Air Heater Performance

Presentation Coverage

Performance Indices & Assessment

AH Performance Enhancement Options
Calculation of Boiler Efficiency - Sample
Calculations

Air Heaters
Boiler efficiency and APC deteriorate with Air Heater
performance degradation from O/H to O/H.
The symptoms include

Lower fan margins (ID amperes 95 to 135A)

Lower gas exit temperatures due to high AH leakage

Increased flue gas volume - affects ESP performance

Boiler operation at less than optimum excess air - Specially
in units where in ID fans are running at maximum loading

Air Heater - Performance Indicators

Air-in-Leakage (~13%)
Gas Side Efficiency (~ 68 %)
X ratio (~ 0.76)
Flue gas temperature drop (~220 C)
Air side temperature rise (~260C)
Gas & Air side pressure drops
(The indices are affected by changes in entering
air or gas temperatures, their flow quantities and
coal moisture)

AH Performance Monitoring

O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Inlet

O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Outlet

Temperature of gas entering / leaving air heater

Temperature of air entering / leaving air heater

Diff. Pressure across AH on air & gas side

(Above data is tracked to monitor AH performance)

Air heater Air-in-leakage

All units that operate with a rotary type regenerative air
heater experience some degree of air leakage across the
air heater seals.
An increase in air leakage across the seals of an AH results
in increased ID and FD fan power and flow rate of flue gas.
Sometimes it can put limitations on unit loading as well.
Typically air heater starts with a baseline leakage of 6 to
10% after an overhaul.

Air Heater Leakage (%)

The leakage of the high pressure air to the low pressure flue
gas is due to the Differential Pressure between fluids,
increased seal clearances in hot condition, seal erosion /
improper seal settings.
Increased AH leakage leads to
Reduced AH efficiency
Increased fan power consumption
Higher gas velocities that affect ESP performance
Loss of fan margins leading to inefficient operation and at
times restricting unit loading

Air Heater Leakage (%)

Direct - Hot End / Cold End
(60% through radial seals + 30% through Circumferential
bypass)

Air leakage occurring at the hot end of the air

heater affects its thermal and hydraulic
performance while cold end leakage increases
fans loading.
Entrained Leakage due to entrapped air between
the heating elements (depends on speed of rotation
& volume of rotor air space)

Rotary Air heater

BYPASS SEAL

RADIAL SEAL

HOT END
AXIAL
SEAL

COLD END

HOT INTERMEDIATE

SEALS ARRANGEMENT

Leakage Assessment

Leakage assessment must be done by a grid survey using

a portable gas analyser.

Calculation of leakage using CO2 values is preferred

because of higher absolute values and lower errors.

Method of determination of O2 or CO2 should be the same

at inlet and outlet - wet or dry (Orsat)

Single point O2 measurement feedback using orsat is on dry

basis while zirconia measurement is on wet basis.

Leakage assessment is impacted by air ingress from

expansion joints upstream of measurement sections.

Air Heater Leakage - Calculation

This leakage is assumed to occur entirely between air inlet
and gas outlet; Empirical relationship using the change in
concentration of O2 or CO2 in the flue gas
= CO2in - CO2out * 0.9 * 100
CO2out
= O2out - O2in * 0.9 * 100
(21- O2out)

= 5.7 2.8 * 90
(21-5.7)
= 17.1 %

CO2 measurement is preferred due to high absolute values;

In case of any measurement errors, the resultant influence on
leakage calculation is small.

Gas Side Efficiency

Ratio of Gas Temperature drop across the air heater,
corrected for no leakage, to the temperature head.
= (Temp drop / Temperature head) * 100
where Temp drop = Tgas in -Tgas out (no leakage)
Temp head = Tgasin - T air in
Gas Side Efficiency = (333.5-150.5) / (333.5-36.1) = 61.5 %

Tgas out (no leakage) = The temperature at which the gas

would have left the air heater if there were no AH leakage
= AL * Cpa * (Tgas out - Tair in) + Tgas out
Cpg * 100
Say AH leakage 17.1%, Gas In Temp 333.5 C, Gas Out Temp
133.8 C, Air In Temp 36.1 C
Tgasnl = 17.1 * (133.8 36.1) + 133.8 = 150.5 C
100

X Ratio
Ratio of heat capacity of air passing through the air heater to
the heat capacity of flue gas passing through the air heater.
=

Wair out * Cpa

Wgas in * Cpg

Tgas in - Tgas out (no leakage)

Tair out - Tair in

Say AH leakage 17.1%, Gas In Temp 333.5 C, Gas Out Temp

133.8 C , Air In Temp 36.1 C, Air Out Temp 288 C
X ratio = (333.5 150.5) / (288 36.1) = 0.73

X-Ratio depends on

moisture in coal, air infiltration, air & gas mass flow rates
leakage from the setting
specific heats of air & flue gas
X-ratio does not provide a measure of thermal performance
of the air heater, but is a measure of the operating
conditions.
A low X-ratio indicates either excessive gas weight through
the air heater or that air flow is bypassing the air heater.
A lower than design X-ratio leads to a higher than design
gas outlet temperature & can be used as an indication of
excessive tempering air to the mills or excessive boiler
setting infiltration.

Pressure drops across air heater

Air & gas side pressure drops change approximately in

proportion to the square of the gas & air weights through
the air heaters.

If excess air is greater than expected, the pressure drops

will be greater than expected.

Deposits / choking of the basket elements would lead to an

increase in pressure drops

Pressure drops also vary directly with the mean absolute

temperatures of the fluids passing through the air heaters
due to changes in density.

Air Heaters - Exit Gas Temperatures

Factors affecting EGT include
Entering air temperature - Any changes would change gas temperature in
same direction. (10C rise in air temp ~ 10*0.7 = 7C rise in EGT)
Entering Gas Temperature - Any changes would change exit gas
temperature in same direction (10C rise in gas temp ~ 10*0.3 = 3C rise in
EGT)
X-ratio - An increase in X-ratio would decrease exit gas temperatures &
vice versa
Gas Weight - Increase in gas weight would result in higher exit gas
temperatures
AH leakage - An increase in AH leakage causes dilution of flue gas & a
drop in As read exit gas temperatures

Air Heaters Good Practices

AH sootblowing immediately after boiler light up

Monitoring of Lub oil of Guide & Support bearings

through Quarterly wear-debris analysis

Hot water washing of air heaters after boiler

shutdown - flue gas temperature ~ 180 to 150 C
with draft fans in stopped condition. (Ideally pH
value can verify effective cleaning)

Basket drying to be ensured by running draft fans

for atleast four hours after basket washing

Air Heaters Good Practices contd

Baskets cleaning with HP water jet during Overhauls

after removal from position

Heating elements to be covered with templates during

maintenance of air heaters

Gaps between diaphragms & baskets to be closed

for better heat recovery & lower erosion rate at edges

Ensuring healthiness of flushing apparatus of Eco &

AH ash hoppers

Air Heaters Good Practices contd

Replacement of baskets recommended when
Weight loss of heating element baskets > 20-30 %
Thinning of element thickness > one-third
Erosion of heating elements is > 50 mm depth
Trends of Gas side and air side efficiency before and
after Overhaul may also supplement the replacement
decision.
Reversal of baskets not recommended

O2 Stratification at AH Outlet FG Duct

Stratification in Gas
ducts at AH outlet

7-8

7
6

6-7

5
4

5-6

S3

3
S1

4-5

Probe

3-4

Temperature Stratification in AH Outlet

FG Duct (Trisector Air heater)

160
Temp C

Grid sampling is needed for

correct assessment of gas
temperature & composition
at AH outlet due to
stratification in flue gas

170

150
140

160.0-170.0

130

S3

150.0-160.0

S2

C
Probes

S1

140.0-150.0
130.0-140.0

Air Heaters

Thermocouples for flue gas temperatures at AH inlet as well

as exit are generally clustered on one side.

A grid survey is needed for representative values.

Exit gas temperatures need to be corrected to a reference

ambient and to no leakage conditions for comparison.

Thermocouples for SA temperature measurement at AH

outlet are mounted too close to air heaters and need to be
relocated downstream to avoid duct stratification.

Additional mill or changes in coal quality change thermal

performance of a tri-sector air heater in a very major way;
performance evaluation is difficult.

Its worthwhile to re-look at all the

instrumentation around Air heaters for air
temperatures / Flue gas composition &
temperature measurement.
The unit operation, equipment efficiency
assessments and maintenance decisions are
based on the same.

Case Study Air Heaters

High air temp rise

Low gas temp drop
High AH leakages
Low X-ratio

Unit 1
Design PGT
A
B
Air Temp Rise
C 230
228 228 221
Gas Temp Drop
C 200
185 165 162
Leakage
% 8.8
6.6 15.9 16.6
Gas Out Temp (NL) C 146.8 164.5 190 188
X ratio
% 0.83 0.73 0.64 0.64
Gas Side Efficiency % 62.6 56.1 49.1 49.1

Unit 2
A
B
222 217
166 155
15.4 16.9
182 195
0.67 0.61
50.2 45.4

Unit 3
A
B
219 222
155 158
16.5 18.4
185 188
0.62 0.61
47.9 47.5

Increased air flows ~ better heat recovery across Air Heaters

Constraint ID fan margins - reduction in AH leakage
boiler casing air-in-leakage
gas ducts air ingress

Air heater Performance Enhancement

through Up gradations
Double sealing retrofits with Fixed sealing plates
Before

After

Double Sealing

Rotor modifications
Before
Typical 24 sector rotor design

New axial seal

carrying bars fitted

After
Rotor modified to 48 sectors

Flexible seal assembly - Cold Condition

Flexible seal assembly - Hot Condition

Heating Surface Element retrofits

All our air heaters have DU & NF profile at Hot
end & Cold end
Potential for improvement by changing basket
profiles
Reduction in Air heater exit gas temperatures
to 125C

Additional Surface area & 150mm height HE baskets

Minimum Basket

Hot End
Hot Intermediate
Cold End

Boiler Performance
Boiler Efficiency
The % of heat input to the boiler absorbed by the
working fluid (Typically 85-88%)

Boiler Efficiency
Boiler Efficiency can be determined by
a) Direct method or Input / Output method
b) Indirect method or Loss method

Steam

Direct Method

Flue
Gas
Boiler

Water

Fuel
+ Air

Efficiency =

Boiler Efficiency =

Heat addition to Steam x 100

Gross Heat in Fuel

Steam flow rate x (steam enthalpy feed water enthalpy)

x 100
Fuel firing rate x Gross calorific value

Boiler Efficiency
Direct method or Input / Output method measures the heat
absorbed by water & steam & compares it with the total
energy input based on HHV of fuel.

Direct method is based on fuel flow, GCV, steam flow

pressure & temperature measurements. For coal
fired boilers, its difficult to accurately measure coal
flow and heating value on real time basis.

Another problem with direct method is that the extent

and nature of the individual components losses is not
quantified.

Boiler Efficiency
Indirect method or Loss method
For utility boilers efficiency is generally calculated by heat
loss method wherein the component losses are calculated
and subtracted from 100.
Boiler Efficiency = 100 - Losses in %

Steam

Indirect Method

6. Radiation

1. Dry Flue gas loss

2. H2 loss
3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Boiler

Flue gas

Water

Fuel + Air

8. Bottom ash loss

Efficiency = 100 (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)

The unit of heat input is the higher heating value

per kg of fuel. Heat losses from various sources are
summed & expressed per kg of fuel fired.

Indirect or Loss method

This method also requires accurate determination of

heating value, but since the total losses make a relatively
small portion of the total heat input (~ 13 %), an error in
measurement does not appreciably affect the efficiency
calculations.

In addition to being more accurate for field testing, the

heat loss method identifies exactly where the heat
losses are occurring.

Boiler Efficiency
Commonly used standards for boiler performance testing are
ASME PTC 4 (1998)
BS 2885 (1974)
IS: 8753: 1977
DIN standards

Parameters required for computing Boiler Efficiency

AH flue gas outlet O2 / CO2 / CO
AH flue gas inlet and outlet temp C
Primary / Secondary air temp at AH inlet / outlet C
Total Airflow / Secondary Air Flow t/hr
Dry/Wet bulb temperatures C
Ambient pressure bar a
Proximate Analysis & GCV of Coal kcal / kg
Combustibles in Bottom Ash and Flyash

Boiler Losses
Typical values
Dry Gas Loss
5.21
Unburnt Loss
0.63
Hydrogen Loss
4.22
Moisture in Fuel Loss
2.00
Moisture in Air Loss
0.19
Carbon Monoxide Loss
0.11
Radiation/Unaccounted Loss
1.00
Boiler Efficiency

86.63

Dry Gas Loss (Controllable)

This is the heat carried away by flue gas at AH outlet

Its a function of flue gas quantity and the temperature difference

between air heater exit gas temperature and FD fan inlet air
temperature

Typically 20 C increase in exit gas temperature ~ 1% reduction in

boiler efficiency.

Dry Gas Loss

Sensible Heat of flue gas (Sh)

Sh = Mass of dry flue gas X Sp. Heat X (Tfg Tair)

Dry Flue Gas Loss % = (Sh / GCV of Fuel) * 100

Dry Gas loss reduction requires

Boiler operation at optimum excess air

Cleanliness of boiler surfaces

Good combustion of fuel

Reduction of tempering air to mill.

Reduction in air ingress

Cleaning of air heater surfaces and proper heating

elements / surface area

Unburnt Carbon Loss (Controllable)

The amount of unburnt is a measure of effectiveness of

combustion process in general and mills / burners in particular.

Unburnt carbon includes the unburned constituents in flyash as

well as bottom ash.

Ratio of Flyash to Bottom ash is around 80:20

Focus to be on flyash due to uncertainty in repeatability and

representative ness of unburnt carbon in bottom ash

+50 PF fineness fractions to be < 1-1.5%

Unburnt Carbon Loss (Controllable)

Loss due to Unburnt Carbon
= U * CVc * 100 / GCV of Coal
CVc CV of Carbon 8077.8 kcal/kg

U =

Carbon in ash / kg of coal

= Ash
100

* C (Carbon in coal)
100 - C

Influencing Factors - Unburnt Carbon Loss

Type of mills and firing system

Furnace size

Coal FC/VM ratio, coal reactivity

Burners design / condition

PF fineness (Pulveriser problems)

Insufficient excess air in combustion zone

Air damper / register settings

Burner balance / worn orifices

Primary Air Flow / Pressure

Moisture Loss
Fuel Hydrogen Loss
This loss is due to combustion of H present in fuel. H is
burnt and converted in water, which gets evaporated.
Fuel Moisture Loss
This loss is due to evaporation and heating of inherent
and surface moisture present in fuel. (Can be reduced
by judicious sprays in coal yards)

Computation - Moisture Loss

Total Moisture Loss
= (9H+M) * Sw / GCV of Coal
Sw Sensible Heat of water vapour
= 1.88 (Tgo 25) + 2442 + 4.2 (25 - Trai)
The moisture in flue gases (along with Sulphur in fuel) limits the
temperature to which the flue gases may be cooled due to corrosion
considerations in the cold end of air heater, gas ducts etc.

Other Losses
1. Sensible Heat Loss of ash

Bottom Ash Hoppers

Eco Hoppers

AH Hoppers

ESP hoppers

Sensible Heat Loss (%) = (X / GCV) *100

X

= [{Ash * Pflyash * C pash * (T go - T rai)}

+ {Ash * Pahash * C pash * (T go - T rai)}
+ {Ash * Peash * C pash * (T gi -T rai )}
+ {Ash * Pba * C pash * (T ba - T rai )}]

(~0.5-0.6 %)

Other Losses
2. Radiation Loss through Bottom Ash Hopper

Coal Flow Rate 135 Tons/Hr

GCV of Coal 3300 Kcal/Kg

Eqv. Heat Flux thro Bottom opening 27090 Kcal/hr/m2

Bottom opening area of S-Panel 15.85 m2

Radiation Loss through Bottom Ash Hopper =

[H BOTTOM * A S-PANEL *100 ] / [Coal Flow * GCV * 1000]
= 0.096 %

Other Losses
3. Coal Mill Reject Loss

Coal Flow

135 T/hr

Coal Mill Rejects

200 kg/hr

GCV of Coal

3300 kcal/Kg

CV of Rejects

900 kcal/Kg

Mill Outlet Temp Tmillout

90 C

Reference Temperature Trai

30 C

Specific Heat of Rejects CpREJECT

0.16 kcal/Kg/C

Loss due to Mill Rejects = X / (Coal Flow * GCV * 1000)

X = [Rejects * (CVREJECT + CpREJECT (Tmillout Trai))* 100 ]
= (0.0408 %)

Other Losses
4.

Radiation Loss
Actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to
assess because of particular emissivity of various
surfaces.

HEAT CREDIT
Heat Credit due to Coal Mill Power
= [MP * 859.86 * 100] / [Coal Flow * GCV * 1000]
Coal Flow Rate Coal FLOW Tons/Hr
Total Coal Mill Power MP kWh
GCV of Coal Kcal/Kg

Computations

Two Excel spreadsheets for determination of Boiler

and Air Heater performance indices are being
provided with this presentation.

These also include methodology for correcting these

indices for deviation in coal quality and ambient
temperature from design.

The operating equipment performance should be

corrected for boundary conditions before comparison
with design parameters.

THANKS