSpeakers_Final.pdf (ceadaithe Iil 2014).
167
Taith theilifse agus

theicneolaocht na faisnise
Sa chaibidil seo drmid ar an gcaidreamh at idir an mid ama a tuairiscodh a chaitheann na

pist ag breathn ar an teilifs (.i. a dtaith ar theicneolaocht na faisnise go ginearlta, m.sh.
teilifs, romhair, X-box, Playstation, Wii, srl.) agus a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla
de rir leagan amach na comparide idir an d theanga i gCaibidil 4. Rangaodh taith theilifse
na gcainteoir ar scla cig chim de rir tuairisce n minteoir sa scoil a ghlac pirt sa suirbh.
Tagraonn uimhir ardaitheach an scla do dhalta a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go forannamh, go
hannamh, measartha minic, go minic agus go han-mhinic. T cim 1 folamh ar an scla mar nach
bhfuarthas aon dalta sa suirbh ar thuairiscigh an minteoir gur go forannamh a bhreathnaonn
s/s ar an teilifs. Lirtear dileadh thaith theilifse na bpist i dTbla 31.
Cim
Taith theilifse
Lon
forannamh
18
annamh
10
an-mhinic
measartha
minic
22
20
44
18
Tbla 31 Dileadh thaith theilifse na bpist.
Mar a dradh i gCaibidil 5, baineadh as an anails seo na tscair nach bhfuarthas sampla 70%
ar a laghad de na cainteoir dobh chun ionadaocht na sonra a chosaint san anails. Fach freisin
an pl i bhFochaibidil 9.3.
8.1 Foclir
Plimid anseo an gaol at idir taith na bpist ar an teilifs agus crsa foclra i gcs lon na leama
a chuir na dalta i bhfeidhm. T 43.8 nos m leama sa Ghaeilge ag na pist a bhreathnaonn ar an
teilifs go hannamh agus 6.4 nos m leama sa Bharla ag na pist a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs
go han-mhinic. I lnte treochta na gcuar i gCairt 179 lirtear ard sa Bharla agus sli sa Ghaeilge
ar lon na leama de rir mhid thaith na teilifse sa bhaile.
Cairt 179 Lon na leama sa d theanga de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
168
8.1 Foclir / 8.2 Deilbhocht
Lirtear sa chairt seo mar sin baint dhiltach a bheith ag ard i dtaith theilifse le lon na leama
sa chomhr Gaeilge i gcontrrthacht le baint bheag dhearfach a bheith ag ard i dtaith theilifse le
lon na leama sa chomhr Barla. Is cosil go gcuidonn taith ard theilifse le hacmhainn foclra
an Bharla de bheagn ach go mbaineann s den acmhainn foclra i gcs na Gaeilge ar bhealach
nos suaithins. Ach t aimhrialtacht shuaithinseach i gcuar an d theanga.
Is beag baint at ag taith na teilifse le catadn na leama T2 a chuir na pist i bhfeidhm sa d

theanga. Is ard de 0.9% sa d theanga leith ar leith at idir an grpa a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs
go hannamh agus an grpa a bhreathnaonn uirthi go han-mhinic.
I gCairt 180 lirtear go bhfuil baint lag dhearfach ag an taith ar an teilifs le catadin na leama
mchu sa Ghaeilge ach go bhfuil baint lag dhiltach ag an taith ar an teilifs le catadin na leama
mchu sa Bharla.
Cairt 180 Catadin de na leama mchu sa d theanga de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
Maidir le cinelacha na leama T2 sa Ghaeilge, feictear seasmhacht ghinearlta i gcatadin na

gcinelacha seo thaobh a dtrimhse iasachta de, c go dtagann athr orthu i measc na ndalta
a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go han-mhinic. Ina measc sid tagann ard beag ar chatadn na
leama T2 a thinig isteach sa Ghaeilge roimh na 1990 ach sli beag ar na leama T2 a thinig
isteach sna 1990 agus sna 2000te.
8.2 Deilbhocht
Plimid anseo an bhaint at ag an taith ar an teilifs le deilbhocht na Gaeilge agus an Bharla de

rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.2.
Is iad seo a leanas na ranganna inar fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir an d theanga: (1)
chim chomparideach.
I gCairt 181 lirtear go dtagann ard beag ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha (as bonn-tacar
iomln na leama T1 agus T2) dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thagann
ard ar thaith na teilifse i measc na bpist ach nach dtagann athr suaithinseach ar rta na
seachfhoirmeacha sa Bharla.
169
8. Taith theilifse agus theicneolaocht na faisnise
Cairt 181 Catadin de sheachfhoirmeacha an ainmfhocail san uimhir iolra de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
An briathar mrialta
Nl ard n sli suaithinseach ar chatadin na bhfoirmeacha cu sna briathra mrialta de rir mar
a thagann ard ar an taith theilifse i measc na bpist.
I gCairt 182 lirtear go bhfuil baint shoilir ag taith na teilifse le catadin sheachfhoirmeacha
na n-aidiachta i mbreischim na Gaeilge a raibh cig shampla ar a laghad ag gach piste dobh. T
gaol dearfach idir an taith ar an teilifs agus catadin na leaganacha mchu sa Ghaeilge c gur
beag ifeacht at ag an taith theilifse ar Bharla na gcainteoir sa rimse deilbhochta seo.
Cairt 182 Catadin de sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta sa bhreischim de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
8.2.2 Comhchlaonadh
San fhochaibidil seo plimid rims deilbhochta na Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n athr i dtreo an
Bharla le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil bonn sch mr sampla ionadaocha againn dobh le liri a
An t-ainmfhocal
Nl ceangal soilir idir taith na teilifse agus lon na leama iolra mchu a bhaineann le hathruithe
foghraochta i ndeilbhocht na Gaeilge, m.sh. caol i bhfocal mar cnoca ~ cnoca (< cnoic).
I gCairt 183 lirtear go bhfuil baint dhearfach ag mid na taith ar an teilifs le feidhmi bhuntuiseal
an ainmfhocail i suomh an ghinidigh uatha. T 21.3% nos m den bhuntuiseal sa suomh ginideach
ag na pist a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go han-mhinic n ag na pist a bhreathnaonn uirthi go
hannamh.
170
8.2 Deilbhocht
Cairt 183 Catadn an bhuntuisil i suomh an ghinidigh uatha de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
Nl ceangal soilir idir taith na teilifse agus feidhmi uimhir uatha an ainmfhocail i ndiaidh c
mhad agus cupla.
An briathar
I gCairt 184 lirtear go bhfuil gaol beag diltach idir taith theilifse na bpist agus rimni cu na
mbriathra. T 4.5% nos m foirmeacha cu ag na dalta a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go hannamh
n ag an ngrpa a bhreathnaonn uirthi go han-mhinic.
Cairt 184 Catadn rimni cu na mbriathra de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
An ramhfhocal
San fhianaise seo nl gaol soilir idir scaradh an ramhfhocail n alt agus taith na teilifse sa bhaile.
An forainm ramhfhoclach
San fhianaise seo nl gaol soilir idir scaradh an fhorainm ramhfhoclaigh agus taith na teilifse
sa bhaile.
Na mreanna briathartha
Tagann laghd ginearlta ar chuar chatadin na bhfoirmeacha cu den mhr bhriathartha nor de
rir mar a mhadaonn an taith theilifse (Cairt 185).
171
Cairt 185 Catadin fhoirmeacha cu na mre briathartha nor de rir na taith ar an teilifs.

Nor lirigh an anails baint shoilir a bheith ag an taith theilfse le gnithe de dheilbhocht na
Gaeilge a bhfuil simpli n laghd le sonr iontu agus a bhfuil r ndthain sampla ionadaocha
againn dobh sa chorpas le liri a thabhairt ar an athr.
8.3 Comhrir
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an gaol at idir an taith theilifse agus comhrir na Gaeilge agus an
agslacht ceisteanna
Is gn theangeolaochta agslacht na gceisteanna sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla inar fidir
comparid dhreach, bunaithe ar lon sampla ionadaocha na ndalta, a dhanamh eatarthu sa d
theanga.
Nl gaol suaithinseach idir an taith theilfse agus agslacht na gceisteanna sa d theanga. De rir
mar a thagann ard ar an taith theilfse, t an lne threochta ag sl de bheagn sa Bharla agus t
ard beag uirthi sa Ghaeilge.
8.3.2 Comhchlaonadh
Ainm briathartha agus cuspir i bhfochlsal

I gCairt 186 lirtear go dtagann ard ar chatadin na sampla cu de chuspir an ainm bhriathartha
i bhfochlsal sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thagann ard ar an taith theilifse. T an t-ard canna
le sonr ar na lnte treochta bodh ainmfhocal n forainm pearsanta ina gcuspir ag an ainm
briathartha i bhfochlsal.
172
8.3 Comhrir
Cairt 186 Catadin na gcuspir cu leis an ainm briathartha i bhfochlsal de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
T an treocht dhearfach anseo in aghaidh thortha ginearlta na faisnise a bhaineann leis an taith
theilifse, ach comhthreomhar le roinnt tortha eile comhrire.

choibhneasta indrigh thraidisinta. Is i measc na ndalta a bhreathnaonn go hannamh ar an
teilifs a fhaightear an lon menach is m de na seachfhoirmeacha.
Cairt 187 Lon menach an chlsail choibhneasta dhrigh mhchu de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
T gns rasnta cobhsa sa chorpas maidir leis an struchtr ginideach cinnte de rir thaith na
teilifse i measc na bpist.
I gCairt 188 sonratear sli beag ar chatadin na sampla cu sa suomh ginideach de rir thaith
na teilifse i measc na bpist. Is an ginideach ramhfhoclach a thagann in it an ghinidigh chu is
cis leis an sli ar thaobh na limhe deise den chairt.
173
Cairt 188 Catadn struchtr cu an ghinidigh de rir na taith ar an teilifs.

N shonratear aon ghaol soilir sa chorpas seo a bheith idir feidhm an fhorainm choibhneasta that
i gcomhthacs roghnach sa Bharla agus taith na teilifse sa bhaile.

N bhfuarthas aon bhaint shoilir ag comhfhreagracht uimhreach sa Ghaeilge le taith theilifse na
gcainteoir.
Faightear nos l leaganacha cu de chomhfhreagracht uimhreach idir an briathar agus an t-ainmn
a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla i measc na ndalta is minice a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs sa bhaile.
8.4 Simeantaic
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an gaol at idir an taith theilifse agus simeantaic na Gaeilge agus an
As na rims simeantaice a cuireadh faoi anails i gCaibidil 2 agus 3, is i rimse sid na ramhfhocal
amhin is fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh idir simeantaic na Gaeilge agus an Bharla.
An ramhfhocal
I gCairt 189 lirtear lon menach na ramhfhocal d bhfuil seach-leaganacha suntasacha tugtha
faoi deara i dtaifeadta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir taith ar an teilifs i measc na bpist.
Tugann lnte treochta na gcuar le fios go dtagann ard beag sa Ghaeilge agus sli beag sa Bharla
ar lon na seach-leaganacha de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
174
8.4 Simeantaic / 8.5 Pragmataic
Cairt 189 Lon menach seach-leaganacha na ramhfhocal de rir taith ar an teilifs.
8.4.2 Comhchlaonadh
na rims simeantaice a bhfuil r ndthain sampla againn dobh le liri ionadaoch a thabhairt
T sampla dsid breathnaigh agus faigh ina mbriathra cnta ag na dalta. Lirtear i gCairt 190
nach bhfuil baint shoilir ag feidhm an bhriathair chnta faigh leis an taith ar an teilifs. Tagann
ard ar fheidhm an bhriathair chnta breathnaigh leis an taith seo.
Cairt 190 Lon menach na mbriathra cnta breathnaigh agus faigh de rir taith ar an teilifs.
Nl gaol soilir idir sid na timchainte fistin le goil agus taith na bpist ar an teilifs.
8.5 Pragmataic
Breathnamid ar phragmataic an d theanga de rir thaith na bpist ar an teilifs san fhochaibidil

seo de rir leagan amach na Fochaibidle 4.5.
Dantar anails chomparideach ar thionchar na teilifse ar sid na bhfocal pragmataice, n

marcir dioscrsa, agus ar sid na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga.
175
Marcir dioscrsa
I gCairt 191 lirtear go bhfuil baint dhearfach ag agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr
Barla agus go bhfuil baint dhiltach ag agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge
le taith mhinic theilifse na bpist.
Cairt 191 agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa d theanga de rir taith ar an teilifs.
I gCairt 192 lirtear go bhfuil baint dhiltach ag an taith theilifse le catadin agslacht na
marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge.
Cairt 192 Catadin agslacht na marciri dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge de rir taith ar an teilifs.

Is beag tionchar a imronn an teilifs ar lon menach na bhfocal dearbhaithe yeah, yes, yep i
bhfreagra agus mar dheimhnichn sa Ghaeilge agus sli beag a lironn lne threochta chuar an
Bharla (Cairt 193).
Cairt 193 Lon menach na bhfocal yeah, yes agus yep sa d theanga de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
176
8.6 Lofacht / 8.7 Foghraocht / 8.8 Inscne

N imronn taith na teilifse tionchar ar chras traidisinta na bhfreagra sa Ghaeilge.
8.6 Lofacht
San fhochaibidil seo danaimid anails ar an mbaint at ag taith na bpist ar an teilifs le lofacht sa
Is beag tionchar at ag an teilifs ar lon na bhfocal, c gur ard beag i gcs na Gaeilge agus sli
beag i gcs an Bharla a lironn lnte treochta na faisnise.
Nl baint shoilir ag taith na teilifse le lon na dtrithe mlofachta sa d theanga.
I gCairt 194 lirtear lon na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal de rir thaith theilifse
na bpist. Lironn na lnte treochta ard sa Ghaeilge agus sli beag sa Bharla.
Cairt 194 Lon na riteas i leith cumais agus moill tirgthe focal sa d theanga de rir taith ar an teilifs.
8.7 Foghraocht
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar an mbaint at ag taith na bpist ar an teilifs leis na fuaimeanna
a dtagraonn an litir r dibh mar a raltar iad i gcomhr Gaeilge na bpist (fach Fochaibidil 2.7).
Nl baint shoilir ag taith na bpist ar an teilifs leis na cinelacha fuaimeanna a dtagraonn an
litir r dibh sa Ghaeilge.
8.8 Inscne
San fhochaibidil seo drmid ar an mbaint at ag taith na bpist ar an teilifs le hinscne

na bhforainmneacha pearsanta in abairt copaile a thosaonn ar leagan igin den fhorainm
taispentach seo n sin .i. siod/seo/sin an ... n siod/seo/sin an ... (fach Fochaibidil 2.8). I gCairt
195 lirtear sli beag catdnach i gcs na sampla cu i lne threochta an chuair.
177
Cairt 195 Catadin na sampla cu dinscne in abairt copaile sa Ghaeilge de rir taith ar an teilifs.

San fhochaibidil seo plimid an bhaint at ag taith na teilifse le catadin na sampla cu den
chlaochl tosaigh (fach Fochaibidil 2.9). T aimhrialtacht le sonr sa chuar ach i gCairt 196
lirtear sli beag catadnach sa lne threochta de rir thaith mhinic na teilifse i measc na
gcainteoir ga.
Cairt 196 Catadin na gclaochluithe tosaigh de rir taith ar an teilifs.
8.10 Achoimre
Sa chaibidil seo pladh impleachta teangeolaochta an chaidrimh at idir an mid ama a tuairiscodh
a chaitheann na dalta ag breathn ar an teilifs agus ag pl le fearais na nuatheicneolaochta go
ginearlta ar limh amhin agus, ar an limh eile de, a ngnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla.
Rinne na minteoir rang ar thaith theilifse na ndalta ar scla ardaitheach ama Aicme 1
(forannamh) go hAicme 5 (an-mhinic): Aicme 1 = 0%; Aicme 2 = 20%; Aicme 3 = 44%; Aicme 4 =
18%; Aicme 5 = 18%.
C go bhfuil aimhrialtacht sna cuair, is cosil go gcuidonn taith ard theilifse le hacmhainn foclra
an Bharla de bheagn ach go mbaineann s den acmhainn foclra i gcs na Gaeilge ar bhealach nos
suaithins. T 43.8 nos m leama sa Ghaeilge ag na dalta a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go hannamh
agus 6.4 nos m leama sa Bharla ag na pist a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go han-mhinic.
Lirodh san anails go dtagann ard ar chatadin na seachfhoirmeacha (as bonn-tacar
iomln na leama T1 agus T2) dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa Ghaeilge agus ar chatadin
sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta i mbreischim na Gaeilge de rir mar a thagann ard ar thaith
178
8.9 An claochl tosaigh / 8.10 Achoimre
na teilifse i measc na bpist ach nach dtagann athr suaithinseach ar rta na seachfhoirmeacha
sa Bharla.
Lirodh go dtagann ard ar chatadin na sampla cu de chuspir an ainm bhriathartha i
bhfochlsal sa Ghaeilge de rir mar a thagann ard ar an taith theilifse. T an treocht dhearfach
seo ag teacht salach ar thortha ginearlta na faisnise a bhaineann leis an taith theilifse, ach t s
comhthreomhar le roinnt tortha eile i rimse na comhrire. Is i measc na ndalta a bhreathnaonn
go hannamh ar an teilifs a fhaightear an lon is m de na sampla mchu den chlsal coibhneasta
dreach.
Lirodh gaol dearfach idir taith mhinic theilifse agus feidhmi bhuntuiseal an ainmfhocail
i suomh an ghinidigh uatha. Tuairiscodh go raibh 21.3% nos m den bhuntuiseal sa suomh
ginideach ag na pist a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs go han-mhinic n ag na pist a bhreathnaonn
uirthi go hannamh.
T 4.5% nos m foirmeacha cu de rimni na mbriathra ag na dalta a bhreathnaonn ar an teilifs

go hannamh n ag an ngrpa a bhreathnaonn uirthi go han-mhinic. Tagann laghd ginearlta ar
chuar chatadin na bhfoirmeacha cu den mhr bhriathartha nor de rir mar a thann an taith
theilifse in airde.
Tuairiscodh go raibh nos l leaganacha cu de chomhfhreagracht uimhreach idir an briathar agus
an t-ainmn a dtagraonn s d sa Bharla i measc na ndalta is minice a bhreathnaonn ar an
teilifs.
Lirodh go dtagann ard beag sa Ghaeilge agus sli beag sa Bharla ar lon na sampla
seachfhoirmeacha de na ramhfhocail de rir na taith ar an teilifs.
Fuarthas fianaise ar sli beag catdnach i gcs na sampla cu a bhaineann le hinscne na

bhforainmneacha pearsanta in abairt copaileacha de rir taith ar an teilifs.
Lirodh san anails seo go bhfuil tionchar rasnta lag ag taith theilifse na ndalta ar an
ngnthachtil a bh acu sna tscair agsla teanga sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla. T an tionchar sin
liri sna tscair seo a leanas:
tionchar dearfach ar fhoclir an Bharla
tionchar dearfach ar shampla cu de chuspir an ainm bhriathartha sa Ghaeilge

tionchar diltach ar fhoclir na Gaeilge
lon na seachfhoirmeacha dainmfhocail san uimhir iolra sa Ghaeilge agus catadin

sheachfhoirmeacha na n-aidiachta i mbreischim na Gaeilge
feidhmi bhuntuiseal an ainmfhocail i suomh an ghinidigh uatha sa Ghaeilge
tionchar beag diltach ar fhoirmeacha cu de rimni na mbriathra
tionchar maidir le nos l leaganacha cu de chomhfhreagracht uimhreach idir an briathar

agus an t-ainmn sa Bharla
seach-leaganacha de na ramhfhocail sa Ghaeilge
tionchar beag diltach i gcs na sampla cu a bhaineann le hinscne na bhforainmneacha

pearsanta in abairt copaileacha Gaeilge
tionchar diltach maidir le catadin raladh an tsimhithe ar thschonsan focail.
Lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide (is sin na tscair ar

fidir comparid dhreach a dhanamh eatarthu sa d theanga) leis an tscaire socheolaochta
179
Taith Theilifse i dTbla 32 san ord inar pladh iad sa chaibidil seo. Tugtar cur sos ar lidreacht
an chomhghaoil bunaithe ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at in Aguisn E.18* Scthatear
sa tbla thos sna colin Gaeilge le Teilifs agus Barla le Teilifs na bosca a lironn an luach is
m (dearfach n diltach). N scthatear bosca m t cothromaocht (dhearfach n dhiltach) idir
an d theanga.
Rimse
Foclir
Deilbhocht
Comhrir
Simeantaic
Pragmataic
Lofacht
Tscaire
Gaeilge le Teilifs
Barla le Teilifs
Lon leama
an-seal diltach
an-seal
Ainm iolra
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
Leama T1
Leama cu
Briathar mrialta
agslacht ceisteanna
Ramhfhocal
yeah, yes, yep
Lofacht lon focal
Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
an-seal diltach
seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal
an-seal diltach
seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal
Tbla 32 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide le taith

theilifse.
T gaol nos lidre idir na tscair teangeolaochta agus taith theilifse na gcainteoir i gcs ceithre
thscaire sa Ghaeilge agus i gcs tr thscaire sa Bharla. Is gaol malartach at sa d theanga idir
na tscair teangeolaochta agus taith theilifse na bpist i gcs lon na leama agus gaol cothrom
at ann i gcs na leama cu, na n-aidiachta breischime agus na mlofachta.
I dTbla 33 lirtear achoimre ar ghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta, nach fidir comparid
dhreach a dhanamh eatarthu sa d theanga, le taith theilifse na bpist. Baintear feidhm as an
gcras lipadaithe canna at mnithe do Thbla 32 thuas. T dath gorm ar na tscair a irodh sa
scril iomln agus dath uaine ar na tscair nr irodh in aon scril. Lironn an briathar cnta
breathnaigh an bhaint is lidre le taith theilifse na gcainteoir.
Faightear comhifeacht chomhghaolchin idir a nid agus 0.6 sna comhghaolchin idir na tscair teangeolaochta
agus na tscair socheolaochta. Is fidir lipid chilochtla a thabhairt ar na luachanna ar mhaithe le soilireacht.
Fgtar an bosca folamh m t an luach idir a nid agus 0.1 agus tugtar an-seal ar luach idir 0.101 agus 0.2, seal ar
luach idir 0.201 agus 0.3, measartha ar luach idir 0.301 agus 0.4, ard ar luach idir 0.401 agus 0.5 agus an-ard ar
luach idir 0.501 agus 0.6. Cuirtear diltach ar an lipad freisin m thagraonn s do luach at diltach.
18*
180
8.10 Achoimre
Tscaire
Teanga
Marciri dioscrsa T1
Inscne forainm
Foghraocht r-anna
Iolra ainmfhocal
Rimni briathair
Briathar tite
Ginideach Gaeilge
c mhad + uatha
Ginideach cinnte
Coibhneasta that
Uimhir forainm
faigh
breathnaigh
Teanga (G n B) le Teilifs
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal diltach
an-seal
an-seal
an-seal diltach
seal diltach
seal diltach
measartha diltach
an-seal diltach
Tbla 33 Achoimre ar an gcomhifeacht chomhghaolchin at ag na tscair teangeolaochta eile le taith theilifse.
bhar suntais lon na dtscair teangeolaochta i dTbla 32 agus 33 a lironn ifeacht

chomhghaolchin dhiltach le taith theilifse.
Dearfach
Diltach
Inchomparide
Neamhchomparid
Iomln
Gaeilge
Barla
Barla
Gaeilge
16
Tbla 34 ifeacht dhearfach agus dhiltach thaith na teilfse ar thscair teangeolaochta sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla.
Mar a lirtear i dTbla 34 is m gaol diltach n dearfach a lirtear sa d theanga ach is dilta i
bhfad cimheas dearfach : diltach na Gaeilge (3 : 16) n cimheas an Bharla (2 : 7).
181
Ferguson, C. agus Donnellan, B. M. (2014) Is the association between childrens baby video viewing
and poor language development robust? A reanalysis of Zimmerman, Christakis, and Meltzoff
(2007), Developmental Psychology 50, 1: 12937.
dYdewalle, G., agus Pavakanun, U. (1995) Acquisition of a second/foreign language by viewing a
television program, i Winterhoff-Spurk, P. (eag.), Psychology of media in Europe: The state of the
art perspectives for the future. Opladen, An Ghearmin: Westdeutscher Verlag. 5164.
Lemish, D. (2007) Children and Television; a Global perspective. Oxford: Blackwell.efuture (pp. 51--64).
Opladen, Germany:
182
Staitistic shochtheangeolaochta:
tscair teanga, scril chumais,
scrinnacs dtheangach agus
cimheas Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Sa chaibidil seo tarraingmid na codanna agsla den saothar iomln chun a chile, ag leibhal nos
ginearlta n mar a rinneamar go dt seo, tr scagadh staitistiil teangeolaochta agus socheolaochta.
Scagaimid na tscair agsla teangeolaochta agus na tscair agsla socheolaochta. Plimid an
coibhneas comhghaolchin at ag gnithe teangeolaochta le chile, sa d theanga leith ar leith,
agus sa d theanga i gcomparid le chile; agus drmid ach go hirithe ar thbhacht acmhainn
an fhoclra mar liri ginearlta ar an gcumas teangeolaochta. Ina dhiaidh sin, in anails lrnach
chonclideach, cuirimid scril chumais gach dalta sa d theanga i lthair, mar mhar eolais
achomair ar chumas ginearlta teanga gach dalta sa Ghaeilge agus ar an gcumas ginearlta sa
Bharla. Ansin, le scril chumais an Bharla a bhaint as scril chumais na Gaeilge, cuirimid
i lthair an scrinnacs dtheangach. Bainimid ttal maidir leis an gcumas dtheangach ina
iomline as an scrinnacs dtheangach. Ansin drmid ar an ngaol at idir gnithe socheolaochta
agus an cumas dtheangach arna liri sa scrinnacs dtheangach. Drmid go hirithe ar an
ngaol dearfach at idir an cimheas Gaeilgeoir sna scoileanna agus cumas dtheangach na ndalta
(a gcumas Gaeilge go sonrach). Tugaimid clabhsr ar thortha sochtheangeolaochta dshlnacha
an taighde i dts Chaibidil 10 (Fochaibidil 10.1 Buntiste an Bharla ar an nGaeilge).
9.1 Coibhneas na ngnithe teangeolaochta
Nuair a scrdatear comhghaol na dtscair teangeolaochta le chile, is lir a lrna agus at tscair
an fhoclra (Lon leama (x6) agus Leama T1 (x7), scthaithe i dTbla 35; fach freisin Leama cu
(x4)) mar largas ar chumas teangeolaochta na ndalta ina iomline. T, mar shampla, comhghaol
0.691 ag tscaire na haidiachta breischime leis an Lon leama a bh sa chorpas Gaeilge tr chile.
Tscaire Gaeilge
Tscaire Gaeilge
Comhghaol
Lon leama
0.691
Ainm iolra
0.566
%agslacht Marcir dioscrsa T1

Ainm iolra
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa

Ainm iolra
Leama cu

Leama cu
Ainm iolra
Lon leama
Lon leama
Leama cu
Leama T1
Lon leama
Lon leama
0.636
0.623
0.559
0.508
0.436
0.426
0.418
0.418
0.417
0.400
183
9. Staitistic shochtheangeolaochta: tscair teanga, scril chumais, scrinnacs dtheangach agus cimheas
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Tscaire Gaeilge
Tscaire Gaeilge
Comhghaol
Leama cu
0.384
Foghraocht r-anna
Leama T1
0.328
Foghraocht r-anna
Leama T1
Ainm iolra
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa T1

Briathar mrialta
Inscne forainm
Ainm iolra
Inscne forainm
Ramhfhocal cu
0.380
Lon leama
0.362
Leama T1
0.319
Leama T1
0.318
Leama T1
0.310
Riteas cumais
0.310
Leama T1
Ramhfhocal cu
agslacht ceisteanna
Tbla 35 Comhghaol suaithinseach na dtscair Gaeilge amhin le chile.
0.307
-0.328
-0.411
I dTbla 35 lirtear na comhghaolta suaithinseacha i measc na dtscair teangeolaochta Gaeilge

(agus iad gcur i gcomparid le chile). Is fi a lua gurb tscaire na Leama T1 an tscaire is
minice at le feiceil sa tbla. Sa lann idirnisinta, ar an aonteangachas agus ar an dtheangachas
araon, is minic gaol lidir liri idir cumas foclra agus cumas ginearlta teangeolaochta.
Tagann tortha an tsaothair seo againne leis an ttal irithe sin sa taighde idirnisinta agus t
impleachta tromchiseacha aige sin i bpobal mionteanga ina bhfuil cdmheascadh coitianta i
dtreo na mrtheanga.
Is l na comhghaolta suaithinseacha at i measc na dtscair Barla n mar at i measc na dtscair

Gaeilge mar is lir nuair a chuirimid Tbla 35 i gcomparid agus i gcontrrthacht le Tbla 36.
Bfhidir go bhfuil coibhneas idir gnthachtil nos airde a bheith sa Bharla chomh maith le
norm nos cothroime sa chumas Barla tr chile, bfhidir go bhfuil coibhneas idir sin agus laghad
coibhneasta na gcomhghaolta sa Bharla. Lon leama (x4) agus Leama cu (x3) an d thscaire is
coitianta sa tbla.
Tscaire Barla
Tscaire Barla
Comhghaol
Ainm iolra
Leama cu
0.740
Leama cu
Lon leama
0.424
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa Lon leama

Briathar mrialta
Ainm iolra
Briathar mrialta
Lofacht lon focal

Ramhfhocal cu
Ramhfhocal cu
Riteas cumais
Leama cu
Lon leama
Ainm iolra
Lon leama
agslacht ceisteanna
Leama cu
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa Lofacht lon focal

Mlofacht
Lofacht lon focal
Tbla 36 Comhghaol suaithinseach na dtscair Barla amhin le chile.
0.694
0.550
0.421
0.414
0.374
0.373
0.347
0.326
0.323
-0.378
I dTbla 37 lirtear na comhghaolta suaithinseacha i measc na dtscair Barla agus Gaeilge (ach
na tscair sa d theanga a chur i gcomparid le chile).
184
9.1 Coibhneas na ngnithe teangeolaochta
Tscaire Barla
Tscaire Gaeilge
Comhghaol
Leama cu
Ainm iolra
0.476
Leama cu
0.454
Leama cu
Lofacht lon focal

Ramhfhocal
Ainm iolra
Briathar mrialta
Lon leama
Ainm iolra
Briathar mrialta
agslacht ceisteanna
Ainm iolra
Lofacht lon focal

Lon leama
Lon leama
Leama cu
Lofacht lon focal
Riteas cumais
Ainm iolra
Lon leama
Inscne forainm
Riteas cumais
Mlofacht
Lon leama
Lofacht lon focal
0.467
0.454
0.440
0.439
0.435
0.420
0.402
0.364
0.358
0.358
0.354
0.337
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa 0.336

Leama T1
0.335
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa agslacht Marcir dioscrsa 0.322

Leama cu
Ainm iolra
Ainm iolra
Lofacht lon focal
Briathar mrialta
Lon leama
agslacht ceisteanna
Riteas cumais
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa Mlofacht
agslacht Marcir dioscrsa Riteas cumais

Lon leama
Riteas cumais
Tbla 37 Comhghaol suaithinseach na dtscair Gaeilge agus Barla le chile.
0.315
0.311
0.310
-0.302
-0.309
-0.371
-0.464
I dTbla 38 cuirtear i lthair na comhghaolta at idir na tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide sa

d theanga. T na comhghaolta seo bunaithe ar scril mhenach na ndalta sa d theanga (fach
an chad fhochaibidil eile thos, 9.2), is sin go bhfuil scril na gcomhghaol bun ar mhen
na scrla do na dalta ar fad. Sa choln ar dheis sa tbla t scth ar na comhghaolta at os cionn
0.3 n faoi bhun 0.3; nl ach ceithre thscaire i gceist: Lon na leama, Ainm iolra, Lofacht lon
na bhfocal agus agslacht na marcir dioscrsa T1. Is iad Lon na leama agus Lofacht lon na
bhfocal an t-aon d thscaire ina raibh scril mhenach nos airde sa Ghaeilge ag na dalta agus
is scril mhenach an Bharla a bh in uachtar sna tscair eile. C is moite de Lofacht lon na
bhfocal, lironn na comhghaolta seo gur fearr a ironn leis na dalta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge.
185
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Rimse
Foclir
Deilbhocht
Comhrir
Simeantaic
Lofacht
Pragmataic
Tscaire
Scril
Gaeilge
Barla
Comhghaol
Lon leama
66.0
65.8
0.420
Ainm iolra
88.3
94.1
0.439
Leama T1
Leama cu
Briathar mrialta
agslacht ceisteanna
Ramhfhocal
Lofacht lon focal

Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
agslacht marcir dioscrsa T1
91.4
97.6
70.5
55.1
53.4
98.0
62.3
81.9
98.0
15.2
99.3
99.1
74.3
0.024
0.242
0.285
85.0
-0.103
56.4
0.454
62.6
99.8
83.1
99.0
51.0
0.033
-0.010
0.069
0.188
0.322
Tbla 38 An scril mhenach agus a gcomhghaolta sna tscair teangeolaochta inchomparide sa d theanga.
I dTbla 39 lirtear tortha anailse staitistila ar an ngaol at idir na tscair teangeolaochta

inchomparide.19*
Tbla 39 T-thstil comparide pireilte na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide agus a neatraimh mhuinne
chomhfhreagracha.
I gcs gach tscaire ar leith, romhadh an difrocht idir an mensampla tortha sa Ghaeilge
agus an mensampla tortha sa Bharla (Gaeilge lide Barla), fuarthas eatramh muinne
do mhendifrocht lon an tsampla, agus romhadh P-luach do thstil na sainhipitise (gur
luach 0 (a nid) mendifrocht lon an tsampla). Lirtear san anails infeireach seo go bhfuil
an leibhal suntasachta breathnaithe (an P-luach), go bhfuil sin suntasach ag formhr na
bpir GaeilgeBarla le chile c is moite de Lon leama, Briathar mrialta agus Mlofacht.
I ngach pire GaeilgeBarla ag a bhfuil luach dchlachta suntasach, t gnthachtil na Gaeilge i
gcoibhneas nos sle leis an mBarla, c is moite de Lofacht lon focal. D bhr sin, tar is dinn dh
leath a dhanamh den P-luach le sigme dfhoircneach a thugtar sa tbla, t an bhearna chumais
idir an d theanga i gcs na dtscair seo liri ag dchlacht an-ard staitistiil.
Seasann an giorrchn DC do dhiall caighdenach na ndifrochta, agus seasann an giorrchn ECM dearrid
chaighdenach mheasta dhifrocht an mhensampla; eatramh = eatramh muinne i leith dhifrocht na men. Glactar
sa saothar seo go bhfuil suntasacht staitistiil ag baint le P-luach < 0.05.
19*
186
9.2 Scril chumais sa d theanga agus scrinnacs dtheangach

Bunaithe ar thrascrbhinn na n-agallamh leis na pist, anailsodh sa saothar seo cumas
teangeolaochta na bpist sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla faoi seach. Roghnaomar rims anailse
inchomparide sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla agus cuireadh cumas gach piste i gcomparid le chile
sna rims sin. I measn il-rimseach mar seo, lirodh sa tionscadal seo gur fidir le teanga
piste a bheith ceannasach i rimse ar leith teangeolaochta agus teanga eile an phiste a bheith
ceannasach i rimse eile. Le toradh na hanailse sna rims agsla teangeolaochta a shuimi
don d theanga faoi seach, is fidir cumas ginearlta an phiste i dteanga ar leith a thabhairt. San
fhochaibidil seo drmid i dtosach ar an scril a fuarthas sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla faoi seach.
Ina dhiaidh sin cuirfear toradh iomln teangeolaochta sa d theanga i gcomparid le chile do
gach piste ar leith agus d bhr sin dfhoghrpa, mar shampla, do gach aoisghrpa agus gach
gnas. Pist a bhfuil an scril sa d theanga i bhfoisceacht d chile acu, is fidir a mhaomh
gur cainteoir dtheangacha measartha cothrom iad. Pist nach bhfuil an scril gar d chile
acu sa d theanga, matear gur cainteoir dtheangacha agothroma iad. Pist a bhfuil scril an
Bharla cuid mhaith nos airde n scril na Gaeilge acu, matear go bhfuil siad ceannasach sa
Bharla (n go bhfuil an Barla ceannasach ina gcumas dtheangach). Bunaithe ar an anails sin,
measnfar scla cothroime / agothroime an dtheangachais, .i. an Scrinnacs Dtheangach,
rud a thabharfaidh le fios cn cheannasaocht at ag teanga amhin ar an teanga eile.
Le teacht ar scril chumais iomln don d theanga ar leith, rinneadh cainnocht mar ba chu ar na
tscair teangeolaochta (12 tscaire inchomparide; 4 thscaire neamhsplecha Gaeilge). Dfhonn
tortha dearfacha a thabhairt do na tscair ar fad, rinneadh inbhart ar luach tscair diltacha
nuair ba gh (.i. Leama T2, Leama mchu, Ainm iolra, Aidiacht bhreischime). Liostamid na 16
tscaire scrla i dTbla 40. Is ard at liri sna catagir aicmithe seo n:
Lon leama: An dalta ab airde lon leama T1, t an dalta sin ina bhonn don scla
catadnach, agus t na dalta eile ar fad gcur i gcomparid leis. D bhr sin, t 100% ag
an dalta is airde lon leama calabraithe i gceachtar den d theanga (sa chs seo 572 leama
calabraithe = 100%). Agus faigheann dalta eile scr catadnach mar chuid de 572. Sa
Ghaeilge aicmodh mar fhocail T1 don tscaire seo focail Ghaeilge agus seaniasachta a
tugadh isteach sa Ghaeilge roimh na 1990, m.sh. aicmodh iasacht mar bicycle in aon aicme
le leama T1 Gaeilge (don tscaire seo Lon leama).
Leama T1: Catadn inbhartaithe de lon na leama iasachta a chuir dalta ag obair as
lon iomln an dalta sin. D bhr sin dalta ag a bhfuil 10% dfhocail Bharla sa Ghaeilge
faigheann s 90% do Leama T1.
Leama cu: Catadn inbhartaithe de lon na leama mchu.
Ainm iolra: Catadn inbhartaithe de lon na leama iolra mchu.

Briathar mrialta: Catadn na mbriathra mrialta cu.
Aidiacht bhreischime: Catadn inbhartaithe na n-aidiachta breischime mchu.

agslacht ceisteanna: Rta agslachta na gceisteanna.
Ramhfhocal: Lon na seach-leaganacha ramhfhoclacha a bhaint as 100, m.sh. dalta ag a

bhfuil 9 seach-leagan faigheann s 91.
Lofacht lon focal: Lon na bhfocal a dirt dalta i nimad reacaireachta.
Mlofacht: Lon na dtrithe mlofachta ag dalta i nimad reacaireachta a bhaint as 100,

m.sh. dalta ag a bhfuil 16 trith mhlofachta faigheann s 84.
Riteas cumais: Lon na riteas faoi easpa cumais a bhaint as 100, m.sh. dalta ag a bhfuil 3
riteas d short, faigheann s 97.
187
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Marcir dioscrsa: An dalta ab airde lon marcir dioscrsa (sa T1 amhin), t an dalta
sin ina bhonn don scla catadnach, agus t na dalta eile ar fad i gcomparid leis. D
bhr sin, t 100% ag an dalta is airde lon marcir dioscrsa i gceachtar den d theanga
(sa chs seo 10 cinel agsla marcir dioscrsa = 100%). Agus faigheann dalta eile scr
catadnach, bunaithe ar lon na marcir dioscrsa T1, mar chuid den lon iomln. M.sh.
dalta a bhfuil dh mharcir dioscrsa Gaeilge aige sa chomhr Gaeilge, tuilleann s 20%
(beag beann ar lon na marcir dioscrsa Barla (T2) at sa chomhr Gaeilge sin aige).
Marcir dioscrsa T1: Catadn na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa Ghaeilge.
Foghraocht r-anna: Catadn ar raladh na dtr chinel r i nimad reacaireachta de

rir an ualaithe seo a leanas: ((r chaol*0.66) + (r leathan*0.33) + (r aisfhillte an Bharla*
0.33))*100.
Inscne forainm copaile: Catadn na bhforainmneacha san inscne chu.
Claochluithe tosaigh: Catadn a bhun ar mhein na dtscair a bhaineann leis na

claochluithe seo a leanas: san ainmfhocal; sa bhriathar; san aidiacht; i ndiaidh an fhorainm
shealbhaigh; i ndiaidh na huimhreach; i ndiaidh rimre.
Ual: Tugadh ualuithe agsla do na tscair mar liri ar an tbhacht choibhneasta a bhaineann
leo i gcras gramada n teangeolaochta (agus meititheangeolaochta) an d theanga. Tugadh
ual ard (2) do dh thscaire Ramhfhocal agus Riteas cumais de bharr a thbhachta agus a
shuaithins is at siad. Tugadh ual seal (0.5) do thr thscaire Leama cu, agslacht ceisteanna
agus Lofacht lon focal de bharr a n-imeallachta coibhneasta.
Tscaire
Lon leama
Leama T1
Leama cu
Ainm iolra
Briathar mrialta
agslacht ceisteanna
Ramhfhocal
Lofacht lon focal
Mlofacht
Riteas cumais
Marcir dioscrsa
Marcir dioscrsa T1
Foghraocht r-anna
Inscne forainm copaile
Ual
Teanga
1
1
0.5
B+G
B+G
B+G
Br
% na leama calabraithe
leama T1
leama cu
B+G
ainmfhocail san iolra cu
0.5
B+G
agslacht ceisteanna
1
1
0.5
B+G
B+G
B+G
B+G
B+G
2
1
B+G
B+G
G
G
briathra cu
aidiachta cu
ramhfhocail chu
lon focal i nimad reacaireachta
trithe mlofachta
ritis faoi chumas teanga

marcir dioscrsa (T1)
marcir dioscrsa Gaeilge sa Ghaeilge
fuaimeanna r-anna
forainm san inscne chu
claochluithe tosaigh cu
Tbla 40 Liri ar na 16 tscaire scrla mar aon lena n-ual agus lena mbr.
De thoradh na hanailse ar an mbunachar sonra, is fidir na tscair agsla a scril astu fin
mar a lirtear i dTbla 40. Cumtar an scrinnacs inchomparide as tscair B + G (Barla agus
Gaeilge) amhin, agus an scrinnacs iomln as tscair B + G agus G (Gaeilge amhin) a chur le
chile. Is lir Thbla 38 thuas go bhfuil scril nos airde sa Bharla ach amhin i gcs Lofacht
lon focal. Is sin le r, c is moite de Lofacht lon focal, lironn na comhghaolta seo gur fearr a
ironn leis na dalta sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge. T comhghaolchn staitistiil suntasach idir an
scril Ghaeilge iomln agus an scril Bharla (comhghaolchn Pearson = 0.417, P-luach 0.003).
188
Ach tortha na dtscair scrla sin a shuimi is fidir cumas gach piste i ngach teanga ar leith a
chuntas, mar aon le hual ar leith thortha na dtscair mar a shonratear iad i gcoln a d i dTbla
40, agus ansin is fidir iad a chatadn. Tugann an cainnocht seo scril chumais do gach piste
ar leith sa d theanga.
9.2.1 Scrinnacs dtheangach
Rinneadh scrinnacs dtheangach as scril na dteangacha a chur i gcoibhneas lena chile. Cuir i
gcs, m fuair dalta scr x i dteanga A agus m fuair s scr y i dteanga B, fgann sin x y = z mar
scrinnacs dtheangach. Mar shampla:
Scr an dalta i nGaeilge: 66.7
Scr an dalta i mBarla: 82.5
66.7 82.5 = 15.8 scrinnacs dtheangach an dalta
Ciallaonn scr ard i dteanga A agus scr nos sle i dteanga B go bhfuil cumas nos fearr ag dalta i
dteanga A seachas i dteanga B. D mhad an scrinnacs dtheangach is ea is m an bhearna idir
an cumas sa d theanga agus is amhlaidh is agothroime cumas dtheangach an dalta. Is fidir scr
ceachtar den d theanga a bhaint as scr na teanga eile dfhonn scrinnacs a chumadh (A B, n
B A, .i. sa chs seo de, Gaeilge lide Barla, n Barla lide Gaeilge). Ar mhaithe leis an ascaocht
i lithri na tuarascla seo cinneadh scril an Bharla a bhaint as scril na Gaeilge. Deascair as
sin i gcomhthacs na ndalta seo gur cuireadh scrinnacs diltach ar fil ar an mrgir. Nuair at
toradh diltach suaithinseach agus seasmhach i scrinnacs i gcs dh teanga ar leith is fidir a
r gur liri ar mhbhuntiste dtheangach i gceann de na teangacha sin. Ar an gcuma channa,
nuair at scrinnacs diltach ag dalta is fidir a r gur liri go bhfuil mbhuntiste dtheangach
ag an dalta i gceann den d theanga. Lironn formhr na ndalta at faoi chaibidil sa taighde seo
mbhuntiste dtheangach i gcs na Gaeilge.
I gcs an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh, m t scr a nid ag cainteoir is ionann sin agus a r go bhfuil an
cainteoir sin go hiomln cothrom sa d theanga. Is an diall caighdenach () at ag an scrinnacs
inchomparide n 4.983 agus ag an scrinnacs iomln n 6.029. D bhr sin m rangatear dalta
at diall caighdenach amhin os cionn a nid sa scrinnacs n diall caighdenach amhin faoi
bhun a nid sa scrinnacs, is fidir na dalta sin a shaini ina gcainteoir cothroma dtheangacha.
T scth ar an achar cothrom seo i gCairt 197. De rir an tsainithe seo, t tortha 19 dalta cothrom
de rir an scrinnacs inchomparide, ceathrar dalta ag a bhfuil scr dearfach (cumas nos airde
sa Ghaeilge) agus 15 dalta ag a bhfuil scr diltach (cumas nos airde sa Bharla) agus tortha 31
dalta at agothrom. Ach de rir an scrinnacs iomlin (Cairt 198), t cumas nos airde sa Bharla
liri ag tortha gach dalta, agus t beirt cothrom agus t 48 dalta agothrom.
Cairt 197 Scril Ghaeilge inchomparide agus scril Bharla na ndalta in ord ardaitheach an scrinnacs
dhtheangaigh inchomparide.
I gCairt 197 lirtear dileadh an scrinnacs at bunaithe ar an 12 tscaire inchomparide sa d

theanga (B + G i gcoln a tr i dTbla 40).
189
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Is fidir scril bhreise a thabhairt don Ghaeilge bunaithe ar thscair breise (G i gcoln a tr i dTbla
40) nach bhfuil inchomparide leis an mBarla ach at lrnach i gcras teangeolaochta na Gaeilge.
Cairt 198 Scril Ghaeilge iomln agus scril Bharla na ndalta in ord ardaitheach an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh iomlin.
I gCairt 198 lirtear dileadh na 50 dalta agus iad srathnaithe in ord ardaitheach a scrinnacs
dhtheangaigh iomlin. Cruthatear an scrinnacs dtheangach iomln as an scril Ghaeilge
iomln a chur i gcomparid leis an scril sa Bharla (.i. Gaeilge iomln lide Barla). Is sle an
scrinnacs iomln (luach manach 15.5), i gCairt 198, n an scrinnacs inchomparide (luach
manach 7.5), i gCairt 197. D bhr sin, sa scrinnacs iomln lirtear bearna nos m idir an
cumas sa Bharla agus an cumas sa Ghaeilge agus mbhuntiste na Gaeilge nos m fs (seachas
sa scrinnacs inchomparide). N athraonn suomh coibhneasta tortha dalta ar leith mrn sa
dileadh seo sa scrinnacs inchomparide le hais an scrinnacs iomlin. Tacaonn a ghaire d
chile is at suomh tortha dalta ar leith sa d scrinnacs agsla leis an iteamh go bhfuil an d
scrinnacs ag liri a bheag n a mhr an ruda channa thaobh na gnthachtla teangeolaochta
de (i leith gach dalta ar an gcointeanid chumais n scrla). Ar an men n athraonn dalta ach c.
6 suomh scrinnacs amhin go chile. Is fi a lua gur naonr buachaill agus cailn amhin at
sa deichnir dalta is m athr sumh.
I gCairt 199 lirtear dileadh na ndalta, i ngrpa agus an dtheangachas cothrom scthaithe i lr
na cairte (i bhfoisceacht diallta chaighdenaigh amhin de 0 ar ais X), agus an t-achar cothroime seo
ina bhonn comparide idala, de rir an scrinnacs inchomparide agus an scrinnacs iomlin.
I gcontrrthacht idir an d theanga ina mbeadh an buntiste dtheangach, n an mbhuntiste
dtheangach, ag an nGaeilge, t trir dalta thar 3 sigme (), .i. mbhuntisteach go leor thaobh
na Gaeilge de, de rir an scrinnacs inchomparide, agus t cigear thar 4 sigme (), .i. nos
mbhuntist fs thaobh na Gaeilge de, de rir an scrinnacs iomlin.
Cairt 199 Histeagram dhileadh na ndalta de rir an d scrinnacs dhtheangacha.
190
thaobh cothroime de, lironn an Scrinnacs Dtheangach inchomparide thuas go bhfuil:

luach dearfach, rud a lireodh buntiste do chumas na Gaeilge, ag 4 dalta, .i. 8%
cumas cothrom (1 sigme, .i. 4.98 go 4.98) ag 19 dalta, .i. 38%.
Sa Scrinnacs Dtheangach iomln t liri nos pointeilte ar ghnthachtil teangeolaochta i

leith na Gaeilge traidisinta. Lironn an Scrinnacs Dtheangach iomln go bhfuil:
cumas cothrom (1 sigme, .i. -6.03 go 6.03) ag 2 dalta, .i. 4%
cumas buntisteach sa Bharla ag gach dalta, .i. 100%
15.5% de mhendifrocht chumais idir cumas an Bharla agus cumas na Gaeilge i measc na
ndalta ar fad
an mhendifrocht chumais ag an 10 dalta is cothroime ag 9%
an mhendifrocht chumais ag an 10 dalta is agothroime ag 24.2%.
n bhfianaise at sna cairteacha thuas t s soilir go bhfuil treo ginearlta i lne faisnise na
Gaeilge ag ard agus treo ginearlta i lne faisnise an Bharla cothrom go seasmhach de rir mar
a ardaonn lnte faisnise na scrinnacsanna. Is an leibhal gnthachtla sa Ghaeilge an luach is
cinnina do na scrinnacsanna dtheangacha. Mar a shonratear i dTbla 41, t an coibhneas seo
soilir sa rta comhghaoil at idir na scrinnacsanna dtheangacha agus scril an d theanga.
Cinel scrinnacs
Scril teanga
Comhghaol
Scrinnacs inchomparide
Barla
-0.339
Scrinnacs iomln
Gaeilge iomln
0.807
Scrinnacs inchomparide
Scrinnacs iomln
Gaeilge inchomparide
Barla
Tbla 41 Comhghaol idir an d chinel scrinnacs.
0.708
-0.215
Is lir n tbla a ghaire agus a chomhthreomhaire agus at an scrinnacs iomln agus an

scrinnacs inchomparide (fach gur airde an comhghaol don scril Ghaeilge iomln, 0.807).
Mar sin, is an scrinnacs iomln a phlifear as seo sos, tharla gurb an scrinnacs iomln
is m a thugann liri ar iomln an chumais dhtheangaigh. N miste a mheabhr gur ioma trith
laghdaithe eile i nGaeilge na ndalta ach go hirithe nach dtugtar san ireamh sa scril chumais
Ghaeilge anseo. (Fach an liosta de na tscair nach raibh ag 70%, n os a chionn, de na dalta
agus a baineadh as an anails socheolaochta; ts Chaibidil 5.) Phlamar cuid de na trithe eile
laghdaithe sin i gCaibidil 2, agus bh cuid eile dobh nrbh acmhainn dinn a phl sa tuarascil
ghinearlta seo. Mar shampla, nor cuireadh san ireamh:
(i) trithe foghraochta an Bharla sa Ghaeilge (c is moite de na foghair r);
(ii) tuinocht an Bharla sa Ghaeilge, m.sh. ard tuine deireadh frsa, .i. uptalk;
(iii) easpa tuisceana na ndalta ar fhocail n ar fhrsa i gceisteanna san agallamh Gaeilge; nor
tuigeadh, go hirithe, na frsa ag bualadh bire agus an cheirt (n raibh easpa tuisceana d
leithid i gceist i gcs an Bharla);
(iv) trithe comhrire an Bharla sa Ghaeilge, m.sh. far it in ionad it far (ar mhnla hay
place sa Bharla).
D gcuirf san ireamh na trithe eile seo ar fad a lireodh laghd, bsle fs scril chumais na
Gaeilge agus ba mh an mbhuntiste Gaeilge a lireofa. I gcontrrthacht leis an nGaeilge, maidir
le Barla na ndalta, is beag trith neamhnormlta at ina gcuid Barla nr tugadh san ireamh i
scril chumais an Bharla.
191
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Maidir le hual na scrlacha don Ghaeilge agus don Bharla, is beag tionchar a bh aige sin i measc
na ndalta ar an scrinnacs dtheangach inchomparide n ar an scrinnacs dtheangach iomln,
mar a lirtear i gcs an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh iomlin i gCairt 200. T an cuar ualaithe agus an
cuar neamhualaithe ag freagairt go dlth d chile sa chairt. Is 0.000 (i bhfoisceacht tr dhigit den
phonc) an P-luach a eascraonn as an anails sa tsamhail lneach ghinearlta ar shuntasacht staitistiil
an choibhnis seo. I gCairt 200 tugtar cuar na mbuachaill i ndiaidh a chile ar thaobh na limhe cl
agus ina dhiaidh sin cuar na gcailn ar thaobh na limhe deise agus an d ghnas in ord aoise.
Cairt 200 An scrinnacs dtheangach iomln le hual agus gan ual in ord aoise agus gnis.
Maidir le contrrthacht threocht na mbuachaill agus na gcailn le hAois, fach an pl ar Chairt 204.
I gCairt 201 tugaimid liri ar an gcomhghaol at idir na tscair scrla teangeolaochta agus an
scrinnacs dtheangach iomln. Srathnatear na tscair sa chairt in ord luach an chomhghaoil,
na tscair is suaithins a bhfuil luach dearfach comhghaoil acu (leis an scrinnacs iomln) go
dt na tscair a bhfuil luach seal acu agus ar aghaidh go dt na tscair a bhfuil luach diltach
comhghaoil acu. Tugtar faoi deara gurb iad na foghair r, na claochluithe tosaigh, agus an aidiacht
bhreischime na comhghaolta is suaithins sa chairt (na chad tr thscaire ar chl i gCairt 201).
Cairt 201 Comhghaolta na dtscair leis an scrinnacs dtheangach in ord n gcomhghaol is airde dearfach go dt an
comhghaol is dilta.
192
9.3 Socheolaocht an chumais dhtheangaigh
Is spisiil le lua go bhfuil a oiread sin tscair Barla a bhfuil comhghaol diltach acu leis an innacs
dtheangach (ar dheis i gCairt 201). Is sin le r go dtagann sli ar an ngnthachtil sa Bharla,
sna tscair irithe seo, de rir mar a thagann ard ar an ngnthachtil sa scrinnacs dtheangach.
Is toradh n leid seo ar choimhlint n mbhuntiste dtheangach (.i. gnthachtil sa Bharla in
aghaidh (gnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus d bhr sin in aghaidh) an chumais dhtheangaigh).
Faightear liri eile i gCairt 202 ar an mbhuntiste a bhaineann leis an scril Ghaeilge iomln
i gcomparid leis an scril Bharla. I gCairt 202 cuirtear na 25 dalta is airde sa scril Ghaeilge
iomln i gcomparid leis na 25 dalta is sle sa scril Bharla (n thugtar anseo faisnis na 25 beirt
eile sa dileadh comparideach seo mar go leanann siad an claonadh canna ina dhiaidh sin ar
thaobh na limhe deise, .i. Barla ag ard agus Gaeilge ag sli). T scril nos airde sa Ghaeilge ag
an trir is airde a chruthaigh sa Ghaeilge n an trir is sle a chruthaigh thaobh an Bharla de. T
na dalta eile at ag bun scla an Bharla nos airde n scril na ndalta eile is fearr sa Ghaeilge.20*
Cairt 202 Na 25 dalta is airde sa scril Ghaeilge iomln i gcomparid leis na 25 dalta is sle sa scril Bharla.

Sa taighde seo is iad na tr shlat tomhais is tbhachta ar an gcumas teanga at curtha ar fil: an
scril Bharla, an scril Ghaeilge iomln agus an scrinnacs dtheangach iomln. Is fidir trithe
socheolaochta na ndalta (.i. gnas, aois, cumas acadil, taith theilifse agus cimheas Gaeilgeoir
sa scoil) a inichadh de rir na dtr shlat tomhais seo. tharla go bhfuil 50 dalta san iomln i
gceist, is fidir iad a roinnt go cothrom ina gcig fhoghrpa de dheichnir ar an gcointeanid
chumais (n gcumas is airde go dt an cumas is sle). I dTbla 42 aicmtear cig fhoghrpa agsla
cainteoir, in ord n dream is airde (Coln I) go dt an dream is sle (Coln V). T deichnir i ngach
ceann de na foghrpa seo bunaithe ar na tr shlat tomhais: an scrinnacs dtheangach (an tsraith
mhr uachtair i dTbla 42), chomh maith leis an scril Ghaeilge (an tsraith mhr lir i dTbla
42) agus an scril Bharla (an tsraith mhr ochtair i dTbla 42). Mar eiseamlir, d bhr sin, sa
tsraith at bunaithe ar an scrinnacs, lirtear i gColn I: lon na mbuachaill (agus d bhr sin,
lon na gcailn = 10 lon na mbuachaill); aois mhenach; cumas acadil menach; taith theilifse
mhenach, mar at ag an deichnir is airde sa scrinnacs. Ar an gcuma channa, sa tsraith at
bunaithe ar an scril Ghaeilge iomln, lirtear i gColn I: lon na mbuachaill; aois mhenach;
Is ard at i gCairt 202 n cuid den fhaisnis at i gCairt 198 cur i lthair go comparideach agus in ord eile. T an
trir is airde scril sa Ghaeilge (os cionn 80, ar an lne ghorm) agus an trir is sle scril sa Bharla (faoi 80, ar an
lne dhearg) le haithint i gCairt 198. Lirtear i gCairt 198 scril Ghaeilge agus Bharla, agus tortha an scrinnacs
dhtheangaigh, don dalta canna i gcomparid le chile i gcs na 50 dalta. Ach i gCairt 202 t faisnis chontrrthach
beirte cur i lthair i gcs 25 beirt. Mar shampla, ar thaobh na limhe cl ar fad de Chairt 202 (pointe faisnise 1) t
scril Ghaeilge dhalta B10b ( Chairt 198) i gcontrrthacht le scril Bharla dhalta B08b ( Chairt 198). Mar sin i
gCairt 198, t faisnis an dalta channa maidir le scril Ghaeilge agus Bharla, agus an scrinnacs dtheangach, ach
i gCairt 202, t faisnis dalta agsla i gcontrrthacht le chile, .i. na scrlaithe is airde sa Ghaeilge i gcontrrthacht
leis na scrlaithe is sle sa Bharla.
20*
193
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
cumas acadil menach; taith theilifse mhenach, mar at ag an deichnir is airde sa scril
Ghaeilge. N i gColn V, mar shampla, sa tsraith at bunaithe ar an scril Bharla lirtear: lon
na mbuachaill; aois mhenach; cumas acadil menach; taith theilifse mhenach, mar at ag
an deichnir is sle sa scril Bharla. N hionann an deichnir (Coln IV) in aon sraith ar leith
(Scrinnacs, Gaeilge, Barla) n in aon choln ar leith.
Buachaill
Scrinnacs Aois
dtheangach
Cumas acadil
iomln
Taith theilifse
Gaeilge
iomln
Barla
Buachaill
Aois
Cumas acadil
Taith theilifse
Buachaill
Aois
Cumas acadil
Taith theilifse
II
III
IV
9.8
10.7
10.0
9.7
8.5
3.7
3.0
3.7
3.2
4.0
3.7
10.1
10.8
10.1
4.1
2.9
10.3
3.8
3.1
3.8
3.4
9.6
4.4
3.6
3.5
3.5
10.5
3.6
3.3
3.3
3.5
9.6
3.3
3.3
4
9.9
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
8.1
3.3
3.6
6
8.4
3.0
3.4
Tbla 42 Rang na gcainteoir de rir tr thomhas cumais, in ord slitheach, ina bhfoghrpa de dheichnir.
thaobh an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh de, i dTbla 42, lirtear go bhfuil seachtar buachaill
sa deichnir is m cumas dtheangach (agus d bhr sin trir cailn sa deichnir canna) agus
mar sin d rir, cigear buachaill i bhfoghrpa II, seachtar buachaill i bhfoghrpa III, ceathrar
buachaill i bhfoghrpa IV agus trir buachaill i bhfoghrpa V. Fgann sin sli ar chimheas na
mbuachaill de rir mar a thagann sli ar an scrinnacs dtheangach. Ar an gcaoi channa, i
sraith an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh, tagann sli ar an aois mhenach fhoghrpa I (9.8) go dt
foghrpa V (8.5).
I gCairt 203 lirtear an coibhneas at ag an bhfoghrpa at i gColn I (is airde) leis an bhfoghrpa
at i gColn V (is sle) Thbla 42 de rir na gceithre thrith shocheolaochta ( liri sna ceithre
fho-larid: Lon na mbuachaill, .i. gnas; Aois; Cumas acadil; Taith theilifse). Mar sin, seasann
is airde agus is sle i gCairt 203 do Choln I agus do Choln V faoi seach i dTbla 42.
Cairt 203 Rang na bpist de rir tr shlat tomhais chumais ina dh bhfoghrpa: an deichnir is airde le hais an
deichniir is sle.
194
Is iad seo a leanas na point is suaithins at liri i gCairt 203 ( thaobh na limhe cl ar aghaidh
de rir na gceithre fho-larid):
1. Lon na mbuachaill: Is m lon na mbuachaill i measc na ndalta is airde thaobh na

scrla dtheanga de agus a mhalairt, is sin is m lon na gcailn i measc na ndalta is
sle thaobh na scrla canna de. thaobh gnis de, m chuirtear na tr fhoghrpa is
airde sa scrinnacs dtheangach i gcomparid leis an d fhoghrpa is sle sa scrinnacs
dtheangach faightear an cimheas buachaill seo: (foghrpa IIII) 19/30 : 7/20 (foghrpa
IVV), .i. 19 : 7. Is sin le r, is buachaill 63% den dream is airde gnthachtil (i bhfoghrpa
IIII) agus is buachaill 35% den dream is sle gnthachtil (i bhfoghrpa IVV).
2. Aois: T an bhearna is m sa chairt le haithint faoi Aois, trith a bhfuil a tbhacht dhearfach
thaobh na gnthachtla de liri go minic i mbunachar an taighde seo.
3. Cumas acadil: T gaol dearfach idir cumas acadil agus gnthachtil teangeolaochta, .i.
na tr fhoghrpa is airde thaobh scrinnacs agus scrla de (Coln I, Tbla 42), is airde
a gcumas acadil n formhr na bhfoghrpa eile (go hirithe Coln IIIV, Tbla 42).
4. Taith theilifse: Is airde an taith theilifse ag an deichnir is sle scrinnacs agus scril.
Is sa scril Ghaeilge at an bhearna is m; tann an taith theilifse is sle leis an scril
Ghaeilge is airde agus tann an taith theilifse is airde leis an scril Ghaeilge is sle.
Is fidir point 24 a thagairt do thortha sochtheangeolaochta ginearlta idirnisinta, is sin

(2 agus 3) ard ar an ngnthachtil teangeolaochta de rir aoise agus cumais acadil, (4) sli ar
an ngnthachtil teangeolaochta i gcuid den taighde socheolaochta de rir thaith na teilifse. Ar
an limh eile de, is minic malairt phointe 1 liri sa tsochtheangeolaocht ghinearlta, is sin, is
minic gnthachtil teangeolaochta na gcailn a bheith chun cinn ar ghnthachtil na mbuachaill.
Ach i gcs mionteangacha at faoi bhagairt is minic gurb iad na fireannaigh is airde gnthachtil
sa mhionteanga (c go mbaineann baineannaigh gnthachtil nos airde amach go minic sa
mhionteanga i sochaithe ina bhfuil baineannaigh nos scoite amach ghrasin na mrtheanga
n fireannaigh).
Tagann an liri seo ar na ceithre thrith shocheolaochta leis na comhghaolta at ag na ceithre

thrith shocheolaochta leis an scrinnacs, mar at gnas (-0.264, luach diltach mar gheall
ar na buachaill a thgil mar bhonn don tsraith), aois (0.319), cumas acadil (0.194), taith
theilifse (0.155). Tagann sin freisin leis na comhghaolta a fhaightear nuair a scagtar na tscair
teangeolaochta agus na cins socheolaochta leith ar leith. T comhghaolta arda le sonr ach
go hirithe thaobh aoise de (m.sh. aidiacht bhreischime Ghaeilge [0.558], lon leama Gaeilge
[0.477], ainm iolra Gaeilge [0.475], .i. ard a theacht ar an ngnthachtil sna tscair Gaeilge seo
de rir aoise) agus thaobh cumais acadil de (m.sh. briathar mrialta Barla [0.454], agslacht
na marcir dioscrsa T1 sa chomhr Gaeilge [0.400]; fach Aguisn E).
9.3.1 Gnas (agus aois) de rir an chumais dhtheangaigh
I gCairt 204 lirtear an agslacht at idir cailn agus buachaill ina scrinnacs dtheangach
iomln. D mbeadh cumas cothrom ag na pist sa d theanga bheids dilte thart ar lr ais X
(0 sigme). Is lir sa chairt go bhfuil buaic nos airde, agus nos gaire do 0, luach na cothroime
dtheanga, ag sraith na mbuachaill (gorm). Is liri eile seo ar mhbhuntiste na gcailn i leith
na gnthachtla dtheanga.
195
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Cairt 204 Histeagram de dhileadh na ndalta sa scrinnacs iomln de rir gnis.
I gCairt 205 lirtear an scrinnacs de rir dh chinse socheolaochta, gnas agus aois, a bhfuil
comhghaol suaithinseach eatarthu.
Cairt 205 Dileadh scrinnacs dhtheangaigh na ndalta de rir gnis agus aoise.
Is lir nach dtagann athr suaithinseach ar chumas dtheangach na mbuachaill de rir aoise ach
feictear ard an-soilir sa lne threochta i gcuar na gcailn. Is spisiil le haithint fach gur ag
aois ocht mbliana is airde scrinnacs tomhaiste na mbuachaill agus go bhfuil sli leannach ina
scrinnacs n aois sin go dt aois 12 bliain.
Is fidir liri nos mine a thabhairt ar an gcis at leis an agslacht seo ach dri ar na scrlacha
Gaeilge agus Barla de rir na gcins canna socheolaochta (aois agus gnas). I gCairt 206, ar
mhaithe leis an tsimplocht, t na dalta aicmithe i dtr ghrpa aoise de bhallraocht chothrom:
Aoisghrpa I (17 dalta) ina bhfuil dalta idir 7 agus 9 mbliana daois, Aoisghrpa II (17 dalta)
ina bhfuil dalta at 10 mbliana daois, agus Aoisghrpa III (16 dalta) ina bhfuil dalta at idir 11
agus 12 bliain daois. Is lir in ochtar na cairte (cuair ghorma) lnte treochta comhthreomhara na
gcuar; lnte treochta comhthreomhara a lironn scril na mbuachaill agus na gcailn sa Ghaeilge.
Tagann feabhas comhthreomhar de rir aoise ar a gcuid Gaeilge, idir chailn agus bhuachaill. Ach
t agslacht le haithint i lnte treochta na gcuar a lironn scril na mbuachaill agus na gcailn
sa Bharla (cuair dhearga in uachtar na cairte). T difrocht mhr idir cumas Barla na gcailn
agus na mbuachaill ag aois g. T cumas Barla nos airde ag na cailn n ts agus n thagann
ard air de rir aoise. Ach tagann ard ar leibhal cumais Bharla na mbuachaill agus iad ag dul in
aois n go sroicheann siad leibhal cumais na gcailn. D bhr sin nl ard suaithinseach i gcumas
dtheangach na mbuachaill de rir aoise mar gheall ar an bhfeabhas a thagann orthu sa Ghaeilge
agus sa Bharla araon. T ard suaithinseach i gcumas dtheangach na gcailn mar gheall ar an
ard a thagann ar a gcumas Gaeilge (agus go bhfuil a gcumas Barla cothrom i ngach aoisghrpa).
196
Cairt 206 Dileadh scril Ghaeilge agus Bharla na gcailn agus na mbuachaill de rir tr aoisghrpa chothroma.
De bharr a spisila is a bh na cairtphlota seo, rinneadh staidar ar an ngaol at idir scril sa

d theanga leith ar leith agus gnas na ndalta. N bhfuarthas aon ifeacht shuntasach a bheith ag
Gnas, ar an scril Ghaeilge n ar an scril Bharla. Rinneadh na tstlacha sin sa tsamhail lneach
ghinearlta a chuimsigh an tscaire Aois, sa chaoi gur coigeartaodh difeacht Aoise (baineadh
ifeacht Aoise as an staidar) i dtstil ifeacht Ghnis na ndalta. Tstladh sa tsamhail chomh maith
an tidirghnomhchn idir gnas agus aois sa scril Ghaeilge. N bhfuarthas aon luach suntasach
staitistiil leis an idirghnomhchn idir gnas agus aois i scril Ghaeilge na ndalta. As an anails sa
tsamhail lneach ghinearlta ar an ifeacht a bh ag an Scril Ghaeilge iomln ar an idirghnomhchn
idir gnas agus aois (gnas x aois) n bhfuarthas aon suntasacht staitistiil (P-luach = 0.399).
9.3.2 Aois agus an ghnthachtil teangeolaochta
San fhochaibidil seo plimid an gaol at idir aois na bpist agus a ngnthachtil teangeolaochta.
T s tbhachtach aon fhianaise ar athr a thiocfadh ar ghnthachtil na bpist de rir aoise a
inichadh. Bheif ag sil go dtiocfadh ard ar ghnthachtil piste de rir mar a thann s n s in aois,
agus sin an liri a fhaightear sa taighde seo. Ach is liri san am dealraitheach (.i. aoisghrpa
agsla in aon am inichta ar leith), tharla gan fianaise againn sa taighde seo san am ralaoch (.i.
sonra ar phainal pist ag amanna agsla i gcaitheamh bhlianta na hige). Lirtear sna tortha
go ginearlta ard gnthachtla sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bharla de rir aois na bpist. Leagaimid
romhainn san fhochaibidil seo mar sin staitistic thuairisciil a chur i lthair chomh maith le tstil
staitistiil a dhanamh ar shuntasacht an chomhghaoil idir an tscaire socheolaochta Aois agus
tscair teangeolaochta. Lironn an staitistic thuairisciil go bhfuil an tscaire Aois suaithinseach
agus seasmhach go minic maidir lena ghaol dearfach le gnthachtil teanga (i gcs an d theanga).
Lironn an scagadh suntasachta staitistila, ar an d theanga go neamhsplech ar a chile, go bhfuil
suntasacht ag baint le haois i ngnthachtil an d theanga.21*
Nuair a dhantar samhalt ar scril an d theanga i dtaca leis na hathrga socheolaochta, faightear ifeacht
shuntasach i ngach cinel anailse ag an athrg Cimheas Gaeilgeoir (Fochaibidil 9.3.3). Chuireamar anails i bhfeidhm
go ginearlta sa taighde seo sa tsamhail lneach ghinearlta, s rud go gcuimsonn an tsamhail lneach ghinearlta
an anails chlchimnithe agus an anails athraithis (san anails chlchimnithe bonn gach athrg cainnochtil, agus
san anails athraithis bonn gach athrg cilochtil; nuair a thugtar san ireamh athrga mar thscair sa tsamhail
staitistiil, is fidir cur chuige clchimnithe a chur i bhfeidhm i gcs athrg cainnochtil agus cilochtil araon,
agus seo dirre at i gceist leis an gcur chuige sa tsamhail lneach ghinearlta). I dtaca le samhail thosach a roghn,
fuaireamar go raibh g an athrg Cimheas Gaeilgeoir agus an athrg Aois a thabhairt san ireamh. Is fidir gach
athrg ionchuir socheolaochta eile a fhgil de leataobh, c gurbh fhi breis inichta a dhanamh le scagadh nos
mine a dhanamh ar an athrg Cumas Acadil s rud go bhfuil s gar do bheith suntasach (P-luach = 0.052). Nuair a
dhantar anails sa tsamhail lneach ghinearlta (leis an d athrg Cimheas Gaeilgeoir agus Aois) ar Scril Ghaeilge
iomln faightear dh P-luach shuntasacha: P-luach 0.000 don athrg Cimheas Gaeilgeoir agus P-luach 0.032 don
athrg Aois. Ach an anails staitistiil a chur i bhfeidhm duireasa na hathrige Cimheas Gaeilgeoir, bunaithe ar
anails (leis na tr athrg Aois, Cumas Acadil agus Gnas) ar an Scrinnacs Dtheangach, is iad na P-luachanna a
fuarthas dathrga socheolaochta eile: Aois 0.031; Cumas Acadil 0.052; Gnas 0.120. Is lir gurb an athrg Aois is
suaithins P-luach anseo, rud a thagann leis na staitistic tuarasclacha (Caibidil 5). N bhfuarthas aon rian suntasachta
maidir le Taith Theilfse de, agus d bhr sin nor cuireadh san ireamh san anails seo .
21*
197
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
Dfhonn achoimre thomhaiste a thabhairt ar an ngnthachtil sa d theanga ar leith rinneadh scr

teangeolaochta gach dalta i ngach tscaire a chuntas ina Z-scr.22* Is ceart a lua go dtugann na
Z-scranna do gach dalta i ngach tscaire teangeolaochta tacar uimhreacha ag a bhfuil men 0
agus diall caighdenach 1. Do gach dalta faightear men Z-scranna na dtscair teangeolaochta
uile le scr menach i ngach teanga. Beidh na mein seo lrnaithe ar 0; m ironn go maith le
dalta i dteanga ar leith, beidh men a cuid n a chuid Z-scranna mr agus dearfach, ach beidh an
men i bhfad faoi 0 m t scr iomln an dalta sin lag sa teanga sin. D bhr sin, mar shampla, m
t scr menach ard ag dalta i dteanga ar leith, is liri sin ar chumas n bairde sa teanga sin. Is
dol suime fachaint c mar a athraonn scr ilchodach dalta (.i. men Z-scranna dalta) le haois. I
gCairt 207 lirtear an gaol at idir aois na bpist, aois 7 go haois 12, agus Z-scranna ilchodacha
na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide sa Ghaeilge.
Cairt 207 Scaipghram dAois agus Z-scranna ilchodacha na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide sa Ghaeilge, mar
aon lena lne fheilina sa chlchimni lneach.
Is lir lne threochta Chairt 207 go dtagann ard ar Z-scranna na Gaeilge de rir aois na bpist.
Feabhsaonn a gcuid Gaeilge le haois. T an t-ard seo sna Z-scranna an-suntasach thaobh na
staitistice de (P-luach = 0.003).
I gCairt 208 lirtear an gaol idir aois na bpist agus Z-scranna comhthite na dtscair
teangeolaochta inchomparide sa Bharla.
Cairt 208 Scaipghram dAois agus Z-scranna ilchodacha na dtscair teangeolaochta inchomparide sa Bharla, mar
aon lena lne threochta.
Is ard at i gceist leis an Z-scr a bhaineann le toradh aon dalta ar leith n lon na ndiall caighdenach at an toradh
sin mhen an ghrpa.
22*
198
Is lir lne threochta Chairt 208 go dtagann ard ar Z-scranna an Bharla de rir mar a thann
na pist in aois. Feabhsaonn a gcuid Barla le haois. T an t-ard seo sna Z-scranna an-suntasach
ars eile thaobh na staitistice de (P-luach = 0.001). De chlabhsr ar an bhfochaibidil seo, mar sin,
is fidir a mhaomh go bhfuil fianaise lidir ann ar fheabhas leannach a theacht ar an d theanga
de rir ard ar aois na bpist.
9.3.3 Cimheas Gaeilgeoir sa scoil agus an cumas Gaeilge /

dtheangach
San fhochaibidil seo, drmid ar an ngaol dearfach at idir cimheas Gaeilgeoir i scoil ar leith agus
gnthachtil dhtheangach na ndalta sa scoil channa (an ghnthachtil sa Ghaeilge go sonrach).
Nuair a scagtar an scril Bharla agus Ghaeilge agus an scrinnacs dtheangach, feictear gur
fidir gnthachtil na scoileanna sa staidar seo a rang n scoil is airde scril Ghaeilge go dt an
scoil is sle scril Ghaeilge. Is fidir chomh maith canna iad a rang n scoil is airde scrinnacs
dtheangach go dt an scoil is sle scrinnacs dtheangach. Tarlaonn go bhfuil na scoileanna
beagnach san ord canna sa d rang seo. I gCairt 209 lirtear dileadh na scoileanna in ord
slitheach sa scrinnacs dtheangach. Na ceithre scoil is airde sa scrinnacs dtheangach is iad
is airde sa scril Ghaeilge.
% Gaeilgeoir gnomhacha
lne threochta
(% Gaeilgeoir)
Cairt 209 Dileadh na n-ocht scoil in ord slitheach sa scrinnacs dtheangach.
Fuarthas eolas na hoid agus lucht oideachais eile sa phobal c mhad cainteoir gnomhach
Gaeilge (.i. Gaeilgeoir) a bh le fil as beagnach iomln na ranganna ar taifeadadh dalta astu. Go
bunsach fuarthas an lon Gaeilgeoir, le hais Barlir, a bh i rang an dalta. Faightear cimheas
(ranganna samplaithe) gach scoile ar leith ach iomlin na ranganna bhartha a shuimi. Lirtear
sna barra faisnise i gCairt 209 an cimheas cainteoir gnomhacha Gaeilge a bh i gceist i ranganna
samplaithe gach scoile. Sna ceithre scoil is airde ar an scrinnacs dtheangach, t cimheas na
nGaeilgeoir i bhfad nos airde n sna ceithre scoil is sle ar an scrinnacs. Is 86% an cimheas
menach de Ghaeilgeoir sna ceithre scoil is airde ar an scrinnacs, agus, i gcontrrthacht leis
sin, is 46% an cimheas menach de Ghaeilgeoir sna ceithre scoil is sle ar an scrinnacs. N
lena r ar shl chontrrtha, 14% an cimheas menach de Bharlir sna ceithre scoil is airde ar an
scrinnacs, agus, i gcontrrthacht leis sin, is 54% an cimheas menach de Bharlir sna ceithre
scoil is sle ar an scrinnacs. T an difrocht idir an d ghrpa scoileanna suaithinseach thaobh
an scrinnacs dhtheangaigh: t scrinnacs na gceithre scoil is airde dh oiread chomh mr le
luach na gceithre scoil is sle. San fhianaise seo t gaol diltach liri, mar sin, idir cimheas ard
Barlir a bheith i scoil agus an ghnthachtil Ghaeilge agus dhtheangach araon.
199
Gaeilgeoir sa scoil
T coibhneas liri anseo idir sisial scoile sa Ghaeilge agus cumas sa Ghaeilge agus, d bhr sin,
cumas dtheangach. C go dtuairisctear leibhal iompar Gaeilge na dtuismitheoir a bheith mar a
chile i gcs theaghlach na ndalta a taifeadadh as gach ceann docht scoil an tionscadail, ironn
nos fearr le seachadadh na Gaeilge i gcomhthacs ina bhfuil lon mr teaghlach (86% ar an men
anseo, de rir chimheas na nGaeilgeoir) ag seachadadh Gaeilge amhin chun a gclainne. Ach fi
sa chomhthacs coibhneasta ard sisialaithe Gaeilge sin, t an scril Bharla chun tosaigh ar an
scril Ghaeilge.23*
Tugtar faoi deara nach bhfuil aon choibhneas fianaithe idir an leibhal sisialaithe sa Ghaeilge
ar scoil agus an cumas sa Bharla. An cumas sa Bharla, fanann s cothrom sa chairt i gcs na
scoileanna ar fad. Lironn s seo sealbh comhsheasmhach ar an mrtheanga, neamhsplech ar
an leibhal cumais sa mhionteanga. Is feiniman seo a luaitear coitianta sa lann idirnisinta
ar an dtheangachas mionlaigh: go sealbhatear an mhrtheanga go hiomln n gan dua
agus nach bhfuil s ag brath ar an mionteanga. ( tharla go mbonn an sealbh dtheangach
agothrom go hiondil, is tuar chun sealbh laghdaithe n chun bis na mionteanga an sealbh
neamhthrioblideach ar an mrtheanga. Go hachomair, t fianaise sa taighde seo agus sa lann
idirnisinta: mura fidir le piste gan an mhrtheanga a shealbh go hiomln, n fidir le piste an
mhionteanga a shealbh go hiomln.)
I gCairt 210 t gaol soilir dearfach sa lne threochta idir cimheas na gcainteoir gnomhacha (.i.
cimheas na nGaeilgeoir) agus scril Ghaeilge iomln na ndalta agsla (50 spota dearg) sna
hocht scoil ar leith (ocht sraith spota dearga).
Cairt 210 Scril Ghaeilge iomln na ndalta sna hocht scoil i gcomparid le cimheas na gcainteoir gnomhacha
Gaeilge.
Is sin le r, bonn scril Ghaeilge nos airde ag na dalta a fhreastalaonn ar scoil a bhfuil leibhal
nos airde Gaeilgeoir inti. San anails ar an ngaol idir an Scril Ghaeilge iomln agus Cimheas na
nGaeilgeoir, fuarthas ifeacht thar a bheith suntasach (P-luach = 0.000+). Bh ifeacht suntasachta
i gceist chomh maith canna nuair a cuireadh Aois leis an tsamhail staitistiil. San anails seo ar
an ifeacht at ag cimheas na nGaeilgeoir ar scril an Bharla n bhfuarthas suntasacht ar bith
(P-luach 0.846).
9.4 Clabhsr
Tugaimid conclid agus achoimre ar an gcaibidil seo, agus go hirithe ar an agothroime chumais
a lirtear sa saothar tr chile, i dts Chaibidil 10.
Maidir leis an scoil is sle ar an scrinnacs, t an cimheas gnis sa scoil seo an-agothrom inr sampla. Is m lon na
gcailn n lon na mbuachaill a taifeadadh sa scoil seo.
23*
200
9.4 Clabhsr
Gathercole, V. M. (eag.) (2013) Solutions for the Assessment of Bilinguals. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Gathercole, V. M. agus Thomas, E. M. (2009) Bilingual First-language Development: Dominant

language takeover, threatened minority language take-up, Bilingualism: Language and
Cognition 12, 2: 21337.
Koven, M. (2007) Selves in Two Languages: Bilinguals verbal enactments of identity in French and
Portuguese. Amstardam: John Benjamins.
McKay, P. (2006) Assessing young language learners. Cambridge: CUP.
Montrul, S. A. (2008) Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: Re-examining the Age Factor.

Amstardam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Wright, S. C., Taylor, D. M. agus Macarthur, J. (2000) Subtractive Bilingualism and the Survival
of the Inuit Language: Heritage versus Second-Language Education, Journal of Educational
Psychology 92: 6384.
201
Sociolinguistic statistics:
linguistic variables, ability
scoring, bilingual score index
and ratio of Irish speakers in
school
In this chapter we bring together the various strands of this research report through statistical
analysis of the linguistic and sociological variables, at a greater level of abstraction than the
previous descriptive analyses in earlier chapters. We analyse both the linguistic and the sociological
variables. We discuss the correlation of linguistic features with each other, in both Irish and English
separately, as well as the correlation of linguistic features between both languages jointly; and we
note in particular the importance of competence in vocabulary as an indicator of general linguistic
competence. Following the correlational analysis, we present in the central analysis a summary
calculation of ability scores of each pupil in Irish and ability scores of each pupil in English.
Then, by subtracting the ability score for English from the ability score for Irish, we arrive at a
bilingual score index. This bilingual score index forms the basis of conclusions reached concerning
the childrens general bilingual ability. Next, we turn our attention to the relation between the
sociological variables and bilingual ability. We examine especially the positive relation between the
ratio of active Irish-speaking pupils in the schools on the one hand and the pupils bilingual ability
on the other (their Irish ability in particular). The presentation of the challenging sociolinguistic
results of our research is concluded at the beginning of Chapter 10 (Section 10.1 The advantage of
English over Irish).
9.1 Relation between linguistic variables
When the correlations between linguistic variables are examined, variables related to vocabulary
ability (Number of lemmata and L1 lemmata, shaded boxes in Table 35; see also Appropriate
lemmata) are noteworthy as an indication of the childrens linguistic ability as a whole. There is,
for instance, a correlation of 0.691 between the variable Comparative adjective and the variable
Number of lemmata in the full corpus.*
202
Irish Variable
Comparative adjective
%Variety L1 Discourse markers
Plural noun
Initial mutations
Initial mutations
Variety Discourse markers
Irish Variable
Number of lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Plural noun
Number of lemmata
Number of lemmata
Correlation
0.691
0.636
0.623
0.566
0.559
0.508
0.436
The rate of correlation refers to the relation between two data series: a value of 0 means there is no relation and a
value of 1 means that there is a complete overlap between the series, and a positive value means there is a positive
correlation (if one series increases, the other increases), while a negative value describes a negative correlation (if one
series increases, the other decreases).
9.1 Relation between linguistic variables
Irish Variable
Initial mutations
Plural noun
Appropriate lemmata
Phonetics of r
L1 lemmata
Phonetics of r
Variety L1 Discourse markers
Initial mutations
Irregular verb
Copular pronoun gender
Plural noun
Appropriate pronoun
Irish Variable
Appropriate lemmata
L1 lemmata
Number of lemmata
Number of lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Number of lemmata
L1 lemmata
L1 lemmata
L1 lemmata
L1 lemmata
Proficiency statement
L1 lemmata
Appropriate pronoun
Interrogative variety
Correlation
0.426
0.418
0.418
0.417
0.400
0.384
0.380
0.362
0.328
0.319
0.318
0.310
0.310
0.307
-0.328
-0.411
Table 35 Noteworthy correlations between Irish variables only.
Table 35 presents the noteworthy correlations between the linguistic variables in Irish. It is
obvious that L1 lemmata is the most common variable in the table. International research of both
monolinguals and bilinguals often shows a strong relation between speakers ability in vocabulary
and their general linguistic ability. The results of our research support this particular finding from
the international research literature regarding the centrality of ability in vocabulary as a general
indicator of linguistic competence. This centrality of ability in vocabulary has grave implications
for a minority language community in which codeswitching with majority language vocabulary is
common in the minority language.
There are fewer noteworthy correlations between English-language variables than is the case for
Irish as is clear when we compare and contrast Table 35 with Table 36. There may be a relation
between the childrens greater functionality in English and their more balanced norms in English
ability overall with the smaller number of noteworthy correlations in English. Number of lemmata
(x4) and Appropriate lemmata (x3) are the most common variables present in the table.
English Variable
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Word count fluency
Appropriate preposition
Appropriate preposition
Disfluency
English Variable
Appropriate lemmata
Number of lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Number of lemmata
Number of lemmata
Plural noun
Number of lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Word count fluency
Word count fluency
Correlation
0.740
0.694
0.550
0.424
0.421
0.414
0.374
0.373
0.347
0.326
0.323
-0.378
Table 36 Noteworthy correlations between English-language variables only.
Table 37 presents the noteworthy correlations between English-language and Irish-language

variables when the two languages are compared.
203
9. Sociolinguistic statistics: linguistic variables, ability scoring, bilingual score index and ratio of Irish
speakers in school
English Variable
Appropriate lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Word count fluency
Appropriate lemmata
Pronoun
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Number of lemmata
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Plural noun
Word count fluency
Number of lemmata
Number of lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Plural noun
Word count fluency
Number of lemmata
Irish Variable
Plural noun
Initial mutations
Word count fluency
Plural noun
Number of lemmata
Disfluency
Number of lemmata
Word count fluency
L1 Lemmata
Irregular verb
Number of lemmata
Disfluency
Correlation
0.476
0.467
0.454
0.454
0.440
0.439
0.435
0.420
0.402
0.364
0.358
0.358
0.354
0.337
0.336
0.335
0.322
0.315
0.311
0.310
-0.302
-0.309
-0.371
-0.464
Table 37 Noteworthy correlations between Irish- and English-language variables.
Table 38 contains noteworthy correlations between the variables which are comparable across the
two languages. The correlations between comparable variables are based on the pupils average
score in both languages (see the following section below, 9.2), so that the correlation score is
based on the average score of all the pupils. In the right-hand column of the table, correlations
which are greater than 0.3 or less than 0.3 are shaded; only four variables fall into this category:
Number of lemmata, Plural noun, Word count fluency and Variety in L1 discourse markers. The
only two variables where the average pupil score was higher in Irish are the Number of lemmata
and Word count fluency; average scores in English were better for all other variables. With the
exception of Word count fluency, these correlations demonstrate that the pupils competence in
English outperforms their competence in Irish.
Category
Vocabulary
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
204
Variable
Number of lemmata
L1 lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Prepositions
Score
Irish
66.0
91.4
97.6
88.3
70.5
55.1
53.4
98.0
English
65.8
99.3
99.1
94.1
74.3
85.0
62.6
99.8
Correlation
0.420
0.024
0.242
0.439
0.285
-0.103
0.033
-0.010
9.2 Ability scores in each language and bilingual index
Category
Fluency
Pragmatics
Variable
Word count fluency
Disfluency
Variety L1 discourse markers
Score
Irish
62.3
81.9
98.0
15.2
English
Correlation
56.4
83.1
99.0
51.0
0.454
0.069
0.188
0.322
Table 38 Mean score and their related correlations between comparable linguistic variables in the two languages.
Table 39 illustrates the results of statistical analysis on the relationship between comparable
linguistic variables.19*
Table 39 Paired comparison t-tests and corresponding confidence intervals on comparable linguistic variables.
For each variable, the difference between the sample means of Irish and English performances
(Irish minus English) was computed, a confidence interval was obtained for the population mean
difference, and the p-value was calculated for a test of the null hypothesis that this population
mean difference is 0. The inferential analysis shows that the analysis of the majority of Irish
English pairs yields a significant observed level of significance (p-value), with the exception of
Number of lemmata, Irregular verb and Disfluency. In each IrishEnglish pair where there is a
significant p-value, attainment in Irish is lower than attainment in English, with the exception of
Word count fluency. Therefore, after halving the p-values given in the table for two-sided tests, we
can conclude that English is demonstrated to be clearly advantaged in the pupils speech with a
very high degree of statistical probability.
Based on the transcripts of interviews with the pupils, their linguistic ability in Irish and English
respectively was assessed and presented in the earlier chapters of this report. We selected
comparative linguistic categories, where comparison between Irish and English is possible, and
the ability of each child in these comparative linguistic categories was tested in both English and
Irish. In this multi-category assessment, it was demonstrated that one language can be dominant
for a given linguistic feature, while another language can be dominant for another linguistic feature.
By combining the results of the analysis in the different linguistic categories for each language
separately, a general ability score for each child in each language can be obtained. The scores in
Irish and English respectively are examined in this section.
SD = standard deviation of the differences; Standard Error Mean stands for the estimated standard error of the
sample mean difference; ConfIntDiff = confidence interval for the difference of means.
19*
205
speakers in school
The full linguistic results in both languages will then be compared for each individual child, and then
by subgroup, for instance, by age and by gender. Pupils whose scores in each language are similar
can be described as being relatively balanced bilinguals. Pupils whose scores in the two languages
are not similar can, on the other hand, be described as being unbalanced bilingual speakers. Those
pupils whose scores are notably higher in English than in Irish are described as English-dominant (or
that English is dominant in their bilingual ability). Based on this analysis, a balanced / unbalanced
scale of bilingualism, i.e. a Bilingual Score index, is obtained in order to assess any comparative
position of dominance of one language ability over the other language ability.
To obtain a full ability score for each language, the linguistic results were quantified for the various
linguistic variables (12 comparable variables (IrishEnglish); 4 independent variables in Irish). In
order to give positive values to all variables, values were inversed for variables which had negative
values, i.e. L2 lemmata, Inappropriate lemmata, Plural noun, Comparative adjective. The 16 quantified
variables are listed in Table 40. These variables were quantified by the following procedures:
Number of lemmata: The pupil with the highest number of L1 lemmata is placed at the top
of a percentage scale, with the results of all other pupils placed on the scale in comparison
with this pupil with the highest number of L1 lemmata. Therefore, 100% is assigned to the
student with the highest calibrated number of lemmata in either of the two languages (in this
instance 572 calibrated lemmata = 100%). Each pupil then receives a percentage score based
on a denominator of 572. In Irish, words were classified as L1 for this variable if they are Irish
words or older English loan words borrowed into Irish prior to the 1990s, e.g. loan words
such as bicycle were classified with L1 Irish lemmata (for this variable Number of lemmata).
L1 lemmata: The additive inverse percentage of loan lemmata produced by a pupil out of
the total for that pupil. Therefore, a child whose Irish interview transcript contains 10%
English words receives a score of 90% for L1 lemmata.
Appropriate lemmata: The additive inverse percentage of total inappropriate lemmata.
Plural noun: The additive inverse percentage of inappropriate plural lemmata.
Irregular verb: Percentage of appropriate irregular verbs.
Comparative adjective: The additive inverse percentage of inappropriate comparative

adjectives.
Interrogative variety: The rate of variety in questions.
Preposition: The number of divergent semantic prepositional instances subtracted from

100, e.g. a pupil with 9 divergent semantic prepositional instances receives a score of 91.
Word count fluency: The number of words produced by a pupil in a minute of narration.
Disfluency: The number of disfluency features produced by a pupil in a minute of narration

subtracted from 100, e.g. a pupil with 16 disfluency features receives a score of 84.
Proficiency statement: The number of statements made about a lack of proficiency

subtracted from 100, e.g. a pupil making 3 such statements receives a score of 97.
Discourse markers: The pupil with the highest number of discourse markers (in L1 only),
is taken as the top of a percentage scale, and the scores of the other pupils are compared
to this. Therefore, 100% refers to the pupil with the highest level of discourse markers
in either of the two languages (in this instance 10 different types of discourse markers
= 100%). The other pupils are then assigned a percentage score based on the number of
L1 discourse markers used. For example, a pupil who has two Irish discourse markers in
Irish conversation receives a score of 20% (regardless of how many English (L2) discourse
markers are used in the same Irish conversation).
L1 discourse markers: The percentage of L1 discourse markers in Irish.
206
Phonetics of r: Percentage of the production of the three types of r in a minutes narration

according to the following weightings: ((slender r*0.66) + (broad r*0.33) + (English
retroflex r* 0.33))*100.
Copular pronoun gender: Percentage of pronouns in appropriate gender.
Initial mutations: Percentage based on the average of the following mutations: nominal,
verbal, adjectival, following the possessive pronoun, following a numeral, following a
prefix.
Weighting: Different weightings were applied to the variables to highlight their relative importance
in the grammatical or linguistic (and metalinguistic) system of the two languages. A high weighting
(2) was applied to two variables, Preposition and Proficiency statement because of their
importance and noteworthiness. A low weighting (0.5) was placed on three variables Appropriate
lemmata, Interrogative variety and Word count fluency due to their (arguably) more marginal
significance.
Variable
Number of lemmata
L1 lemmata
Appropriate lemmata
Plural noun
Irregular verb
Preposition
Word count fluency
Disfluency
Discourse markers
L1 Discourse markers
Phonetics of r
Initial mutations
Weighting Language
1
E+I
1
E+I
0.5
E+I
1
E+I
1
E+I
1
E+I
0.5
E+I
2
E+I
0.5
E+I
1
E+I
2
E+I
1
E+I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
Meaning
% of calibrated lemmata
L1 lemmata
appropriate lemmata
nouns in the appropriate plural
appropriate verb
appropriate adjective
variety of questions
appropriate preposition
number of words in minutes narration
features of disfluency
statement about language ability
discourse markers (L1)
Irish discourse markers in Irish
r sounds
pronoun in the appropriate gender
appropriate initial mutations
Table 40 Description of the 16 variables used for language ability scores including weightings and explanations.
Arising from the analysis of the database, the different variables can be scored individually as
presented in Table 40. The comparable score index is formed from the variables E + I (English
and Irish) only, and the total score index is formed by combining the total score indices from
the variables E + I and I (Irish only). It is clear from Table 38 above that scoring is higher in
English with the exception of Word count fluency. In other words, with the exception of Word
count frequency, these correlations indicate that pupils achieve better in English than in Irish.
There is a significant statistical correlation between the total Irish score and the English score
(Pearson correlation = 0.417, p-value 0.003).
By aggregating the results of the language score variables, weighted in accordance with the
weightings given in column two of Table 40, one can establish a competence score in each language,
and express the result as a percentage for each language for each pupil. This quantification process
is a composite scoring procedure that gives an ability score for each language.
207
speakers in school
9.2.1 Bilingual score index

The bilingual score index is composed from the relation of the scores of the two languages with
each other. For example, if a pupil received score x in language A and score y in language B, a
bilingual score index z is obtained using the expression x y = z. For instance:
Pupils score in Irish:
Pupils score in English:
66.7
82.5
66.7 82.5 = 15.8 pupils bilingual score index
A higher score in language A and a lower score in language B reflect higher pupil ability in language
A than in language B. The greater the bilingual score index, the greater the gap in ability between
the two languages, and similarly, the more unbalanced the pupils bilingual ability. Either of the
language scores can be subtracted from the other to produce a score index (A B, or B A, i.e. in
this case, Irish minus English, or English minus Irish). For ease of presentation of the results here,
it was decided to subtract the English-language score from the Irish-language score. Therefore, in
this group of pupils, this mostly resulted in a negative score index. When a bilingual score index
is markedly and consistently negative it is indicative of bilingual disadvantage in one of the two
languages. Similarly, when a pupil has a negative score index, it is indicative of the pupil being
bilingually disadvantaged in one of two languages. The majority of the pupils assessed in this
research are bilingually disadvantaged with regard to their Irish.
A score of zero on the bilingual index means that a speakers ability is completely balanced for
both languages. The standard deviation () for the comparable score index is 4.983, and for the
whole score index it is 6.029. Therefore those pupils whose score indices lie within one standard
deviation above or below zero can be defined as balanced bilingual speakers. This balanced range
is shaded in Chart 197. According to this definition, 19 pupils results were bilingually balanced
in the comparable score index, including four pupils with positive score indices (indicating a
higher ability in Irish), and 15 pupils with negative scores (indicating a higher ability in English),
while 31 pupils results showed bilingual imbalance. According to the total score index (Chart
198), however, all pupil results showed a higher level of ability in English, with two pupils in the
balanced range and 48 pupils in the unbalanced range.
Figure 197 Irish comparable scores and English scores for pupil results in ascending order of the comparable bilingual
score index.
Figure 197 shows the distribution of the score indices based on the 12 comparable variables in
both languages (E + I in column three, Table 40).
An additional score can be generated for Irish based on the additional Irish variables (I in column
three, Table 40) which are not comparable to English but which are highly important in the
linguistic system of Irish.
208
Figure 198 Pupil Irish score and English score in ascending order of the total bilingual score index.
Figure 198 presents the 50 pupils arranged in ascending order of their total bilingual score indices.
The total bilingual score index is obtained by comparing the total Irish score with the English
score (i.e. total Irish minus English). The total score index (average value 15.5), in Chart 198, is
lower than the comparable score index (average value 7.5), in Chart 197. This total score index
demonstrates a greater gap between ability in English and in Irish; and the indicated disadvantage
of Irish is even greater (as opposed to the comparable score index). The relative position of each
pupils results does not change very much in the distribution between the comparable score index
and the total score index. The close position of pupil results in each of the indices supports the
claim that both score indices measure approximately the same linguistic capability (for each pupil
on the continuum of ability or language scores). On average pupils move c. 6 places from one
score index to the other. Of note is the fact that nine boys and one girl comprise the ten pupils who
undergo the greatest changes of position on the score index.
Figure 199 illustrates the distribution of the pupils, with the position of estimated balanced
bilingualism shaded in the centre of the chart (within one standard deviation from 0 on the x-axis);
this balanced range represents an idealised basis for comparison, in both the comparable score
index and the total score index. Examining the issue of bilingual advantage or disadvantage from
the point of view of Irish, in a bilingual contrast between the two languages, three pupils, in Figure
199, are positioned at more than 3 sigma (), i.e. markedly disadvantaged in Irish, according to
the comparable score index; and, according to the total score index, five pupils are positioned at
more than 4 sigma (), i.e. even more disadvantaged in Irish.
Figure 199 Histogram of distribution of pupil scores according to the two bilingual indices.
209
speakers in school
With regard to bilingual balance, the comparable bilingual score index above shows that there is:
a positive value, showing advantage in ability in Irish, for 4 pupils, i.e. 8%
balanced ability (1 sigma, i.e. from 4.98 to 4.98) for 19 pupils, i.e. 38%.
The total bilingual score index gives a clearer illustration of linguistic achievement with regard to
traditional Irish. This total bilingual score index shows that there is:
balanced ability (1 sigma, i.e. from 6.03 to 6.03) for 2 pupils, i.e. 4%
advantaged ability in English for all pupils, i.e. 100%
15.5% average difference in ability between English and Irish for pupils as a whole
the average difference in ability of the 10 most balanced pupils is 9%
the average difference in ability of the 10 least balanced pupils is 24.2%.
From the evidence in the figures above, it is clear that there is a general trend for the Irish values
to rise and a general trend in the English values to remain stable and level as the score indices rise.
The level of achievement in Irish is the key variable determining the value of the bilingual indices.
As illustrated in Table 41, this relation becomes clear when the correlation rates between the
bilingual score indices and the two language scores are examined.
Bilingual score index
Comparable score index
Comparable score index
Total score index
Total score index
Language score
English
Comparable Irish
English
Total Irish
Correlation
-0.339
0.708
-0.215
0.807
Table 41 Correlations between the two types of bilingual score index and language scores.
It is clear from the table how close and parallel the comparable score index and the total score
index are (note the highest correlation in the total Irish score, 0.807). Since the total score index
gives a clearer picture of bilingual competence, our analysis will henceforth focus on the total
score index. It should be furthermore pointed out that there are many other features of reduction
in the Irish of the pupils which are not taken into account in the ability score for Irish. (See the
list of variables lacking for 70%, or more, of the pupils, which were removed from the sociological
analysis; beginning of Caibidil 5.) Some of the other features of reduced acquisition of Irish were
discussed in Caibidil 2, but others could not be included in this general report. For instance, the
following features of reduced Irish were not included:
English phonetics in Irish (apart from the phonetics of r)
English intonation in Irish, e.g. high rising end tone, i.e. uptalk
Irish words and phrases not understood by the pupils in the interviewees questions
in the Irish interviews; in particular, the phrases ag bualadh bire (playing (foot)ball)
and an cheirt (the rag (cloth)) were frequently not understood (no similar absence of
understanding emerged in the English interviews)
English syntax in Irish, e.g. far it (hay place) instead of it far (literally place [of] hay,
i.e. hay place) resembling a syntax such as hay place in English).
If these many other variables had been included, the Irish ability score would be lower still and
it would result in an even higher level of disadvantage in the Irish results. The pupils English, in
contrast, included few non-normal characteristics which were not covered by the ability scores
for English.
210
As for the weighting of the language scores for Irish and English, this had little effect on the pupil
scores either for the comparable bilingual score index or for the total bilingual score index, as
is shown for the total bilingual score index in Figure 200. The weighted and unweighted curves
correspond closely to each other in the figure. The p-value arising from the general linear model
of the statistical significance for this relation is 0.000 (within three digits of the decimal). In Figure
200 the results for boys is plotted from the left to the centre, and thereafter for girls from the
centre to the right, with both genders in order of age.
Figure 200 The weighted and unweighted total bilingual index in order by gender (boys first from left) and age.
As for the contrasting trends between boys and girls according to age, see the discussion of Figure
204.
Figure 201 illustrates the correlations between the scores for the linguistic variables and the total
bilingual score index. The variables are arranged according to the strength of correlation, from
the most noteworthy positive correlative values (with the total score index), to the variables with
weaker correlations, and then to the variables with a negative correlative value. The phonetics of
r, initial mutations and comparative adjective are the most noteworthy correlations in the figure
(the three variables furthest left in Figure 201).
Figure 201 Correlations between variables and bilingual score index in order of highest positive to lowest negative
values.
211
speakers in school
It is interesting to note the number of English-language variables which have a negative correlation
with the total bilingual score index (to the right in Figure 201). This means that English capability
decreases in these variables as the achievement in the bilingual index increases. This is a result or
an indication of bilingual conflict or bilingual disadvantage (i.e. English achievement against (Irish
achievement and therefore against) bilingual ability).
Figure 202 gives another perspective on the relative disadvantage in the Irish-language score in
comparison with the English-language score. Figure 202 compares the scores of the 25 highestscoring pupils on the total Irish index with the scores of the 25 lowest-scoring pupils on the English
index (the next 25 pairs of pupils are not included in the comparative distribution here because
they follow the same trend established on the right side of the figure, i.e. English score increases
as Irish score decreases). The three top scores of pupils in Irish are higher than the three lowest
scores of pupils in English. The remaining pupils at the lower end of the English scoring have a
better result than the best scorers in Irish.20*
Figure 202 Highest pupil scores in total Irish score in comparison with lowest pupil scores in English score.
9.3 Sociology of bilingual ability

In this research, the three most important benchmarks of language ability provided are: the
English score, the total Irish score and the total bilingual score index. It is possible to investigate
the sociological characteristics of the pupils (i.e. gender, age, academic ability, exposure to
television and ratio of Irish speakers at school) according to these three measures. Because there
are 50 subjects in total it is possible to divide them equally into quintiles on a continuum of ability
(from the highest level of ability to the lowest). Table 42 displays a classification of five distinct
speaker subgroups in decreasing order from the highest scoring group (Column I) to the lowest
scoring group (Column V). Ten pupils are included in each of the subgroups based on the three
measures: the bilingual index (the top large row in Table 42), as well as the Irish score (the middle
large row in Table 42) and the English score (the bottom large row in Table 42). For instance,
therefore, the row containing data from the bilingual score index displays in Column I: the number
of boys (and therefore, number of girls = 10 number of boys); the average age; average academic
ability; and average exposure to television for the ten pupils whose scores were the highest on the
bilingual score index. Similarly, the row based on total Irish score shows in Column I: the number
of boys; the average age; average academic ability; and average exposure to television for the ten
pupils whose scores were the highest in Irish. Or in Column V, for example, the row based on the
English score displays: the number of boys; the average age; average academic ability; and average
Figure 202 contains the same data as displayed in Figure 198 but it is arranged contrastively and in a different order.
From Figure 198, one can ascertain the three pupils with the highest Irish score (over 80, on the blue line) and the
three pupils with the lowest English score (under 80, on the red line). Figure 198 contains the aligned Irish and
English and bilingual results for the same 50 pupils. In Figure 202, however, the contrastive data of 25 pupil-pairs
is presented. For instance, on the far left hand side of Figure 202 (data point 1) the Irish score of pupil B10b (from
Figure 198) is contrasted with the English score of pupil B08b (from Figure 198). Therefore in Figure 198, the data of
the same pupil is ranked together whereas in Figure 202 the data for different students are contrasted, i.e. the highest
scorers in Irish in contrast with the lowest scorers in English.
20*
212
exposure to television for the ten pupils whose scores were the lowest in English. No group of ten
pupils (Columns IV) is the same in any of the three rows (Bilingual, Irish, English) or in any
given column.
Total
bilingual
score index
Total Irish
English
Boys
Age
Academic ability
Exposure to TV
Boys
Age
Academic ability
Exposure to TV
Boys
Age
Academic ability
Exposure to TV
I
7
9.8
3.7
3.0
5
10.1
4.1
2.9
6
10.3
3.8
3.1
II
5
10.7
3.7
3.2
6
10.8
3.8
3.4
5
9.6
4.4
3.6
III
7
10.0
4.0
3.7
7
10.1
3.5
3.5
5
10.5
3.6
3.3
IV
4
9.7
3.3
3.5
4
9.6
3.3
3.3
4
9.9
3.2
3.3
V
3
8.5
3.3
3.3
4
8.1
3.3
3.6
6
8.4
3.0
3.4
Table 42 Ranked speaker results according to three measures of ability, in descending order, in subgroups of ten.
With regard to the bilingual score index in Table 42, there are seven boys in the group of ten with
the highest level of bilingual ability (and therefore three girls in the same group); there are five boys
in subgroup II, seven boys in subgroup III, four boys in subgroup IV and three boys in subgroup
V. This results in a decreasing ratio of boys as the bilingual score index decreases. Similarly, the
average age by bilingual score index decreases from subgroup I (9.8) to subgroup V (8.5).
Figure 203 illustrates the relation of the subgroup in Column I (highest scores) with the subgroup
in Column V (lowest scores) from Table 42 according to the four sociological characteristics
(shown in the four subdiagrams: Number of boys, i.e. gender; Age; Academic ability; Exposure
to television). Therefore, highest and lowest in Figure 203 refer to Column I and Column V
respectively in Table 42.
Figure 203 Ranked pupils according to three measures of ability in two subgroups: the highest-scoring ten pupils
compared with the lowest-scoring ten.
The following are the most noteworthy points illustrated in Figure 203 (starting from the
subdiagram on the left and working to the right through the four subdiagrams):
1. Number of boys: There are more boys in the highest scoring group on the bilingual index
and fewer in the lowest scoring, so girls are more represented in the lowest-scoring group.
From the perspective of gender, if the three higher-scoring groups on the bilingual index
are compared with the two lower-scoring groups on the bilingual index, the following ratio
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speakers in school
of boys is observed: (subgroup IIII) 19/30 : 7/20 (subgroup IVV), i.e. 19 : 7. In other
words, boys make up 63% of the higher-achieving sample (in subgroups IIII) while boys
make up 35% of the lower-achieving sample (in subgroups IVV).
2. Age: The largest gap between groups on the chart is found under Age. This sociological
feature occurs often with positive correlation for linguistic achievement in the results of
this report.
3. Academic ability: There is a positive relation between academic ability and linguistic
achievement, i.e. the three highest-scoring subgroups on the bilingual score index and the
language scores (Column I, Table 42) show higher academic ability than most of the other
subgroups (in particular Columns IIIV, Table 42).
4. Exposure to television: The exposure to television is higher for the lowest-scoring ten on
the bilingual score index and the language scores. The Irish score exhibits the greatest gap
between groups; the lowest exposure is associated with the highest Irish score and the
highest exposure to television is associated with the lowest Irish score.
Points 24 correspond to international sociolinguistic research results in general, i.e. (2 and 3)

an increase in linguistic achievement is found in line with age and academic ability, and (4) in
some of the sociolinguistic literature a decrease in linguistic achievement is found with greater
exposure to television. On the other hand, the opposite is often noted for point 1 in the general
sociolinguistic research, i.e. girls normally exhibit greater linguistic achievement than boys. In the
case of threatened minority languages, however, men often exhibit greater ability and functionality
in the minority language (although in societies where women are in general more isolated from
majority-language networks than men, women often attain higher minority language ability).
This interpretation of the four sociological features corresponds to the correlations between these
features and the score index, i.e. gender (-0.264, a negative value since boys were taken as the
base for the series), age (0.319), academic ability (0.194), and exposure to television (0.155). This
also tallies with the correlations found when each linguistic variable is analysed separately by
sociological variable. High correlations are noted especially with age (e.g. Comparative adjective
Irish [0.558], Number of lemmata Irish [0.477], Plural noun Irish [0.475], i.e. achievement in Irish
variables increases in line with age) and with academic ability (e.g. irregular verb English [0.454],
variety of L1 discourse markers in Irish conversation [0.400]; see Aguisn E).
9.3.1 Gender (and age) with bilingual ability
Figure 204 illustrates the difference between the distribution of girls and boys scores on the total
bilingual score index. If the children exhibited a balanced ability in the two languages they would
be distributed close to the centre of the x-axis (0 sigma). It is clear from the figure that the apex is
higher, and closer to 0, the value of balanced bilingualism, in the series of boys scores (blue). This
is another indication of female disadvantage in the data with regard to bilingual achievement.
214
Figure 204 Histogram of the total score index disaggregated by gender.
Figure 205 illustrates the score index by two sociological variables, gender and age, which are
noticeably correlated.
Figure 205 Distribution of the pupils bilingual score index by sex and age.
It is evident that there is no noteworthy change to the bilingual ability of the boys according to age,
but there is very clear rise in the trend line of the data curve of the girls. It is interesting to note,
however, that the measured score index for boys peaks at eight years of age, which then drops
continuously to age 12.
A more detailed illustration of the reason behind this difference can be reached by considering the
Irish scores and English scores when disaggregated by the same sociological variables (age and
gender). In Figure 206, to simplify the presentation, the subject results were divided into three
groups of equal membership: Age group I (17 pupils) consisting of children between 7 and 9 years
old, Age group II (17 pupils) consisting of children aged 10 years, and Age group III (16 pupils)
consisting of children aged 11 and 12 years. At the bottom of Figure 206 it is clear that the trend
lines for the blue curves are parallel. Thus, the trend lines for the boys and the girls Irish scores
are parallel. A parallel rate of improvement is noted in their Irish as age increases, for both boys
and girls. The trend lines are different, however, for the English scores of boys and girls (trend lines
for the red curves at the top of Figure 206). At the youngest age group there is a large difference
between girls and boys ability in English. Ability in English is higher for girls and this does not
vary with age. The level of English ability is greater for older boys, with the ability of the oldest
age group approaching that of the girls. The bilingual ability of boys does not vary noticeably with
age because of the improvement in their levels of ability in both Irish and English according to age.
There is a noteworthy rise in the bilingual ability for the older girls due to the older girls greater
ability in Irish (while their English ability is at a similar level for all ages).
215
speakers in school
Figure 206 Distribution of Irish and English scores for girls and boys divided into three equal age groups.
Given these interesting plots, a study was made of the relationship between pupils gender and
language scores in each language separately. No statistically significant effect of Gender was found,
either on Irish scores or on English scores. The above tests were conducted in a general linear
model that included Age, so that the effect of Age was essentially adjusted for (removed) in the
assessment of the pupils gender effect. The interaction between gender and age in the Irish scores
was also included in the model. No statistically significant value to the interaction between gender
and age in the Irish scores of the pupils was found. In the general linear model, the effect of the
Total Irish Score on the interaction between gender and age (gender x age) was not statistically
significant (p-value = 0.399).
9.3.2 Age and linguistic achievement
This section addresses the relation between age and linguistic achievement. It is important to
investigate any evidence of change in linguistic outcomes according to pupils ages. It would
be expected that childrens linguistic functionality would improve as they develop and mature.
The evidence in this study is, however, based on apparent time data (i.e. different age groups
assessed at the same time) rather than real time data (i.e. a panel of children assessed at different
times during their youth). In this study, nonetheless, the older the child, the higher their general
linguistic achievement in both Irish and English. This section presents descriptive statistics as well
as statistical tests on the significance of the correlation between the sociological variable age and
linguistic variables. The descriptive statistics show that age is a noteworthy and stable variable,
positively associated with linguistic achievement (in both languages). The statistical tests of
significance associated with the two languages independent of each other show a significant agerelated effect for each language.21*
In modelling language scores, one variable that has a significant effect in all analyses is the percentage of Irish
speakers. Our analyses were conducted by using a general linear model approach since this includes regression and
analysis of variance models (regression is the case where all input variables are quantitative, and analysis of variance
models are those for which all input variables are qualitative; by introduction of indicator variables to the model, it
is possible to use a regression approach for both quantitative and qualitative variables, and in effect this is what the
general linear model approach does). Towards choosing a parsimonious model we found that the variable Percentage
of Irish speakers must be included and also the age of the speaker. All other input variables can be dropped, although
future researchers may wish to explore in more depth the variable Academic ability since it was close to being
significant (p-value = 0.052). When analysis is carried out according to the general linear model of the Total Irish
score index (including the two variables Proportion of Irish speakers and Age), two significant p-value results are
found: a p-value of 0.000 for the Proportion of active speakers variable and a p-value of 0.032 for the Age variable.
If the statistical analysis is run based on the Bilingual score index (including the three variables Age, Academic
ability, Gender), excluding the variable Proportion of Irish speakers, the values associated with the other sociological
variables are as follows: Age 0.031; Academic ability 0.052; Gender 0.120. Age is the variable with the most significant
p-value here, which tallies with the descriptive statistics (Caibidil 5). No significant association with the sociological
variable Exposure to television was found, and it was therefore excluded from the analysis.
21*
216
In order to give a summary measure of achievement in each language, the linguistic score of each
pupil on each variable was transformed into a z-score.22* Note that the z-scores for the pupils in each
linguistic variable for a given language will form a set of numbers that has mean 0 and standard
deviation 1. For each pupil the z-scores obtained in each linguistic variable for each language are
then averaged across all the linguistic variables to produce an overall score for each student in
each language. These averages will also be centred at 0; if a student does well in a language, the
average of his or her z-scores across the linguistic variables will be large and positive, whereas it
will be far below 0 if the students overall score for that language is poor. Thus, for example, a high
average score for a pupil in a given language is an indication of higher ability in that language. It is
of interest to see how a students composite score (i.e. the average of the students z-scores) varies
with the students age. Figure 207 displays the relation between the age of the children, from 7 to
12 years old, and their composite z-scores of the comparable linguistic variables in Irish.
Figure 207 Scattergram of Age and composite z-scores of comparable linguistic variables in Irish, with associated linear
regression line fit.
It is clear from the trend line in Figure 207 that the z-scores increase in line with the age of the
child: their Irish improves according to their age. A high level of statistical significance is associated
with this rise in z-scores (p-value = 0.003).
Figure 208 illustrates the relation between the age of the children and the composite z-scores for
the comparable linguistic variables in English.
The z-score associated with a given students mark is the number of standard deviations that the students score is
away from the group mean. It is useful for indicating the score of a person relative to the group as a whole and is also
useful for comparing a persons scores in various tests (the student performs best in the test for which he or she gets
the highest z-score, not necessarily in the test in which he or she gets the highest score).
22*
217
speakers in school
Figure 208 Scattergram of Age and the composite z-scores of comparable linguistic variables in English with associated
trend line.
The trend line in Figure 208 shows that z-scores in English rise as the childrens age increases,
thus their English improves according to their age. Again, a high level of statistical significance is
associated with this rise in z-scores (p-value = 0.001). Therefore, to conclude this section, it can be
stated that there is strong evidence of improvement in both languages according as age increases.
9.3.3 Proportion of Irish speakers at school and Irish / bilingual ability
In this section, we address the positive relation between the proportion of Irish speakers in a given
school and bilingual ability (ability in Irish in particular). When the English scores, the Irish scores
and the bilingual score index are analysed, the achievement of the different schools participating
in the study can be ranked from the school with the highest scores in Irish to the school with the
lowest scores in Irish. They can also be ranked from the school with the highest bilingual score
indices to the school with the lowest bilingual score indices. The schools appear in almost the
same order in both sets of rankings. Figure 209 illustrates the distribution of schools in descending
order on the bilingual score index. The four highest schools in the bilingual score index are also the
four highest in the Irish score.
Figure 209 Distribution of the eight schools in descending order on the bilingual score index.
218
9.4 Conclusion
Information was obtained from teachers and other educational professionals in the community
regarding the number of active speakers of Irish (i.e. Irish speakers) in almost all of the school
classes from which the subjects recorded for this study were drawn. The proportion, from the
sampled classes, for each school was obtained by adding the numbers from relevant classes
together, and the data bars in Figure 209 represent the proportion of active Irish speakers for
the sampled classes in each school. For the four schools with the highest results on the bilingual
index, the proportion of Irish speakers is much higher than the four schools with the lowest
results on the bilingual score index. The average proportion of Irish speakers in the four schools
with the highest results on the index is 86%; in contrast, the average proportion of Irish speakers
in the four schools with the lowest results on the index is 46%. Alternatively, one can state that
there is a proportion of 14% English speakers in the four highest schools on the bilingual score
index; in contrast, there is a proportion of 54% English speakers in the four schools lowest on the
bilingual score index. The difference in bilingual score index is striking: the highest four schools
have double the bilingual score index of the four lowest schools. This evidence therefore shows a
negative relation between a high level of English speakers in a school and both Irish and bilingual
achievement.
A relation is evident, therefore, between school socialisation in the Irish language and ability in
Irish, and hence bilingual ability. Although parental levels of use of Irish is reported as similar for
each of the families of the pupils who were recorded from each of the eight schools participating
in this research, the transfer of Irish is better achieved in a context where a high number of
families (86% on average, here, according to the proportion of Irish speakers) speaks or transfers
exclusively Irish to their children. Even in the context, however, of a relatively high proportion of
socialisation in Irish, English scores are higher than Irish scores.23*
There is no noticeable relation between the level of Irish-language socialisation at school and
ability in English. Ability in English is static between all schools. This indicates a consistency of
acquisition of the majority language, independent of the level of ability of the minority language.
This phenomenon in minority bilingualism is frequently reported in the international research:
the majority language is acquired fully or effortlessly and its acquisition is not dependent on
the minority language acquisition. (Since bilingual acquisition is normally unbalanced, the
nonproblematic acquisition of the majority language might be taken as diagnostic for reduced
acquisition in the minority language or of impending death of the minority language. In short,
the evidence of this report and of international research suggests: if a child cannot but acquire the
majority language completely, a child cannot acquire the minority language completely.)
There is a clear positive relation in the trend line in Figure 210 between the proportion of active
speakers of Irish (i.e. Irish speakers) and the total Irish score of the individual pupils (red dots) in
each of the eight schools (eight columns of red dots).
Concerning the school with the lowest score on the index, the sample was highly skewed for gender. There were more
girls than boys in this school.
23*
219
speakers in school
Figure 210 Total Irish score of the pupils in the eight schools in comparison with the proportion of active Irish speakers.
This shows that the Irish scores are higher for pupils attending schools with a higher level of Irish
speakers. An analysis of the relation between the Total Irish score and the Proportion of Irish
speakers showed a highly significant effect (p-value = 0.000+). This effect persisted when Age
was added to the model. In the analysis of the effect of the proportion of Irish speakers on English
scores, no significance was found (p-value 0.846).
9.4 Conclusion
A summary and conclusion of this chapter, especially concerning the imbalance in ability found
throughout this study, is given at the beginning of Chapter 10.
Additional reading
Gathercole, V. M. (ed.) (2013) Solutions for the Assessment of Bilinguals. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Gathercole, V. M. and Thomas, E. M. (2009) Bilingual First-language Development: Dominant

Cognition 12, 2: 21337.
Portuguese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Wright, S. C., Taylor, D. M. and Macarthur, J. (2000) Subtractive Bilingualism and the Survival
220
Conclid agus molta
10
Sa chaibidil seo tugaimid conclid agus molta maidir leis na dshlin agus na fadhbanna a
leagamar amach sa saothar seo, ach go hirithe fadhbanna sealbhaithe i leith na Gaeilge mar
mhionteanga a tugadh chun solais i gCaibidil 9. Plimid i dtosach an comhthacs ginearlta
nisinta agus idirnisinta inar fidir na molta seo a shuomh. Luaitear an cras stit, an pobal
agus na dalta agus bonn tuisceana an chrais reatha oideachais. Plimid an g a bheadh le cras
nua oideachais a thgil ar bhunsraith athnuachan phobail. Lithrtear na mnla fideartha
oideachais agus cras ptrnacht scolaochta do mhnla ar leith, maille le molta i dtaobh feidhm a
thabhairt do chras mionteangach breisitheach. Ar deireadh t teacht ar mholta maidir le taighde
breise agus taighde tacaochta.
10.1 Buntiste an Bharla ar an nGaeilge
T tuairisc sa taighde seo ar chumas ginearlta nos sle sa Ghaeilge a bheith ag na dalta le hais
a gcumais sa Bharla. Nuair a chuirtear cumas iomln sa Ghaeilge i gcomparid leis an gcumas
sa Bharla, tr mhodh scrla, t gach piste ceannasach sa Bharla (ach go bhfuil beirt acu
measartha cothrom; Cairt 198). Sna gnithe teangeolaochta inchomparide a scagamar bh
cimheas ag an mBarla ar an nGaeilge de 7 : 3 (.i. t cumas nos fearr sa Bharla i gcs seacht
dtscaire, agus cumas nos fearr sa Ghaeilge i gcs tr thscaire).24* Tuairiscodh chomh maith 15%
de mhendifrocht chumais idir cumas an Bharla agus cumas na Gaeilge i measc na ndalta ar fad,
agus t an mbhuntiste ar thaobh na Gaeilge de i gcs gach dalta.
Is fidir an buntiste Barla at acu ina gcumas dtheangach a shonr ar an gcaoi seo a leanas:
sa str focal
sa chdmheascadh feidhmiil
sa chruinneas gramada i gcrsa deilbhochta agus comhrire (ach amhin sa chlaoninsint

thaobh aimsire de)
sa chruinneas foghraochta
in ionramhil na rims simeantaice agus pragmataice agus i dtaobh stadanna mlofachta.
Is fidir an mbhuntiste Gaeilge at acu ina gcumas dtheangach a shonr ar a mhalairt de chaoi:
sa str focal
sa chdmheascadh feidhmiil
sa chruinneas gramada i gcrsa deilbhochta agus comhrire (ach amhin sa chlaoninsint

thaobh aimsire de)
sa chruinneas foghraochta
in ionramhil na rims simeantaice agus pragmataice agus i dtaobh stadanna mlofachta.
De rir: Lon leama, Aidiacht bhreischime, Claoninsint (comhrir), Ramhfhocal, Marcir dioscrsa, Stadanna,
Focail bhearnaithe (.i. x7, Barla buntisteach) : Claoninsint (aimsir), Lofacht lon focal, Dbartal (.i. x3, Gaeilge
buntisteach).
24*
221
10. Conclid agus molta
Is fidir an buntiste Gaeilge at acu ina gcumas dtheangach a shonr mar seo:
lon focal agus siolla dbartaola ina gcuid lofachta.
Go hachomair, is m an lofacht at ag na dalta sa Ghaeilge n sa Bharla ach is m an cruinneas

agus an acmhainneacht at acu sa Bharla n sa Ghaeilge.25*
Mar a phlamar i bhFochaibidil 1.2 maidir leis an dtheangachas go coitianta, lirtear sa taighde
seo go sonrach go bhfuil cumas agothrom ag formhr mr na ndalta dtheangacha ina dh
dteanga. An dtheangachas agothrom n an dtheangachas ceannasach an gns. Is an Barla
a dteanga cheannasach tharla gurb an teanga is cumasa acu . Is an Ghaeilge an teanga is
laige n an teanga lag at ag formhr na ndalta. T eiseamlir shoilir i gceist den dtheangachas
ceannasach i gcs na mrtheanga agus den dtheangachas dealaitheach i gcs na mionteanga. Is
l go mr cumas na bpist sa Ghaeilge n an cumas a bheadh ag cainteoir aonteangach, agus is
fidir Gaeilge laghdaithe a thabhairt ar Ghaeilge na ndalta. Is m an tionchar teangeolaochta a
imronn a dteanga cheannasach, an Barla, ar a dteanga lag, an Ghaeilge, n an tionchar a imronn
an Ghaeilge ar a gcuid Barla. thaobh na teangeolaochta foirmila de, is sa teanga is m cumas
at acu, an Barla, is fearr a fheidhmonn formhr na ndalta. Fach an larid thos.
10.1.1 Comhthacs ginearlta nisinta agus idirnisinta

Suirbh ar thoradh teangeolaochta an tsealbhaithe seachas suirbh oideachais at sa staidar seo.
Is i gcomhthacs an chrais reatha at na tortha seo mbaint amach. An cumas dtheangach at
lirithe sna tortha eascraonn s as na deiseanna agus na feidhmeanna agsla sisialta maidir le
hionchur, le hionghlacadh agus le haschur teangeolaochta sa teaghlach, sa phobal, sa scolaocht
agus in idirchaidreamh menaithe na nuatheicneolaochta.
Is lon le hireamh ar fidir a thabhairt de thagairt acadla chun largais sochtheangeolaochta
nisinta agus idirnisinta a fhil ar phrisis agsla dhtheangacha agus aistri teanga. Tugtar
sleachta roghnaithe anseo sos dfhianaise agus de chonclid as an lann idirnisinta a thagann
bonn ar aon le conclid an staidir seo.
Is dcha go bhfaighf macasamhail na dtortha seo i gCatagir A i nGaeltachta eile.
25*
222
Sealbh dtheangach
... longitudinal studies show that pre-school bilingual children who speak a minority language run the
risk of developing incomplete proficiency in the minority language as a result of intense contact with
the majority language and reduced exposure and use of the minority language. Very often, minority
language-speaking children do not reach age-appropriate levels of morphological development. This
raises the question of whether incomplete acquisition in bilingual children is also severe in other
aspects of syntax and its interfaces with other domains (Montrul 2008: 117).
Although balanced proficiency (with native-like command of two languages) is a possible outcome
of bilingualism, it is indeed very rare ... The reality is that most bilinguals are linguistically unbalanced,
both functionally (in their language use) and representationally (in their linguistic knowledge).
Bilingual speakers typically possess a stronger and a weaker language ... the relative strength of the
two languages fluctuates along the lifespan depending on a variety of factors, such as age and order
of acquisition, as well as what language is most often used and preferred in the community (i.e., the
sociolinguistic status of the languages as majority or minority languages), and the contexts for use of
each language (home, church, school, work, etc.) (Montrul 2008: 18).
I suggest somewhere between ages 8 and 10 as an approximate time when the possibility of achieving
native-like attainment in the L2, and of undergoing significant attrition in the L1, become less likely
(Montrul 2008: 24).
Since bilinguals time and experience in context with each of their languages is by definition more
limited than that of their monolingual peers, because a bilinguals experience is divided between two
languages, it appears to take them longer to gain the critical mass of input data to acquire structures
and to be able to draw out the relevant grammatical generalizations governing their use (Gathercole
agus Thomas 2009: 214).
... an indigenous minority language that is spoken by a much smaller subset of the population might
be even more susceptible to imperfect learning than we have observed here for Welsh. This is because
if a language is spoken by a much smaller percentage of the overall population, childrens exposure
is likely to be even more sporadic and scattered than in a case like that of Welsh (Gathercole agus
Thomas 2009: 233).
In Wales, for example, the above research suggests that the optimal learning pattern might be, if
the parents speak Welsh, to expose children to only Welsh at home (Gathercole agus Thomas 2009:
233).
... it appears to be harder for a child to learn Spanish than English, even within the Spanish-speaking
communities of Miami (Pearson et al. 1997: 47, (fach freisin Pearson 2009)).
... it appears that, when bilingual children hear less of the minority language than they do of the
majority language, parents may have to compensate for the difference with more active language
teaching strategies than are normally associated with first language acquisition (Pearson et al. 1997:
56).
Having half-Spanish in the home does not appear sufficient for most children to develop an
acceptable level of expressive language nor literacy in Spanish (excepting phonics) without explicit
teaching, as in two-way schools. ... that in an English-dominant society, maximal Spanish exposure is
needed to maintain the most balanced bilingualism, provided that threshold English exposure is also
achieved (Eilers et al. 2006: 834).
The decline in Spanish in these data ... does not appear to be so directly related to gains in English
and vice versa. ... When parents and grandparents insist that children use the minority language in
223
daily discourse, proficiency improves. Homes that allow English to replace Spanish in a growing
number of familial contexts lose Spanish without a notable boost to English (Eilers et al. 2006: 878).
The findings suggest that the change and deterioration of the L1 which may be witnessed among
migrant populations may be determined by two opposite poles: speakers who do not use their L1 at
all may experience some degree of atrophy, while those who live in a bilingual migrant community
where L1 and L2 are used frequently alongside each other and mixed to some degree may find
themselves sharing in a language with accelerated signs of contact-induced change (Schmid 2011:
171).
Cins sochaocha
Thus, though the children learned to speak French in a primarily French-speaking home environment,
they are now reaching the point in the lifecycle (adolescence) where their propensity to speak French
in the home seems to be determined primarily by their external social environments. The family
is important for the social transmission of a language, but it is society, in the broadest sense, that
determines whether or not it will be spoken (Caldas et al. 2000: 377).
... three major factors that contribute to language maintenance or loss: (1) parents commitment to
the heritage language, (2) the size and commitment of the immigrant language group, and (3) the
openness of the host community to the arrival of the immigrants and to a multicultural ideal (Eilers
et al. 2006: 68).
The way in which under-users speak the language of their community is a disquieting sign of the
danger to which it is exposed and, in the most advanced cases, a clear announcement of its imminent
demise. ... Having acquired superior competence in the dominant language, under-users introduce a
considerable numbers of words borrowed from that language into their discourse in the dominated
language. Consequently, these words are integrated into the lexical inventory, and pass from chance
discourse into the workings of the system. At the same time, native words, which imported words
make redundant, begin to disappear (Hagge 2009: 80, 89).
The bottom line for successful bilingualism is whether one uses two languages consistently, and the
bottom line for developing two languages is the presence of long-term consistent exposure to two
languages (Eilers et al. 2006: 71).
Fors oideachais
In some bilingual learning situations the initial difficulty is quickly overcome and the bilingual child
rapidly learns to both understand and communicate in the second language at no cost to his native
language. ... However, in bilingual learning situations where the child fails to overcome difficulties
in coping with two languages the research evidence suggest that his bilingual learning experiences
might have a negative effect on his cognitive functioning, at least in so far as this functioning involves
language. Continued difficulties with language over a prolonged period of time are likely to mean that
a bilingual childs interaction with an increasingly symbolic environment will not optimally promote
his cognitive and academic progress (Cummins 2001: 41).
All of these studies together provide a picture showing that level of exposure to Welsh gives the child
the early advantage in learning the structure in question. Thus children who come from OWH [OnlyWelsh Homes] homes typically outperform, at an early age, their WEH [Welsh-English Homes] peers
[...]. Similarly, children from OWS [Only-Welsh Schools] schools typically outperform their WES
[Welsh-English Schools] peers (Gathercole agus Thomas 2009: 224).
224
10.1.2 Prinn maidir le cur i bhfeidhm molta sa chomhthacs casta seo

I dtortha an staidir seo, agus i bhfoilseachin eile, lirtear a dhonacht is at sealbh na Gaeilge
sa ghlin g reatha. T an liri ar leibhal na gnthachtla teanga thaobh na Gaeilge de ag teacht
leis an liri ar igeandil teanga, thaobh na sochtheangeolaochta de, a tugadh chun solais san
SCT (2007).
Fi sna ceantair ina bhfaightear an liri is airde ar lon na gcainteoir baile Gaeilge, .i. Catagir A,
nl an acmhainn choiteann ag an bpobal, an coth ba gh chun an teanga a sholthar don aos g le
go mbainfeadh an t-aos g sealbh iomln amach sa Ghaeilge. Is is cionsiocair leis an bpriseas
laghdaithe teanga i measc dla eile sa Ghaeltacht n:
inghlacthacht fhorlmhas chultr an Bharla
an creimeadh leannach ar dhls na gcainteoir Gaeilge i gceantair thraidisinta na Gaeilge

athruithe i gcinel an ionchuir theanga a chloiseann an ghlin g
athruithe i gcinel na Gaeilge a labhratear a bhfuil lorg na teagmhla teanga leis an mBarla
le sonr air
cng ar rims agus ar fheidhmeanna na Gaeilge ina cuid rims traidisinta
athruithe i ndeiseanna an ionghlactha sa sealbh agus i ndeiseanna an aschuir chumarside

sa Ghaeilge (fheidhmiil, aonteangach)
acmhainn theoranta ag na forais tacaochta phobail agus oideachais chun na himpleachta
a bhaineann leis na hathruithe a bhainisti
forlmhas nsmhaireachta na mrtheanga i gcleachtais shisialta na gline ige.
Is bonn easnamhach at faoin gcur chuige reatha san oideachas Gaeilge n san oideachas
dtheangach sa Ghaeltacht agus is lir go bhfuil g le straitis agus cleachtais in aghaidh easpa
feidhme na Gaeilge, easpa feidhme at leathadh sna pobail Ghaeilge agus sna forais Ghaeilge sa
Ghaeltacht. Dreofar anseo ar chs na scolaochta go hirithe.
I bpobail mhionteanga bonn claonadh lidir na fric diltacha a shanadh n neamhaird a
thabhairt ar a n-impleachta. N mr do lucht polasa an laincis sin a sheachaint ms mian leo leas
a bhaint as faisnis an staidir seo le bonn nos tirgila a chur faoin gcur chuige maidir lena bhfuil
fgtha den Ghaeltacht thaobh fhinilacht na Gaeilge de.
I ngeall ar a thrine agus a thromchis is at creimeadh dhanamh ar chleachtais shisialta
na Gaeilge sna ceantair Ghaeltachta is tbhachtach nach gcuirf am, fuinneamh agus acmhainn
institiide am ag iarraidh na fric agus an taith fhrinneach a sheachaint.
T riachtanais scolaochta ag foghlaimeoir Gaeilge, dar ndigh, ach n hionann na modhanna oibre
oideachais a fheileann dfhoghlaimeoir agus na modhanna at de dhth ar chainteoir dchais
agus ar mhionteangir dchais i gcs na Gaeilge de. Mar shampla, n chaitear le cainteoir dchais
Barla sa Ghalltacht ar ns gur foghlaimeoir Barla iad. Is treisi at sa chras oideachais ar an
acmhainn dchais at ag na cainteoir dchais Barla sa Ghalltacht murab ionann agus cs na
nGaeilgeoir sa Ghaeltacht. N mr a bheith san airdeall, mar sin, go bhfuil aghaidh le tabhairt ar
riachtanais na gcainteoir dchais Gaeilge ar an mbonn go bhfuil riachtanais shainila ar leith acu
nach g gurb ionann iad agus riachtanais na bhfoghlaimeoir scoile Gaeilge.
Le bonn iontaofa Gaeilge, n go deimhin, dtheangach a chur faoi chur chuige an chrais sa
Ghaeltacht, n rogha radil straitise an status quo i gcs an oideachais. T dh mhr-impleacht
ag doth na Gaeltachta don tr ar fad. Beidh deireadh leis an bhfinilacht Ghaelach bheo, le
pobal na Gaeltachta agus le hoidhreacht bheo na nGael. Fgfaidh sin deireadh leis an bhfoinse
ralaoch shisialta agus threolaochtil don Ghaelachas sa tionscadal cultrtha agus nisinta,
225
agus deireadh leis an nGaeltacht mar eiseamlir athshealbhaithe don fhinilacht Ghaelach. Beidh
an cras athshealbhaithe i gcrais oideachais na hireann faoi mhbhuntiste n ramhscolaocht
go dt an tr leibhal. Mar shampla praiticiil amhin, beidh deacracht oiliint oirinach a chur
ar bhair oid gan taith shisialta sa Ghaeltacht. Molaimid anseo sos leasuithe le feabhas a chur
ar an gcras reatha.
10.2 An cras Stit, an pobal agus na dalta
Maonn Curnin (2007, 2009, 2012) go bhfuil laghd ag teacht ar acmhainn shealbhaithe Gaeilge
i measc na gcainteoir na 1960 i leith agus go bhfuil an priseas laghdaithe sin ag teacht i dtreis
shin i leith. Fgann sin go bhfuil an cumas Gaeilge laghd go leannach i measc tuismitheoir
agus sa dream a bhfuil dars acu ar an ige, .i. minteoir, gaolta agus cairde na muintire. Is sa
ghlin is ige at an Ghaeilge is laghdaithe sa phriseas leannach seo, glin i ndiaidh gline.
Is ard at liri i dtortha an taighde seo maidir leis an nglin is ige: ceann chointeanid
an mheatha reatha n ceann chointeanid mhbhuntiste an mhionteangachais. D bhr sin, is
priseas seo a thosaigh sa Ghaeltacht nua-aoiseach leathchad bliain shin ar a dheireana. T,
mar shampla, aonchinelachas stl na cainte sa Ghaeilge agus an chaint chdmheasctha coitianta
i nglin na tuismitheoireachta agus sa ghlin mhenaosta. T ifeacht mhr aige seo ar chumas
agus feidhmilacht na gline at ag teacht in inmhe faoi lthair.
Chomh maith le deacracht i leith an chumais t leochaileacht thaobh na ceannaireachta de,
cinse at coitianta i gcomhthacs pobal mionteanga mar go n-ileodh ceannair gnomhartha
dshlnacha ar an bpobal. Teastaonn bonn tacil pobail a bheith ann le go mbeidh feidhm agus
rath ar fhorais tacaochta sa phobal.
T an cras oideachais ag feidhmi i gcomhthacs pobail nach bhfuil ag ir leo sealbh iomln a
bhaint amach sa mhionteanga. Fabht eile is ea an easpa ceannaireachta ar son na Gaeilge a thugann
cras an Stit uile don phobal a bhfuil s ag feidhmi ar a son. I measc aidhmeanna an staidir seo,
timid ag iarraidh aird a tharraingt ar an ng at le feabhas a chur ar an mbonn tuisceana i leith
na gcastachta agus na ndshln seo. D dhshlna d bhfuil an mbhuntiste Gaeilge at liri
sa staidar seo, is digh go mbeadh cumas Gaeilge na ndalta nos laige fs murach an solthar
oideachais agus iarrachta na scoileanna maidir le coth na Gaeilge (fach, m.sh., an feabhas a
thagann ar ghnthachtil na ndalta sa Ghaeilge le hAois, Fochaibidil 9.3.2). N miste a mheabhr
gur minic nach labhraonn daoine ga mionteanga at ag fil bhis n faoi bhagairt ina bpobal
fin de cheal a shealbh go hiomln ((agus de cheal stdas na teanga srl.) Dorian 1981, Kulick
1992, Sherkina-Lieber et al. 2011). Is isteoir amhin iad sa mhionchultr teanga sin, agus fgann
sin gur mionteangir fulangacha amhin iad. I gcodarsnacht leis na histeoir sin, t acmhainn
ghnomhach na gcainteoir ga sa Ghaeltacht nos forbartha: labhraonn formhr na gcainteoir
laghdaithe an Ghaeilge. Is dcha go dtugann an pobal agus an Stt feidhmilacht agus stdas don
Ghaeilge sa chaoi agus go gcuidonn sin leis na sealbhir ga labhairt na Gaeilge a fhorbairt. T
an cumas gnomhach labhartha sa Ghaeilge nos forbartha go ginearlta n cumas fulangach na
tuisceana amhin.
10.3 Bonn tuisceana an chrais reatha oideachais

10.3.1 Tuiscint ar fheidhmi an chrais
Nor thug an cras oideachais faoi mhnla oideachais a fhorbairt riamh a dfhach le hoideachas
sprioctha a chur ar fil do chainteoir dchais Gaeilge agus a bheadh ag freastal sa dchas sin ar
a bhfors cogneolaochta, acadil agus intleachtil. Rinne Stt na hireann faill cheana i molta a
thug aghaidh ar na cins sochtheangeolaochta is bonn leis an mionteang agus i molta oideachais
a ghabhfadh i ngleic leo agus a bheadh ag teacht le mnla sainithe oideachais sa chad teanga
lnsealbhaithe do mhionteangir (fach an easpa cuir i bhfeidhm i leith mholta Mhic Dhonnacha
et al. 2005, SCT 2007 agus U Fhlatharta 2007, tuarasclacha a choimisinaigh an Stt fin, gan
trcht ar mholta finteacha proifisinta i bhfoilseachin neamhstit i gcaitheamh na mblianta).
226
10.2 An cras Stit, an pobal agus na dalta / 10.3 Bonn tuisceana an chrais reatha oideachais
N fidir an mnla oideachais a bheadh le bun ar bhonn Gaeilge a bheadh lnsealbh ag piste
ag ts na scolaochta, n fidir sin a chur i bhfeidhm anois i ngeall ar laghad an tsealbhaithe Gaeilge
a chuireann na pist i gcrch faoi rir na gcins reatha sochtheangeolaochta agus de bharr nr
oileadh na minteoir i gcomhthacs ina bhfuil an sealbh iomln teanga de dhth (ar dhalta agus
ar mhinteoir).
D mbeadh mnla sainithe oideachais sa chad teanga lnsealbhaithe i bhfeidhm do mhionteangir

Gaeilge, is cinnte go n-aithneofa laig sealbhaithe cainteoir laghdaithe ina ngnthachtil oideachais,
sa ghnthachtil oideachais teanga ach go hirithe. De bharr go bhfuil an curaclam Gaeilge ag dri
ar fhoghlaimeoir Gaeilge seachas ar chainteoir dchais Gaeilge, nl an ghnthachtil dchais
tomhas sa chras seo. Fach go ngnthaonn dalta go nisinta ag an ardleibhal sna scrduithe
dara leibhal stit marcanna sa Ghaeilge a bhonn cothrom leis na marcanna sa Bharla, sa Teastas
Sisearach, n nos fearr n na marcanna sa Bharla, san Ardteistimireacht (tuairisctear freisin
tortha inchomparide i gcs na Matamaitice agus an Bharla sa bhunscoil in Gilleece et al. 2012). Ina
dhiaidh sin fin, lirtear i dtaighde Harris et al. (2006) gur shaothraigh na dalta i nGaelscoileanna
scril nos airde i dtstlacha litearthachta an taighde sin n na dalta i scoileanna Gaeltachta
(Catagir A, B agus C de chuid an SCT). Bfhidir gur liri indreach at i dtortha taighde Harris
et al. ar an nGaeilge laghdaithe i rimse na litearthachta sa Ghaeltacht.
Is bonn na samhla reatha a bhaineann le cur i bhfeidhm an chrais oideachais sa Ghaeltacht go
bhfuiltear ag iarraidh oideachas a chur ar chainteoir dchais Gaeilge agus ar chainteoir dchais
Barla araon i gcras aonadach amhin (agus tr bhthin curaclaim a fheileann foghlaimeoir dara
teanga don Ghaeilge). Is an tsamhail reatha go gcothfa an cumas dtheangach agus an innilacht
acadil sa d theanga agus go ndanfa iarracht go mbeadh an fors pearsanta agus oideachais seo
framhaithe i ndchas itiil na Gaeltachta.
Is iad seo a leanas na fric sochtheangeolaochta a bhaineann den sprioc at ag an tsamhail
oideachais at ann faoi lthair:
T os cionn leath na ndalta ina gcainteoir aonteangacha Barla i dts na scolaochta (Mac
Donnacha et al. 2005)
T comhghaolchin dhiltacha idir cimheas Barlir i scoil agus an ghnthachtil
Ghaeilge agus an ghnthachtil dhtheangach araon (Fochaibidil 9.3.3)
T laige i gcumas Gaeilge an phobail go ginearlta chun tac le sealbh iomln na Gaeilge
agus laige i gcumas sa Ghaeilge i ngrasin agsla shisialta agus sna grasin at bunaithe
ar na mein chumarside
T sealbh laghdaithe na ndalta sa Ghaeilge liri i gcomhthacs an dtheangachais

dhealaithigh, ar limh amhin, agus i gcomhthacs a gcumais bhuntistigh sa Bharla ar an
limh eile
N ann a thuilleadh don chainteoir dchais g Gaeilge, mar a thuigt roimhe seo ag tagairt
don chumas iomln (n t a leithid eisceachtil ar fad)
T deacracht ann maidir le sealbh na litearthachta, agus nl bonn sealbhaithe labhartha
iomlnaoch faoin sealbh litearthachta.
Le bonn slintiil a chur faoi pholasa oideachais Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht, is g aghaidh a thabhairt
ar na s fhric sin ach go hirithe.
10.3.2 Tuiscint ar an dtheangachas: teanga dhchais, teanga phromhil agus

teanga na forbartha pearsanta
T liri thabhairt i dtortha an staidir seo ar an acmhainn teangeolaochta a bhaineann leis an

mionteangachas dchais. T cruthaithe sa lann idirnisinta go bhfuil comhghaol dearfach idir
an teanga phromhil agus teanga na forbartha pearsanta agus an fhoris intleachtil. Lironn
227
an bhearna idir an cumas teangeolaochta sa mhrtheanga, an Barla, agus an cumas nos l sa

mhionteanga, an Ghaeilge, gur m an fheidhm at na dalta in ann a bhaint as an mBarla mar
acmhainn teangeolaochta le hais fheidhm na Gaeilge. Comhartha sirt an dtheangachais
dhealaithigh iad seo mar a bhonn i gceist san oideachas oidhreachta go minic (fach Cummins
2001: 255).26* Deir Cummins:
The major educational implication of these hypotheses (the interaction of motivational and linguistic
variables with educational treatments) is that if optimal development of a minority language childs
cognitive and academic potential is a goal, then the school program must aim to promote an additive
form of bilingualism involving literacy in both L1 and L2 (Cummins 2001: 91).
I gcs bhlianta tosaigh scolaocht na bpist, is iondil go moltar go gcuirf oideachas ar phist na
teanga mionlaigh sa chad teanga at acu i dtosach, ach i gcs na Gaeltachta faoi lthair n hionann
an teanga phromhil agus an teanga bhaile at ag na dalta ga dtheangacha arb an Ghaeilge
a gcad teanga (fi i gceantair Chatagir A (SCT 2007; Lenoach et al. 2012)). Agus ceisteanna a
bhaineann leis an oidhreacht Ghaelach a fhgil as an ireamh, shlf gur intuigthe oideachas a
chur ar dhalta sa teanga is feidhmila at acu. thaobh na forbartha oideachais de, is dcha gur
thirgila rathla, tar is bliain n dh idirthrimhseach agus idirtheangach, promhchram an
oideachais do na dalta seo a dhanamh trna dteanga phromhil. Murach ceist na hoidhreachta,
mar sin, bintuigthe promhtheanga fheidhmeach an oideachais a dhanamh den Bharla. Anseo
sos t molta ndanamh, mar sin, a rachadh chun leas na hoidhreachta Gaela agus chun leas
na dtuismitheoir agus na ndalta ar spis leo oideachas san oidhreacht seo. T peirspictocht
theangeolaocht an mhionteangachais dchais tabhairt chun solais sa staidar seo. T impleachta
soilire diltacha i gceist m fhgtar an cras mar at s. T mnla oideachais ag teastil a rachadh
i gcion ar bhealach dearfach ar an taith thrioblideach at ag dalta Gaeltachta ar an nGaeilge agus
ina riocht mionlaithe faoi lthair.
10.4 Cras nua oideachais thgil ar bhunsraith athnuachan phobail

Bonn caighden an tsealbhaithe a chuireann pist an phobail teanga i gcrch ag brath ar a
fheidhmila is at an pobal teanga. M t feidhm lag ag an teanga i measc an phobail n fidir
a bheith ag sil go gcuirfeadh aos g an phobail teanga sealbh leordhthaineach i gcrch. M
t bonn rathil le bheith faoin gcras oideachais thaobh na mionteanga de, i bhfianaise laig
sochtheangeolaochta an phobail, ba gh don chras oideachais dri ar chuir chuige a dfhachfadh
leis an gcras agus an teanga araon a bheith feidhmeach ar bhealach at splech ar a chile. T an
pobal agus an cras oideachais splech ar a chile. T gach aon cheann acu idirsplech ar a chile
le feidhm a thabhairt don mhionteanga: braitheann rathnas iarrachta tacaochta an phobail ar
an gcur chuige oideachais. Braitheann rathnas an chuir chuige oideachais ar iarrachta tacaochta
an phobail. N hamhin, mar sin, go mbeadh leasuithe suntasacha le cur i bhfearas sa straitis
oideachais mhionteanga, bheadh athnuachan iomln le danamh ar an gcras tacaochta stit don
mhionlach teanga ar fad in iarsma na Gaeltachta, mar aon le dlth as an nua ar rannphirtocht
an phobail agus bonn nua a bheith faoi chur chuige na bhforas pobail. Sa riocht ogair a bhfuil siad
ann, an Ghaeilge agus an Ghaeltacht, n mr a bheith in ann fon nua a chur i soitheach nua sa chs
seo.
Is an aidhm a bheadh le fealsnacht chomhthite na hathnuachana sa phobal mionteanga
n go rachadh pist an phobail tr phriseas a thabharfadh feidhmilacht phearsanta agus
shisialta dibh sa tsocha at feidhmeach sa mhionteanga. Is ard at i gceist sa phriseas le
feidhmilacht teanga a thabhairt do phiste, priseas an infheidhmithe teanga, n gnthshisial
Is ard at i gceist san oideachas oidhreachta n solthar oideachais a chur ar fil do dhalta a bhfuil clra cultrtha
eile seachas an mrchultr acu. Bonn an t-oideachas seo ag iarraidh feidhmilacht sa mhrchultr a thabhairt do na
dalta agus aitheantas igin a thabhairt don chultr mionlaigh i ngnithe de churaclam na scoile. I measc spriocanna
an oideachais oidhreachta t tacaocht a thabhairt do dhalta a dteanga oidhreachta a fhoghlaim agus a shealbh.
Baintear leas as na tarma oideachas oidhreachta agus teanga oidhreachta go hirithe i gcs inimirceach i Stit
Aontaithe Mheirice agus aithntear fnamh na gcoincheap seo i gcs mionchultr dchais i gcomhthacsanna eile.
26*
228
10.4 Cras nua oideachais thgil ar bhunsraith athnuachan phobail / 10.5 Mnla oideachais
sochtheangeolaochta agus finilachta, an priseas trna mbaineann duine g rannphirtocht

amach sa phobal. Gan pobal feidhmeach mionteanga, n bheidh san oideachas mionteanga ach
cleachtas beag de rath n cur i gcill. Is sin, gan pobal feidhmeach a bheith ann, in ionad acmhainn
fheidhmeach na teanga beidh acmhainn shiombalach na teanga.
10.5 Mnla oideachais
Go stairiil sa Ghaeltacht roghnaodh an scolaocht a chur ar fil tr mhen an Bharla de rir mar
a bh nsmhaireacht na Gaeilge hdi sa phobal ( Flatharta 2007). T baol soilir ann gurb sin
at ar bun ar bhonn leannach in iarsma na Gaeltachta mar at s i lthair na huaire. M t bonn
n gn lrnach le bheith ag an nGaeilge i bhfeidhmi an chrais amach anseo sa Ghaeltacht n mr
mnla eile a cheapadh agus a chur i bhfearas. Luaitear go ginearlta thos ceithre chur chuige a
dfhadfadh a bheith i gceist i nGaeltacht Chatagir A:
1. Mnla an oideachais mhrtheanga (.i. Barla) ina minf bha(i)r eile tr Ghaeilge sa bhreis
ar an nGaeilge mar bhar agus mar theanga oidhreachta. Seo an cur chuige at mholadh
sa Straitis 20 Bliain don Ghaeilge i gcs scoileanna lasmuigh den chras Gaelscolaochta
agus Gaeltachta.
2. Mnla Gaelscoileanna a chur i bhfeidhm tumoideachas dara teanga Gaeilge a chur ar fil
s rud go bhfuil formhr na ndalta ina gcainteoir dchais Barla agus go bhfuil Gaeilge
laghdaithe ag sciar suntasach dobh.
3. Mnla tumoideachais sa chad teanga (laghdaithe) n sa dara teanga Gaeilge a chur ar fil
s rud go bhfuil formhr na ndalta ina gcainteoir dchais Barla agus go bhfuil Gaeilge
laghdaithe ag sciar suntasach dobh.
4. Mnla oideachais mhionteanga sa chad teanga amhin a chur ar fil, mnla a chuimseodh
an tumoideachas luath agus an tacaocht bhreisitheach luath agus leannach don chad
teanga mar mhionteanga agus ina dhiaidh sin tacaocht bhreisitheach don dara teanga mar
mhrtheanga.
10.5.1 Pl ar chins na roghanna seo
Mnla 1: Oideachas mrtheanga agus an Ghaeilge mar theanga oidhreachta

Buntist: Thabharfadh an mnla seo feidhm nos fearr agus nos soilire don Bharla mar theanga
phromhil agus feidhm nos soilire don Ghaeilge mar theanga thnaisteach n mar dhara teanga
in ionad na doilire dtheanga at i gcuid mhr scoileanna faoi lthair.
Dshlin: I mnla mar seo rachadh gn na Gaeltachta san oideachas i lig go tran.
Mnla 2: Tumoideachas dara teanga sa Ghaeilge

Buntist: Dheimhneodh an cur chuige seo feidhm cheannasach an Bharla i bhfors pearsanta
agus cogneolaochta an dalta agus shoilireodh s feidhm na Gaeilge mar dhara teanga thaobh
na gnthachtla oideachais de.
Dshlin: Is beag seans, fach, go gcuirfeadh an mnla seo le feidhm na Gaeilge mar mhionteanga
dhchais.
Mnla 3: Tumoideachas cad teanga n dara teanga sa Ghaeilge

Buntist: Bheadh an cur chuige seo ag iarraidh citeamh comhfhiosach a dhanamh ar na
heasnaimh reatha at sa sealbh sochaoch thaobh na Gaeilge de. Mnla Gaeltachta de chras na
Gaelscolaochta a bheadh sa chur chuige seo a leagfadh roimhe feidhm nos lidre a thabhairt don
Ghaeilge i bhfors pearsanta agus cogneolaochta an dalta. Bheadh an mnla seo nos tirgila n
Mnla 1 agus 2 thaobh na Gaeilge de ach n cosil go gcealdh s an mbhuntiste mionteanga
at i rim i measc aos g na Gaeltachta.
229
Dshlin: Bheadh cuid de na laincis a bhaineann le Mnla 2 thuas i gceist sa mhnla seo freisin.
Theastdh oiliint bhreise a chur ar bhair oid agus ar mhinteoir le hifeacht mar is ceart a
thabhairt don mhnla seo.
Mnla 4: Oideachas cad teanga sa Ghaeilge mar mhionteanga bhreisithe

Mnla uaillmhianach a bheadh san oideachas mionteanga breisithe seo. Tann s cim chun cinn
ar an tumoideachas mionteangach sa mhid is go ndronn s ar fheidhm an dchais a thabhairt
don sprioctheanga. N hamhin go n-ilonn s tiomantas chun leas an dchais ar thuismitheoir,
ar mhinteoir, ar dhalta agus ar lucht riartha an chrais; theastdh tacaocht sciar suntasach
den phobal a bheith aige chomh maith canna le go mbeadh rath air. De bharr go mbeadh sprioc
danamh dfheidhmilacht an tsealbhaithe dchais i gcs na Gaeilge bheadh cur chuige eile ag
teastil maidir leis an ngnthachtil oideachais sa Bharla.
Buntist: Feidhmilacht an dchais thaobh na Gaeilge de a bheadh coth ach bheadh
ardghnthachtil sa mhrtheanga (.i. Barla) faoi chaibidil freisin.
Dshlin: C go bhfuil neart minteoir faoi lthair ann a thuigeann an riachtanas a bhaineann
le mnla mar seo agus a chleachtann gnithe den mhnla seo, theastdh spriocanna agus cur
chuige nua thaobh na hoilina agus na bainistochta oideachais agus an mheasnaithe de le
spriocanna an mhnla seo a bhaint amach. Bheadh s ag cur in aghaidh treochta i dtreo an Bharla
at seanbhunaithe sa phobal Gaeltachta.
Is Mnla 4 an cras ba ghaire do chur chuige na molta a bh san SCT. Lrnach sna molta oideachais
sin, bh an tumoideachas Gaeltachta (SCT: Caibidil 21), ach nor thug an Sttchras faoi sin a chur
i bhfeidhm go praiticiil. T fianaise thbhachtach sa taighde seo ar dhea-thionchar cimheas
ard Gaeilgeoir sa scoil ar ghnthachtil sa Ghaeilge agus sa dtheangachas araon (Fochaibidil
9.3.3), mar a bheadh i gcras tumoideachais Ghaeltachta. Is fianaise dhearfach seo go bhfuil bonn
ciallmhar eolaoch le moladh an aonteangachais luaith i gcomhthacs an oideachais Ghaeltachta. N
hamhin go gcuidonn cimheas ard Gaeilgeoir, .i. cur chuige i dtreo an tsisialaithe aonteangaigh,
le rathnas na Gaeilge ach cuireann s le fintas chinel an dtheangachais a chleachtann na pist.
Tagann seo le ceann de phromh-mholta an SCT gur cheart do chras pleanla teanga fachaint le
cosaint a thabhairt do dhls na gcainteoir Gaeilge sa phobal. Tr dhilt do mholta at bunaithe
ar thaighde socheolaochta cilochtil agus cainnochtil (mar shampla, an SCT n fi maidir lena
bhfuil i ndn do na molta sa tuarascil taighde seo), cliseann an Sttchras ar Ghaeil agus dul i lig
an phobail sin curtha ar a shile don Stt a mbeif ag sil le gnomh fnta uaidh.
10.6 Molta don Stt n do phtrnacht scolaochta
San atheagar a dhanfa ar chins scolaochta, bheadh ionchur agus tacaocht de dhth
shaineolaithe sna rims cu. Dfhadfadh Mnla 4 a bheith stiradh ag foras probhideach
ptrnachta a chuirf ar bun go speisialta le bainisti a dhanamh ar an sainchram oideachais seo
i nGaeltacht Chatagir A. Bheadh dshlin ar leith ann maidir le cras bainistochta den chinel
seo a chur ar bun; bheadh a rathnas ag brath ar chumas na ndaoine a mbronnfa an cram seo
orthu:
ceannaireacht a thabhairt
cras cu a dhearadh agus a fheidhmi

dul chun cinn an chrais a stiradh.
Bheadh ar an Stt frma maoinithe agus measnaithe a chur i bhfearas le tac le Mnla 4 agus
a fheidhm a mheas. Dfhadfa seo a dhanamh tr chras nua caipitochta a chur ar bun ina
ndanfa athbhreithni rialta ar ifeacht Mhnla 4 agus an chrais chaipitochta n dfhadfa
an Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta a thabhairt chun innilachta sa
chram seo.
230
10.6 Molta don Stt n do phtrnacht scolaochta / 10.7 Molta ginearlta i leith an mhionteangachais
10.7 Molta ginearlta i leith an mhionteangachais

s rud gur deacra do phist mionteanga a shealbh go hiomln n mrtheanga, is inmholta
feidhm chomh haonteangach agus ab fhidir a thabhairt don mhionteanga go hirithe i dtrimhse
luathshaoil na bpist ina bhfuil an bunsealbh dhanamh. Go bunsach, le linn na trimhse
criticila sealbhaithe ach go hirithe (fach Montrul 2008), ba chir go mbeadh an mhionteanga
ag feidhmi mar a bheadh mrtheanga ann. Is an luath-aonteangachas mionlaigh an tarma
a tugadh ar an gcur chuige seo i Lenoach et al. (2012), cur chuige sealbhaithe ina mbeadh an
mhionteanga ag feidhmi mar a bheadh mrtheanga ann. T g le tosaocht a thabhairt do shealbh
na mionteanga i dtosach, rud a chuimstear faoin tarma an dtheangachas moillithe (Lenoach et
al. 2012). Ciallaonn an dtheangachas moillithe go dtugtar aghaidh ar shealbh na mrtheanga
i ndiaidh shealbh na mionteanga. Mnla sealbhaithe mar seo a bh i bhfeidhm sa Ghaeltacht a
chomhfhad is a bh an sealbh feidhmiil Gaeilge inti; n gur thinig an luath-dhtheangachas i
rim agus sin comhuaineach le (i) ts an tsealbhaithe laghdaithe n neamhiomlin, (ii) laghd i
leibhal an chumais thraidisinta agus (iii) priseas tran mheath sisialta na teanga.
Tacaonn an fhianaise a lirtear i gconclid an tsaothair seo go bhfuil cumas Gaeilge nos airde
ag na dalta sna scoileanna is m dls Gaeilgeoir, tacaonn an fhianaise seo leis an iteamh
gur bhisila an mnla an mionteangachas breisitheach a fhramh sa luath-aonteangachas.
tharla gur minic nach mbonn cumas an dtheangra ina dh theanga as a chile chomh hard le
cumas an aonteangra, agus gurb iondil gur laige go mr teanga lag an dtheangra n teanga
an aonteangra, is soilir, i gcs dhalta an taighde seo, gur laige a dteanga lag, an Ghaeilge, n
Gaeilge aonteangach. D bhr sin, ba chiallmhar an mhaise a mholadh go mbeadh cleachtadh na
mionteanga, .i. ionchur, ionghlacadh agus aschur, go mbeadh sin chomh hilghnitheach, chomh
huile-lithreach agus chomh hilfheidhmeach agus ab fhidir i gcs na hige.
De cheal feidhm shochaoch a bheith ag an mionteanga, n bhonn inti ach scile faoi scth na
mrtheanga, agus n ceart a bheith ag sil go n-iomprdh an ghlin g, an ghlin is l cumhacht
sa tsocha, go n-iomprids ualach sheachadadh na mionteanga n ualach athbheochana na
mionteanga m thann s go dt sin. Le go bhfadfadh tacaocht phobail an phrinn teanga seo
a shr nor mhr tearmann igin treolaochta a bheith ann don phobal sin. N hamhin go
bhfuil tacaocht phobail de dhth ar na pist sa phrinn teanga seo, ach t cosaint struchtrtha
treolaochta de dhth freisin a chosndh an pobal dchais agus a gclanna ar fheidhmilacht
iomaoch an Bharla. Chothdh an cur chuige seo beogacht shisialta na Gaeilge.
Dshlin agsla an mhionteangachais

tharla go bhfuil mionchultir agus mionteangacha an domhain ag fil bhis go tran, is lir go
bhfuil dshlin an tsaoil chomhaimseartha doshraithe ag formhr na mionlach seo. T dshlin
an mhionteangachais doshraithe i bhformhr phobail mhionlaigh an domhain nua-aoisigh faoi
rir na gcins sochpholaitila reatha. Liri itiil cs na Gaeilge, agus splachadh an taighde
seo, ar shiondrm forleathan domhanda. Nl dacmhainn sa phl seo na cins uile a rans ach
tugaimid dh liosta achoimre anseo sos ar mhaithe le comhthacs an tsaothair a fhairsingi.
Baineann an chad liosta le rimse na teangeolaochta agus an tsealbhaithe, agus baineann an
dara liosta le rimse an dioscrsa pobail agus acadil i leith an mhionteangachais.
Rims na teangeolaochta agus an tsealbhaithe i leith an mhionteangachais:
1. Cdmheascadh: T claonadh lidir i mramh pobal dtheangach chun an chdmheasctha

agus d bhr sin chun an tseachadta sa teanga chdmheasctha agus bonn ifeacht dhiltach
ag an gcdmheascadh ar an sealbh, go hirithe sealbh na mionteanga.
2. Sealbh laghdaithe: Is deacair an sealbh laghdaithe a thabhairt go dt leibhal an

chumais iomlin, m.sh. Beaudrie agus Fairclough (2012), Benmamoun (gan dta: 1619),
N Chonchir (2012). Is deacair cainteoir iomln a dhanamh de chainteoir laghdaithe.
Bonn struchtir na teanga laghdaithe framhaithe i gcumas agus i bhfinilacht na
mionteangir laghdaithe.
231
3. An dtheangachas agothrom: tharla go mbonn an sealbh dtheangach agothrom

go ginearlta, i socha nach fidir feidhmi gan an mhrtheanga a shealbh go hiomln ann,
n fidir, ar an mrgir, an mhionteanga a shealbh go hiomln. Fach sealbh seasmhach
an Bharla i bhFochaibidil 9.3.3.
4. Easpa feidhmilachta: T leithead mr sa bhearna idir an cumas iomln n traidisinta
(ag an gcainteoir iomln) agus an cumas laghdaithe reatha (ag an gcainteoir laghdaithe),
mar a lirtear go sonrach i dtortha an staidir seo. Bheadh go leor ireann feabhais de
dhth leis an gcumas laghdaithe a thabhairt chun feidhmilachta iomline.
5. Foghlaim an dara teanga: Go ginearlta, n ironn ach le c. 5% dfhoghlaimeoir dara

teanga an leibhal ardchumais a bhaint amach at inchomparide le cumas an chainteora
dchais.
6. Foghlaim iomln na teanga: T lon ard trithe teangeolaochta a bheadh le sealbh agus
le foghlaim ag cainteoir laghdaithe a thabharfadh an sealbh chun feidhmilachta.
7. Oideachas: Nor tugadh faoi anails dhomhain a dhanamh ar cheist seo na gcainteoir
laghdaithe cheana i gcomhthacs an oideachais ach go hirithe.
Rims an dioscrsa pobail agus an dioscrsa acadil i leith an mhionteangachais:
1. Breisitheach agus dealaitheach: T laig agus bearna i lann idirnisinta an

dtheangachais sa mhid is go dtugann roinnt sochtheangeolaithe aghaidh ar shuilc
agus ar bhuntist an dtheangachais i gcomhthacs breisitheach agus tugann siad
neamhaird ar an bhfianaise a sholthraonn na teangeolaithe maidir leis an gcomhthacs
dealaitheach. D bharr seo, t easpa scagtha chomhairlithigh mar ba chu ar fhadhbanna
an dtheangachais dhealaithigh.
2. Forlmhas agus meon a athr: T glacadh coitianta sa lann idirnisinta leis an treocht a
ghilleann dfhorlmhas na mrtheanga ar chomhthacs sisialta na mionteanga agus gan
de mholadh ritigh ar an gcastacht seo ach athr meoin i leith an mhbhuntiste pholaitiil
agus shisialta.
3. Cdmheascadh: T claonadh sa lann idirnisinta trithe an chdmheasctha a lithri
i dtarma cruthaitheachta an chainteora beag beann ar impleachta diltacha an
idirtheangachais dinmharthanacht agus dfheidhmilacht na mionteanga ina lthair
thraidisinta fin agus i gcomhthacsanna eile.
4. Indibhidilachas: T diall minic le trithe sisialta na teagmhla cultrtha a lithri i

dtarma na finilachta indibhidila roghna beag beann ar impleachta trioblideacha
an fhordhomhandaithe chultrtha dinmharthanacht mhionchultir an domhain.
5. Cruthaocht: T claonadh le fada sa traidisin linn chun na haeistite agus na tacslachta
ach daille i leith an linn shisialta i gcs mionteangacha.
6. Taighde: Go hidirnisinta, n dhearnadh mrn taighde ar chur i bhfeidhm molta i gcs

an chineil seo mionteangachais.
Is suntasach an n a mhad deacrachta at i gceist agus a anrit casta is at siad. I gcomhthacs

iarsma na Gaeltachta comhaimseartha mar at s, agus mura n-athridh an pobal agus an sttchras,
n mr a admhil go bhfuil na dshlin phobail agus phearsanta at anois ann doshraithe. D
bhr sin cuirimid na molta ginearlta seo a leanas i lthair dfhonn tuairim a thabhairt ar an
gcomhthacs tacil ba gh don sealbh rathil an luath-aonteangachas is bonn do na molta
seo. Agus is i gcomhthacs na scolaochta n an oideachais bhreisithigh mhionteanga a dhantar
na molta seo.
232
10.7 Molta ginearlta i leith an mhionteangachais
N fidir teanga a shealbh ach dhaoine eile. Is tr bhthin na teagmhla seo a bhaineann duine
rannphirtocht amach ina chultr. Baineann sealbh iomln teanga le sealbh iomlnaoch ar
chultr na teanga sin. Is acmhainn sisialta comhthite iad an teanga agus a cultr, acmhainn na
finilachta a fhaightear i bhforbairt idirphearsanta. Molaimid mar sin go dtabharfa faoin sisial
san fhinilacht Ghaelach, i gcur chuige an mhionteangachais bhreisithigh.
10.7.1 Molta do thuismitheoir agus do mhinteoir dalta Gaeltachta
Eascraonn na molta a thugaimid anseo as na tuiscint sochtheangeolaochta agus finilachta a

phlamar thuas. Moltar:
An sisial feidhmeach idirghnomhach: go mbeadh grasin agsla shisialta na bpist
chomh Gaelach agus chomh feidhmeach sa Ghaeilge agus ab fhidir
An chumarsid fheidhmeach: go mbeadh a oiread feidhme agus leasa agus ab fhidir le

baint as an nGaeilge i saol na bpist
An chumarsid aonteangach: dfhonn mbhuntist an chdmheasctha ar an sealbh a
sheachaint leis na pist
An litheoireacht idirghnomhach:
o dfhonn breisi agus treisi a dhanamh i saol na bpist ar an gcleachtadh sisialta

Gaeilge i dtosach
o dfhonn litearthacht na Gaeilge a bheith ina bonn dfhorbairt agsla cogneolaochta in

intinn na bpist
o dfhonn bac a sheachaint i measc na bpist ar an litearthacht sa mhionteanga de bharr

buntiste fheidhmigh i litearthacht na mrtheanga.
10.7.2 Molta do mhinteoir
Is fidir tuairim mhaith a fhil n taighde seo ar laig agsla na gcainteoir ga i rims agsla
na gramada. Beidh an taighde seo ina is do mhodhanna oibre agus do mholta a dfhadfa a
chumadh le dul i ngleic leis na laincis teangeolaochta, feidhmilachta agus oideachais seo. N
mr tortha an taighde seo a thuiscint chun curaclam oirinach don phobal mionteanga laghdaithe
seo a leagan amach. Mar sin molaimid, i gcomhthacs scolaochta do Ghaeilgeoir (nach mbeadh
dshln Barlir ina measc ag baint diteas na scoile):
Comhoibri leannach an phobail a iarraidh sa tionscadal oideachais Ghaelaigh agus an
t-oideachas sin a normal
Tacaocht a thabhairt dfheidhm shisialta na Gaeilge i measc na n-g, i gcomhar leis na

tuismitheoir (m.sh. obair ghrpa, drmaocht, pl, cur sos, dospireacht, sgradh, imirt
spirt)
Gaeilge iomln agus chruinn (seachas laghdaithe agus chdmheasctha); cleachtais

scolaochta ar fad a fheidhmi sa Ghaeilge iomln
Mrthortha an taighde agus mionsonra teangeolaochta na Gaeilge laghdaithe a chur ar
fil doid (m.sh. ag an gComhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta)
Taighde ar laig litearthachta sa Ghaeilge at seanbhunaithe sa Ghaeltacht a chur ar fil
doid agus polasaithe a leagan amach chun tosaocht a thabhairt dfheidhmilacht na
litearthachta sa Ghaeilge agus chun iomaocht luath le litearthacht fheidhmiil sa Bharla
a sheachaint
233
Curaclam nua a bheadh oirinach do chainteoir laghdaithe Gaeilge a chur i bhfeidhm

(curaclam a chumfadh an sttchras n foras eile, bunaithe, i measc cins eile, ar thortha
agus ar mhionsonra an taighde seo)
bhar teagaisc a chur i bhfeidhm i leith dheacrachta agsla na gcainteoir ga i rims
agsla den teanga (fuaimeanna, foclir agus gramadach)
Cleachtais teagaisc a fhramh san fhinilacht Ghaelach mar is cu.
10.8 Feidhm tabhairt don chras mionteangach breisitheach

I bhfianaise na taith at ag na pobail Ghaeltachta ar an gcras oideachais bunaodh an Stt is fearr
ag an bpointe seo cram riartha an oideachais mhionteangaigh bhreisithigh, cram oideachais in
iarmhairt na Gaeilge laghdaithe, a bhronnadh ar fhoras ptrnachta neamhsplech. Bheadh s de
dhualgas ar an bhforas ptrnachta cur i bhfeidhm an chrais a riaradh agus comhoibri le ranna
agus isneachta stit, pobail, oideachais agus eile mar ba chu. I measc na riachtanas a bheadh ag
feidhmichn cu an chrais seo, t:
Struchtr bainistochta
Forbairt polasaithe agus struchtr athbhreithnithe (m.sh. molta SCT 2007, Mhic Dhonnacha
et al. 2005 agus U Fhlatharta 2007)
Cras maoinithe, caipitochta
Curaclam nua agus leasaithe ar ardchaighden feidhmeach

Cras cigireachta, measnaithe agus oiliint foirne.
Sa chs seo, is dcha gur m na buntist n na mbhuntist a bhaineann le foras stit breise a bhun
mar go mbeadh craim agus saintuiscint chomh sonrach sin i gceist, agus neamhsplechas d rir
de dhth ar fhoireann bheag a rachadh i ngleic leis na saindshlin seo. Laghddh an cur chuige seo
an dua riarachin, traenla agus pleanla a bheadh ar an Roinn Oideachais agus Scileanna. Fach
na molta at ag Bourgeois (2004) i gCanada i leith comhairl scoile i gcomhthacs an oideachais
i dtimpeallacht mhionlaigh. Sa chs nach dtoileofa foras ptrnachta neamhsplech a bhun,
dfhadfadh an Roinn fin, n an Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta,
tabhairt faoi na molta a chur i bhfeidhm.
10.9 Molta maidir le taighde breise agus taighde tacaochta
Is fidir tabhairt faoi chlr taighde den chinel seo a leanas mar chomhln agus mar thacaocht
ar cheisteanna an tsealbhaithe dhtheangaigh agus ar fheidhmi an chrais mhionteangaigh
bhreisithigh san oideachas:
Taighde ar dhla an tsealbhaithe i nGaeltachta Chiarra agus Thr Chonaill
Taighde ar chumais dhtheangacha daoine fsta sa Ghaeltacht le go ransfa cinel

an tsealbhaithe dhtheangaigh, glin i ndiaidh gline n nglin is sine go dt glin na
dtuismitheoir
Sraith togra taighde i gcomhthacs an churaclaim nua (cinel an churaclaim at mholadh

sa tuarascil seo) ar an mnla mionteangach breisitheach, n cras gaolmhar nua i
gcomhthacs na ramh-, bun- agus menscolaochta sraith togra taighde ar fheidhmi
an chrais nua in irinn agus sraith eile a dhanfadh cram den ghn chomparideach
idirnisinta
Sraith togra taighde ar chur i bhfeidhm na molta a bhaineann leis an mionteangachas
breisitheach, lena n-irtear taighde ar aon fheabhschin churaclaim
234
10.8 Feidhm tabhairt don chras mionteangach breisitheach /

10.9 Molta maidir le taighde breise agus taighde tacaochta
Taighde ar cheist na litearthachta, lena n-irtear anails ar an gceangal idir cumas labhartha,
cumas teangeolaochta agus caighden na litearthachta
Taighde ar an gcleachtas baile, mar shampla, litheoireacht idirghnomhach agus tbhacht

na men nuatheicneolaochta.
Bourgeois, D. (2004) Vers la pleine gestion scolaire francophone en milieu minoritaire. Fdration
nationale des conseils scolaires francophones. Ar fil ag: www.fncf.ca/files/File/publications/
rapport_pleine_gestion_icrml_final.pdf ceadaithe 7 Mrta 2014. I dtreo Lanbhainistiocht
Scoileanna Fraincise i dTimpeallacht Mhionlaigh [gan dta]. BC: An Chomhairle um Oideachas
Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta. Ar fil ag: www.cogg.ie/includes/documents/VERS.pdf
ceadaithe 7 Mrta 2014.
Mac Donnacha, S., N Chualin, F., N Shaghdha, A., agus N Mhainn, T. (2005) Staid Reatha na
Scoileanna Gaeltachta. BC: An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta.
Flatharta, P. (2007) Struchtr Oideachais na Gaeltachta. BC: An Chomhairle um Oideachas

Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta.
Giollagin, C. agus Charlton, M. (2014, ag teacht) Nuashonr ar an Staidar Cuimsitheach
Teangeolaoch ar sid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht: 20062011. Na Forbacha: dars na
Gaeltachta.
SCT - Giollagin, C., Mac Donnacha, S., N Chualin, F., N Shaghdha, A. agus OBrien, M.
Chrochnaitheach. BC: Oifig an tSolthair.
Rialtas na hireann. [Saorstt ireann] (1926) Coimisin na Gaeltachta: Statement of Government

Policy on Recommendations of the Commission. BC: Oifig an tSolthair.
Rialtas na hireann. (1965) An Coimisin um Athbheochan na Gaeilge: An Tuarascil Dheiridh. BC:

Oifig an tSolthair.
Rialtas na hireann. (1975) CILAR Committee on Irish Language Attitudes Research. Report. BC:
Oifig an tSolthair.
Rialtas na hireann. (2002) Coimisin na Gaeltachta: Tuarascil. BC: Oifig an tSolthair.
Schmid, M. (2011) Contact x time: External factors and variability in L1 attrition, i Schmid, M.
S. agus Lowie, W. (eag.) Modeling bilingualism: from structure to chaos. Amstardam: John
Benjamins. 15576.
235
Conclusions and
recommendations
10
In this chapter we present our conclusions and recommendations regarding the challenges and
the problems highlighted in this research, especially the problematic features of acquisition of
Irish as a minority language indicated in Chapter 9. First, the general national and international
context for these recommendations or proposals is considered. We discuss the state structures, the
community and the pupils, as well as the conceptual base of the current educational system. The
case is made for the need for a new educational system to be built on a foundation of community
renewal. Potential education models are presented as well as a specific system of school patronage
along with proposals concerning a system of additive minority language education. Finally,
proposals for further and supporting research are listed.
10.1 The advantage of English over Irish
This research reports that the pupils exhibit a general lower level of ability in Irish than in English.
When the total ability level in Irish is compared with English, using a method of language scores,
every child is dominant in English (although two are relatively balanced; Figure 198). In the
comparable linguistic features examined, the ratio between English and Irish was 7 : 3 (i.e. there
was a higher ability in English for 7 variables, and a higher ability in Irish for 3).24* An average
difference of 15% was also found between ability in English and Irish for all pupils, with Irish
disadvantaged in the case of every pupil.
English advantage in pupils bilingual ability can be detailed as follows:
in vocabulary
in functional codeswitching
in grammatical accuracy in morphology and syntax (with the exception of tense in indirect
speech)
in phonetic accuracy
in semantic and pragmatic usage and in disfluency pauses.
Alternatively, Irish disadvantage in pupils bilingual ability can be detailed as follows:

in vocabulary
in functional codeswitching
in grammatical accuracy in morphology and syntax (with the exception of tense in indirect
speech)
in phonetic accuracy
in semantic and pragmatic usage and in disfluency pauses.
As follows: Number of lemmata, Comparative adjective, Indirect speech (syntax), Preposition, Discourse markers,
Pauses, Gapped words (i.e. x7, English dominant) : Indirect speech (tense), Word count fluency, Hesitations (i.e. x3,
Irish dominant).
24*
236
Irish advantage in pupils bilingual ability can be described as follows:

number of words and syllables of hesitation in fluency.
In sum, pupils have greater fluency in Irish but their accuracy and competence are better in English
than in Irish.25*
As discussed in Section 1.2 with regard to bilingualism in general, this research demonstrates that
the majority of bilingual pupils are unbalanced in their bilingual ability. Unbalanced bilingualism
or dominant bilingualism is the norm. English is the dominant language since it is the language in
which they exhibit greater ability. Irish is their weaker language or it is the weaker language for
the majority of the pupils. This is a clear case of dominant bilingualism of the majority language
and subtractive bilingualism for the minority language. Pupil ability in Irish is much lower than
that which would be expected of a monolingual speaker, and the term reduced Irish accurately
describes the Irish spoken by the pupils. Their dominant language, English, exerts a greater
linguistic influence on their weaker language, Irish, than mutatis mutandis, their Irish exerts on
their English. From the point of view of formal linguistics, the majority of pupils function better in
English, since this is the language in which they have greater ability. This is illustrated in the figure
below.
10.1.1 General national and international context

This study is a survey of linguistic outcomes rather than an educational survey. These outcomes
arise, however, in the context of the contemporary system. The bilingual ability evident in
these outcomes emerges from the different social functions and opportunities associated with
the linguistic input, reception processes, and language outputs operating within families, the
community, schools, and in the context of new patterns of technologically-moderated interaction.
It is possible to cite numerous academic references indicating insights from national and
international sociolinguistic perspectives concerning different bilingual processes and how they
relate to language shift. Selected excerpts of evidence and conclusions from international research
are presented below which correspond with the conclusions of this study.
It is likely that similar results would be obtained in other Category A Gaeltacht areas.
25*
237
10. Conclusions and recommendations
Bilingual acquisition
... longitudinal studies show that pre-school bilingual children who speak a minority language run the
risk of developing incomplete proficiency in the minority language as a result of intense contact with
the majority language and reduced exposure and use of the minority language. Very often, minority
language-speaking children do not reach age-appropriate levels of morphological development. This
raises the question of whether incomplete acquisition in bilingual children is also severe in other
aspects of syntax and its interfaces with other domains (Montrul 2008: 117).
Although balanced proficiency (with native-like command of two languages) is a possible outcome
of bilingualism, it is indeed very rare ... The reality is that most bilinguals are linguistically unbalanced,
both functionally (in their language use) and representationally (in their linguistic knowledge).
Bilingual speakers typically possess a stronger and a weaker language ... the relative strength of the
two languages fluctuates along the lifespan depending on a variety of factors, such as age and order
of acquisition, as well as what language is most often used and preferred in the community (i.e., the
sociolinguistic status of the languages as majority or minority languages), and the contexts for use of
each language (home, church, school, work, etc.) (Montrul 2008: 18).
I suggest somewhere between ages 8 and 10 as an approximate time when the possibility of achieving
native-like attainment in the L2, and of undergoing significant attrition in the L1, become less likely
(Montrul 2008: 24).
Since bilinguals time and experience in context with each of their languages is by definition more
limited than that of their monolingual peers, because a bilinguals experience is divided between two
languages, it appears to take them longer to gain the critical mass of input data to acquire structures
and to be able to draw out the relevant grammatical generalizations governing their use (Gathercole
and Thomas 2009: 214).
... an indigenous minority language that is spoken by a much smaller subset of the population might
be even more susceptible to imperfect learning than we have observed here for Welsh. This is because
if a language is spoken by a much smaller percentage of the overall population, childrens exposure
is likely to be even more sporadic and scattered than in a case like that of Welsh (Gathercole and
Thomas 2009: 233).
In Wales, for example, the above research suggests that the optimal learning pattern might be, if
the parents speak Welsh, to expose children to only Welsh at home (Gathercole and Thomas 2009:
233).
... it appears to be harder for a child to learn Spanish than English, even within the Spanish-speaking
communities of Miami (Pearson et al. 1997: 47, (see also Pearson 2009)).
... it appears that, when bilingual children hear less of the minority language than they do of the
majority language, parents may have to compensate for the difference with more active language
teaching strategies than are normally associated with first language acquisition (Pearson et al. 1997: 56).
Having half-Spanish in the home does not appear sufficient for most children to develop an
acceptable level of expressive language nor literacy in Spanish (excepting phonics) without explicit
teaching, as in two-way schools. ... that in an English-dominant society, maximal Spanish exposure is
needed to maintain the most balanced bilingualism, provided that threshold English exposure is also
achieved (Eilers et al. 2006: 834).
The decline in Spanish in these data ... does not appear to be so directly related to gains in English
and vice versa. ... When parents and grandparents insist that children use the minority language in
daily discourse, proficiency improves. Homes that allow English to replace Spanish in a growing
number of familial contexts lose Spanish without a notable boost to English (Eilers et al. 2006: 878).
238
Societal circumstances
Thus, though the children learned to speak French in a primarily French-speaking home environment,
they are now reaching the point in the lifecycle (adolescence) where their propensity to speak French
in the home seems to be determined primarily by their external social environments. The family
is important for the social transmission of a language, but it is society, in the broadest sense, that
determines whether or not it will be spoken (Caldas et al. 2000: 377).
... three major factors that contribute to language maintenance or loss: (1) parents commitment to
the heritage language, (2) the size and commitment of the immigrant language group, and (3) the
openness of the host community to the arrival of the immigrants and to a multicultural ideal (Eilers
et al. 2006: 68).
The way in which under-users speak the language of their community is a disquieting sign of the
danger to which it is exposed and, in the most advanced cases, a clear announcement of its imminent
demise. ... Having acquired superior competence in the dominant language, under-users introduce a
considerable numbers of words borrowed from that language into their discourse in the dominated
language. Consequently, these words are integrated into the lexical inventory, and pass from chance
discourse into the workings of the system. At the same time, native words, which imported words
make redundant, begin to disappear (Hagge 2009: 80, 89).
The bottom line for successful bilingualism is whether one uses two languages consistently, and the
bottom line for developing two languages is the presence of long-term consistent exposure to two
languages (Eilers et al. 2006: 71).
Educational development
In some bilingual learning situations the initial difficulty is quickly overcome and the bilingual child
rapidly learns to both understand and communicate in the second language at no cost to his native
language. ... However, in bilingual learning situations where the child fails to overcome difficulties
in coping with two languages the research evidence suggest that his bilingual learning experiences
might have a negative effect on his cognitive functioning, at least in so far as this functioning involves
language. Continued difficulties with language over a prolonged period of time are likely to mean that
a bilingual childs interaction with an increasingly symbolic environment will not optimally promote
his cognitive and academic progress (Cummins 2001: 41).
All of these studies together provide a picture showing that level of exposure to Welsh gives the child
the early advantage in learning the structure in question. Thus children who come from OWH [OnlyWelsh Homes] homes typically outperform, at an early age, their WEH [Welsh-English Homes] peers
[...]. Similarly, children from OWS [Only-Welsh Schools] schools typically outperform their WES
[Welsh-English Schools] peers (Gathercole and Thomas 2009: 224).
10.1.2 Urgency of implementing proposals in this complicated context

This study and other publications highlight the weak levels of Irish language acquisition among the
young in the current Gaeltacht generation. The level of Irish-language attainment portrayed here
concurs with the depiction of a language in crisis, as delineated from a sociolinguistic perspective
in the CLS (2007).
Even in those areas with the highest number of home speakers of Irish, i.e. Category A, the
community lacks the collective resources to provide the necessary language enrichment to support
the young in their efforts to achieve full acquisition in Irish. The primary causes of this process of
reduced language acquisition in the Gaeltacht, among other circumstances, are:
the acceptance of the dominance of English-language culture
239
the continuing erosion of the social density of Irish speakers in traditionally Irish-speaking
areas
changes in the nature of the linguistic inputs the younger generation hear
changes in the nature of spoken Irish, now influenced by language contact with English
a contraction of the domains and functions of Irish in its traditional realms
changes in the opportunities for language input and uptake in acquisition and for
communicative outputs in (functional, monolingual) Irish
the limited capacity of the community support and educational institutions to manage
these changes
the dominance of majority language use in the social practices of the young.
Given the deficient foundation to the current approach to Irish or bilingual education in the
Gaeltacht, it is clear that strategies and practices are required to address the weak functionality of
Irish which is proliferating in Irish-speaking communities and within Gaeltacht institutions. We
focus here primarily on the educational context.
Minority language communities often manifest a strong propensity to shirk or even deny negative
facts or trends pertaining to them or to avoid their implications. Policy makers will have to
negotiate this obstacle if they are to act upon the evidence of this research in order to establish a
more productive basis for dealing with what remains of the Gaeltacht as an Irish-speaking identity.
Given the grave and serious nature of the erosion of Irish-language social practice in Gaeltacht
areas, it is important that time, energy and institutional resources are not wasted on avoiding the
facts and the currently-experienced reality.
Learners of Irish clearly have educational requirements but the educational approach suitable for
learners differs from that required by native speakers, and by minority native language speakers,
as is the case for Irish. Outside of the Gaeltacht native speakers of English are not treated as if they
were learners of English as a second language nor should they be. The educational system aims to
reinforce the native-speaking abilities of native speakers of English outside the Gaeltacht, which
is in contrast to the systems approach to native speakers of Irish in the Gaeltacht. Any approach,
therefore, should recognise that native speakers of Irish have specific requirements which differ
from those of school learners of Irish.
The status quo is not a realistic option if we are to provide a reliable Irish language basis, or indeed
bilingual foundation for the educational system in the Gaeltacht. Three major implications for the
entire country result from the extirpation of the Gaeltacht: (a) the end of the living Gaelic identity,
living Gaelic community and the living ethnic Gaelic heritage; (b) it would also eliminate the real
social and geographic source for the aspects of Gaelic identity important to the national cultural
project; and (c) the Gaeltacht would cease to exist as an exemplar for those seeking to repossess
Gaelic identity. The reacquisition of Irish or the learning of Irish in the education system would
be disadvantaged at each stage, from early-years to third-level education. To give one practical
example, it would be very difficult to provide suitable initial teacher education to trainees who
would have no social opportunity of experiencing actual Gaeltacht communities. Below we suggest
proposals to improve the current system.
10.2 The State system, the community and the pupils
Curnin (2007, 2009, 2012) pointed out that a process of reduced acquisition among Irish
speakers emerged in the 1960s and that this process has accelerated since. This development
resulted in a progressive process of reduced abilities in Irish for those in positions of authority
240
10.2 The State system, the community and the pupils /

10.3 Conceptual framework of the current education system
or for those who interact with young people, i.e. parents, teachers, relatives and family friends.
Each new generation is more affected by reduction than the one which preceded it as this process
progresses, and for this reason, the most reduced levels of acquisition are witnessed among the
young. With regard to the youngest generation, this research demonstrates acute examples found
on the continuum of decay, or on the continuum of minority language disadvantage, emerging
from a process, therefore, which began in the modern Gaeltacht at the latest fifty years ago. Codemixing and mono-stylistic speech, for instance, are found in the current parental generation and
the middle-aged generation. This has a significant effect on the emerging generations linguistic
competence and functionality.
As well as the difficulties with competency, a common fragility in minority language contexts also
exists, regarding the emergence of effective leadership, because leaders would urge challenging
actions of their community. For the effective functioning and success of community-support
institutions, it is necessary that they are based on a community framework.
The education system is operating in a context where the community is not succeeding in promoting
complete acquisition in the minority language. Another weakness is the lack of leadership from
the State system in general with regard to Irish and its community, a community on whose behalf
the State is supposed to operate. Among the aims of this study, is to seek to draw attention to
the need for improving the conceptual framework concerning these complexities and challenges.
However challenging the linguistic disadvantage of Irish is, as shown in this study, it is likely that
the pupils acquisition of Irish would be even weaker without the current educational provisions
and efforts of schools to support Irish (see, e.g., the improvement of pupil attainment in Irish with
Age, Section 9.3.2). In other minority language contexts, it is often the case that young people do
not speak a dying or threatened language in their community because they have not acquired it
fully ((and through lack of language status etc.) Dorian 1981, Kulick 1992, Sherkina-Lieber et al.
2011). They are reduced to being listeners in the minority language culture, which means that they
have only passive minority language competence. In contrast with this situation, young speakers
in the Gaeltacht have a much more active competence: the majority of reduced speakers still speak
Irish. This may be because the community and the State bestow functionality and status on Irish
in such a way that it helps young acquirers to develop a capacity to speak Irish. Speaking ability in
Irish is at a generally higher level of development than simply passive understanding.
10.3 Conceptual framework of the current education system

10.3.1 Governing principals of the system
The Educational System never attempted to formulate an educational framework tailored for the
requirements of native Irish speakers, while addressing the aspects of their cognitive, academic or
intellectual development related to their native language and culture. The Irish State has previously
neglected to implement proposals which sought to counteract the sociolinguistic circumstances
behind minoritisation, as well as disregarding educational proposals which sought to address
these circumstances and to develop a targeted first-language education model to ensure complete
acquisition for minority speakers (for instance, note the lack of progress towards implementing
the proposals in Mac Donnacha et al. 2005, CLS 2007 and Flatharta 2007, reports commissioned
by the State itself, not to mention the many professional proposals made over the years in a variety
of non-governmental publications). Such a model, based on Irish being fully acquired by children
entering the school system, cannot currently be implemented due to the reduced levels of Irish
acquisition achieved by Gaeltacht pupils in current sociolinguistic circumstances and due to the
fact that teachers have not been trained in a context where complete language acquisition is
anticipated (of both pupils and teachers).
If there were a functioning first-language education model tailored for minority speakers of
Irish, the difficulties of speakers with reduced acquisition would be readily recognised in their
educational achievement, in language education especially. Because the Irish curriculum is directed
241
at learners rather than native speakers of Irish, native functionality is not being monitored in this
system. Note that nationally, second-level pupils are attaining exam results in Irish as high as those
in English in the Junior Certificate, and higher than those in English in the Leaving Certificate.
Nevertheless, Harris et al. (2006) showed that Gaelscoil pupils outscored Gaeltacht (Categories A,
B and C in the CLS) school pupils in literacy tests devised in their research (comparatively similar
results for primary-level Mathematics and English are also reported in Gilleece et al. 2012). It is
possible that the results of Harris et al. provide indirect evidence of reduced Irish with regard to
literacy in the Gaeltacht.
The basis for the current model underpinning the implementation of the education system in the
Gaeltacht is to educate native speakers of Irish and of English in one single unitary system (and
with a curriculum developed for second-language learners of Irish). The current model aims to
foster bilingual competence and academic ability in both languages, while attempting to root this
personal and educational development in the local Gaeltacht identity and heritage.
The current sociolinguistic evidence impeding success of the current educational model includes
the following:
Over half of the pupils are monolingual English speakers when first entering school (Mac
Donnacha et al. 2005)
The negative correlations between the proportion of English speakers in a school and both
Irish achievement and bilingual achievement (Section 9.3.3)
Weakness in the Irish language ability of the community in general to help complete the
acquisition process in Irish and weakness in the Irish language ability of certain social
networks and of networks based on modern media
Reduced acquisition of the pupils in Irish, in the context of subtractive bilingualism, on the
one hand, and their advantaged ability in English, on the other
One no longer finds young native speakers of Irish, as this term was previously understood,
in reference to full competence (or such speakers are very exceptional)
Difficulties in the acquisition of literacy, without a complete spoken acquisition as a basis

for the acquisition of literacy.
To create a robust basis for Irish-language education policy, these six points in particular need to
be addressed.
10.3.2 Concepts of bilingualism: native language, primary language and language

of personal development
The results of this study demonstrate linguistic ability in the native minority language condition.
International research has shown that there is a correlation between a persons primary language
and the language of personal and intellectual development. The gap between linguistic ability
in the majority language, English, and the reduced ability in the minority language, Irish, shows
that the pupils are better able to function using their capacity in English as compared with their
capacity in Irish. These are characteristic features of subtractive bilingualism as is often found in
the context of heritage language education (see Cummins 2001: 255).26* Cummins states:
The major educational implication of these hypotheses (the interaction of motivational and linguistic
Heritage education is provided to pupils of a cultural background other than that of the majority culture. The aim of
this type of education is to encourage functional ability in the majority culture for the pupils, with some recognition of
the minority culture in aspects of the school curriculum. Among the objectives of heritage education is the provision
of support to pupils to learn and acquire the heritage language. The terms heritage education and heritage language
are especially used with reference to immigrants into the United States of America and the suitability of these concepts
is recognised in relation to native minority cultures in other contexts.
26*
242
10.4 A new system of education grounded in community renewal / 10.5 Educational models
variables with educational treatments) is that if optimal development of a minority language childs
cognitive and academic potential is a goal, then the school program must aim to promote an additive
form of bilingualism involving literacy in both L1 and L2 (Cummins 2001: 91).
Concerning childrens early school years, it is normally recommended that children in a minority
language situation begin their education in their first language; but in the Gaeltacht now, the
primary language of young Irish-mother-tongue bilingual pupils is no longer the same as their
home language (even in Category A areas (CLS 2007; Lenoach et al. 2012)). Leaving the issue
of Gaelic heritage to one side, one might expect that children would be educated in their most
functional language. From a perspective of educational development, it would probably be more
productive and beneficial, following a transitional, linguistically-mixed year or two, to educate
these pupils principally in their primary language. Except for issues regarding heritage, therefore,
it would follow that English would fulfil the role of the primary functional language in education.
We posit, therefore, proposals which would be beneficial for Gaelic heritage and for those parents
and pupils who are interested in education in the context of their heritage. The report reveals a
native-speaker, minority language perspective to these linguistic issues. There are clear negative
implications if the system is left as is. A new educational model is now required to address in a
positive way the problematic experience Gaeltacht pupils have of Irish in its present minoritised
condition.
10.4 A new system of education grounded in community renewal
The quality of acquisition achievable for children in a given language community is dependent on
how functional this language community is. If community use of the language is weak, it is unlikely
that the young members of the community will reach a sufficient level of acquisition. Given the
sociolinguistic fragility of the community, the education system should focus on approaches in
which both learning and language are functional and interdependent if it intends to provide
education for a minority language group on an effective basis. The community and the education
system are dependent, indeed interdependent, one on the other, in providing functionality to the
minority language: the success of community language support efforts relies on the educational
approach and vice versa. Not only, therefore, would there have to be significant alterations in the
implementation of the minority language education strategy, there would have to be reform of
the state support system of the linguistic minority in the remnants of the Gaeltacht, as well as
supporting renewal in active community participation, and a new approach from community
institutions. In the difficult context of the Irish language and the Gaeltacht, there are no quick fixes
for these difficulties.
The aim of an integrated philosophy of minority language community renewal is that the children
of the community would undergo a process which supports their personal and social development
in a society which is functional in their minority language. Developing childrens linguistic
functionality refers to the process of functionalisation in language development: the normal
socialisation in sociolinguistic and identity competence, a process by which a young person
becomes a participant in the community. Without a functioning minority language community,
minority language education will be to a large extent unsuccessful, potentially based, at least in part,
on pretence. In other words, without a community using the language, the functional competence
in the language will be replaced by a symbolic competence in performing the language.
10.5 Educational models
Historically in the Gaeltacht, education in the medium of English was introduced as community use
of Irish decreased ( Flatharta 2007). There is a clear risk that this is what is currently happening
in what remains of the Gaeltacht. If there is to be a central basis or role for Irish in the Gaeltacht
educational system, another model will have to be devised and implemented. One can mention
four models which could be applied in Gaeltacht Category A areas:
243
1. A majority-language (i.e. English) education model where Irish would be a heritage language
and the medium of education of one or more other subjects. This is the approach proposed
by the 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language for schools outside the Irish-medium and
Gaeltacht systems.
2. An Irish-medium model of second-language Irish immersion, since the majority of pupils
are native speakers of English and a large proportion have reduced Irish.
3. A first-language (reduced) or second-language Irish immersion model, since the majority

of pupils are native speakers of English and a large proportion have reduced Irish.
4. A minority first-language education model of early immersion, to enable additive early and
continuing support for the minority first language, followed by additive support for the
majority second-language (English).
10.5.1 Discussion of choices regarding each model
Model 1: Majority-language education with Irish as heritage language

Advantages: This model would have the advantage of clarity of purpose and function, making
English the primary language, and clearly teaching Irish as a secondary language or second
language, instead of the ambiguous bilingual approach currently taken by many schools.
Challenges: In this type of model, the Gaeltacht dimension in education provision would be very
much weakened.
Model 2: Second-language Irish immersion

Advantages: This approach would confirm the functional dominance of English in pupils cognitive
and personal development and would clarify the educational role of Irish as a second language.
Challenges: There is little chance, however, that this model would improve the functionality of
Irish as a native minority language.
Model 3: First-language or second-language Irish immersion

Advantages: This approach would consciously seek to compensate for the disadvantages of the
current attainment level in societal acquisition of Irish. This would be a Gaeltacht version of the
Gaelscoil model, bringing greater function to the pupils Irish in their cognitive and personal
development. This approach would be more beneficial for the achievement of competence in Irish
than either Model 1 or 2 although it would not be sufficient to address the minority-language
disadvantage among the youth of the Gaeltacht.
Challenges: This approach would have some of the same drawbacks characteristic of Model 2.
Furthermore, additional training would have to be provided to student teachers and teachers to
implement this model properly.
Model 4: Additive L1 Irish-medium education for the minority community
This would be an ambitious model which would seek to provide additive minority-language
education. It would be a step beyond minority language immersion in that it seeks to incorporate
native speaker functionality in the target language and its heritage context. Not only would it
require a commitment to the native language and culture from the parents, teachers, pupils and
those in charge of courses; it would also require the support of a large proportion of the community
to be successful. Because the aim of this model would be to ensure the functional acquisition of
Irish, another approach would be required regarding the educational attainment in English.
Advantages: Irish native speaker functionality and culture would be fostered but a high level of
competence in the majority language would also be in focus.
244
10.6 Proposals for the State or for school patronage /

10.7 General proposals with regard to minority language issues
Challenges: Although many teachers understand the requirements which would be associated
with a model such as this, and indeed implement aspects of this type of model already, there would
have to be specified aims and a new approach to teaching and education management, as well as
assessment of achievement of objectives. This model would seek to resist the trend of language
shift towards the majority language which is now well-established in Gaeltacht communities.
Model 4 is the model which most closely resembles the approach recommended in the CLS. Central
to those recommendations was a Gaeltacht immersion model (CLS: Caibidil 21), but no practical
efforts to implement that model were undertaken by the State. There is important evidence
presented in this report of the beneficial effect a high proportion of Irish speakers in school has
on both Irish and bilingual achievement (Section 9.3.3), as would occur in a system of Gaeltacht
immersion education. This is positive evidence of a clear scientific basis for the recommendation of
early monolingualism in the context of Gaeltacht education. Not only does a high proportion of Irish
speakers, i.e. an approach resembling monolingual socialisation, benefit Irish use and attainment
but it enhances the productive bilingualism among the children. This is in keeping with one of the
principal recommendations of the CLS, that the language planning approach should endeavour to
protect the social density of Irish speakers in the community. By disregarding recommendations
emanating from qualitative and quantitative sociological research (for instance, the CLS or indeed
the future of the recommendations contained in this report), the State system is neglectful of its
sociolinguistic responsibilities towards the interests of the Gaelic people. This discounting of the
evidence (indicating language shift and the associated demise of the Gaelic people), or recommended
interventions, implies that the State may no longer see itself as having an interventional role in the
future of the Gaeltacht or in the future of Irish embedded in a living community.
10.6 Proposals for the State or for school patronage
In the possible reorganisation of different aspects of schooling, input and support would be
required from experts in the relevant areas. An educational approach based on Model 4 could be
implemented by a private patronage body charged to manage the specific educational requirements
in Gaeltacht Category A. There would be particular challenges arising from the establishment of
a management system of this type; its success would also depend on the ability of those who are
tasked with:
giving leadership
designing an appropriate system and its implementation
directing the development and implementation of the system.
The State would have to provide a funding mechanism and an assessment framework to support its
functions and ensure its effectiveness. This could be achieved through a new system of capitation,
which could be regularly reviewed for its effectiveness, or, alternatively, An Chomhairle um
Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta could be empowered to oversee the implementation
of this system.
Since it is more difficult to acquire a minority language fully than a majority language, it is preferable
to adopt an approach in the minority language which would be as monolingual as practicable,
especially in the early years of acquisition. Especially within the critical period of acquisition (see
Montrul 2008), the minority language should function in a similar a way to a majority language.
Early minority-language monolingualism is the term given to this approach in Lenoach et al.
(2012) to describe a process of acquisition in which a minority language becomes as functional
as a majority language would be. It is necessary to prioritise minority language acquisition first,
as inferred by the term delayed bilingualism (Lenoach et al. 2012). Delayed bilingualism refers
to the acquisition of a majority language after the acquisition of a minority language. This was the
245
type of language acquisition which occurred in the Gaeltacht when the functional acquisition of
Irish was prevalent there; until early bilingualism became prevalent, and this early bilingualism
occurred simultaneous with (i) the beginning of reduced or incomplete acquisition, (ii) attrition in
traditional levels of ability and (iii) a strong process of the deterioration of Irish social use.
The evidence in the conclusions of this research, that Irish-language ability is highest for those pupils
attending schools with the highest levels of Irish speakers, supports the recommendation that an
additive minority language model is more productive if incorporated in early monolingualism.
Because the ability of a bilingual speaker in both languages separately is often lower than that
of a monolingual speaker, and because the weaker language of the bilingual speaker is usually
much weaker than a monolingual speakers language, it is clear that, for the pupils in this research,
their weaker language, Irish, is weaker than monolingual Irish. Therefore, it would make sense to
suggest that minority language use, i.e. its input, uptake and output, should be as multi-faceted, as
multi-present and as multi-functional as possible in the case of the young.
A minority language needs societal functionality or it will only exist in the shadow of the majority
language. Children, the group with the least power in a society, cannot be expected to take
responsibility for the transmission or revival of a minority language. For a community to be able
to deal with the crisis of the language, a certain geographic protection would need to be afforded
to that community. Not only do children need the support of their community in coping with this
linguistic emergency, their community also requires structured geographical protection in support
of minority-language social vitality to counteract the competitive functional advantages of English.
Challenges inherent in the minority language condition

Given that minority cultures and languages in all parts of the world are disappearing rapidly, it
seems obvious that it is impossible for the majority of indigenous communities to counteract the
current pressures. The challenges inherent in the minority language condition, in the current
sociopolitical situation, make it difficult for the majority of indigenous peoples in the modern
world. The crisis of the Irish language is a local manifestation of this widespread international
phenomenon, and this research may offer an insight into these processes. Given restrictions of
space here, it is not possible to discuss all relevant issues, but the two summary lists below provide
a wider comparative context for the analysis. The first list relates to the domains of linguistics and
acquisition, and the second list relates to the public and academic discourse about the minority
language condition.
Aspects of linguistics and acquisition with regard to the minority language condition:
1. Codeswitching: There is a strong tendency in the majority of bilingual communities to

codeswitch and therefore to transmit a codeswitched language; this codeswitching has a
negative effect on acquisition, especially for the acquisition of the minority language.
2. Reduced acquisition: It is difficult to raise reduced acquisition to a level of full acquisition,

e.g. Beaudrie and Fairclough (2012), Benmamoun (without date: 1619), N Chonchir
(2012). It is difficult for reduced speakers to become full speakers. The linguistic structures
of the reduced language tend to become embedded in the ability and identity of the reduced
minority-language speaker.
3. Unbalanced bilingualism: Since bilingual acquisition is unbalanced in general, if it is not
possible to function without full acquisition of the majority language in a given society, it
is usually the minority language which is not completely acquired. See the discussion of
stable English acquisition in Section 9.3.3.
4. Lack of functionality: There is a wide gap between full or traditional speaker ability and
current reduced speaker ability, as is shown particularly in the results of this study. Fairly
significant improvement would be necessary to bring the reduced level of ability up to a
full level of functionality.
246
5. Second language learning: In general, only c. 5% of learners of a second language manage

to reach a comparable level to that of native speakers.
6. Complete acquisition of the language: In order to develop functional acquisition, the

reduced speaker would be required to engage in a learning process to acquire a significant
amount of linguistic features.
7. Education: Policy intervention grounded in an in-depth analysis of the reduced speaker

condition has not yet been undertaken in the context of education.
Aspects of the public and academic discourse as regards the minority language condition:
1. Additive and subtractive: There are weaknesses and gaps in the international literature on
bilingualism; some sociolinguists tend to focus more on the positive aspects and advantages
of additive bilingualism, while disregarding evidence from linguists regarding subtractive
contexts. For this reason, not enough attention is focused on counteracting the difficulties
associated with subtractive bilingualism.
2. Domination and changing attitudes: There is a general acceptance in the international
literature of the tendency to acquiesce with the dominance of the majority language in the
social context of the minority language; the only suggestion offered to counteract complex
political and social disadvantages is to work on changing attitudes.
3. Codeswitching: There is a propensity in the international literature to present codeswitching
as indicative of speaker creativity regardless of the negative effect bilingualised language
has on the sustainability and the functionality of minority languages in their traditional
settings and other contexts.
4. Individuality: There is an inclination for the social characteristics of cultural contact to

be presented in terms of optional and individual identities regardless of the adverse
implications cultural globalisation has on the sustainability of minority cultures around
the world.
5. Creativity: There has long been a tendency in academic traditions to focus on minority
language aesthetics and textuality, along with a tendency to disregard the social study of
the lived experience of the minority-language condition.
6. Research: Internationally, relatively little research has been undertaken on the
implementation of recommendations concerning this type of minority-language condition.
The amount and severity of the difficulties involved in the minority-language condition are striking.
In the context of the current remnants of the Gaeltacht, in the absence of significant change
within the community and the state system, it now seems that challenges to the community and
individuals are insurmountable. The following general proposals are made, therefore, in support
of a plausible strategy for successful acquisition early monolingualism being the most central
and basic of these proposals. It is furthermore in the context of additive minority schooling or
education that these proposals are presented.
A language can only be acquired from other people. It is through this contact that a person becomes
a participant in his or her own culture. The full acquisition of a language is associated with the
complete acquisition of the culture expressed through the medium of that language. Language
and culture are integrated social and identity resources which are acquired through interpersonal
development. We propose here that a process of socialisation in Gaelic identity be fostered through
the additive minority-language approach.
10.7.1 Proposals for parents and teachers of Gaeltacht pupils
These proposals are derived from the discussion of sociolinguistic and identity issues set out
above:
247
Interactive functional socialisation: that the various social networks the child participates
in be as highly functional in Irish culture and language as possible
Functional communication: to use Irish as functionally as possible and in as many functions
as possible with children
Monolingual communication: to avoid the disadvantage of codeswitching on childrens

acquisition
Interactive reading:

To improve and strengthen initially the social practice of Irish for children
to avoid a decrease among children in minority-language literacy associated with the

functional advantage of majority-language literacy.
to ensure that Irish literacy is the foundation for the childrens cognitive development
10.7.2 Proposals for teachers
This research highlights many of the problematic grammatical features which are prevalent among
young speakers. This research can form the basis for teaching resources aimed at addressing
speakers linguistic, functional and educational difficulties. The outcomes of this study should
help to contribute to the development of a suitable curriculum relevant to this reduced minoritylanguage community. Therefore, in the context of schooling for Irish speakers (where an ethos for
Gaelic schools would not be undermined by English speakers), it is here proposed:
To seek the on-going cooperation of the community for the Gaelic education project and its
normalisation
Support for the social function of Irish among the youth, working with parents (e.g. group
work, drama, discussions, narrative and description, debate, play, sport)
Use of fully-acquired Irish (rather than reduced or codeswitched Irish); school practices to
function in fully-acquired Irish
To provide teachers with the main findings of this research as well as the detailed description
of the linguistic aspects of reduced Irish (e.g. under the auspices of An Chomhairle um
Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta)
To provide teachers with the research findings concerning long-established literacy
deficiencies in Irish in the Gaeltacht and to design policies to prioritise a functional literacy
in Irish and to avoid any early competitive interference of functional literacy in English
Implementation of a new curriculum suitable for reduced speakers of Irish (to be developed
by the state system or another body, based, among other data, on the details set out in this
report)
Development of teaching materials to address the difficulties young speakers have in
different linguistic areas (phonetics, vocabulary and grammar)
Rooting teaching practice in the Gaelic cultural and linguistic context as appropriate.
10.8 Implementing a system of additive minority-language education

In view of the experience the Gaeltacht communities have had with the education system since the
foundation of the State, and due to the prevalence of reduced acquisition in Irish, it is now preferable
to confer the administrative responsibilities of a system of additive minority-language education
on an independent patronage body. The patronage would be responsible for implementing the
administration of the system and working with government departments and agencies, as well as
community, education and other groups as appropriate. Among the requirements which would
support the proper functioning of this system are:
248
10.8 Implementing a system of additive minority-language education /

10.9 Suggestions for further research
Management structure
Policy development and structures for implementation review (e.g. proposals in the CLS
2007, Mac Donnacha et al. 2005 and Flatharta 2007)
Financial and capitation system
A new, reformed curriculum, of high functional quality
Systems for inspection, assessment and professional training.
In this instance, there would be more advantages than disadvantages in establishing a new
state body, given the very specific nature of the expertise and roles required, and the level of
independence necessary for a small team to meet these particular challenges. A new state body
would reduce the administrative, training and planning burdens for the Department of Education
and Skills. Bourgeois (2004) makes similar recommendations with regard to school councils in
minority language situations in Canada. If it is decided not to set up an independent patronage
body, the Department, or An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta agus Gaelscolaochta, could, of
course, implement these proposals directly.
10.9 Suggestions for further research
In this section we list possibilities of additional research and supporting research concerning
issues of bilingual acquisition and the implementation of a minority-language additive approach
in education:
Research on acquisition issues in the Kerry Gaeltacht and Donegal Gaeltacht
Research on the bilingual ability of adults in the Gaeltacht in order to estimate generational
trends in bilingual acquisition, from the oldest generation to the current parental generation
A series of research projects in the context of the new curriculum (as proposed in this
report) on the additive minority-language approach, or a similar new approach in pre-,
primary and secondary schools one series of research projects on the new Irish system
and another series on different aspects of international comparison
A series of research on the implementation of the proposals for the additive minoritylanguage approach, including research on any improvements to the curriculum
Literacy research, examining spoken ability, linguistic ability and literacy attainment
Research on home practices, for example, interactive reading and the importance of new
media technologies.
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256
Aguisn A: Struchtr na
n-agallamh (Gaeilge)
Sceideal comhairleach don agallir:
(A) INSEAN LE CHILE

Dia dhb a ... agus a ...
Dia is Muire dhuit
... at ormsa.
Ramhr
Seod scal faoin Traein Bheag Dhearg, seantraein, agus rith s rsa
le traein luais nua. Dnall, an tomna, agus Sen a chntir. Bh
Dnall agus Sen ar an tseantraein. Agus bh an tomna agus a
chntir sa traein nua ag danamh gach a bhfadfaids leis an rsa a
bhuachadh, fi is go raibheadar ag cimilaracht / cnemhaireacht.
Sn t-ainm at ar an scal Rsa go Ceann Scrbe.
Treoir
Anois. Breathnidh sibse ar na pictiir sa leabhar is inseoidh sib an

scal d chile. Agus inseoidh sib gach a bhfeiceann sib sna pictiir.
Seod leabhar Fraincise. Ach chldaigh muid an scrbhneoireacht
innti sa gcaoi is go n-inseodh sibse an scal d chile.
Anois danfaidh chaon duine agaibh dh bhilleog san iarraidh.
Danfaidh sib neart cainte faoi chuile shrt, an ndanfaidh? Maith
sibh.
Agus t rud amhin at le feicel ionanns sa chaon darna pictir,
bfhidir go dtirfadh sib faoi deara card fin is sib ag goil
thrthi.
Sprioc
(Iad tosaithe agus tuigthe acu.)

T s sin an-mhaith.
Caithfidh mise a ghoil amach anois ag danamh glaoch ar an bhfn. Ach coinnig sibse oraibh go
dtiocfaidh m ar ais.
M bhonn sib ridh li sin, fadfaidh sib tosa ar leabhar eile at anseo. (Traein gan Tomna) N
bheidh m i bhfad.
257
Aguisn A: Struchtr na n-agallamh (Gaeilge)
(B) AN CHAD INSEAN Aonair

Dia dhuit a ...
Treoir
N Cld
N -1
N 1
2
3
4
N 5-6
7
8
N 9
10
N 11
N 12
N 13
N 14
N 15-16
N 17-18
19
N 20
21
22
23
258
Dia is Muire dhuit
Anois. Seod an Rsa go Ceann Scrbe. Dnall, an tomna, agus

Sen a chntir. Breathnidh tusa ar na pictiir sa leabhar is
inseoidh t an scal dom agus inseoidh t dhom gach a bhfeiceann
t sna pictiir.
Danfaidh t neart cainte faoi chuile shrt. Danfaidh t go leor
cainte dhom, an ndanfaidh?
Maith an cailn / buachaill.
Focl
Cn t-am ar an gclog?
Ansin, card a tharla? [Inn]

Cn fth ar cuireadh an ola ar an rille?
Sa gCaoi go / Ros go / Le go
Tomhais card a tharls anois. [Amireach]
Cn fth a bhfuil s ag cur na gcaoire ar an rille?

Cn fth ar cuireadh na caoire ar an rille?
Card a tharls anois? [Amireach]
Card a tharls anois? [Amireach]
Maith th. Bh s sin an-mhaith. Cailn / Buachaill maith. Go raibh

mle maith ad.
Focl
Focl
Inscne
Caite
Focl
Focl
Focl
Cn
Fist
Caite
Focl
Fist
Cn
Caite
Focl
Fist
Gin
Gin
Focl
Focl
Fist
Focl
Focl
Focl
Iolr
Iolr
Insc
Focl
Gin
(C) AN DARNA hINSEAN

N dearmad torann soilir tobann a dhanamh, buille amhin, ag sneadh an phinn ar rud at le
n-ainmni.
Anois gabhfaidh muid thrd arst is plifidh muid an scal ruainnn
beag eile.
Pic. 1
Comhair na ruda sin at in uachtar ar thaobh an vaign (c

mhad acu)?
Cheithre Fhuinneog
([M chliseann air sin] Card t ar achaon taobh den tsimlar?

Dh Fhuinneog)
3-4
Card, C, Cn Fth, C, Cn Chaoi
Comhr
Uimh
Anois. Sna pictiir seo t m ag iarraidh ort ruda a tharla ann a

r nar tharladar. Mar shampla, snfidh m an peann ar bhuachaill
a thit is darfaidh tusa Nor thit an buachaill. Inseoidh t a
mhalairt n brag faoin rud a tharla. Maith go leor?
7 Chuir Nor Chuir Ola, Choinic N Fhaca Dnall,
14
5 Ceist
Simh
Card a dhanf dh mba th an bhean ar imigh an mada uaithi? Coinn
7-8
13
Uimh
Anois. Sna pictiir seo t m ag iarraidh ort ceisteanna a chur

ormsa faoi na ruda a snfidh m an peann orthub. Faoi na ruda
a tharla.
5-6
10
Simh
Chuadar amach N Dheachadar / Thiniceadar Amach,

Nor Rug Dnall ar an mBarra, Nor irt Sen
Card a dhanf-sa dh mbeadh caoire ar an rille romhat?

Card dirt Sen ansin?
Dirt Sen go ...
Anois t m ag iarraidh ortsa an rud a snfidh mise an peann air a

inseacht dom. Darfaidh tusa
Dilt
Br Mr
Comhr
Coinn
Ins
ndhr
Seod an ... (fib card fin) n

Seod an ... (fib card fin).
259
Mar shumpla, snfidh mise an peann ar an bhfear is darfaidh tusa

Seod an ... fear. Sea. N Seod ... an traein. Go maith.
Grinneog
Fuinneog Bhriste
An-mhaith. Anois danfaidh muid le go leor,
Focl
Inscn
Iolr
Focl
Simh
Gin
Inscn
Simh
Seod iad na ...
15-16
([Iolr] Buidal, Dris, Fia, Dealg, Sionnach, Loch)

C bhfuil an far sin ag fs?
(Ar an mBthar) Cn it ar an mbthar?
I Lr an Bhthair
(Ar chuir tusa caoi ar tharracir n charr n rothar ariamh? Ar

thomin t aon cheann acu ariamh? (Innis dhom faoi ... ))
Innis dhom, gan do mhir a shneadh uirthi, cn bh is goire don
traein?
An Bh a bhFuil a Drioball san aer aici
Coibh
An Bh at ag an nGeata
Coibh
Innis dhom, gan do mhir a shneadh uirthi, cn bh a rinne an

cac?
Anois. Snfidh mise an peann ar rud arst. Ach cuirfidh muid mr

leis, darfaidh muid gur ceann mr . Mar shumpla, snfidh mise
ar an ngeata is darfaidh tusa
Seod an geata mr
Seod an spir mhr
Cuirfidh t (m)r leothub uilig.
an Fharraige Mhr, an Teach Mr, an Chearc Mhr, an tan

Inscne
Mr, an Bh Mhr
Seod iad na ...
na hisc Mhra, na Cuit Mhra

na Tithe Solais Mra
h-V
Can
Focl
Drible na mBeithoch, Cosa na gCearc(a),

Lmha na nDaoine, Drible na nisc
Gin iol
Ur
An-mhaith.
Anois. Beidh ruda i gceist ainn a bhaineanns le rud eile. Caithfidh
tusa an phirt agus an rud ar leis a inseacht. Snfidh mise mo
pheann orthu is inseoidh tusa dhom, mar shumpla
Seod iad lmha an fhear,
Seod iad cosa na mbeithoch.
An bhfeiceann t na cearca? Innis dhom, gan do mhir a shneadh

air, c acu an coileach.
260
An Ceann a bhFuil an Drioball Mr Glas air
Coibh
Gagn / Craobh, Sileoga, Maidhmeanna, Buanta
Focl
C mhad ainmh at sa gcinne?
17-18
Dh chaora / Pire
Faoillen, Feamainn, Pota Gliomach, Eangach, Bua,

Ronnach, Crosg, Smugairle Rin, Sliogn, Faocha, Portn, Rn,
Bd Iascach, Bd Seoil
Cn chaoi a n-oibronn an pota gliomach?
Baoite, I bhFast, Sinn
An raibh t ag iascach ariamh?

[An raibh t ag an gcladach ariamh?]
Uimh
(Iolr)
Iolr
Lithr
Focl
Card a dhananns daoine lena mbrga shl dtann siad ag

snmh?
19
4
4
5
7
8
9
10
11
21
22
22
22
22
Baineann siad dhobh (dh) ...
Ramh
Innis dhom c mhad duine at sa vaign lir?

[Sa vaign tosaigh?]
Focl
Anois t muid ag goil ag danamh ruainnn beag faoi dhathanna

is ruda. Darfaidh mise an ts is caithfidh tusa an chuid eile a
chrochn i mo dhiaidh. Mar shumpla, darfaidh mise T s sin go Comp
Maith is darfaidh tusa Ach t an ceann eile Nos ... Nos Fearr. N
T s sin Mr; darfaidh tusa Ach t an ceann eile Nos ... Nos M.
Uimh
Aid
Ssta, Nos ...

Beag, Nos ...
Ard, Nos ...
Dathil, Nos ...

Lidir, Nos ...
seal, Nos ...
Mall, Nos ...
Salach, Nos ...

Fada, Nos ...
Deas, Nos ...
Dearg, Nos ...

Bn, Nos ...
Bu, Nos ...
Ssta, Nos ...
Bh s sin an-mhaith. Cailn / Buachaill maith. Go raibh mle maith

ad. Go gcit Dia do shaothar leat.
261
AGUISN
Innis dom faoi ...
Oche Shamhna
L an Amadin, An Chad L dAibren
Scal na Nollag
An Nollaig seo Caite
An Chad Chomaoineach
Spirt; Timpiste; TV; Jc
262
Aguisn B: Struchtr na
n-agallamh (Barla)
Sceideal comhairleach don agallir:
(A) Telling Together

Hello ...
Hello
Im ...
This is a story about the Little Red Train.

Intro
Instruc
The train went out of control one day when the driver, Dermot, left
the brake off when he got off. Then Dermot had to try and catch up
with the train and stop it.
The name of the story is Runaway Train.
Now. I want you to look at the pictures in the book and to tell each
other the story and to tell each other everything you see in the
pictures. This is a French book. But we covered over the writing
so that you would tell the story. So I want you to talk a lot about
everything. Youll do plenty of talking, will you?
Good girl / boy.
And there are one or two things you might see in nearly every
second picture, maybe youll notice what they are as you go
through the book.
(Started and showing theyve understood.)

Thats very good.
I have to go out to make a phonecall now. But you keep going till I come back.
If you finish that book, you can start on another one here. (Little Red Train to the Rescue) I wont be
long.
(B) First Telling Alone

Hello ...
Intro
Hello
Now this is Runaway Train. The drivers name is Dermot.
Aim
263
Aguisn B: Struchtr na n-agallamh (Barla)
Instruc
Now. I want you to look at the pictures in the book and to tell me
the story and to tell me everything you see in the pictures. Youll do
plenty of talking, will you?
Good girl / boy.
N Cover
-1
1
Pic. 1
What time is it?
Pic. 2
2
Pic. 1
Pic. 2
1-2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Pic. 1
Pic. 2
Pic. 1-2
What will happen next? [Tomorrow]
Fut
And what happened then? [Yesterday]
Past
What would you do if you were the driver?
Will they manage to catch it? What will happen next?
Fut
What will happen next? [Tomorrow]
Fut
10
11
12
N 13-15
16
17
18
19
264
Cond
And then what happened? [Yesterday]
Well see that beach down there later on.
Past
20
N 21-24
Well done. That was very good. Good girl / boy. Thanks very much.
(C) Second Telling

Dont forget to make a noise just when you point the pen at a thing to be named.
Now well go through it again and well talk another bit about the story.
(Do you know) how do old trains work?
What are they and how many are there?
Pic. 1
Four Windows
Num
How many are playing football?
Num
([If that fails] Whats on both sides of the chimney?
4
5-6
7
8
Pic. 2
Vocab
Two Windows)
Explan
Now. In these pictures I want you to ask questions about the things
Ill point to. About what happened.
What, Who, Why, Where, How
5 Quest Synt
(Did you ever fix a truck or a car or a bike? Did you ever drive one
of them?)
What van is that?

The one they were in earlier on
Rel
Now. On this page I want you to tell me what I point my pen at.
Youll say
This is the ... (whatever it is).
For example, Ill point the pen at the man and youll say This is the
... man. Right. Or This is the ... train.
Or These are the ... passengers / people.
Grand.
265
Water, Fish, Boat
Pl
Cows, Fish, Ducks
Pl
Very good. Now well do lots. You start with

These are the ...
What would you do if you were the driver and the train was
Cond
running away from you like that?
10
Now. On this page I want you to tell me what I point the pen at
again. But well add big to whatever it is. Well say its a big one.
For example, Ill point to the gate and youll say
This is the big gate
Well add big to each one.
the big Wood, the big Hen, the big Tree, the big Goose
Synt
Vocab
Pigs Heads, Geeses Feet, Birds Wings, Windows of the Houses
Gen
Pl
In the middle of the Road
Gen
Synt
Cock, Piglets
Vocab
What would you do if there were sheep on the road in your way?
Cond
These are the ...
the big Cows, the big Trees
Very good.
Now. Well talk about things that belong together. You have to tell
me the part and what it belongs to. Ill point my pen and youll tell
me, for example
These are the mans hands,
These are the cows feet.
Chimney of the House
(The bald man is on the side of the road.) Where on the road is
Dermot cycling?
Whats the male hen called?
young pigs?
Whats a wheelbarrow for?
11
266
Gen
Explan
What did Dermot say there?

He / Dermot said that ...
Whats that between the peddles and the back wheel?
12
Pl
Chain
Indir
Vocab
Why do people cut trees?

To
Conj
Sg
13-14
Now. I want you to try and tell the opposite to what happened in
the picture. If I point to a boy who jumped you have to say the boy
didnt jump.
13
19
20
Came Didnt come down, Didnt go up,

Told The girl didnt tell them to wait ...
Saw Didnt see,

14 Caught hold of Didnt catch hold of,
Drank Didnt drink
Neg
Synt
Explan
Conj
Irr Vb
What do you think the rag is for?

Wipe (/ Clean)
Seaweed, Jellyfish, Icecream (cone), Licking, Jacket, Barefoot,

Vocab
Nest, Foam, Wooden Plank, Flying down
These are the ...
Shoes, Shoelaces, Buttons, Bottles, Cliffs, Seagulls, Waves,

Plr
Bubbles, Shells
Periwinkle(s)
What did the people do with their shoes?

They took them off ...
(Tell me) wheres the cow?

On top of the cliff
(Were you ever at the shore or at the beach?

Did you ever do any work on the shore?)
21-22
Vocab
Prep
Vocab
Gen
Vocab
Gen
Pl
Vocab
Very good.
Now. Well talk about things that belong together. You have to tell
me the part and what it belongs to. Ill point my pen and youll tell
me, for example
These are the mans hands,
These are the cows feet.
Cows Tails, Sheeps Feet, Sheeps Heads, Peoples Hands
How many people can you see in the middle carriage?
Num
What lorry / boat is that? [P. 9]
Rel
The horse that ...
Rel
The lorry / boat is that ...
Tell me, without pointing your finger, which horse is the furthest
from the train?
267
Now were going to do a little with colours and things. Ill say the
beginning and you have to finish it for me. For example, Ill say
Thats Big and youll say But the other is ... Bigger. Youll say But Comp
the other is Bigger.
Thats Big But the other is ... Bigger.
2
21-22
Happy, Happier / More Happy

Small, Smaller
High, Higher
Pretty, Prettier / More Pretty

Good, Better
Strong, Stronger
Beautiful, More Beautiful

Heavy, Heavier
Dangerous, More Dangerous

Far, Further
Yellow, More Yellow
Happy, Happier / More Happy
Well done. That was great. Good girl / boy.

Thank you very much. Thanks very much.
Appendix
Tell me about ...
Halloween
April Fools Day, The First Day of April
The Christmas Story
Last Christmas
First Holy Communion
Sport
Accident, Crash
TV
Joke
268
Adj
Aguisn C: Sampla dagallaimh

tr Ghaeilge
Dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach seal (30 go 20)
Scrinnacs dtheangach
Scrinnacs iomln Gaeilge

Scrinnacs Barla
-29.3
64.6
93.9
Dalta (00:52): E-... well ar dts em... bh e-... Dnall e-... ina chodladh leis a bhean agus chuaigh
em... bhreathnaigh s ar an clog. N dirigh s agus chonaic s go raibh s go
raibh s e-... well I think go bin twenty to six. N hea. Agus, e-... well fiche chun a s.
Agus em... em... bh s [ag] ritheacht sos n it a bhfuil s cna theach agus
go bhfuil s [ag] goil ag an it a bhfuil an traein. Agus caithfidh s imeacht agus
ruda a phiocadh suas go beo. Agus anois, em... t s ar an traein arst agus t s
ag imeacht sciobtha so go mbeadh s in ann na daoin a phiocadh suas. Agus
ansin anois t s ag na daoin agus bh na daoine ar fad [ag] fanacht le haghaidh
Dnall agus an traein agus bh chuile dhuine ssta agus iad ar fad ag goil goil air
anois. Anois t chuile dhuine ar an traein agus t Dnall ridh le imeacht agus t
siad just ag fanacht le fear a r leis Coinnigh ag imeacht!, agus t s [ag] goil as.
Oh t bean amhin agus t s deireanach ag teacht agus t s [ag] goil amach go
dian ach imonn an traein agus nl Dnall ar an traein agus t chuile duine ag
t t faitos ar chuile dhuine. Agus t dfhadfadh an traein goil aon it anois
mar gheall nach bhfuil Dnall air. Agus t Dnall ar an mbthar agus t s r leis
an fear go bhfuil a thraein imithe agus caithfidh s caithfidh s a fhil go beo.
Agus e-... ligeann an fear cead dh goil isteach ar an ar a charr. Agus em... t
chuaigh an veain suas go dt an an traein sciobtha agus em... fuair s an traein
agus chuaigh Dnall amach as a an veain em... go sciobtha sciobtha agus
chuaigh s suas ar an traein ar na staighr beag.
Agallir:
Agus tomhais card a tharls anois gan bhreathn!
Agallir:
Tomhais card a tharls!
Dalta (03:00): Sorry?
Dalta (03:04): E-... Well, bfhidir ngabhfadh s air agus bfhidir go thiteadh s as arst ach
bfhidir go mbeadh air goil ar ais arst. Nl a fhios am. B- Bfhidir go mbeadh
chuile rud ceart go leor agus bfhidir... nl a fhios am. Agus em... anois, n ghabh
Dnall ar an em... ar an traein. Agus t carranna go leor carranna [ag] teacht
ina dhiaidh so nl s in ann a bheith suas catchil suas leis nos m n goil air mar
go bhfuil an traein uaidh imithe. Agus t e-... traffic ar fad ann. Agus anois t
em... t fear ar bd agus t an fear in ann, Dnall ar an bd seo in ann in ann an
na carranna ar fad goil amach rthu (?) agus an traein a fhil. So t an traein t
Dnall em... t an bd ag goil sciobtha ag goil suas ag an ag an traein. Agus t
Dnall thuas thuas ar an gob agus bfhidir go ng(e)abhfadh s suas ar an traein
fs ach nl nl s sch gar mar nl na bid in ann goil suas ar an rille.
269
Aguisn C: Sampla dagallaimh tr Ghaeilge
Dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach menach (20 go 10)


Scrinnacs Barla
-15.4
69.9
85.3
Agallir:
Agus c bhfuil, card a tharla ansin?
Agallir:
Sea agus meas t card a tharls amach anseo? An bhfuil aon tuairim ad card a
tharls?
Agallir:
Hm go dreach.
Agallir:
Sea. Agus meas t card a tharls amach anseo?
Agallir:
Sea. An bhfuil aon leide ansin. An bhfeiceann t aon rud sa bpeictir, bfhidir a
bheadh Dnall in ann a sid?
Agallir:
Sea. T s i bponc, nach bhfuil?
Agallir:
T s i gcruachs, cheapfainn. By-dad. Card at ar sil anseo?
Agallir:
Sea.
Agallir:
Sea.
Dalta (05:30): Agus em... bh-, bh... chuaigh, fuair s bicycle... fuair s rothar agus chuaigh,
chuaigh, bh s ag iarraidh coinneil suas leis an traein mr dearg ach, ach n
raibh an... n raibh an rothar sch sciobtha le coinneil suas leis agus bh neart
ainmhithe sa... san far.
Dalta (05:57): E-... nl an bthar a ghoil dreach ns an it at an traein.
Dalta (06:07): Agus em... thinig caoire amach ar an mbthar agus n raibh, n raibh, n raibh
na... n raibh an tiomnda ar an... ar an rothar in ann coinneil suas leis an traein.
Bh an bthar uilig tgtha ag na caoire. Agus bh an traein... fuair an... fuair an
tiomnda capall agus bh... bh s ag iarraidh coinneil suas leis an traein ar an
capall agus... agus bh neart anacha sa spir agus bh neart... agus... agus bh...
bh feirmeoir ar an... ag an garra eile.
Dalta (06:54): E-... nl m rcinnte.
Dalta (07:06): E-... an... n raibh na caiple in ann coinneil suas leis an traein.
Dalta (07:10): Sea.
Dalta (07:17): E- em Stop na caiple nuair a chuala siad an tarracir ar... ar... ar... ag imeacht
agus... agus d-, dirt... dirt an tiomin leis an... tiomin-... leis an tarracir, dirt
Dalta (07:54): Dirt s. Agus dirt an tarr-, e-... dirt an tiomin an tarracir, fadfaidh.
Dalta (07:57): E-... agus dimigh, dimigh an tarracir i ndiaidh an... i ndiaidh an traein mr dearg
agus a neart deatach tocht uaidh an tr-... traein.
270
Dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach ard (10 go 0)


Scrinnacs Barla
-2.7
83.6
86.3
Dalta (00:02): E- Rith s amach ag an ngariste san it a bhonn an traein agus e- ansin
thosaigh s suas an traein chuir s gual agus isteach e- isteach san inneall agus
las s suas agus thosaigh s. Agus dimigh s ar a bhealach arst go dt an mbaile
beag. E-... chaith s go leor daoine ag an staisiin traenach fanacht leis an traein
agus em... em... bh siad ag fanacht leis an traein le fada agus e-... chuaigh siad ar
an traein ansin agus e-... e-... is beag gur fhg s bhean amhin ina dhiaidh ach
a chuir s isteach sa gcairt agus thosaigh s ar a bhealach agus ar a bhealach
ann chuaigh s thairis pirc. Chuaigh s thairis teach. Bh go leor gasir ag imirt
peil ann agus em... baile beag deas le go leor carranna agus ruda agus n raibh
s fhin istigh sa... istigh sa traein ar chor ar bith. Dimigh s leithi fhin, s ar
a mbealach agus e-... bh s ag iarraidh a leanacht agus bh s rsciobtha dh
agus em... ansin chuir s ceist ar fear a bh leora aige mbeadh s in ann an traein
a leanacht, dirt s leis go mbeadh. Chuaigh s suas ar an... ar an deireadh... ar
deireadh an leora agus dimigh an e-... dimigh an tiomna le deifir agus bheir s
suas leis an traein agus thriail Dnall breith ar an drimire a bh ar an traein.
Agallir:
Agus card a tharls anois meas t?
Dalta (01:55): Nl a fhios am. E-... ansin bh traff-... em... bh traffic jam ann agus dimigh an
traein leothi agus stop an tiomna an leora is n raibh s in ann a ghoil thrd agus
chonaic Dnall le... fear eile le bidn thall ag a... ag an droichead is e-... jumpil s
s-... em... lim s sos ag air e-... ag an mbd agus e-... dimigh tiomna an bhd go
dt an traein agus shroich s suas leis an traein arst. E-... ach dimigh an traein
agus e-... bh deireadh leis an loch a bh an bd air agus bigean dh rith, bigean
dho Dhnall rith arst agus e-... fuai-... am fuair s cead rothar a fhil uaidh na...,
rothair uaidh na daoine seo a bh a rothaocht agus lean s an traein agus, is
chuaigh s thar an feirm agus bh cearca agus lachan ann agus cat agus bh beith
thall ar an taobh eile agus feirmeoir ag obair agus a lean madadh Dnal, lean b
na daoine eile.
271
Agallamh iomln le dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach menach

(-20 go -10)

Scrinnacs Barla
-17.7
65
82.7
Agallir:
Dia dhuit, a Mhirn. Cn chaoi a bhfuil t?
Agallir:
Anois, a thinig, Nra do iarraidh an dtinig?
Agallir:
, go maith. Anois, card a bh t a dhanamh sa rang ansin?
Agallir:
, card a bh sib a gherradh amach?
Agallir:
nn.
Dalta (00:08): Go maith.
Dalta (00:10): E- no, whats (face ?)... but, I suppose go dirt, Nra le Baba .
Dalta (00:20): E- no bh muid gerradh amach dho naonn. Well, t siad imithe ach just kinda
rud, kinda, t... t copy... loads of copies ag an mistres Niamh... agus t like rud
seo ann dho mo chad l ar scoil agus ruda mar shin. Agus cisir Nra go bheidh
an bliain a rinne siad beidh s fgtha acub.
Dalta:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Well, t siad imithe ach... just kinda rud, kinda, t... t copy, loads o copies ag em...
mistres Niamh... agus t like rud seo ann mo chad l ar scoil agus ruda mar
shin.
Agus cisir Nra... go bheidh [.i. gubh ?] na bliain a rinn siad beidh siad (in ?)
ann bheith acub.
, sea, go maith.
Yeah.
Agallir:
Anois. T an leabhar seo aam anseo. An aithnonn t sin?
Agallir:
Sin an tseanthraein bheag dearg channa.
Agallir:
Ach t an scal seo beagainn difriil. T na focla fs cldaithe aam mar leabhartha
Fraincise ar fad iad ach... siod scal faoin traein bheag dhearg agus chuaigh s as
smacht l... nuair a dimigh Dnall an tiomna dhi... agus rinne s dearmad na
coscin a chur uirthi. Agus dimigh an traein as smacht. Agus s ard at Dnall
ag iarraidh a dhanamh... n t s ag iarraidh breith suas ar an traein le n- a
stopadh.
Dalta (00:46): Yeah.

Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (01:09): Is card coscn?

Agallir:
Card cosc-? Sin an rud a bhrnns t leis an traein a stopadh.
Dalta: yeah.
272
Agallir:
Bonn s ar charranna freisin agus ar rothair.
Dalta: yeah.
Agallir: Agus... So sio- t an traein... An Traein gan Tiomna sin an t-ainm at ar an

scal. So is ard at m ag iarraidh ortsa a dhanamh... n t m ag iarraidh ort...
breathn ar na peictiir agus t m ag iarraidh ort an scal a inseacht agus...
insigh om chuile shrt a fheiceanns t sna peictiir.
Dalta (01:27): Ceart goAgallir:
Maith go leor?
Agallir:
Fair play dhuit.
Agallir:
Tomhais card a tharls anois.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (01:30): Right. Ok. Is ar maidin t ann agus bhreathn-... em... Dnall ar an... clog agus...
bhreathnaigh s ar an t-am agus bh s leathuair this a.. a seacht. Agus bh air g
imeacht because bh air goil ag an em... traein. Agus dimigh s amach agus chuir s
ag an traein beag dearg. Agus... dimigh s air agus thosaigh s an... an kinda min
a chuir san... bosca beag dearg at ar an traein. Agus dimigh s leis go dt an train
station. Agus thinig s ag an train station agus bh s... beagnach ceathr this
a... naoi. Agus... bh daoin fanacht leis. Agus... stop s. [Iomp bileoige] Chuir
na daoin uiliug isteach sa d-... traein ach bh ceann amhin... em... nos moile [.i.
moille] n na cuide eile agus bh s r Stop! Stop! Agus ansin hopil s air. Agus
bh chuile shrt alright. Ach... d-... ach... dimigh an... traein gan Dnall istigh ann.
[Iomp bileoige] Agus thinig em... pickup beag, leora... glas agus dirt... Dnall...
go bhfuil an traein imithe, an dfh-, an bhfadfadh ride a bheith aige... lift. Agus
chuir Dnall isteach sa... rud deiridh a bh san... pickup... an kinda... boot-rud kinda.
Agus... sh-, sh- ansin bh siad beagnach a... beagnach... ar an traein... gar dhon
traein. Agus... lim... Dnall... as... an leora agus chuir s ar ladder beag... bh goil
ansin. Staighre beag.
Dalta (03:28): Em... Jumpil(fidh) s air agus beidh air sil danamh (?) n rud icint. [Iomp
bileoige] Ach nor ir-... nor irigh leis... a() goil ar an traein... because... dimigh
an traein ro-str(i)obthra (.i. ro-sciobtha). Agus bh... bh... traffic ann. Bh go
leor carranna agus buses... is lorries... em... sa mbealach is dimigh an traein...
an-tapaidh... an uair sin. Agus thinic Dnall... b-... bd... bd str(i)obthra [.i.
sciobtha]... speedboot. Agus dirt s leis... An bhfadfaidh m... lift... go dt an
traein... beag dearg? Agus dirt an fear... Yeah. Fadfaidh. Agus... ansin... stop an
bd agus... chu-... chu-... chuir Dnall air. Agus... dimigh siad agus ansin... stop s
ars agus chuir s amach sa garra agus bh s ag iarraidh... coinnigh suas leis
an traein, cause m ghabhfadh s an taobh sin, bheadh s... an taobh eile. Agus...
ansin... fuair... Dnall bicycle, rothar. Agus e- ri- e-... cycleil s agus bh s goil
really str(i)obthra [.i. sciobtha], omh [.i. chomh] str(i)obthra a fhadfadh s.
Agus... Ach bh an traein... beag dearg goil ana-tapaidh. Agus bh go leor lachan
agus cearca agus chickin beaga... ar [.i. ag] quackil ansin agus bh... beithgh agus
caiplle ann... agus caoire. Agus... ansin thinig... go leor caora... amach ar an... e- ar
na rothair. Bh siad ar an droichead agus bh... go leor acub ann. Agus... ansin...
dirt siad... e- chuir siad as an rothar. Agus choinnigh siad air... bh siad ag pushil
na caoir kinda... like r leob... like Scut, scut! n-. Agus chuir... ceann amhin...
273
Agallir:
flyil as bicycle. Agus chuir s- landil s ar caora. Agus ansin... bh em... kinda...
caiplle ar an taobh eile dho garra. Bh daoin or(thu)b... kinda tr-... traenil-it.
Agus... chuir Dnall agus... an dh, chuir Dnall ar an... ar na caiplle. Diarr siad
an bhfadfaidh caiplle bheith acub. Agus ch-... Agus an dh lad eile agus chuir
siad... ar a... leis na... na... gasir agus... a bh ar na caiplle ( ?) traenil. Agus... bh
na gasir... em... ar an... capall agus bh na... tr fi-... Dnall agus an dh fear eile...
em... taobh thiar dibh. Agus bh siad goil chomh tapaidh is a dfhadfadh siad.
Bh siad... really, really, really ritheacht. Agus... ach n raibh siad in ann coinneil
suas leis an traein beag dearg.
Tomhais card a tharls.
Dalta: Em.
Agallir:
Card a tharls anois?
Dalta (06:25): E- fiafrfaidh siad le... lift a fhil n rud icint. [Iomp bileoige] Right. E- fuair na
caiplle an-tuirseach agus n ghabhfadh siad ar an... kinda, t kinda it, is kinda farit dho na feirmar. Gabhann tractor is ruda air. Ach n raibh na caiplle really in
ann ritheacht chomh tapaidh is bh siad really tuirseach. So... bh-... dimigh... an...
Dnall agus an dh fear... ar... tractor. Bh go leor far air. Agus bh an... em... fear,
an feirmeoir ag driveil an tractor. Agus chuir e-... Dnall agus an dh fear eile...
em... ar an... rud a bh taobh thiar dh, kinda, rud bonn an far air. Is bh siad goil
chomh... str(i)obthra is a dfhadfadh an tractor goil. Agus n raibh siad in ann
coinneil suas leis an traein dearg. [Iomp bileoige] Agus ansin... stop... an... ! an
tractor... agus dimigh an tr... fear... an, Dnall agus an dh fear eile... am(a)-... as.
Agus... ansin... bh siad ag waveil r... le na daoin, T s alright. Agus... thinig...
helicopter ansin. Agus... dirt siad... dirt siad leis an helicopter An bhfadfaidh lift
a bheith aam? Agus dirt an helicopter Yeah. Agus bh siad thuas sa spir agus
bh go leor daoin breathn is na beithgh thoz [.i. thos] ansin. Agus ansin... bh...
kinda... rpa... n- n- nuair a bh siad gar dhon traein beag dearg, chuir an fear rpa
amach agus... kinda is staighre-rpa a bh ann. Agus... dreapaigh an... dreapaigh
Dnall... sos... an... staighre... an rpa-staighre. Agus... chuir s... thuas ar an roof... a
bh... ar an... traein. Agus... landil s sos. Agus ansin... chuir s suas go... dhon em...
chuir s sos ar an... it driveil, passanger-rud. Agus... ansin bh siad sln sbhilte
agus bh siad ag an baile beag a bh siad ag iarraidh goil. Agus bh... tr ann agus bh
go leor daoin ag an... ar an tr agus bh... chuir Dnall ag an tr agus em... bh s
s [.i. su] sos. Da-, chuir s as an brg agus an geansa. Agus bh... uachtar reoite
aige. Is bh s breathn amach ar na daoin snmh. Agus bh... beithgh... bh...
bh beithgh sa gairdn... gar dhibh. Agus bh... anacha... a... eitilt timpeall ansin.
[Iomp bileoige] Agus ansin... lean s air a t-. Ansin chuir s as... chuir s amach
as an... tr agus chuaigh s ar an... traein arst le na... na daoin a bh ar an traein.
Agus... chuir s thar baile beag eile. Agus em... bh... na daoin... a bh sa baile... ag
cu-... ag waveil... ar na... daoin a bh sa traein agus Dnall. Agus bh go leor caora
is ruda san... baile seo is beithgh, is feirmeoir is... caiplle agus... ruda mar shin. Is,
agus... skunks is ruda. Agus ansin... bh... Dnall a-, ag an it... a bh siad ag iarraidh
goil... ann... an town beag a bh ansin, baile beag. Agus... ! doscail s an doras is
chuir na... daoin uiliug amach. Agus... ansin bh siad... em... dimigh siad. Bh siad
sln sbhilte ansin. Agus dirt siad Go raibh maith agat [sic] le... Dnall. Agus
ansin... chuir... chuir Dnall isteach san traein ansin... breathn an raibh aon rud
fgtha. Agus ansin... chuir s... ar an... it... tiomint, an... it a bhodh s driveil.
Agus... choinnigh s air go dt an teach fhin. Agus... landil s an... traein beag
dearg... isteach san... st-... tr-... train station beag a bh aige. Agus sin .
274
Agallir:
Sin a dheireadh.
Agallir:
Ar thaithnigh s sin leat?
Agallir:
C acu ab fhearr leat?

Dalta (10:29): An ceann sin n an ceann eile a bh m a dhanamh le Nra?

Agallir: Nn.
Dalta:
Agallir:
E- an... An... ceann... eile. [Gire]

Tuige?
Dalta (10:40): Cause bh an ceann eile kinda nos asca agus... bh an ceann seo kinda nos...
deacair... because... n raibh a fhios agad really card a bh ag goil ag tarl. Agus
ruda mar sin [n shin].
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois breathnidh muid arst air agus gabhfaidh muid thrd... chupla
rud anseo is ansid ann. Anois. An bhfuil a fhios aad cn chaoi a n-oibronn an
tseantraein?
Dalta (11:09): E-... No. Just... cuireann siad e... kinda min-rud isteach san... kinda tine-rud a
bonns anseo. Agus tifidh s suas an traein. Agus ansin... bonn... like... na ruda...
kinda beep-rud ann ach kinda horn-rud at ann. Agus... an... wheel... agus... is
kinda... is kinda stick-rud agus b bonn s b-... bonn s ag moveil mar sin
cosil le... em... rud a bonns ar carr, an gearstick... -rud.
Agallir:
Nn. An-mhaith. Agus card iad sin agus c mhad acub at ann?
Agallir:
An-mhaith. [Iomp bileoige] C mhad duine at ag bualadh bire ansin?
Agallir:
C mhad duine at ag bualadh bire... ansin?
Agallir:
Agus c mhad duine at... ag imirt peile?
Agallir:
An-mhaith. [Iomp bileoige] Anois... ar an mbilleog seo t m ag iarraidh ortsa

ceisteanna a chur ormsa faoi ruda a tharla. Snfidh mise an peann ar an rud,
agus... cuirfidh tusa ceist orm faoi.
Dalta (11:51): Well, fuinneoga agus doras ach t fuinneog ar an doras. So like... tr fuinneog
agus... fuinneog ar an doras, cheithre chinn.
Dalta (12:06): Sorry?
Dalta (12:10): Em... Duine amhin.
Dalta (12:16): Em... Em... Seisear? Mar t duine eile just ag su ar an cla.
Dalta (12:40): Ok.

Agallir:
Dalta:
Maith go leor?
Ok.
275
Agallir:
Snfidh mise an peann agus cuirfidh tusa ceist ormsa.
Agallir:
Sin... leora.
Agallir:
Sea. Rud ar bith.
Agallir:
T... buicad ann, agus t... s- sluasaid ann?
Agallir:
Ab ea?
Agallir:
Sin iad... na... rit [.i. rotha(it)].
Agallir:
Sin em... vaign. N an carriste.
Agallir:
Agus ceann deiridh.
Agallir:
T s ag iarraidh... breith suas ar an traein... le go bhfaighfidh s greim... ar an...

drimire sin.
Agallir:
Ab ea?
Agallir:
Anois, is card at siad sin a dhanamh?
Agallir:
Agus ar chuir tusa caoi ar aon charr ariamh?
Agallir:
Card a rinne t?
Dalta (12:48): Alright. Ok. Em... Card... card sin?

Dalta (13:00): Yeah. seo?
Dalta (13:03): Em... Card... an rud... an dh rud at istigh sa leora?

Dalta (13:13): Yeah. Em... Card... ... n-, na ruda seo... t ar an leora?
Dalta (13:29): Yeah. C- em... Card ... na ruda s-... an rud seo t na daoin istigh ann?
Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (13:49): Em... Card at Dnall... ag iarraidh danamh?

Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (14:07): Em... T siad... ag fil rit [.i. rotha(it)] ... le cur ar an... an carr at br()- kinda
n... fuair an, a rite [.i. rotha(ite)] I suppose flat. Fuair s... pump-... em... puncture
agus fuair em... fuair... an lad seo agus fuair s rite [.i. rotha(ite)] eile le cuir ar
an... carr.
Dalta (14:30): Em... Just an CD-player. [Gire]
Dalta (14:34): Well, bh s kinda briste, so kind of, an bhfuil a fhios aad an button? E- an... Bonn
ort pressil... le... so go ngabhfaidh s air. Ach em... n raibh s ag iarr-... goil air an
bhfuil fhios aad so just kinda... choinnigh m orm a bhr agus ph-... phressil m
like... uimhir a a haon agus ansin chuir m suas agus ansin chuir m suas
agus ansin chuir s air. [Gire]
276
Agallir:
Agus ar chuir t caoi ar aon rothar ariamh?
Agallir:
Thug t cnamh do dhuine ar bith agus iad dhanamh?
Agallir:
Inis dhom faoi!
Dalta (15:00): Em... No.
Dalta (15:06): Yeah, Tom. Yeah.
Dalta (15:12): Em... Well, bh air... bh air rite [.i. rotha(ite)]... an rite [.i. rotha(ite)] a bh air...
em... an rotha a bh air... e- a phumpil suas. Agus... cause bh s... bh- n raibh an
gaoth air... so bh air gaoth a chur isteach ann. So em... bh mise kinda beir air
while bh s cuir an gaoth isteach ann. Agus... chuir muid caoi ar... bh an... an
bhfuil a fhios aad na ruda bonns u- timpeall ar... an rotha an... an... chain-rud
kinda, well bh s... rusty so... bh ort spray-rud a chur air.
Agallir: Nn.
Dalta:
Agallir:
Sin an mid a rinne m leis.
Is an mbeadh t in ann sin a dhanamh leat fhin?
Dalta (15:44): Well... Bfhidir an... rusty-rud but... nl m ro-sureilte faoin... rotha-rud.
Agallir:
Uhu. Anois, ar an mbilleoig seo... card a dhanfsa... dh mba th... an tiomna?
Agallir:
Nhn. Agus cn leora seo?
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois ar an mbilleoig seo, t m ag iarraidh ortsa an rud a shnfeas

m an peann air a inseacht dhom. Darfaidh tusa Siod hbr card fin n
Siod hbr card fin. Mar shampla m shneann mise an... peann... ar an
bhfear, darfaidh tusa: Siod an fear. N m shneann m an peann ar an traein,
darfaidh tusa Siod an traein.
Dalta (15:59): Well... gh- ghabhfadh m thart ar... an... thart ar... chun tosaigh... an traein. Because
m ghabhfadh t taobh thiar dh n bheadh t in ann jumpil cause... imeodh
s. Bheadh tusa fs ansin. So ghabhadh m... like thart ar anseo? An... ceathr
fuinneog... an tr fuinneoig. Agus... ansin... nuair t s... ag an... fuinneog seo limt
agus... ansin goil... trail goil air.
Dalta (16:36): Sin leora... an... fear seo.
Dalta: Ok.
Agallir:
Ceart go leor?
Agallir:
Tosidh t chuile abairt le siod.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (17:00): Ok.
Agallir: Anois.
Dalta:
Siod an... fharraige. Siod an... iasc. Siod an bd. Siod an b.
277
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois danfaidh muid le go leor ruda . So tosidh, tosidh t chuile

abairt le siod iad.
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Agus... card a dhanf, dh mba th an tiomna agus an traein ag

imeacht uait mar sin?
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois ar an mbilleoig seo, t m ag iarraidh ortsa an rud a shnfeas m

an peann air a inseacht dhom arst, ach cuirfidh muid mr leis, darfaidh muid
gur ceann mr .
Dalta (17:15): Ok. Siod iad na beithgh. Siod iad na... anacha. Siod iad na crainnte.
Dalta (17:30): Em... Just, just stopfadh m an bd agus lig cead dh... ritheacht dhon chuid eile
because... n... m ghabhfadh t... m choinneadh t ort n bheadh... n bheadh t in
ann... n bheadh t in ann meetil s suas cause gabhfadh an fharraige bfhidir...
bfhidir... go... like Shannon... n rud icint. Agus... bheadh an... traein ag goil go
Dublin n rud icint is n mheetilfeadh t suas go brch . So... just stopfadh m
agus abridh m leis Gabh amach! [Gire]
Dalta: Ok.
Agallir:
Mar shampla snfidh mise an peann ar an ngeata is darfaidh tusa: Siod an

geata mr n m shnim ar an spir , darfaidh tusa Siod an spir mhr.
Agallir:
Tosidh t chuile abairt le siod ach cuirfidh t mr leis freisin.
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Agus anois danfaidh muid le go leor ruda .
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois, beidh ruda i gceist aainn a bhaineanns le rud icint eile.
Caithfidh tusa an phirt an rud ar leis a inseacht. Snfidh mise mo pheann air
agus inseoidh tusa mar shampla: Siod iad lmha... an fhir; n Siod iad... cosa na
mbeithoch. An dtuigeann t?
Dalta: Ok.
Dalta (18:20): Ok. Siod an... cearc mr. Siod an crann mhr. Siod an lacha mhr.
Dalta (18:33): Siod ... siod iad na beithgh... mhr. Siod iad na crainnte mhr. Siod iad na...
buicid... mhr.
Dalta (19:02): Yeah. Yeah. Siod iad cosa na muic.

Agallir: An-mhaith.
Dalta:
u-! Siod iad cloigne na... muic.
Dalta:
Siod iad... cosa na lachain. Siod iad... em... wings na... [gire lag] na... anacha.
Siod iad... na... tithe. ! siod iad fuinneoga na tithe. Siod iad... an... si-... siod iad
shimney... an... teach.
Agallir: An-mhaith.
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois t an fear maol ansin ar thaobh an bhthair. Cn it ar an

mbthar a bhfuil Dnall ag rothaocht?
Dalta (19:46): Em... Ar an... barr an mbthar [n bthar mr ?].
278
Agallir:
Abair?
Agallir:
M t an fear maol t s sin ar thaobh an bhthair. Is cn it ar an mbthar a bhfuil

Dnall... ag rothaocht?
Agallir:
Agus... an bhfuil a fhios aad cn t-ainm... at ar... chearc fhireann?
Agallir:
N an bhfuil a fhios agat cn t-ainm at ar... mhuca ga?
Agallir:
Nhn. Agus card t(...) anseo?
Agallir:
Agus card a dantar leis?
Agallir:
Nhn. [Iomp bileoige] Agus meas t card (dirt) Dnall anseo?
Agallir:
Card a dirt s?
Agallir:
Agus m chuireann t Dirt Dnall go roimhe sin.
Agallir:
Nhn. Agus card seo... idir na troithein agus an rotha cil ar an rothar anseo?
An rud sin.
Agallir:
An rud seo anseo.
Agallir:
Nn. Agus an bhfuil a fhios aad cn torann n (an) fuaim a dhananns na hainmhthe
sin?
Agallir:
Agus na hainmhthe eile?
Dalta: An...
Dalta (19:55): !, en... sa lr... an lr dhon bhthar.
Dalta (20:05): Em... Ach... T a fhios, ach... ! e-... T siad ag mo uncle. Em... ! ... Rooster(s) n rud
icint ... u-n... ! ach t a fhios aam . Em... ! ... Och! ... c- c- ... Och danann m
dearmad air. (20:51)
Dalta (20:55): U-... piglets. [Gire]
Dalta (21:01): E-... wheelbarrow.
Dalta (21:07): Well, t t in ann... far agus... gainneamh agus ruda a chur isteach ann agus t s
air... T t in ann ... a thiomint... well... kinda... beir air ar an dh... handle-rud
at anseo agus a chuir suas go dt an... hb cn it at t ag iarraidh a chuir
agus sh sos ann... dumpil sos ann.
Dalta (21:33): Well t caoir sa mbealach so... Bfhidir... nl s in ann...

Dalta (21:38): Em... Gabhfaidh muid ar na caiplle.
Dalta (21:48): Dirt Dnall go gabhfaidh muid ar na... caipille.

Dalta (22:00): Na ruda sin?
Dalta: ! chain-rud kinda.
Dalta (22:08): E-... [torann mileach; gire lag] ... [torann mileach] n rud icint.
279
Dalta (22:17): Em... moo... agus... quack. [Gire] Agus... danann na anacha kinda... fuaim
different so... kinda like uaireanta danann siad squeak cosil le... ee... n... rud
icint mar shin. Nl m in ann shin a dhanamh. Agus... an... coinn... em... kinda...
squeak freisin kinda like... like... I dont know (rud ?) really nl m in ann... an fuaim
a dhanamh. Agus an fox... nl a fhios aam. [Gire]
Agallir:
Agus card faoin madadh?
Agallir:
Card a bhonns an madadh a dh-
Agallir:
Agus cn t-ainm a thugtar air sin, a Mhirn?
Agallir:
Nn. An-mhaith. Anois. Is c mhad duine at ag marcaocht?
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Card faoi sin? Cn fth a ngerrann daoin crainnte?
Agallir:
Nhn. Anois, sna peictiir seo t m ag iarraidh ort ruda a r... ruda a bh ann a
r n rabhadar ann. Mar shampla, snfidh mise an peann ar bhuachaill a thit is
darfaidh tusa Nor thit an buachaill.
Dalta (22:55): , em woff woff.

Dalta:
Woff woff.
Dalta (23:00): E-... barkil.
Dalta (23:09): Em... Ceathr- Cigear... no [n ?], seisear.
Dalta (23:18): Well... le... pipar agus rud a dhanamh. So nach bheidh siad... agus nach
mbeidh siad r-ard because... beidh siad ag iarraidh iad a bhreith [.i. bheith] seal
is... teastidh s sin uathub uaireanta t t in ann suochn is boird is ruda a
dhanamh leob. Bord adhmad.
Dalta: Ok.
Agallir:
Inseoidh tusa... a mhalairt n brag (faoi)n rud a tharla. Maith go leor?
Agallir:
Chuadar isteach sa ngarra.
Agallir:
Dirt an cailn Fan ormsa!
Agallir:
Chonaic na daoine Dnall.
Agallir:
Rug an fear greim ar an mbarra.
Agallir:
Agus dladar deoch.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta (23:51): N chuadar isteach sa garra.

Dalta (23:58): Nor dhirt an cailn Fan ormsa!
Dalta (24:01): N thinic na daoin Dnall.
Dalta (24:06): Nor rug an fear greim ar an mbarra.

Dalta (24:10): Nor ladar deoch.
280
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Anois. [Iomp bileoige] C le aghaidh an cheirt, meas t, sa bpeictir

sin?
Agallir:
An bhfeiceann t an posa adaigh?
Agallir:
Sa bpeicdir. An t-adach. An bhfeiceann t ?
Dalta (24:28): Em... An cheirt, nl a fhios agam card a chiallaonn s.

Dalta:
U- nl fhios...
Dalta (24:35): No. sin?

Agallir:
Sea.
Agallir:
Nhn. Anois, breathnidh muid ar chupla rud anseo.
Dalta:
! E-... Well, m gheobhfadh s lofa leis an... gl... an gual agus... le gl- glanadh
fuinneoga is ruda, I suppose. Rud icint mar shin.
Dalta (24:53): Em... Sin iad an... feamainn. Cloch. E- uachtar reoite. Geansa. Em... maide. Cosa.
Em... anan beag.
Agallir:
Agus card at na hanacha a dhanamh?
Agallir:
Card sin?
Agallir:
Agus card an stuf bn sin?
Agallir:
Agus card iad seo?
Agallir:
An-mhaith.
Agallir:
Cn cinel anacha iad sin?
Dalta (25:16): Um... T siad breathn ar a... Dnall ag ithe an uachtar reoite is t ocras orthub.
Is t siad ag iarraidh a thigeil.
Dalta (25:25): Em... em... W- waves but t a fhios aam i Gaeigle rn n... em... (b)rm [?] n
rud icint. I dont know.
Dalta (25:45): E-... T a fhios aam ach nl a fhios agam cn chaoi le a r. Well, t s kinda
cosil leis an sneachta except go bhfuil s (s/d ?)... Is an fha-... an uisce at ann
except... Nuair a ghabhann s suas gabhann s bn. But is kinda rud ... em... t s
cosil le rud-sneachta. Nuair a bhonn s garbh. Is gabhann s suas ar do charr n
gabhann s ortsa n rud icint. Nuair a bhonns t really gar dh.
Dalta (26:10) : Brga. Em... laces, n ballachrae [.i. barriallacha]. Em... cnaip. Em... Well... sin...
buidal... gloinne [.i. gloine] agus... Sin... buidal freisin. S-... slibhte kinda... garra
(beag) on top, clo- u- kinda... yeah u- slibhte. Clocha... beaga. E- shells. Shells.
Dalta:
anacha.
Dalta (26:58) : Em... Nl a fhios aam. Dairigh m iad... but... n...

Agallir:
Agus card a rinne na daoine ar fad lena mbrga?
281
Dalta (27:12): Em... Well... Is dich go dfhg siad ar an traein . Dirt an... Ddall [.i. Dnall]
leob a fhgil ar an traein. Ansin thagadh siad ar ais go thigeadh siad iad. N
bfhidir (go) chuir siad isteach i mla iad. N rud eicnt.
Agallir:
Agus inis dhom, c bhfuil an bh?
Agallir:
Agus an raibh tusa ag an tr n ag an gcladach ariamh.
Agallir:
Agus inis dhom faoi.
Agallir:
Coinnigh ort ansin! Dinfidh mise seo. [Fuinneog dnadh]
Agallir:
Agus an raibh t ag an tr choir a, fs i mbliana?
Agallir:
Inis dhom faoi!
Agallir:
Nhn!
Dalta (27:27): Thuas ar an slibhte ansin. Thuais [sic] ar an slibh kinda. Garra.
Dalta (27:38): Well t... gainneamh ann... agus ansin t... fharraige ann. Agus sa gainneamh
uaireanta t t in ann... shells a fhil. Agus istigh san fharraige bonn... feamainn...
ann. Agus uaireanta bonn portn ann. So caithfidh t watchil iad. Agus bonn...
na anacha... ag em... heitilt [sic] thart ansin. Agus... uaireanta bonn...
Dalta:
uaireanta bonn bid ann. Ach n bhonn siad r-gar do na gasir. Agus bonn
daoin spraoi... e- valleyball is ruda ann.
Dalta (28:15): Yeah, bh m ann.
Dalta (28:17): Well em... this thart ar... uair a chloig this scoil, chuir... well... thart ar... leathuair
a chloig ar dts thinig mo... chol ceathar... dh chara Nuala agus... ine. T
Nuala... no t Nuala ag obair ach but... bh s off. Agus t ine ag obair. So... thinig
siad agus em... dirt... dirt mise nuair a bh s-... dirt mise An bhfuil sib ag goil
ag an tr? agus dirt s Yah. Lbse. Agus ansin... chuir... ine agus... Nuala abhaile
le fil na togs. Agus ansin... chuir muid ag an tr... like uair a chloig tar is ansin
like... half past six n rud icint. Agus em... bh muid ag an tr agus chuir muid ag
snmh ach... chuir ine ar feadh posa beag ach nor chuir Nuala mar n raibh s
ag iarraidh. Bh d really tinn uirthi. Even though go raibh s tanned beagn. But
em... Agus ansin... this sin... dathraigh muid in ada is... chuir muid abhaile.
Bh muid ann like... chig uair a chloig n s uair a chloig.
Dalta:
Agallir:
Agus sin an mid a rinne muid. Well bh na daoin ag spraoi soccer is ruda ach
bh muide istigh san... uisce. Bh s r-the le goil amach. Ach bh an uisce... really...
Well bh s fuar... kinda san... chad it. Ansin bh s te. Ach bh an fharraige kinda
funny because... sa... an... an bhfuil a fhios aad nuair a shilanns t amach, bonn s
really... just... seal. Bonn s an-shallow. Agus... ansin... sa lr bh s... kinda deep...
Agus ansin... nuair a ghabhfadh t amach posa eile bonn s really shallow. So bh
s weird.
Nhn.
Dalta (29:54): Bh s fu-... bh s weird.
282
Agallir:
Nhn. [Iomp bileoige] Anois. Beidh ruda i gceist aainn anseo a bhaineanns le rud
eile. Snfidh mise mo pheann orthub agus inseoidh tusa, mar shampla, Siod iad
cosa na mbeithoch. An gcuimhneach leat?
Dalta (30:08): Yeah. Siod iad... drioball na mbeithgh. Siod iad... cosa na caora. Siod iad cloig-...
clogann [sic] an caora... clo(i)gne. Siod iad... lmha na... na fir.
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Agus c mhad duine at le feiceil i chaon vaign sa traein?
Agallir:
Nhn. Agus c mhad ainmh at sa ngarra is gaire dhuit?
Agallir:
E-... an ceann sin.
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Agus inis dhom, gan do mhir a shneadh uirthi, cn capall is faide n
traein?
Agallir:
An-mhaith! Anois, t muid ag goil ruainnn beag a dhanamh... faoi dhathanna

agus ruda. Darfaidh mise an ts agus caithfidh tusa an chuid eile a chrochn i
mo dhiaidh. Mar shampla darfaidh mise: T s sin go maith agus darfaidh tusa
Ach t an ceann eile nos...?
Dalta (30:30): E-... Cig dag agus Dnall.
Dalta (30:48): Em... An ceann sin n an ceann sin?

Dalta (30:55): Ok. Em tr choinn.
Dalta (31:04): Well... an... Fan second anois. An capall... at... t teach ann, agus ansin t
rotharacha... rothair... t dh rothar ansin... gar dhon teach ar an taobh... agus t
geata ann agus ansin t capall istigh ansin. An ceann sin.
Dalta (31:42): -s fhearr.

Agallir:
Go dreach. N darfaidh mise T an ceann sin mr ach darfaidh tusa T an

ceann sin nos...?
Agallir:
Go dreach. Anois. T s seo ssta ach t s seo... nos...
Agallir:
Is t s seo... beag ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
T s seo... ard ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
T s seo... lidir ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
T s seo mall, ach t s seo nos...
Dalta (31:48): -s m.
Dalta (31:53): Nos ssta.

Dalta (31:59): Beag.
Dalta (32:03): Airde.
Dalta (32:07): Lidire.

Dalta (32:10): Moille.
283
Agallir:
Agus t s seo... salach ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
Agus t s seo dearg ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
Is t s seo... bn ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
Is t s seo... bu ach t s seo nos...
Agallir:
Agus t s seo ssta, agus t s seo...
Agallir:
An-mhaith. Maith th, thar cionn! Sin , a Mhirn, t t crochnaithe. Go raibh

mle mle maith aad. Ar thaithnigh s sin leat?
Agallir:
An bhfuil t tugtha ina dhiaidh sin?
Agallir:
T s an-te. T s an-mheirbh sa seomra seo, nach bhfuil?
Agallir:
Anois, cn t-am a chrochnaonns t sa scoil, a Mhirn?
Dalta (32:14): Salach.
Dalta (32:19): Dhearg.

Dalta (32:23): Bhn.
Dalta (32:26): Bu.
Dalta (32:30): Nos shsta.

Dalta (32:40): E- no, just t an l chomh te.

Dalta:
Yeah. Nu-
Dalta (32:48): E-... Fiche chun a tr.

Agallir:
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Fiche nimad [deireadh taifeadta]
Aguisn D: Sampla dagallaimh

tr Bharla
Dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach seal (-30 go -20)

Scrinnacs Barla
Dalta:
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-29.3
64.6
93.9
Well Dermot and his red train eh em theyre going past a beach. And the day is
nice and theres a boat on the sea and theyre going through a town and everything
is good.
Em.
And then they stop for a break and theres another little train next to them. They
stop at the train station and theyre checking where they have to go next on the
board. And then they are theyre gonna leave the train station and there are all
these big modern trains coming to the train station. And then Dermots train is just
old. And then the modern train and Dermots train are ready to go and Dermot
lots of people are going on to Dermots train. And nobody yet are going on the other
ones train. Because em because most people usually go on the little red train
when theyre going somewhere. And maybe the modern train isnt ready yet for
people to go on it.
Yeah, and can you tell me what time is it on the clock there?
Well em five to em two?
Um.
Yeah five to two because that one is longer, yeah. And the train station is dirty, there
are all sorts of things around it. And everyone is going on the race now. Because
that guy is gonna do the thing, to say that everyone is ready to go to start the race.
Em so everyone is bringing the dogs on walk and playing outside and the race is
gonna start because that guy is blowing the the whistle. And then the races [a]
start and the modern train is is in... ahead. And because its modern and its faster.
And theres loads of dogs and people running with the running with the train.
And theres kites and theres loads of different things and theres things coming
from the train. And theres a building site there. And there are loads of hou-
appartments and buildings. And then the train stops because hes so far ahead and
he puts oil or something, water out on the other train maybe on the rail. And
then the other train, when he drives past the train, stops because the the other
train driver put something on it so Derek Thats the name is it, Derek?
Dermot.
Dermot. Dermot eh he doesnt know whats wrong with his train.
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Okay. Dermot and Jack are sitting down and now theyre looking at the board to see
where theyre going. And now theyre looking at another train and they feel they
seem confused because its really long. And theyre showing how long it is.
Yes.
People are getting really excited there. Theyre going into the red train of Dermot.
Ehm Now I think nobody is in there and theyre just trying. And theres a man
here with a green flag.
Yeah. Can I stop you for one second?
Yeah.
Can you tell me what time it is on the clock? Over there. Its a little hard to see.
Five to two.
Very good! Yeah.
Okay. Eh Theres a little dog there, theres loads of trash around the place, loads
of papers and glasses and everything. And it looks really windy. Ehm ehm Yeah,
thats it.
Yeah. Good [child]! Youre doing great!
Okay. There is somebody pouring oil, is it? Or something on the track of the red
train of Dermots.
And why? Why did he put oil on the track?
To cheat. He tried to cheat. And I think Dermot sees it though. So Theyre trying
to stop the train, and theyre pushing it to... trying to stop it so theyll be fine. And
Jack now, theyre... the people are going up now on the on the
Hillside, yeah. And what will happen next?
Think that Not really sure. Okay. Theyre going after a bit. Now therere sheep all
over the track. And theyre eating and everything and sitting down really lazy. Now
Dermot and Jack are putting the sheeps back into the gate the in the garden.
Theyre back now and... the people that were driving the other train are sitting
down having a cup of tea and biscuits.
Dalta ag a bhfuil scrinnacs dtheangach ard (-10 go 0)


Scrinnacs Barla
-2.7
83.6
86.3
Dalta:
So they... so that when the race... stop Dermot and... Dermot and John put the... put the
sheep in the field again. And they drove off again.
Dalta:
Dont know. And then the co-workers of the high-speed train eh... stopped for a cup
of tea cause they thought eh... Dermot would be... Dermot would stop for a time and
then Dermot passed them with the passengers and they were shocked and they were
just throwing the tea and went for the train. When the... went off again and they were
ahead of Dermot and as they passed the field there was cows and people on picnic and
boats and people cycling.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
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And what will happen next?
Id love a picnic today. Its so sunny out there.
Then the high-speed train stopped again to turn the track so that Dermot would go
the wrong way. And the high-speed train drove off the right way. Then Dermot turned
into the wrong way and then John jumped off the back of the train and told Dermot he
was going the wrong way and they turned back and drove off the right way again. Eh...
then Dermot passed another bridge and there were people down in the house. There
were sheep in their sheds and eh... there were sheep and horses and cows and a man
was fishing with his dog as well. And Dermot kept on going.
Yeah. Very good!
Then Dermot passed a lake eh... and there was a man in his boat fishing around and
there were fishes and lobsters and jellyfishes everywhere and rocks and trash. Eh...
then they got to... got to the end of the track and John jumped off and turned the track
to the right way and they eh... and the co-workers of the other train put rocks in the
way but they were ahead of the high-speed train again and they were going to a beach...
they were... Then Dermot had just a little advantage on the high-speed train and eh...
the driver of the train was a little worried. And then at the finish line, the red train just
about passed the finish line at the end and won the race. And everybody was happy.
287
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(-20 go -10)

Scrinnacs Barla
65
82.7
Agallir:
Now you get to wear the cool trendy clip-mike this time. How does that sound? Im
gonna just stick it onto your Now! Is that okay?
Agallir:
Its not in your way or anything there?
Dalta:
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-17.7
Yeah.
No.
Great! Now were going to do something similar to what you just did with em
Eimer.
Yeah.
We have another little red train. But this story is different. This story is different
to the previous one because this time its about a race. So we have the old well,
the little red train which is an older train and then we have this modern high speed
train. And they theyre racing. Except this driver isnt a very nice man because
hes cheating. Because he really wants to win the race. So youll see it as you go
through the different things that this man is doing in order to win the race. Ok? And
this book is called Race to the Finish. Once again there are no words, its up to you
to compose the story. So you have to do as much talking as you can.
Ok.
And I get to sit back and relax. No Ill ask a few questions along the way. How does
that sound?
Ok.
But they are very easy. So whenever youre ready in your own time you can start
telling me the story.
Ok.
Are you comfy there now?
Yeah (a mhinteoir ?) Do I have to... say up that?
Yeah you can start at the cover, yeah? Just tell me what you see there and what do
you think is going to happen.
Ok. U- ok. E-... the train the trains are ge(tt)in ready. Theres a red train and
theres... coal in the train. And... theres a man standing there.
Nhn. Perfect.
Em Theres two man [men ?] sittin on the train. And... theres a cat lookin at
them. And birds flying around. And... theyre... looking at the... chart now. The time
Agallir:
Dalta:
chart. And... theyre... sayin what time they have to pick up the people. And theres...
four m-... four men came after [n over to ?] them, wi(th) pu- purple suit. And
theres... other trains around. Very nice trains. And... now theres e- people goin
in the red train. And theres a... flag, a green and white flag there... and a man.
And what time do you think it is on the clock there Mirn?
Em Five to... two. And... theyre... in the train and theyre getting ready. And the
green flag... is swinging back. And... theyre... going now. The the... other train... is
winning. And theres people around... ch- cheering. And ties... on them.
Agallir: Uhn.
Dalta:
And... theres... the train the purple and... grey train... is still winning, and the red
the red train is behind.
Dalta:
E-... Oh yeah. He pu(t) I think... tea... on the train tracks.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Yeah. What Just go back to this picture. What did this man do here?
Why did he do that?
Because theyre cheating.
And what do you think will happen... next?
Well I think the the train will stop or... something.
Agallir: Un.
Dalta:
Em. The train stopped now. Because of the tea. And... the... theres people gone out
of the train... trying to push the train. And theyre gone off now. Down the hill.
Dalta:
And
Dalta:
Ehm S(o) theyll... The other, the... people will do something else. Ok now theyre
carrying on and theres... lambs and sheep... everywhere... on the train track. And
he has to stop... put them in the garden. The... the gate was open.
Agallir: Yeah.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
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What will happen next?
And what who put the sheep on the track do you think?
Oh e- them, the other man whos helping the... man that hes... against.
And why did he put the sheep on the track?
Cause he wanted to win. And he doesnt want... the red train to win.
And what what do you think will happen next?
E- something... very bad e- like... put off the track or... loosen it or something.
Nn. Very good, youre doing great! Just (move) this a little bit. Sorry Ill just move it
(a little bit) down here. Is that okay?
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Yeah. Now. The... red train... is... back... and... he sees the two men... with the other...
train em theyre si(tt)in down havin a coffee... having a bite. And... he the mother, the man went in the train. And hes... carryin on. And... the red train is still
behind. And the man... wi- with the other... train, the purple train, loosens the...
tracks. He puts it the other ray [.i. way], the other way. (When) its the wrong way.
And the red train comes. And theres a man shouting Stop! Stop!. And... he s-, he
stops and he sees... theres o- the train tracks going... other ways. And... hes...
the... the trees are going everywhere. And the... the things for the house... and the
animals... and the f-, traffic light... is, is fallin. And... the train is goin over a bridge.
And... hes carry on carryin on now. And he is going pas... houses and theyre
wavin at them. Theyre wavin back. An now he is goi- gone past e-... an ocean...
with fishes and birds and a red flag and boats in it. And jellyfishes. And w-, the
train is lower... e- low. And the train... cras(h)ed into the tree. And the... branches
falls off. But the train is ok and he carries on. Now... hes ahead... of the purple... and
grey train. And now they they see... the purple and grey train... comin. And they
yell to say they comin.
Hm. What do you think will happen next?
Em I don know. E- Something bad. Something bad that/had [?] happen and
they think its... that (it) not happened. And the red train... is carryin on but the...
grey and purple train... is... keepin on... going, hes... hes not hes not stoppin.
And... i- theyre nearly home. And... theyre home... now and the red train wins. And
the grey and purple train... looses. And hes upset. But when you cheat tha(t)
what happens. And the red train the men the men on the red train is eatin ice
cream and happy for themself. En... The end.
The end, very good! That was very good indeed! I enjoyed that! Did you enjoy it?
Yeah. [Gire]
Was it better than the first book?
E- yeah cause I I know it kindof much better.

You know what you have to do
Yeah.
yeah a little bit better. Very good. Now, were goin to go through it again.
Ok.
I have some questions to ask but theyre very easy questions so you dont need to
worry.
Ok.
So lets have a go! What are these and how many are there?
Theyre windows. And theres four.
Perfect!
Well theres a door kinda and theres a window on it.
Agallir:
Nn. Very good! And what about these? How many are there?
Agallir:
Perfect. Yeah. Were you going to say something else? No?
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Two.
No.
No. Perfect. Good girl! Now. Em In this picture in these, both of these pictures, I
want you to be the teacher.
Ok.
And I want you to ask me questions.

Ok.
Based on these pictures. And I hope Ill be able to answer them. Im a bit scared.
[Gire] Ok. Em Who are... they?
Em... thats the driver of the high speed train, em... I think thats probably his helper.
Yeah.
Or maybe he is another driver also and he drives when this driver is taking a break.
Yeah. And Whats this man doin? What is he holding?
He is holding a green and white checkered flag and that signifies the start of the
race.
Uhu.
Am I right?
Yeah.
Ok. Now. I want you to ask me another question. And this time I want you to start
the question with the word what.
Ok. Em Wha(t) are they doin? These people here.
Em these people are in a queue. Theyre waiting to get on the little red train.
Yeah.
Oh phew!
[Gire]
I want you to ask me another question... this time... beginning with the word...
where.
Ok. Where where are these headin?
Em I dont know! They are not in the queue for the little red train. Theres no queue
for the... modern high speed train. I think theyre asking... this man a question.
291
Dalta:
Yeah I think so too.
Dalta:
Yeah.
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But I think they might... go on the red train because they look she looks excited
about the red train. Now. Ask me one more question!
E- do I have to start with something?
Whatever you think.
Ok. E- on this picture?

Either picture, yeah.
Ok. E-n wha(t) is this little boy doin?

Hes... playing football.
Yeah. And e- wha(t) is this ca(t) doin?
Hes walking on the footpath, beside his owner.

Yeah. I think its scared of that dog. [Gire]
Oh! I didnt notice that! Very good! Yeah. I think youre right. [Gire] Excellent!
Perfect! I did okay with those did I?
Yeah. [Gire]
Did I get a star?
Yeah. A gold one. [Gire]
Thats good, thats good. Now, see this lady here? And her dog is running away from
her.
Yeah.
What would you do if you were that lady... and your dog was running away from
you?
E- well... Id... kinda go... here at this footpath kinda like at that garden... and stay
say Stop! to the train. And then... get my dog and then carry on. I think.
Nhn. And would that be s-
Dalta:
But Id
Dalta:
take care of this baby because... it might go... it might, someone might kidnap him...
cause... look.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Agallir: Yeah.
Agallir:
292
Um. Very good! And do you see this kite here?
Agallir:
How did the kite get so high in the sky?
Agallir:
Mm. So did it have something to do with the wind?
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Well, you see its... light... and... the rope is kinda... the... air i(t) has to be windy... so
the air is pullin i(t) up and the... rope is pullin i(t) down. The man... whos holdin
the rope. Bu(t)... its its light and when its... its light it goes up straight away like
a balloon.
Yeah.
So the wind What did the wind do? For the kite to get so high.
E- See the wind is blowing that way so... thats why... it went straight up. Cause
So when Yeah?
Cause if if the wind was going that way... the ki(t)e won(t) go tha(t) way it would
(go) tha(t) way.
I see. So the wind?
Is goin
Yeah so in the p-, yesterday lets say the wind? The wind blows, you said the wind
is blowing. Yeah.
Yeah.
But yesterday what did the wind do?

E-
The wind... something the kite... in the air.

The wind... blowed... the kite in the air.
Ok. Now! Oh yeah! Perfect! We(ll) move ahead. See these pictures here?
Yeah.
Were going to do something... that can be a little bit complicated so Ill try and
explain it as good as I can.
Ok.
See this boy here?

Yeah.
He, he jumped... onto the train.

Yeah.
Ok? But what I want you to do is to tell me the exact opposite. Right?
Ok.
293
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In other words what youre going to do is to tell me a lie. [Gire] Even though thats
not a very good thing. So if I point to the boy youll say to me: The boy... didnt jump
onto the train.
Ok. [Gire]
But he did really.

Yeah.
[Tr shiolla dhoilire] Do you understand?

Yeah.
So... lets have a look at this... just this part of the picture. So what can you say? So
were going to say something negative. So
Em The man the man didn(t) pour... the tea... (on) the track.
The man?
The man didnt... pour the... tea... on (the) track.

Perfect! Lets try this one!
Em... the woman... isnt... reading the newspaper.
Perfect! And yesterday? What did try that sentence again but put yesterday... in
the sentence.
Ok yesterday... the woman... didnt... read the newspaper at all.
Yeah! What about this one here?
Em well the the s-, driver, the two driver the driver and the helper and the...
e- u-... the... four boys... e-... is not pushing... the train.
Um. And yesterday?
Yesterday... they werent pushing the train.
Excellent! Perfect! In this picture Jack em John... the... assistant said something
to Dermot.
Yeah.
So I want you to make that negative. So

And the opposite?
Yeah exactly.
Ok em John didnt say no John John wasnt talkin... to... the... driver.
Agallir: Uhn.
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294
Yesterday... John wasn(t) talkin... to the driver.
Agallir:
Very good! Excellent! And what about John said hello to the driver? Make that...
Say the opposite.
Agallir:
John said hello. John
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E- John... sayed... goodbye

says
So make that... Say the opposite. So he di-, he said hello to the driver.
Yeah.
But you have to tell a lie. You have to say uh-uh, he, John
didn(t) say... hello to the... driver.
Nn. Say it again!
John didn(t) say... hello to the driver.
Yeah! Dermot saw something on the track.

Dermot didnt see anything on the track.
Perfect! Thats it exactly! And Dermot caught onto the rail.

Dermot didn(t) caugh(t) on... to the rail.
And the coal... fell out of the... bucket.
The coal didnt f- fall out of... the... bucke(t).

That was a hard one wasnt it?
Uhu. Yeah.
That one is a little bit difficult I think. [Gire] You did very well. E- what would you
do Mirn if you were the driver... and you saw all these sheep in front of you on the
track?
Well Id stop the train first... and... Id go out... make sure the train is on break... and...
Id push, like Id... go like tha(t) ... Id push the... lambs... into the garden and make
sure everyones ok, every... every sheeps ok. And put them in... to their... garden and
close the gate and then carry on.
Hm. Very well. Very well explained, good girl! And Im skipping this one. Now! John
said something to Dermot here. What did John say?
The opposite or?
Oh no! Weve finished with the opposites thankfully, cause they were a little difficult
werent they? [Gire]
Yeah.
So John said something to Dermot. What did he say to Dermot?
295
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Em Watch out or something.
Dalta:
John says watch out. John said watch out.
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Yeah. So can you start the sentence with: John said that?
Uhn. Yeah. And on this page, Im going to point at something and you have to tell me
what it is.
Ok.
Its quite simple. So if I point at this youll say this is the man.
Ok.
Yeah? This is the
This is the train.

Perfect!
This is the track.

Oh This
Train tracks.
This is... Yeah. Perfect. And what about this little guy on the train track?
Ah this is a hedgehog.
Yeah and this.
This is a broken window.
Perfect! Now were going to look at more than one thing. So what would you say
about these?
These are the deers. I think theyre deers. No. I don know. [Gire]
Yeah, try it again! Say it again!
These are the deers.
Uhm. Very good!
These are the two... Well these are the woman and a li(tt)le girl. These are the
two bo(tt)les.
Very good! Now its really hard to see these theyre very small.
These are the two mice. These are the two fox.
Em. Now its quite difficult to see these but see the little prickly things?
Uhm. These are the nettles or the or the These are the em spikey stuff.
[Gire]
Yeah. Its hard isnt it? Its a hard one.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Dalta:
Em these are the em the Oh what theyre called? Em. Is it nettles?
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Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
And now. Its hard to see this as well. Theres more here in this picture.
Em I dont think so.
Em I know it in Irish. [Gire]
Thats fine. Sometimes its hard to think in English isnt it?

Yeah. E- Oh I forgot.
Thats fine. Yeah if it does- if it cant come thats fine, it doesn-, it doesnt matter.
Ah don(t) know.
Yeah thats fine. Dont worry about it, its ok. Not to worry, sometimes its hard to
think of it, isnt it?
Yeah. [Gire]
In the other language. And this is the last one were doing on this page.
This is the tree.
Oh yeah and the things on the tree?

Oh the e- leaves.
Great! Good girl! Thats very good. Now. See this picture here Mirn. Whereabout
on the track is the grass growing?
Em the floor.
And is it on the left hand side or the right hand side? Or is it somewhere else?
E- the middle.
In the middle of the?

the train track.
Nhn. Did you ever fix a tractor or a car, or a bicycle?

Em no. [Gire]
Never. Did you ever drive a tractor or a bicycle or a car? Sorry just
Yeah.
Tell me about it!
(W)e- the bicycles fun and ... well... you have to have a helmet. And the car is
fun but scarry. [Gire]
You drove a car?
297
Dalta:
Yeah. [Gire]
Dalta:
My uncless. My uncles. [Gire]
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
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Agallir:
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298
And whose car was it?
And where did you drive it?
Just... em just in... the, around the house. Not the house, in the back. Just My
uncle taught me how to do it. And... I just tried it. Thats all. My uncles know so...
they were showing me. [Gire]
And were you scared?
Ehm not really. I was kinda excited but My uncle said he was goin to jump out
of the car. And... I was lookin at my uncle instead looking... out... and... I crashed
into the foot-... path. [Gire] No, no(t) really crashed but... kinda no, no(t) really
crashed just... my uncle was like Watch out! and tha(t)
[Gire] And did you damage the car?
No.
Oh thats ok then. So your uncle wasnt very angry.

No. He wasn(t) angry.
[Gire] Very good. In this picture can you tell me without pointing with your finger
so this is the difficult part because you have to describe it to me which cow is
closest to the track? You have to describe the cow to me.
The cow the cow Em the one near the train track. The one thats running
and he has the two back legs up the air and his tail. E-... Actually Yeah. That
one. I think.
Yeah. I think I know the one you mean. You described it very well. I see him. [Gire]
Very good! Now! On this page Im going to point to something like the gate and
youre going to say to me: This is the big gate. So youre going to put the word big
with everything I point to.
Ok.
Big is an adjective. So youre youre going to describe it. How does that sound? So
lets start with this!
Ok. That is the... big house that womans... live in/livin [?].
Nhn. And you can make it simple for yourself.
Ok.
You only need to say this is the big house.

Ok.
Perfect.
Dalta:
That is the... big... cow.
Dalta:
Tha(t) is the... big... hen flying off the wall. Tha(t) is the... big I think its an a
pin(k)- a big bird.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Excellent!
Very good!
A big bird sorry. The, that is the big deer.
Excellent! Now were going to do more than one.

Ok.
So if I point to all these
These. These are the big cows.
Excellent! Now this is quite small so you need to look closely.

These... are... the... big fish.
Excellent! And these are also small, but youre going to say its big. [Gire]
Ok. These are the big... lighthouse.
Uhum. And
These are the big sheep.
Very good! And well do one more.

These are the big deers.
Excellent! Now Im going to point to something else Mirn, like, for example this,
right? And youll say to me These are the mans hands.
Ok.
Because theyre belonging to the man, theyre part of him.

Yeah.
So its like one thing belongs to another. So... how about we try... this. And theres
only one.
Ok. This is the cows... tail.
Very good! Lets try this!
This... is... the... birds wing.
Excellent! Now lets try more than one!

Ok.
Right? So lets have a look at all of these.
299
Dalta:
These are the cows tail. Tails! Tails, yeah, tails.
Dalta:
These are the cows tails.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
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Agallir:
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Agallir:
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300
Nhn. Say it again!
Very good! And lets try this.
These are the... hens... feet. Two feet.
Yeah. Lets try this. Again, its very small.
These are the fishes em Let me see. Its like tail ah These are the fishes tail.
Uhum. And lets try this. Now there are more than one.
Ok. These are the humans hands.
Very good!
These are the sheep... head. These are the... heads... of the, of the sheep. [Gire]
Ok, good. Now, we looked at the hens. Can you tell me, without pointing Mirn,
which one is the cock? So you have to describe him to me.
Ok. The... cock... is... the... one... near... the... hen. He has a... big t- tai- a big green
thing coming out. And hes... near the... shed. [Thats it ?]
Yeah. Very good!
And hes... standing watching over the... womans bucket. [He] thinks theres
something to... eat there. And... he, his mouth is open, [its] big. And thats it.
Yeah. Very good! And... what animals are these in this corner here and how many
can you see?
Em these are... the sheep and theres two... there.
Very good! Two?
Sheep.
Good girl! Youre doing really well. Doing excellently well. Now, on this page I want
you to tell me what can you see. So youve listed some of them earlier on.
E-... Yeah. I see... a boat. I see birds. I see... a seal. Fish. Jellyfish. Em I see its like a
cage kinda... when the fish go in there. And I see starfish, a shell, a ro-, rocks. I see...
a bo(tt)le, a fl-, red flag, em
And whats this?
Thats kinda... a red flag when... when you cant em kinda like go that side or... you
have to go round it or depends really what colours the flag.
Yeah. And do you know what its called?
Oh em uh a floating flag. [Gire].
Agallir:
Uhu. Yeah. And whats this?
Agallir:
And this?
Dalta:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
E- a starfish.
A crab.
And what are these?

Those are... bubbles.
And these?
Waves.
And what kind of a boat is this?
Its... a Ah God. Em. [Curach ? i gcogar] I know it in Irish. Uh.
Agallir:
Yeah. Thats ok, if you dont know it in English. Its fine. Dont worry about it!
Agallir:
What about this one?
Dalta:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
No, I dont.
E- its a... boat e- wooden boat. Its kinda called... e- [Curach i gcogar. Gire]
No e- I only know it in Irish.
Thats ok. Thats fine, dont worry. And what about these? Do you know what type
of fish these are?
Mackrel I think theyre mackrel.
Yeah. And what about these?
E-... those are... kinda... leaves that grows... under the water. Theyre called what
are they called? E-... I dont know what theyre called but they kinda grow sometimes
off... rocks.
Agallir: Yeah.
Dalta:
If the rocks very old.
Dalta:
E- theyre ah, theyre birds, they ea(t) fish, they stick their... beak in the... water.
Em... its called e- e- nn. Dont...
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
And what... kind of birds are these?
Yeah. It doesnt matter if you cant think of it, its ok.

Its not coming.
Yeah, thats fine! Dont worry about it! This is a lobster pot, you were
Yeah.
describing it earlier on. Do you know how a lobster pot works?
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302
Well well, you leave it in the sea, bu(t)... you leave it there for... a week, theres
kinda rope around it. And the rope is stuck... somewhere like it can be stuck on...
the boat, it could be stuck... on that red flag maybe. Or it could be stuck somewhere
you could get it again. And... when you come... you... pull the rope up and the lobster
pot. And then therell be lobsters in it. Or fishes or something.
Oh. And how do the lobster get into the pot?
Well Its Maybe theres something in it like and they like to eat. And they go in
and try to ge(t) it. Then theyre stuck in ere, in there.
I see, yeah. And do you see the seal?
Yeah.
What will he do once hes taken his breath?
E- he ke-, he sticks his head up. E-. Takes a deep breath... and then he goes under
water again.
Will he dive?
Well No he kinda just well kinda. Its kinda like a dive. Depends if theres
someone... if theres... like maybe... a person... or something watching him. He k-, he
gets scared, or she gets scared. They just kinda go in... very quickly.
And what did this seal do... before he went under water?
E- he took a breath.
Yeah. And did he dive?

Eh yeah.
So can you say Yes he?

Yes he... dived.
And did he swim?
Ah, yeah. Yeah he swam.

Yes he?
Yes he swam.
Yeah good girl! And the lobster pot that we were talking about earlier, did the
lobster pot sink to the bottom?
Ah, yeap. Because its heavy and it goes down.
So can you say Yes it?
Yes it... went down. Cause...

So did it sink? Yes it?
Yes it sinks.
Agallir:
And... did the fisherman, did he catch a lobster do you think?
Agallir:
Ok. Yeah. And what did the seagulls do thats what those birds are, seagulls
Dalta:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
No I dont think he catched the lobster. I think he catched the fish.

Oh yeah.
when the train arrived? You knew that, didnt you?
Yeah ah. Well... they... went away. The seagulls... went away. Near the water. And
flied... away. And... some of them just went on a branch of the tree or... on a rock...
out of the way... or some might... go... on a tower.
Agallir: Yeah.
Dalta:
Or... just go under wat-or like... stick their beak down.
Dalta:
Yeah.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
And... do you were you ever on the... beach?

What did you do?
Well on the beach is it? E- I swam. And I played with the sand. Played volleyball.
E- ah had a surfboard.
Wow!
And boogeyride. And s-... sometimes my auntie well/will sometimes she goes
on like she snooker whats it called snooker(ed/s) or sn-, ah sn-... Dives like
and I dive too. Thats what I do.
Wow, really interesting. And if these people Ill just say that again now. So just tell
me what did you do with your auntie... on the beach?
E- I was diving... with my auntie.
Right. Very good! If these people wanted to go for a swim what would they do with
their shoes?
Well usually theyd have a bag... and theyd put it in the bag. Or the train might
stop for them for a little while. And then call them again. Theyll leave their shoes
in the... chair. Come back.
Hn. I see. And what happened to these branches here Mirn?
E- they fell down. Because the the tree was... very low and the... train was higher.
And did they break?
Yeah. They breach [.i. break, ach ch na Gaeilge].

They?
Broke.
Uhm. Good girl. Now. Were almost there. Can you tell me how many people are in
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304
the middle carriage?
Well theres well theres eleven... passangers and... theres one driver.
And in the middle carriage how many are there?
E- four.
Uhm. Good girl! Now almost there. Now why what did the people do with their
hats in this picture?
They throwed it up the air.
Uhm. And what did the two guards do with the ribbon?
Well they... holded it and the- wait till the train... came... flyin into it and it, the...
ribbon with would bro-... broke and theyd... get the ribbon back.
Oh, I see. Now we have only one task left and then were done.
Ok. [Gire]
So Im going to point at something in this picture... and were going to compare

it with something else. So if I said to you this train is big youd say: This train is
bigger.
Ok.
Yeah? So well have a go. Dermot is happy.

This uh, e- this... guy is happier.
Well done! This dog is small.
Em... This bird is smaller.
Perfect! Very good! This smoke is high in the sky. You can work to this picture if
you want.
Ok. Well... this flo-, no, this lamp is higher.
Very good! This girl is pretty.
Em. This girl is prettier.
This dog is good.
Em. This bird is gooder.
Nhn. Em. This man is strong.

This This man is stronger.
And this lady is beautiful.
E- This... woman is beautifuler.

This coal is heavy.
Dalta:
E- this train is heavier.
Dalta:
E- this... train is dangerouser.
Agallir:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
Dalta:
Agallir:
This dog is dangerous.
And this house is far away.
This house is far farer away.

This window is yellow.
En this window is grey.
What happened to yellow? [I gcogar. Gire]

Oh right! This window is yellower. Sorry.
[Gire] Its okay. Its okay, after a while you... you can forget it. One left. Yeah! Dermot
is happy.
E- These people are happier.
Absolutely excellent! Well done! Are you tired after that?

No. [Gire]
You had enough have you? We finished just in time. With about ten minutes left
to go. So I dont think youre goin to get much done in class, are you? Until n-... E-,
Mirn thank you so much, that was very very good and I really appreciate all the
work youve done for me. You did all the work.
Ok.
I did very little. And my friend will be back next week

Yeah.
to do it with Ir-, with you in Irish.

Ok.
And shell have a little present to say thanks.

Oh. Ok. [Gire]
How does that sound? [Deireadh taifeadta]
305
Aguisn E: Comhghaolta teangeolaochta agus socheolaochta

Iniuchadh Ar An Gcumas Datheangach

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Analysis of Bilingual Competence

Language acquisition among young people in the Gaeltacht

This publication presents an in-depth and multifaceted analysis of the linguistic

Analysis of Bilingual Competence

Lirtear mbhuntiste sa Ghaeilge i gcumas dtheangach na ndalta (.i. sraonn

Language acquisition among young people in the Gaeltacht

Is ard at sa saothar seo, inichadh domhain, ilghnitheach ar chumas Gaeilge

Eascraonn an taighde seo as an bpl ar an igeandil shisialta Ghaeilge at i

An sealbh teanga i measc ghlin g na Gaeltachta

An sealbh teanga i measc ghlin g na Gaeltachta

Inichadh ar an gCumas Dtheangach

Inichadh ar an gCumas Dtheangach

Analysis of Bilingual Competence

Inichadh ar an gCumas Dtheangach

Analysis of Bilingual Competence

Tuarascil taighde arna riteach don

1.2 Cumas agus ceannas sa dtheangachas ____________________________________ 7

1.3 Clra sochtheangeolaochta an staidir __________________________________ 11

1.4 Sainmhnithe _________________________________________________________ 14

1.2 Ability and dominance in bilingualism ___________________________________ 21

1.3 Sociolinguistic background to the study _________________________________ 25

1.4 Definitions ___________________________________________________________ 28

2.2 Deilbhocht ___________________________________________________________ 33

2.3 Comhrir _____________________________________________________________ 47

2.4 Simeantaic __________________________________________________________ 53

2.5 Pragmataic ___________________________________________________________ 59

2.6 Lofacht ______________________________________________________________ 63

2.7 Foghraocht: raladh r leathan agus caol _________________________________ 66

2.10 Achoimre _____________________________________________________________ 77

3.2 Deilbhocht ___________________________________________________________ 80

3.3 Comhrir _____________________________________________________________ 85

3.4 Simeantaic __________________________________________________________ 87

3.5 Pragmataic ___________________________________________________________ 89

3.6 Lofacht ______________________________________________________________ 91

3.7 Achoimre _____________________________________________________________ 94

4 An d theanga taobh le taobh ________________________________________ 96

4.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 103

4.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 106

4.4.2 Comhchlaonadh _______________________________________________________ 106

4.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 107

4.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 109

4.7 Achoimre ____________________________________________________________ 113

5 Aois ______________________________________________________________ 116

5.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 121

5.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 125

5.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 126

5.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 128

6 Gnas _____________________________________________________________ 136

6.2.1 Comparid dhreach ___________________________________________________ 137

6.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 140

6.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 143

6.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 144

6.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 146

7 Cumas acadil _____________________________________________________ 151

7.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 157

7.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 159

7.5 Pragmataic __________________________________________________________ 161

7.5.1 Comparid dhreach ___________________________________________________ 161

7.6 Lofacht _____________________________________________________________ 162

8 Taith theilifse agus theicneolaocht na faisnise _____________________ 168

8.3 Comhrir ____________________________________________________________ 172

8.4 Simeantaic _________________________________________________________ 174