Vol. 46 No.

SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series B)

December 2003

Metal foams: A survey

Michael F. Ashby & LU Tianjian (
)
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
Correspondence should be addressed to Lu Tianjian (email: tjl21@cam.ac.uk)
Received March 21, 2003

Abstract The current state-of-the-art in the development of cellular metal foams is reviewed, with
focus on their fabrication, mechanical/thermal/acoustic properties, and potential applications as
lightweight panels, energy absorbers, heat exchangers, and acoustic liners. Foam property charts
with scaling relations are presented, allowing scoping and selection through the use of material
indices.
Keywords: cellular metal foam, material fabrication, property chart, heat transfer, sound absorption.
DOI: 10.1360/02yb0203

Metal foams are a new, as yet imperfectly-characterised, class of materials with low densities
and novel physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical and acoustic properties[1

12]

. They offer poten-

tial for light-weight structures, for energy absorption, for thermal management, and for acoustic
absorption; and some of them, at least, are cheap. The current understanding of their production,
properties and uses is reviewed briefly in this paper. At this point in time most commercially
available metal foams are based on aluminium, copper, bronze, steel or nickel. Methods exist for
foaming magnesium, lead, zinc, titanium, and even gold, but they are not yet commercial. Given
the intensity of research and process development, it is anticipated that the range of available
foams will expand quickly over the next 5 a. Potential areas of exploitation are summarised in
table 1.
A number of distinct process-routes have been developed to make metal foams, of which five
are now established commercially. They fall into four broad classes[13]: those in which the foam is
formed from the vapour phase; those in which the foam is electro-deposited from an aqueous solution; those which depend on liquid-state processing by various forms of casting[9, 10, 12]; and
those in which the foam is created in the solid state using powder methods. Each method can be
used with a small subset of metals to create a porous material with a limited range of relative densities and cell sizes. Some produce open-cell foams, others produce foams in which the majority
of the cells is closed. The products differ greatly in quality and in price which, today, can vary
from $7 to $12000 per kg.
1

Characterisation and structure

The cellular structure of metallic foams requires that special precautions must be taken in

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Table 1 Potential applications for metal foams

Application
Light-weight structures
Sandwich cores
Strain isolation
Mechanical damping
Vibration control
Acoustic absorption
Energy management: compact
or light energy absorbers
Packaging with high-temperature
capability

Comment
Metal foams have good stiffness-to-weight ratio when loaded in bending.
Metal foams have low density with good shear and fracture strength.
Metal foams can take up strain mismatch by crushing at controlled pressure.
The damping capacity of metal foams is larger than that of solid metals by up to a
factor of 10.
Foamed panels have higher natural flexural vibration frequencies than solid sheet of
the same mass per unit area .
Reticulated metal foams have sound absorbing capacity.
Metal foams have exceptional ability to absorb energy at almost constant pressure.

Ability to absorb impact at constant load, coupled with thermal stability above room
temperature.
Metal foams have some wood-like characteristics: light, stiff, and ability to be joined
Artificial wood (furniture, wall panels)
with wood screws.
Open-cell foams have large accessible surface area and high cell-wall conduction
Thermal management:
heat exchangers, refrigerators
giving exceptional heat transfer ability.
Thermal management:
High thermal conductivity of cell edges together with high surface area quenches
flame arresters
combustion.
Thermal management:
Metfoams are non-flammable; oxidation of cell faces of closed-cell aluminium foams
heat shields
appears to impart exceptional resistance to direct flame.
Metfoams, injection-moulded to complex shapes, are used as consumable cores for
Consumable cores for castings
aluminium castings.
The cellular texture of biocompatible metal foams such as titanium stimulates cell
Biocompatible inserts
growth.
Open cell foams with controlled pore size have potential for high-temperature gas and
Filters
fluid filtration.
Good electrical conduction, mechanical strength and low density make metal foams
Electrical screening
attractive for screening.
Electrodes and catalyst carriers
High surface/volume ratio allows compact electrodes with high reaction surface area.
Buoyancy
Low density and good corrosion resistance suggests possible floatation applications.

characterisation and testing. Structure is examined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray tomography; fig. 1 shows examples. The apparent moduli and strength of
foam test-samples depends on the ratio of the specimen size to the cell size, and can be influenced
by the state of the surface and the way in which the specimen is gripped and loaded. This means
that specimens must be large (at least 7 cell-diameters in every dimension) and that surface preparation is necessary. Local plasticity at stresses well below the general yield of the foam requires
that moduli be measured from the slope of the unloading curve rather than the loading curve. Reliable methods now exist for characterising metallic foams in uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension, shear and multiaxial stress states, under conditions of creep and fatigue, and during indentation. An optical technique for measuring the surface displacement-field, from which strains can be
calculated, allows non-uniform deformation to be explored. Refs. [112] give details.
2

Properties of metal foams

The characteristics of a foam are primarily determined by the material of which it is made, its

relative density, / s (the foam density, , divided by that of the solid material of the cell wall, s),
and by whether it has open or closed cells. Beyond this, foam properties are influenced by anisotropy and by defects by which we mean wiggly, buckled or broken cell walls, and cells of

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exceptional size or shape. An analytical

framework exists for analyzing and modelling
the behaviour of foams in general[14]; it is the
basis on which the study of metal foams has
been based.
An overview of the range spanned by their
properties is given by tables 2 and 3 and the
property charts shown below. The producers of
metal foams have aggressive development programs for their materials. The properties described here are those of the currently available
generation of foams, and should be regarded as
a basis for initial scooping calculations, but not
for designs. The next generation of foams will
certainly be better. Final design calculations
must be based on data provided by the supplier.
2.1

Mechanical properties
Fig. 2 shows a schematic compressive
stress-strain curve for a metal foam. The
moduli are best measured dynamically or by
loading the foam into the plastic range, then
unloading and determining them from the
unloading slope. Youngs modulus E, the shear
modulus G, and Poissons ratio scale with
density in the ways established by Gibson and
Ashby[14]:
n

3
E 1 Es , G 1Gs ,
8
s
s
v 0.3,
(1)

Fig. 1. (a) A Cymat foam of relative density /s = 0.04

(density 108 kg/m3 or 6.7 lb/ft3); (b) an Alporas foam of relative density /s = 0.09 (density 240 kg/m3 or 15 lb/ft3); (c) an
Alulight foam of relative density /s = 0.25 (density 435
kg/m3 or 270 lb/ft3).

where n has a value between 1.8 and 2.2 and 1 between 0.1 and 4, which depend on the structure
and properties of the foam. As a rule-of-thumb, n = 2. For design purposes, it is helpful to know
that the tensile modulus Et of metal foams differs from that in compression Ec; the tensile modulus
is greater, typically by 10%. Anisotropy of cell shape can lead to significant (30%) differences
between moduli in different directions.
Open-cells foams have a long, well-defined plateau stress, pl, visible in fig. 2. Here the cell
edges are yielding plastically in bending. Closed-cell foams show somewhat more complicated

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Table 2 Rangesa) for mechanical and electrical properties of some commercial metal foams
Property
Material
Relative density /s
Structure
Density /Mggm3
Youngs modulus E/GPa
Shear modulus G/GPa
Bulk modulus K/GPa
Flexural modulus Ef/GPa
Poissons ratio v
Comp. strength c/MPa
Tensile elastic limit y/MPa
Tensile strength t/MPa
MOR MOR/MPa
Endurance limit e/MPab)
Densification strain D
Tensile ductility f
Loss coefficient +(%)
Hardness H/MPa
Fr. tough K Ic+ /MPagm1/2

Cymat
Al-SiC
0.020.2
closed cell
0.070.56
0.022.0
0.0011.0
0.023.2
0.033.3
0.310.34
0.047.0
0.047.0
0.058.5
0.047.2
0.023.6
0.60.9
0.010.02
0.41.2
0.0510

Alulight
Al
0.10.35
closed cell
0.31.0
1.712
0.65.2
1.813.0
1.712.0
0.310.34
1.914.0
2.020
2.230
1.925
0.9513
0.40.8
0.0020.04
0.30.5
2.435

Alporas
Al
0.080.1
closed cell
0.20.25
0.41.0
0.30.35
0.91.2
0.91.2
0.310.34
1.31.7
1.61.8
1.61.9
1.81.9
0.91.0
0.70.82
0.010.06
0.91.0
2.02.2

ERG
Al
0.050.1
open cell
0.160.25
0.060.3
0.020.1
0.060.3
0.060.3
0.310.34
0.93.0
0.92.7
1.93.5
0.92.9
0.451.5
0.80.9
0.10.2
0.30.5
2.03.5

Inco
Ni
0.030.04
open cell
0.260.37
0.41.0
0.170.37
0.41.0
0.41.0
0.310.34
0.61.1
0.61.1
1.02.4
0.61.1
0.30.6
0.90.94
0.030.1
1.02.0
0.61.0

0.030.5
0.31.6
0.10.9
0.10.28
0.61.0
903000
20200
210250
180450
300500
Electrical resistivity /108 Ohmgm
a) The data show the range of properties associated with the range of relative density listed in the 3rd row of the table. The
lower values of a property are associated with the lower densities and vice versa, except for densification strain and electrical
resistance, where the reverse is true. b) Data for endurance limit, loss coefficient and fracture toughness must, for the present, be
regarded as estimates.
Table 3 Rangesa) for thermal properties of some commercial metal foams
Property
Cymat
Alulight
Alporas
ERG
Inco
Material
Al-SiC
Al
Al
Al
Ni
Relative density
0.020.2
0.10.35
0.080.1
0.050.1
0.030.04
Structure
closed cell
closed cell
closed cell
open cell
open cell
Melting point Tm/K
830910
840850
910920
830920
17001720
Max. service temp. Tmax/K
500530
400430
400420
380420
550650
Min. service temp. Tmin/K
12
12
12
12
12
Specific heat Cp/Jgkg1gK1
830870
910920
830870
850950
450460
Thermal cond. /Wgm1gK1
0.310
3.035
3.54.5
6.011
0.20.3
1921
1923
2123
2224
1214
Thermal exp.106 /K
Latent heat, melting L/kJgkg1
355385
380390
370380
380395
280310
a) The data show the range of properties associated with the range of relative density listed in the 3rd row of the table. The
lower values of a property are associated with the lower densities and vice versa.

behaviour that can cause the stress to rise with increasing strain because the cell faces carry membrane stresses. The plateau continues up to the densification strain, D, beyond which the structure
compacts and the stress rises steeply. The plateau stress pl, and the densification strain D scale
with density as
m

pl (0.25 to 0.35) y,s , D 1 2 .

s
s

(2)

For currently available metal foams m lies between 1.5 and 2.0 and 2 between 1.4 and 2. As a
rule-of-thumb, m
1.6 and 2
1.5. These properties are important in energy absorbing applica-

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tions, to which metal foams lend themselves

well.
The damping capacity, measured by the
loss coefficient , of a metal foam is typically
510 times greater than that of the metal from
which it is made. This increase may be useful,
although it is still much less than that characteristic of polymer foams. Closed-cell metal Fig. 2. Compression curve for a metal foamschematic
showing properties.
foams subjected to rolling treatment have some
capacity as acoustic absorbers for harsh conditions, whereas open-celled metal foams with sufficiently small cell sizes can compete with the best sound absorbers such as polymer foams and
glass wool.
As in other materials, cyclic loading causes fatigue damage in metal foams. High-cycle fatigue tests allow a fatigue limit e to be measured ( e is the cyclic stress-range at which the
material will just survive 107 cycles). Data can be found in refs. [3, 6].
The toughness of metal foams can be measured by standard techniques. As a rule-of-thumb,
the initiation toughness JIc scales with density as
p

J Ic 3 y,s
,
s

(3)

where
is the cell size with p = 1.31.5 and 3 = 0.10.4.

The creep of metal foams has not yet been extensively studied. The theory and limited experimental data are reviewed in ref. [6].
2.2 Thermal properties
The melting point, specific heat and expansion coefficient, of metal foams are the same as
those of the metal from which they are made. The effective thermal conductivity, , scales with
density approximately as

(4)

with q =1.61.85. The value of q is sensitive to the presence of geometric imperfections in metal
foams. For high temperature applications, the effect of thermal radiation on needs to be accounted for.
2.3 Electrical properties
The only electrical property of interest is the resistivity, R. It scales with relative density approximately as

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R Rs
s

Vol. 46

(5)

with r = 1.61.85. The reciprocal of R is closely related to the thermal conductivity , excluding
the contributions by natural convection and thermal radiation.
3

Foam property charts

Figs. 35 are examples of Material Property Charts[15]. They give an overview of the properties of metal foams, allow scaling relations to be deduced and enable selection through the use
of material indices[15]. All were constructed using the CES (2001) software and database[16].
3.1 Stiffness and density
Fig. 3 shows Youngs modulus E plotted against density for available metal foams. For
clarity, only some of the data have been identified. The broken lines show the indices E/,
E1/2/ and E1/3/. Metal foams have attractively high values of the last of these indices (the full
significance of which is explained in ref. [15]), suggesting their use as light, stiff panels, and as a
way of increasing natural vibration frequencies.

Fig. 3. Youngs modulus plotted against density for currently-available metal foams. Output from CES 3.2 with the Metal
foams database.

3.2 Strength and Density

Fig. 4 shows compressive strength c plotted against density for currently available metal

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foams. The broken lines show the indices c/, c2/3 / and c1/ 2 / . Their significance is discussed in ref. [15]. Metal foams have attractively high values of the last of these indices, suggesting their use as light, strong panels.

Fig. 4. Compressive strength plotted against density for currently-available metal foams. Output from CES 3.2 with the Metal
foams database.

3.3 Specific stiffness and strength

Stiffness and strength at low weight are sought in many applications. Caution must be exercised here. If axial stiffness and strength are what is wanted, the proper measure of the first is E/
and of the second is c/. But if bending stiffness and strength are sought then E1/2/ and c2 / 3 /
(beams) or E1/3/ and c1/ 2 / (panels) are the proper measures. The value of E/ for structural
steel, in the units shown here, is 25 GPa/(Mg/m3), and that for c/ is 24 MPa/(Mg/m3). Metal
foams have lower values of these two property-groups than do steel and aluminiumthey are
not a good choice for components that must carry simple tension or compression. For bending, the
picture is different. Fig. 5 shows E1/2/ plotted against c2 / 3 for metal foams. Values for steel
are 1.8 and 4.3; for aluminium, 3.1 and 6.2, all in the units shown on the figure. Metal foams can
surpass conventional materials here. Their values of E1/3/ and c1/ 2 / are even better. The conclusion: foams offer performance gains for light beams and panels that must meet constraints on
stiffness or strength.

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Fig. 5. The quantity E1/2/ plotted against c2 / 3 / for currently available metal foams. The numbers in parentheses are the

foam density in Mg/m3. Output from CES 3.2 with the Metal foams database.

3.4 Energy absorption

The central aim of design for packaging and impact protection is the ability to absorb energy
at constant crushing stress, chosen to be below that to cause damage to the object that is to be protected. The stress-strain curve of fig. 2 is near-ideal in this regard, making metal foams particularly attractive for these applications. Fig. 6 shows the relevant property chart: energy absorbed
per unit volume, plotted against plateau stress. It is used by first identifying the desired crushing
stress, identifying from the chart the foams that crush at or below this stress, and reading off the
energy that they can absorb. The best choice is the foam that absorbs the most energy while
crushing below the critical threshold.
3.5 Thermal properties
Fig. 7 captures a great deal of information about thermal properties. As before, only some of
the data have been identified for clarity. The numbers in parentheses are the foam density in
Mg/m3. The figure shows the thermal conductivity plotted against the specific heat per unit volume, Cp. To this can be added contours of thermal diffusivity
a=

Cp

(6)

They are shown as full lines on the chart. Thermal conductivity is the property which determines

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Fig. 6. The energy absorbed per unit volume plotted against plateau stress for currently available metal foams. The numbers in
parentheses are the foam density in Mg/m3. Output from CES 3.2 with the Metal foams database.

Fig. 7. Thermal conductivity plotted against volumetric specific heat Cp for currently-available metal foams. The numbers
in parentheses are the foam density in Mg/m3. Contours show the thermal diffusivity a = /Cp in units of m2/s. Output from CES
3.2 with the Metal foams database.

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steady-state heat response; thermal diffusivity determines transient response. Foams are remarkable for having low values of thermal diffusivity. Note that open cell aluminium foams have relatively high thermal diffusivities; the nickel foams have low thermal diffusivities.
3.6 Foam properties: a summing-up
Four features of metal foams distinguish them from other classes of materials, and suggest
potential applications. The first is their ability to combine low density with good bending stiffness
and strength, making them attractive as light panels and as cores of light sandwich structures. The
second is their ability to absorb energy at constant crushing load, meaning that they have potential
for packaging and impact-protection. The third and fourth relate to their heat transfer and acoustic
properties, as heat exchangers and as acoustic absorbers, and these require further elaboration,
provided in the following sections.
4 Metal foam heat exchangers

Conventional heat sinks provide the most basic form of cooling, including fin arrays, pins,
discs and complex extrusions. The primary method by which heat is removed from the component
is conduction, which is dominated by the thermal conductivity of the materials and the contact and
interface conditions. Aluminium is currently the most common material used for heat sinks. It has
a relatively high thermal conductivity that, is light, is corrosion resistant, and is comparatively
cheap. Copper is attractive because of its superior thermal conductivity, but it is significantly
heavier than aluminium and is more expensive. The second important factor in heat sink performance is surface area per unit volume, which governs heat dissipation through convective heat
transfer. A heat exchanger is said to be compact if its surface area density exceeds 700 m2/m3. The
final factor in the successful performance of a heat sink is the design itself. Although a wide variety of heat sinks are available off the shelf, a system approach should be considered. Design and
modelling software can be used to optimize system design and improve the performance of a heat
sink appreciably.
Significant advances in the state of the art in heat exchange have been made with the use of
open-cell metal foam structures to manufacture highly effective, geometry-flexible, and
multi-functional compact heat exchange devices. Several mechanisms contribute to heat transfer
enhancements associated with the use of metal foams, including interactions between the solid
foam material and a through-flowing fluid, and the importance of achieving a quality
metal-to-foam bond (brazing is preferred over epoxy-bonding). Applications to electronics cooling
and airborne multi-layer heat exchangers have been investigated, revealing promising advances in
the rate of heat removal or transfer[17]. A typical aluminium foam was found to remove 23 times
the usual heat flux removed by a pin-fin array, at a third of the weight.
Experimental results for high temperature FeCrAlY foams show that the overall heat transfer
increases with increasing relative density and decreasing cell size, although increasing the relative
density is more important than reducing the cell size for heat transfer enhancement. On the other

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hand, whilst the heat transfer performance of high-conducting copper foams is not as sensitive to
relative density as that for FeCrAlY foams, its dependence on cell size is more significant. For
FeCrAlY foams, the solid thermal conductivity is relatively low (~20 W/mK), so the thermal resistance at the solid side is relatively large. Consequently, increasing the relative density reduces
thermal resistance in the solid phase, resulting in heat transfer improvement. For copper foams,
however, the superior solid conductivity indicates that the thermal resistance is small in the solid
phase and is large in the fluid phase. Increasing the relative density of a copper foam would therefore not lead to a dramatic effect on the overall heat transfer, whereas reducing its cell size could
enhance the overall heat transfer due to smaller thermal resistance in the fluid part. Furthermore, it
has been established that there is no need to use high thermal conductivity materials if the Reynolds number is relatively small. An optimal foam porosity, opt, for maximum thermal efficiency
can be obtained by considering the balance between pressure drop and heat transfer, with opt
slightly decreasing as the Reynolds number is increased.
5 Metal foam acoustic absorbers

Due to the difficulty of pressure waves gaining access to the interior cellular structure, metal
foams with predominantly closed cells are poor sound absorbers. The sound absorption performance of a close-cell foam can however be much enhanced by partially fracturing the cell walls via
rolling[18]: the resulting small but sharp-edged cracks on the cell faces become passage ways for
the in-and-out movement of air particles, resulting in sound absorption improvement. Here, the
dissipation of sound energy is realized mainly through viscous and thermal losses. One type of
such aluminum foam, trade name Alporas, has been developed by Shinko Wire for use as sound
absorbing material; it has been installed as soundproofing inside factories/shopping malls, along
the side of a road/tunnel, underneath an expressway, amongst many other applications (e.g. underwater sound absorption). In addition to its attractive sound absorbing property, the aluminum
foam is stable and does not generate toxic gases in the presence of a flame, has high durability and
resistance to weathering, and can shield against electromagnetic waves. Consequently, unlike
glass wool and polymer foams (which generally absorb more sound), a metal foam sound absorber
can be implemented in harsh conditions such as the discharge chamber of a high repetition rate
excimer laser used in optical lithography where sound may reach a level as high as 190 dB. Since
the laser charge chamber is filled with 99% neon and 1% fluorine gas, both being chemically extremely aggressive, an Al alloy foam acoustic damper would be suitable.
Metal foams with semi-open cells have also been developed for sound absorption[19]. These
foams are made by infiltrating molten aluminum alloy under a controlled high pressure into the
pores of a preform consisting of water-soluble particles. The cells are interconnected by small
circular openings with sizes adjustable by varying the infiltration pressure, particle size, surface
tension of molten alloy, and wetting angle between molten alloy and particle. A sound absorption
coefficient larger than 0.8 in the frequency range of

8002000 Hz has been experimentally

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demonstrated. For such foams, there exists optimal pore size, optimal pore opening size as well as
optimal pore connectivity for best sound absorption; sound absorption is enhanced by increasing
the thickness of the foam panel, but is only slightly affected by varying the foam porosity[19].
Open-cell metal foams for compact heat exchangers have relatively large cell sizes (to reduce
pressure loss), and hence are poor acoustic absorbers. For an open-cell foam to absorb over 90%
of incoming sound over a wide range of frequency, its cell size must be reduced to below 1 mm[20].
However, the capability of a cellular foam to absorb sound does not always increase with decreasing cell size the foam again becomes a poor sound absorber when its cell size falls below 0.1 mm, as most of the sound is hence reflected back to the source. Open-cell, high temperature metal foams with cell sizes on the order of 0.20.5 mm are now commercially available. The
possibility of using these foams as acoustic liners in lean-premixed (LP) combustors to suppress
sound instability is under investigation.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the very productive collaboration in this paper with Profs. A. G.
Evans, J. W. Hutchinson, N. A. Fleck, L. J. Gibson and N. H. G. Wadley. The authors acknowledge Prof. He Deping delegating
Science in China to invite and review this paper. This work was supported partially by the U.K. Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, Grant No. EJA/U83), partly by the U.S. Office of Naval Research (ONR/ONRIFO, Grant
No. N000140110271, and ONR, Grant No. N000140210117), and partly (TJL) by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant Nos. 50231010 and 90205005).

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