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THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

FROM

BABAR TO AURANGZEB
BY
S.

M. JAFFAR,

AUTHOR OF:

B.A., M.R.A.S.
"Education in Muslim India",

(LONDON)
"

Mediaeval India

and

"Some Cultural Aspects

of

Muslim

r.ule in India'

WITH AN INTRODUCTION
BY

Ihe Hon'ble

Sir

ABDUL QADIR,

Kt.

PUBLISHER
S.

MUHAMMAD

SADIQ KHAN

KISSA KHANI. PESHAWAR

1936
First Edit*',n

Price Rs, 5-net

Cvtivrixht Reserved I, the

Author

Published by
S.

MUHAMMAD
/Cissa

SADIQ KHAN,

Khani,

Peshawar City (N.-W.

Printed by Mirza
at the

F. P.)

Mullmfaad Sadiq

Ripon Printing Press, Bull Road, L "hore

DEDICATED
TO

MY FELLOW WORKERS
I

THE SAME FIELD

PREFACE
ONE

should not raise one's pen to write history

is equipped with a thorough knowledge of
the original sources and a clear conscience. In order
to obtain correct information, it is absolutely essenunless one

tial

history with an unprejudiced mind

The evidence
without preconceived notions.

to approach

and

thus collected from the huge mass of historical literature that has come down to posterity from the pen of
the contemporary chroniclers must be carefully sifted
and pieced together in such a way as to present an
accurate account of the past. History must not be

instrument of propaganda even in the best

if used in a wrong cause, it may result in
with human blood. Volumes written
streets
filling
on the Muslim Period of Indian history have voluminously added to the volumes of communal hatred
and bigotry. Whatever the aims of their authors,
the text -books on Indian history, particularly on the
used as an

of causes

Muslim Period, teem with exaggerations, distortions

and timid suppression of facts, so much so that they
tend to set one community at the throat of the other.
False history has done more than a mere wrong to the
cause of national unity and inter-communal amity in
India.

retrospective glance at the present state of

not fail io ~eveal to the reader the fact
the teaching of wrong history, more than any-

affairs will

that

thing

else, is responsible for

the recurring riots

among

PREPACK

viii

the

communities

different

of

India.

The

sooner,

therefore, such books are dispensed with, the better

Born and
for the peace and prosperity of India.
in

brought up

communal atmosphere, we,

see everything with communal glasses and

The obvious result
get a gloomy view.

Indians,
therefore

is

that the

best of Muslim monarchs, statesmen and scholars have

been painted in the darkest of colours and condemned
as bigots

and

intolerants, nay, as blood-thirsty tyrants.

As things stand
out

correct

is

The whole

realized.

much from
of

of

communal harmony
dream which
Indian

with-

cannot be

history,

therefore,

in the right spirit,

'

not so

the point of view of occurrences at the

various states as in order to delineate the

of

capitals

be re-written

to

requires

spread

at present,

history

culture a,nd to demonstrate the value of

its

present composite form, so that our people may not

be led away by the false notion that whatever para-

phernalia of civilization we posset does not go back

to more than a century and a half '.
Some time ago

the

Punjab Government appointed a Special Comto see into the subject.

The Committee

mittee

investigated the matter

and made some useful recom-

mendations. The same point regarding the re-writing

whole of Indian history, particularly the Muslim

of the

Period,
rical

was stressed

Conference

in

at

Poona

at the All-India Histo-

1934 by Dr. (now

Sir) Shafaat

Ahmad Khan who

presided over its deliberations and

the
suggested
appointment of a Mss. Commission for
the purpose. How far the objects aimed at have been

achieved,

do not know.

Some

six years'ago, while

PREFAJE

IX

was a student, I too felt the same necessity after

making an independent study of the Muslim Period
and set myself to the task in right earnest. Remotely
removed as I was from big educational centres, I was
I

consequently deprived of

all facilities for

research.

It

was my love for my subject (history) that drove me

from place to place in search of books drawn upon for
material and the result is The Mughal Empire which
I

now submit to the judgment of the

The Mughals are no more.

public.

Posterity

may

pause and pronounce judgment o~i their actions and

administrations but to be fair and free from fallacy,
;

necessary to bear five things in mind viz., (1) the

background, (2) the spirit of the age (3) the condiit is

country (4) the tendencies of the times,

the time that has elapsed since the fall of the

tions of the

and

(5)

Mughal Empire. The background in the case of

Mughal Emperors was Islam on the one hand and
on the other. In the case of Shah
and
Jahan
Aurangzeb, Islam had a great influence on
their actions, whereas Persian traditions played a
prominent part in determining the acts and adminisPersian traditions

Great Mughals. The spirit

of the age, the conditions of the country and the
tendencies of the times too had a great share in
trations of the rest of the

shaping their policies. While taking these four factors

into consideration, allowance must also be made for
the

fifth

the time that

between the

fall

of

has scanned the

the Mughal

Empire and the

establishment of British Dominions in India

has

made marvellous improvements

interval

in

time that

and additions

PREFACE

to the existing knowledge

of

man and changed

conception of things.
Since the book has been
students

in

schools

his

intended chiefly for

and colleges

as

well as for the

have constantly kept their needs in

general reader,
view and therefore avoided burdening it with numerous
footnotes, though I have fully tapped the sources of my
information, both original and secondary, catalogued
at the end of the book, and referred to my authorities
on controversial topics, such as the alleged apostasy of
I

Akbar and the so-called bigotry of Aurangzeb, topics

on which I have differed from modern historians and
suggested a new line of thought.
Last, but not the least, my unreserved thanks
are due to all

those

writers, mediaeval

and modern,

whose monumental works Lhave consulted for constructing this narrative to the Hon'ble Sir Abdul Qadir
for writing the Introduction to my brother S. M. Raza,
;

B. A., for preparing the Index and^to my learned

officer, the Judicial Commissioner, N.-W. F. P., for
permitting

me

to publish this book.

Peshawar City
1st

October, 1936.

S.

M. JAFFAR.

ORTHOGRAPHY
IN spelling Oriental names and words, I
have followed the system of transliteration

adopted and recommended by the Royal Asiatic

Society of Great Britain and Ireland, except
that I have adhered to the popular and wellestablished spelling of certain well-known places
like Lucknow and Cawnpore, and have not tried
distinguish between the letters of almost, if
and ^
not exactly, the same sounds, such as

to

&

&, ^r and

^;

j, j,

useful

though
Arabic and
bewildering
not

reader,

^, and ^; ^ and

which,

for purposes of translation into

allied

to

languages, is,
the student and

acquainted

with

nevertheless,
the general

Arabic.

Each

aoove categories has its own sound,

different from that of any other of its own
category but the difference cannot be perceived
by the reader, unless he be an Arabic scholar.
To him, if he is not acquainted with Arabic

letter in the

the

letters

of

each

separate

category are

sound and he pronounces them all

Again, I have not attempted to differentiate the letters
(soft *), ^ (soft d) and J
(hard r), which have no equivalents in English
identical in

alike.

but are represented by t, d and r with dots or

commas on or under them. For the rest, r%* is

ORTHOGRAPHY

Ml

represented by bh

rfc>

by ph

& by th

$ by th

^ by ch\ r&$bychh;f>bykh; rt^by

and
dh\ r$J by rh
by sh\ by g& r g^by
rS^ by gh. The system employs the vowels with
by /*;

1*5-

the following uniform sounds:

(1)

Ordinarily
a, as in

t;n
(2)

as in bold

o,

When
a,

Roman

as in prey ; i, as in
and u, as in full.

e,

lengthened

as in

last

i,

as

in fatigue

and

u,

as

in plwrai.

ABBREVIATIONS
Ain
B.

I.

S.

H. U.
J.

L. S.

R. A.

S. B.

...

Ain-i-Akbari by Allama Abul Fazl.

...

Bibliotheca Indica Series.

...

Home University

...

Journal 'of

the

Library Series.

Royal Asiatic

Society of

Bengal.
J.

R. A.

S.

...

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London).

J.

R.

A.

...

Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (London).

...

Memoirs of the Royal

S.

M. R. A.

S. B.

Asiatic

Society of

Bengal.

M. U.

...

Muslim University Journal

N. K. T.

...

Newal Kishor Text.

P. R. A. S. B.

...

Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society of

J.

Bengal.

Trans.

...

Translation (English).

(Aligarh).

CORRIGENDA
Page

33, line

4 (from top), for

Humaun

read

Humayun.

souhgt read sought.

Page
line
2
206,
(from
bottom), for over read near.
Page
37, last line, /c r

Page
Page

(from top), insert a after for.

(from bottom) for force read forces.

384, line 19
399, line 2

CONTENTS
Pages.

PREFACE

...

...

...

...

ORTHOGRAPHY

...

...

...

...

xi-xii

ABBREVIATIONS

...

...

...

...

xii

INTRODUCTION

...

...

...

...xxm-xxvi

CHAPTER

of

Information

wrong juxtaposition

PRELIMINARY

Sources of Information and the Forct,* that produced

Sources

vii

Their
of facts

Modern

India.

authenticity Distortion and

Modern India and the forces

that produced it Religious Revival Discovery of the

Sea-route to IndiaAdvent of the Great Mughals Import...
...
ance of the three forces ...
pp. 1-8

CHAPTER

II

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD BABAR

Introductory Why is the Mughal Dynasty so called ? Babar's

early career Conquest of Kabul His early attempts to
conquer India- -Political condition of India on the eve of
his invasion First Battle of Panipat Babar's difficulties
after the battle His war with the Rajputs Battle of
KhSn wan Babar's address to his noble-men and soldiers
Defeat of Rana Sangha and rout of Rajput ConfederacyImportance of the Battle of KhSnwah Battle of Chanderi
Battle of the Gogra Extent of Babar's Indian Empire
Story of his death His policy and administration His
account of India His Memoirs Fine Arts Architecture

Painting Music The art of illustrating booksGardening Literary Celebrities Babar's achievements
His estimate
...
...
...
...
pp. 9-32

Poetry

CHAPTER

III

NASIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD HUMAYON

Introductory Division of the Empire Political condition of

India and Humayun's position KSmrSn's occupation of the

Punjab

War

with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

War

with

CONTENTS

XIV

Khan Afghan

Sher

Humay On

in

ministrationDrum
Fixture

for

He

Persia

In

exile

conquers Kabul and Qandhaa from Kamran

tion His accomplishments His ingenious

His Restora-

Works Ad-

Classification of the people

Twelve sub-divisions Court-

of Justice

audience

Humayun's love of libraries Progress of Educa- Gardens

Humayun's religious beliefs His character

Scholars
tion

and estimate

...

CHAPTER

...

IVTHE AFGHAN

pp. 33-49.

...

...

REVIVAL

Sher Shah and His Successors

Sher Shah's early life His early activities

Occupation of Bengal Recovery of Bengal by Humayun
Battle of Chausa Bat'le of Kanauj Conquests of Sher
Shah Punjab and Gakhar land Conquest of Maiwa.

Introductory

Conquests in Rajputana Administration Division of the

Empire The Land Revenue System Administration of
Justice Organization of Police Force Secret ServiceTariff System Means of Communication Postal Service
Military Reforms Currency Reform Works of Public
Welfare Architecture Sher Shah's ideal of kingship
His estimate Salim Shah: Reduction of Malwa and
the Punjab Shaikh Alai Government. Muhammad Shaft
'Adil

CHAPTER

...

...

...

pp. 50-70.

...

V JALAL-UD-D1N MUHAMMAD AKBAR-

Reconquest and Reconstruction

His accession Political

life
early
Introductory Akbar's
condition of India in 1556 Second Battle gf Panipat
Results of the Battle Submission of Sur claimants and end
of the Sur Dynasty Bairam Khan His fall
Petticoat
Government
Akbar's position in 1564 A. C. Rebellion of
1

'

Khan Zaman Of Adham Khan Of Abdullah KhanRevolts of Uzbeg Chiefs Monstrous act of Khwajah Mu'azzam Akbar and the Rajputs Matrimonial alliancesCareers opened to Rajputs and other Hindus Freedom of
worship and liberty of conscience Social reforms Effects
of above measures Akbar and^thfe Portuguese First
P. Mission Second P. Mission Third P. Mission Akbar's
*

object

...

...

...

jSp. 71-91.

CONTENDS
CHAPTER VI-JALAL-UD-DIN

XV

MUHAMMAD AKEAR

Territorial Annexations

Early Conquests Gondwana Mewar GujaratBengal -The Qaqshal rebellion in Bengal Kabul- Akbar's
North-West Frontier Policy The Roshanite MovementConquest of Kashmir Of Sind and Balochistan Of Qandhar The Deccan Campaign Ahmadnagar Khandesh
Extent of the Mughal Empire under Akbar Last days of

Introductory

Akbar

..7"

CHAPTER VII

...

...

JALAL-UD DIN

...

pp. 92-113

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

The Din-i-Ilahi
Reference to the history of t s.e Saracens To the
Muslim Rule in India Akbar's orthodoxyhistory
into
liberalism Erection of .he Ibadat Khanah-Change
The Document Its importance Its effects Preliminaries
to the promulgation of the Divine Faith T ts promulgation
Anti-Islamic ordiIts principles
Its philosophic review

Introductory

of

nancesTheir criticism Von Noer's appraisal of Badaoni,

the author of the ordinances -Si; dah or prostration Fireworship and sun-worship Why were boars kept in the

Women in the I mperial Harem Hindu

and practices -Why was slaughter of cows
forbidden ? Why were Mullahs and Shaikhs exiled?
Criticism of Smith's views on Akbar's religious thoughtsImperial Palace?

customs

Conclusion

CHAPTER VIII

...

...

...

JALAL-UD-DIN

...pp. 114-140

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

Administration

Introductory

Central

Government

District Administration

Provincial

Imperial Service

Administration of law and justice

tionPostal

Service

Means

of

GovernmentSecret Service

Promotion of educacommunication and

transportation Imperial Mints and their administration

Police Force Land Revenue System Its broad basis
Its
importance Military Reforms -Infantry Artillery-

Cavalry Navy Eleohant Corps Mansabdarl SystemSystem of Payment System of branding horses and keeping dsscrip the rolls

...

...

pp. 141-61

CONTENTS

xvi

CHAPIER IX

JALAL-UD DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

Literature ancfFine Arts

Introductory Literature: Akbarnamah Its historical importance Ain-i-Akbarl Tarikh-i-Alfi Other books Translated versions Hindu literature Illustrated versions
Muslim Court-Scholars Abdul Fazl Abul Faiz-Shaikh
Mubarak Abdur Rahim Abul Path Other Muslim Court-

ScholarsSome Hindu Court-Scholars Todar Mai

Blr

Other Hindu Scholars Tulsi Das Sur Das Painting

Mughal School of Painting Progress of Painting Prominent Painters Art of Music Some musical instruments
Hindu-Muslim intercourse through music Calligraphy
... pp. 162-79
Architecture (Jardenr Estimate of Akbar

Bal

CHAPTER

X NOR-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

Accession of Jahanglr Dastur-ul-Amal First Nauroz Khusrau's revolt Execution of Guru Arjan Loss of Qandhar

Subjugation of Mewar The Deccan

Malik An.bar
Subsequent
Ahmadnagar
career of Prince Khusrau His character Rebellion of
Usman in Bengal Outbreak of the bubonic plague Nur
JahSn Mehr-un-Nisa married to AH Quiz Istajlu or Suer
Afgan Murder of Sher Afgan Mas the murder premeditated and whether Jahanglr had a hand in it ? Jahanglr marries Mehr-un-Nisa Nur Jahan's accomplishments
Her valour
Power behind the throne 'Her influence on

Conquest of Kangra

Campaign

Her character Rebellion of Shah Jahan Of

Mahabat Khan Shah Jahan's subsequent % movements
War of Succession Close of Nur Jahan's career, pp. 179-206
the State

CHAPTER XI

NOR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR-2

Introductory Jahangir's relations with the Portuguese With

the English William Hawkins and William Bdwardes
Sir Thomas Roe
Foreign accounts of Jahangir's reign and
their veracity Roe's description of Mughal Court and its
customs His description of Jahangir's personal -character
State of Fine Arts Hawkins's account Administration

under Jahanglr His love of letters Literary Jems of his

Court Promotion of Education Fine Arts: Painting

CONTENTS

XV it

Painters under the Imperial patronage ArchitectureMusic -Gardens Chancter of Jahangir His love for Nur
Jah5n and his affection for his relatives -His refined tastes
His religious beliefs- His estimate
... pp. 207-22.

CHAPTER XII

MUHAMMAD SHAH

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

JAHAN-1
Accession of Shah Jahan His early acts - Rebellion of Bundelas
under Johar Singh Revolt of Khan Jahan Lodhi -Celebration of Nauroz

Famine

of 1630-32

Shah Jahan and the

Portuguese The Portuguese War- Career of MumtSz

Mahal- Her character Shah Jahan's Deccan Policy War
against Ahmadnagar Further operations in the Deccan

War against

Bijapur Subjugation of Colconda and BijSpur

Shah Jahan's Central Asian Policy and his attempts to
acquire his ancestral possessions -Recovery of QandhSr
Conquest of Balkh and BadakhshSn-Loss of Qandhar and
failure to recover it Failure of Shah Jah&ii's Central Asian
Policy and its results Early career of Aurangzeb His
resignation and renunciation of the world His appointment to the governorships of different provinces His
second viceroyalty of the Deccan and administrative
achievements His forward policy against the Deccan
War against Golconda War against Ahmadnagar.
pp. 222-53.

CHAPTER XIIl-SHAHAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH

JAHAN -2
War and its genesis Sons of ShSh Jahan and their
character-sketchesDivision of the Empire -Mughal tradition of kingship recognises no kinship 'Illness of the
Emperor and nomination of Daraas his successor Absence
of the law of succession Da ra's behaviour during the

Fratricidal

'

of his father
Alliance Movements

illness

Weakness
of

the

of

three

Shah Jahan- Triple

Princes*- Bat tie

of

BahSdurgarh- Battle of Dharmat- Battle of SSmGgarh

Fate of Shah JahSn Fate of Murad Fate of Shuja'
Dara's last stand and his tragic end Fate of Sulaiman
Shikoh and of other Poyal Princes Motives which actuated
Aurangzeb to enter the Fratricidal War Causes of his
success in it Ali Mardan KhSn Asaf KhSn Allama

CONTENTS

XV111

Saadullah KhanShah Jahan's administration Progress

of Fine Arts under his patronage -Architecture -Painting
Music - Gardens - Shah Janan's philomathy - Literary
Gems of his Court Promotion of learning -Character and
estimate of Shah Jahan
...
...
...pp.25480.

CHAPTER XtV-MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

ALAMGIR-1
haily Acts

Afghans

Hindus

Rajputs

Accession of Aurangzeb-His early acts -Appointments and

of provincial governors -Career of Mir Jumla
transfejs
Expedition against Assam and his death Conquest of
Chittagong Illness of Auraggzeb- North- West FrontierSuppression of*Yusafz;fiis-Afridi Rising Khattak Rising
and arrest of Khush-hal Khan Khattak -Close of the
Afghan War 'Alamgir and the HindQs -Re-imposition of the
Jizia Dismissal of Hindu officials Destruction of temples
Firman issued to the Governor of Benares for the protection of temples Two more similar Fir mans Which temples
were destroyed and why? -Whether Hindu schools were
destroyed ?- If so, which and why ? Toleration under
'Alamgir Some inferences drawn from the above discussion
'Alamgir justified -Jat rebellion -The Satnaims' Insurrection-War with the Rajputs -Invasion of Marwar and
Mewar Rebellion of Prince Muhammad Akbar -Treaty of
Udaipur- Results of the Rajput Revolt
...pp. 281-314.

CHAPTER

XV MUHI-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

'ALAMGIR-2
Rise of the Marhattas

Introductory -Description

of

Maharashtra

Character

and

qualities of Marhattas Their religion Their early training

Rise of the Bhonsla Family Sljahj.1 Bhonsla-; Early life
of Shivajt His robberies -Seizure and release of his father
'

Massacre at Javli -Renewal of hostilities Afzal Kha n s

meeting with Shivajl Rout of Afzal Khan's army -Treachery of SJjivajl- Rapid Progress pf Marhatta arms-Shivaji
attacked from three sides Shivajl as an independent ruler
Shivajl

and Shaista

Khan Sack

of

SQraU-Shivaji's

CONTENTS

xix

assumption of independent sovereignty His submission

to the Emperor -Treaty of Purandhar-His visit to the
Imperial Capital Was the honour conferred upon him by
'Alamglr below his dignity? His escape from captivity
with the connivance of Rajah Ram Singh -Recall of Jai
Singh and his death Shivajl styles himself Rajah -He
exacts Chauth and Suredeskmukhi from Bijapur and Golconda Renewal of hostilities and sack of Sffrat for the
second time Coronation of Shiva jl His further conquests
Erttent of his Kingdom His Civil Administration Ad-

Kingdom Administration of
The Land Revenue System -Military organization
Shiv&ji's Fleet An estimate of his character and achieve-

ministrative Divisions of his

Justice

ments

...

...

CHAPTER XVI-MUHI-UD-DIN

...

...

pp. 315-47.

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

ALAMGIR-3
Conquest of Bijcipur and

GolcondaEnd

Suppression of the Sikhs

of

Marhatta Menace

Anglo-Mughal
Administration under ^Alamgir

War

Fall of Bijapur Fall of Golconda Abdur-Razof

Impolicy of the Deccan Conquest - Renewal
activities against the Marhattas- Rajah Ram as regent and
as Rajah - Expedition against him Tara Bai as regent of

Introductory

zSq

III -End of 'Alamglr- Mughal Empire aftei

death-Rise of the Sikhs-Guru Nanak Dev-Guru
Angad Dev GurQ Amar Das -GurG Ram Das-Guru Arjan
Dev Guru Har Govind Guru Har RaiGuru Har Kishan
Guru Tegh Bahadur -Guru Govind Singh His reforms
Suppression of the Sikhs 'Alamglr and the English
Early English settlements in India Anglo-Moghal War
under
Extent of 'Alamgir's Empire Administration
Alamglr -Re-arrangement of the Subahs -Theocratic Character of the Government Suppression of Public Immorality -Bait-ul-Mal -Policy of Over-centralizationjustice
Progress of Education -Architecture -Music and Painting
Gardens -Character of 'Alamglr -Views of some Europears about his character and achievements ... pp. 347-78.

her son, Shivajl

his

CONTENTS

XX

CHAPTER

XVII-RETROSPECT

Mughal Culture and. Civilization

Introductory -Political

Features:

Law

of

Succession

Mughal

Functions of the Mughal GovernMonarchy and

Administrative Divisions
Administration
mentMethods of
Administration of Justice Taxation Police OrganizationSecret Service Postal Service Art and ArchitectureEducationWas Muslim Rule in India a Rule of
Foreigners ? Are Muslims Foreigners ? Socia/ Features:
its

nature

Cultural Unity of India during the Muslim Rule -Muslim

Society and the Sources of its Strength -Splendour of the
Mughal Court Male Dress Female Dress Personal DecorationAmusements -Status of Women Slavery Religious Features
tion, its

causes

Extraordinary Increase in Muslim PopulaIslam vs. Hinduism Spirit of Freedom-

Worth of Muslim Faith, Examples of Muslim

Economic Advantages Virility of Muslim Races 'No Compulsion in Religion' Forces that brought about a
modus vivendi between Islam and Hinduism Rise of the
Bhakti Movement Influence of Islam on Indian Religious
Life and Thought Two Royal Houses of Islam in IndiaRevenue System
Economic Features: Agriculture Land
and its Working Was the land Avenue exorbitant?
Farmer of Akbar's time and his brother of to-day comparedFamine Relief Textile Industries Foreign Trade
Ship-building- Currency System Means of Communication and Transportation Condition of the People -Relations between Hindus and Muslims - Conclusion pp, 379-412.
Intrinsic

Saints

...
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Addendum on Babar's Death
...
INDEX
...

...

...

...

...

...

...

pp. 413-18,
.,.

419-20.

PR- 421

ff.

INTRODUCTION
The period of the Moghal rule in India is the
most interesting period in the history of our country
and furnishes a highly fascinating subject of study.
Students of Indian history owe a debt of gratitude to
Mr. S. M. Jaffar of Peshawar for his book, which
1

The Moghal Empire

and
Babar
coming down to

gives a very readable account of

opening with the reign 01*

Aurangzeb. Mr. Jaffar has

taken

great

pains

to

study the numerous books on the subject that are

available in English, Persian and Urdu, and has
beautifully

them.

summarised the material

The long

list

of books

used or

contained

in

consulted

by

him, given at the end of his valuable work, will show

the range of his wide study and research. The result

from and decidedly

treatment
and
superior
style to the existing textbooks on Indian history. The author, as an enlightened Muslim, is naturally in sympathy with the Great
Moghal Rulers who professed the faith of Islam and
is

a book considerably different

in

Succeeded in

Empire

in

vast and
wonderful
establishing a
country to which the Founder of the

came

an invader from his

Central* Asian home.
Mr. Jaffar does not conceal
his admiration for the Moghals, yet he is not forgetful
of his duty as an historian and comes out with frank
criticisms of the -policies and administrations of the

dynasty

originally

Emperors whose reigns

as

are described

by him.

INTRODUCTION

XXli

refreshing to note that the author has not

confined his attention to the events of the period
It is

with which he

concerned, or to the dates of those

These details may be important in themevents.
selves, but they are, after all, rightly called the dry
is

bones of history. He has clothed the dry bones with

flesh and blood and colour by dealing with the many
aspects of the social
in arts

and

these

vital

of the people, their progress

the effect of each reign on

life

and

letters

things.

am

sure

that this part of his

appreciated by his readers. I

be very much
think it is time *hat this line of study in history be
developed to the fullest extent possible. I know that

effort will

the

materials

are comparatively meagre and

it
and collected with great research

for

have to be sifted

the heaps of rubbish, in which they are lying

The work, however, is worth doing, and
scattered.
Mr. Jaffar is one of those who recognize its value and

out of

have tried to accomplish it. He has already contributed very substanthlly to this neglected field of
Indian history by writing two other well-documented
books, one
another on

India

Muslim India and

Some Cultural Aspects of Must im Rule in
on 'Education

in

9
.

While dealing with the Muslim point of view and

trying to explain the actions of Moghal Emperors,
which have been adversely criticised by sorrie modern
historians,

Mr. Jaffar does

not

the

general
Indian point of view, and he brings out the contribution made by Moghal Rulers of India to Indian
culture and to

the fusion

of

ignore

Hindu and Muslim

INTRODUCTION
cultures into one

following remarks

common
of his

are very interesting

For instance, the

heritage.

about the Emperor Jahftngir

"

Like his father, he loved to hear Hindi songs

and took delight in patronising Hindi poets. He loved
fine arts and encouraged their cultivation.
Born in
India and of Indian parents, Jahangir loved
things
Indian and felt delighted in Indian environments."
In

another place, the author, while describing

the progress made by education during the Moghal

makes the following observat ons

It may be mentioned here that in the schools and
colleges founded by the Moghal Emperors and others,
:

Period,

14

Hindu students studied side by side

Muslim class-fellows and there was no

with

their

restriction in

this or in

any other respect."

Another passage that may be cited to

illustrate the

importance attached by Mr. Jaffar to the efforts of the

Moghals to develop a common nationality in India,

runs as follows
"
Aibak, the first King of the Sultanate of Delhi,
and Bsbar, the first King of the Moghal Empire, came
:

from foreign lands, no doubt, but they settled down

made it their permanent home,

country,
identified themselves with the interests of the
country,
and ruled it rather as Indians than as foreigners.
ih

this

Their successors were born

and died
inch.

in

India.

They came

Aryans, who

too

in India, lived in India

Thus they were Indian every

as foreigners indeed, but

wre

themselves on the Indian

the

they engrafted
sucked into their veins

foreigners,
soil,

like

INTRODUCTION

XXIV

the Indian sap, nurtured themselves under the warmth

the Indian sun and conditioned their growth,
multiplication and expansion under the Indian climate.

of

So with the march

of

time they became with each

'

succeeding generation, of the earth earthy

Mr.
Besides the special features of
excellent

many

Jaffar's

referred to above, there

book, briefly
other features, equally

attractive,

are

which need

not be dilated upon here and will be better appreciated

by the reader when perusing the book itself. I think it

can be safely s&A thaj the 'author has succeeded in

giving to the students of Indian history an accurate as
well

as

India in

an instructive account of the Moghal rule in

its palmy days.
The book is a most useful

contribution to Indian historical literature and should

interest not only the general reader,

of Indian history in schools

London,
20th December, 1935.

and

but also students

colleges.

ABDUL QADIR.

CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY
and the Forces that produced
Modern India.

Sources of Information

The main

information about the

of our

sources

Mughal Period

may

classed as follows
records,

such

conveniently

be

~^ contemporary

as imperial

firmans,

despatches and diaries (whether military

or diplomatic) sent to and received from the provincial
official reports,

others by the Central Government

governors and
through the agency of news-writers and secret reporters
;

narratives reduced to writing by the participators in

the acts arid events from memory after their termination,
(2)

or set

down by

their lips

Taimuri,

(3)

others

who

imperial

learnt

about them from

autobiographies

and

Tuzk-i-Bdbari

Malfilznt-i-

Tuzk-i-Jahanglri

written either by the Mughal Emperors themselves, or

by their court-scholars under their own direction ;
(4) court

journals,

such

as

ndmdh and 'Alamglrndmah,

Abul
Hamld
Fazl, Abdul

Akbarndmdh, Bddsliahby
Munshi

written, respectively,

and

Lahori

Muhammad Kazim, the best writers of Persian prose,

to whom the otherwise inaccessible archives of the
State were thrown open for inspection and information ;
Von Noer,
(5) accounts of foreign travellers, i. e.
De Laet, Coryat, Niccolao Manucci, Bernier and
t

Taverniei,

who

visited

India

during

that

period

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

2
(6)

impressions of English ambassadors, viz., Roe, Terry

and Hawkins, who represented England

Court
of

in

the reign of

Portuguese

and

others,

Emperor Jahanglr

missionaries,

who

such as

of

(7)

Mughal
accounts

Monserrat,
the Mughal

i.e.,

resided

tazkirds and tdrilchs

(8)

at the

at

later

Muslim

Xavier

Court;

chroniclers,

Muhammad

Qasim's Tdri}&-i-Ferishtii, Khafi

Khan's MuntaKhib-iil-Lubab, Kamwar Khan's Tazkirat-

us-Saldtin-i-Chaghtdid and Sayyad Gbularn Hussain's

Siyar-ul-Mutd'akhMiirln.
Documents of the

first

kind are by far the most

important and

raw materials

reliable

a comprehensive
constructing
of
the
Mughal Period. Unhistory

for

authenticity.

fortunately, however, very few of them have come

down to us, most of them having perished during

the Mutiny of 1857.

Of the surviving few, some are
to be seen in the libraries of Europe, whither they

and ^ome

travelled after having escaped,

of

Indian

States

and ancient

are not easily accessible to

concerns

himself

relating to the

with the

families,

modern

elucidation

Mughal
draw almost
Period,

and he

in possession

so

that they
historian who
of

any topic

consequently,
the
exclusively upon
Those of the second
remaining sources of information.
type also contain some rich stores of information, but
constrained

they

to

must be subjected

to

the

is,

correction

of

errors

and the elimination of the mere hearsay. Whereas the

information we derive from the imperial autobiographies,
court journals and other works written by the proteges
of the ruling princes may be regarded as one-sided,

PRELIMINARY
only the

giving

of the

bright side

picture;

that

we

receive from the accounts of foreign travellers, English

ambassadors and Portuguese missionaries paints mostly

The tazkiras and t&rilchs were written
the dark side.

by writers who did not keep regular diaries and had

little
access to official records and State papers.
Therefore, the accuracy of their contents must needs be

come

called in question should they

into

conflict with

the other sources of information, though they were often

unbiased and free from flattery, distortion and timid
suppression of facts.

And,

it

is

not seldom

that the

accounts of contemporary chroniclers come into conflict.

This is because, on the one hand, they were written by
flattering friends for the eyes

and

ears of their imperial

patrons who raised them above want, even

and on the other hand, by hostile critics

Court

not

did

actively

patronize,

to affluence,

whom
took

nor

the
into

confidence.

Thus, though there

Distortion

from

historian

fiction,

with patience and

together in such a
for

for writing

to

sift

evidence,

separate

brush aside the cobwebs of history

industry,

way

as to

recount, for history ceases

distorted

ample material

a comprehensive history of the period

in question, it is the duty of the

and

wrong juxtaposition of facts.

facts

is

ulterior

aims

and piece the material

give an unsophisticated

to be

and

history

are

if

facts

juxtaposed

are
in

such a way as to present a melancholy picture and

an historian ceases to be historian if he writes history
;

money. A glaring instance of

and wrong juxtaposition of facts is found

for the sordid love of

distortion

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

4
in the case of

Akbar who has Jbeen branded

as apostate

from Islam.

Chapter VII (The Divine Faith) is devoted

to a discussion on the subject and it will be evident that
the charge of apostasy is a mere calumny concocted
to create an aversion against the greatest ruler of India.
Another such instance is found in the case of Aurangzeb

who

is

Hindu

alleged

subjects

imposing

to

have

alienated the

by destroying their temples, by reand by introducing a number of

XIV

the case was quite the contrary

that

who

his

the Jizid

Chapter

repressive

loyalty of

measures.

alienated

destroying

sympathies of

tiie

by

mosques,

show that
was the Hindus

will
it

their

sovereign

by

women

Muslim

marrying

by force and by defying the authority of the Emperor

It was after the Hindus
in league with his enemies.

had
of

destroyed

Muslim

the

outraged

mosques,

women

and

created

modesty

disturbances

in

the Empire that the Emperor ordered the destruction

of those temples that had been built on the sites of

mosques, those that had been newly built and those that

had become centres

of sedition

Before entering

Mughals

Modern India
and the forces
that produced

upon

the

it

political intrigue.

history

of

the

seems necessary

Great

to give

account of the forces that laid

brief
it.

and

the

oun dation

Modern

of

India, for

the interest of Indian history from the beginning of the

sixteenth century to the dawn of the present day will
be found in the development of these forces.
Referring
to the fifteenth century in India, Professor Rushbrook-

Williams remarks that

'

beneath

the elements from which,

all

the apparent chaos,

in future,

modern

political

PRELIMINARY
society will

be constructed,

are slowly

moment comes

when they
dominant and incontrovertible/ The first
until the

was

the

Religious

Revival

the

taking
rise

view,

of these forces

second

was

by Vasco da

Discovery of the Sea-route to India

shape,

in

the

Gama

1498 A. C. and the appearance of European nations

on the stage of Indian history; and the third was the
Advent of the Great Mughals and the foundation of
in

the

Mughal Empire in India.

With the establishment of the Muslim Empire in
India, Islam became supreme and it
Religious
launched upon a new career of conRevival
,

version.

Some

adversely affected.

As a

result,

Hinduism was

attracted by the teachings of the

Muslim Faith, others actuated by economic advantages,

went over to the religion of their rulers. For full five
centuries

this state of affairs

continued

uninterrupted,
into

mass

movements, there arose in this country a host of

Hindu

bvt

when conversions

who made
The method

religious reformers
their lost sheep.

their
result

were

accelerated

earnest efforts to recover

they adopted to achieve

reconciliation with Islam and
the

object was
was the Bhakti

Movement,

which preached the

God and

propagated the principles of liberty^

Thus, while the Reformation
equality and fraternity.
unity of

was revolutionizing the religious life of Europe, the

Bhakti Movement analogous to the Reformation Movement was on foot in India. Maharashtra and the

Punjab were immensely influenced by

it

In the former

gave rise to the Marhatta Power, which reached

climax under the leadership of Shivajl; in the latter
it

its
it

THE MRJGHAL EMPIRE

established the sovereignty of the Sikhs

became supreme under the sTv&y

The second, in the scheme
Discovery of the
Sea-rouie to India.

who

subsequently

of Ranjit Singh.
of chronology,

Discovery of the

was the
India

Sea-route to

and the appearance of the Portuguese,

and the
the French

the Dutch,

To the
the stage of Indian history.
diadems
a
where
India
seemed
second Peru,
Portuguese,
of the Princes
from
the
brows
torn
be
nay
might
on

English

another new world for conquest and conversion to the

Dutch, she looked like a large market, which afforded
;

favourable

for

field

ambitious

enterprise;

to

the

French, she was a big theatre for lucrative intrigue,

where they could reap a rich harvest of gains and fame ;
to the English, she was an emporium, which offered
untold trade

scramble

In the

facilities.

that

followed

these four European rivals, the English, whose

less showy but more sure and successful,

among

methods were

proved to be the
remaining

three.

fittest

It is

and,

therefore,

survived

the

the second force, therefore, that

changed the course of India's future history and made

her what she is to-day -an integral part of the British
Empire.

To

Muslim

the student of

neither the

Advent

of the

first
.

force.

of the

consolidated

his

it is

most important

Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi

plain of Panipat in

the foundation

however,

nor the second but the

third that stnkes as the

Great Mughals.
at the historic

history,

1526 A. C. and

laid

Mughal Empire in India. His

Akbar
the
grandson,
Great, nut only enlarged and
heritage

but

constructed

that

PRELIMINARY
and

system which gave a definite

form and cohesion to the Mughal Sovereignty. By peaceful methods and beneficial legislation, by reconciliation
administrative

and universal

toleration,

the

proved

successors,

to the

His peaceful policy,

Rule.

Mughal

he won over the discontented

and reconciled them

natives to his side

the

fiscal

corner-stone

Empire and contributed incalculably

ideas of

pursued by his
of

the

Mughal

its

strength and

of these forces cannot

be overstat-

to

stability

The importance
-

Importance of
the three forces.

...

of

dawn

of a

ed.

Though none

an y

notice in

heralded the

ushered in the

the

them

attracted

beginning,

new

era

they

which

Marhattas. the Sikhs and

Mughals, the

the Europeans, who abandoned their respective vocations

and entered upon a struggle for the throne of India.
The Mughals were the first, in order of time, to establish
their

and

successors the Marhattas

transformed

utmost

into

warlike

to extirpate

They

ate into

much

so

towards

During the reign of Shah Jahan

and the Sikhs were

in India.

sway
his

that

the

Islam

races

from India

the vitality of the

it

was

end

easily

of

and they

tried their

root and branch.

Mughal Empire, so

supplanted by the English

the

The
century.
of Maharashtra and the

eighteenth

Marhattas became the masters

Sikhs established their supremacy in the Punjab.

latter were deists.

former were farmers and the

The
The

teachings of their leaders, coupled with the conditions

of the country and the circumstances of the age, turned

them

into

politics.

warrior:;

end drove them into the vortex of

The obvious

result

was that the

tables

were

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

turned

men

farms became

men

of arms,

monks and

became soldiers *&nd statesmen, and the

became the rulers of India under the East India

mendicants
traders

of

Company.

CHAPTER

II

MUHAMMAD BABAR

ZAHlR-UD-DIN

(1526-1530 A.

The most

brilliant period

solicitation

^-,

Babar
of

in

begins

history

Introductory.

C.)

who
the

Ala-ud-DIn,

the annals of Indian

advent

with the

,.

invaded
uncle

the

of

of

on the

Indii

ruling

prince Ibrahim Lodhi, and Drulat Khan Lodhi, the

Governor of the Punjab, and laid the foundation of the

The

which
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, marked the beginning

Mughal Empire.
of a
for

first

battle of Panlpat, in

new

era in the history of India.

the

Great

and make

country

at

victory

Mughals

Mughal

Dynasty,

illustrious

it

uome and

to

their

Panipat meant

which

It

settle

in

this

The

permanent abode.
the

establishment
a

furnished

sovereigns under

paved the way

whom

line

India

of the

of

those

reached

the

pinnacle of her greatness and the apex of her fortunes.

Rich in useful institutions and fruitful ideas, the
for the
Mughal Imperialism was extremely favourable
efflorescence of fine arts and the development of
It will be seen that during the
learning and literature.
two centuries of the Mughal Rule the Imperial Court
was a bee- hive of poets and painters, historians and

and dancers, engineers and

died of
nay a hot-house where nothing

philosophers,
architects
rhilly

musicians

indifference.

successful cultivation

What

gave such

a ?pur

to their

was the Imperial patronage, which

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

10

was no longer the monopoly of the favoured few, but

extended to all and sundry wkhout stint.

We
Why

is

may now

Babar

to

the

victorious at

the

where

Mughal Dynasty
so called

return

whom we

plain of

left

Panipat,

had

Ibrahim Lodhi

Sultan

for

fallen fighting

The

his throne.

victor claimed descent from Taimur on his father's side

and from Chingiz Khan on his mother's side. He

thus united in his veins the blood of two great warriors

of Central Asia

and combined

in

his person,

com-

in

mensurate propo'tion, the courage of a nomad Tartar

and the urbanity of a cultured Persian. Babar was not
a Mughal.

In his Memoirs he

speaks contemptuously
himself a Turk.
Therefore, it

Mughals and
seems strange that the dynasty he founded should have
An explanation
been known as the Mughal Dynasty.
for this may be found in the fact that the people
of the

calls

of India used to call

all

Musalmfm

invaders, excepting

Afghans, Mugjhals, and hence the name of the dynasty.

Babar
surnamed
Zahlr-ud-Din
Muhammad,
on
born
was
'the Brave',
Friday, the
BSbar's early
24th day of February> 1 483 A C
.

career

'

His

father,

Umar Shaikh Mirza, was

the ruler of Farghana, a fragment of Taimur's Central

Asian Empire. At the age of eleven his father passed

away and he was

called

upon

to succeed

him

to his

His succession was an eyesore to his

small kingdom.
uncles and cousins, one of whom attacked him soon
after

he was enthroned, and others continued -to

against him

Ahmad

to the last

Mirza,

who

day

of tbeif

contested

his

plot

Fortunately,
supcessioq in the

life.

ZAHIR-UD-D1N MU7 T AMMAD BABAR

11

year of his reign, died a year afterwards, leaving

anarchy and confusion to rule in Samarqand. Availing
first

himself of

from

himself

Farghana, occupied Samarqand and

on the throne of his great ancestor,

He, however,

at the early age of fifteen.

Taimur,
in

moment, Babar advanced

opportune

his native

seated

ill

this

his

new

absence and

fell

Taking advantage of his

ambitious minister set up on the

possession.

illness, his

throne of Farghana Babar's younger brother Jahangir,

was dead. Post-haste he
giving out that Babar
marched from Samarqand on his recovery to take back

Farghana.

Soon

after his departure,

Samarqand was

In 1498 A. C. he was no
occupied by his cousin, Ali.
was
His
Khojend, a small town
king.
only possession
He recovered
between Farghana and Samarqand.

Farghana in 1499 A. C. and Samarqand the following

But the Uzbegs would not allow him to rule in
year.
peace.
in

Defeated

1501 A.

C.,

in a highly contested battle at

he succeeded

its

saving his

Samarqand was

greatest difficulty.

followed

in

lost

life

Archian

with the

and Farghana

suit soon after.

All prospects being thus extinguished,

Babar bid a

sad farewell to his beloved

Conquest

and

of Kabul.

__.

Hindukush

the

m
.

Farghana

uc k beyond
icno
A
r
1502 A.
C.

out to try ^{3

set

he was given to
understand that his uncle's kingdom was in an anarchical state and that a strong party of the nobles was

While he was on

his

way

to Kabul,

of the
willing to restore the throne to a prince

royal

appropriately be
It was
called the ami us mirablis of Babar's career:
blood.

The year 1504

A.

C.

may

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

12
in

this

year

that

he

overthrew

The conquest

occupied Kabul.

of

the Afghans and

Kabul enabled him

Qandhar, Herat and Badakhshan. All this

emboldened him to make a bid for Samarqand, the
In 1513 A. C. he
capital of his ancestor, Taimur.
made an alliance with the Shah of Persia and conquered
to conquer

Bokhara and Samarqand. Notwithstanding all these

The
successes, his position was as precarious as ever.

Uzbegs would not allow him to rule in rest. His

conformity to the Athna-i-AIiarya (SMa Faith) in
his treaty
with the Persian Monarch annoyed his
Sunni subjects and alienated them from him. The
the feelings of the people and
Within a
successfully fished in the troubled waters.
him
from
his dominions one
short time they ousted

Uzbegs

fully exploited

drove him, from post to pillar and pillar

to post, and reduced him to such straits that he decided
at last to seek his fortune in the east rather than in th?
after the other,

west.

The

battle

of

was preceded

Panipat

by some

His early

preliminary attempts at the conquest

attempts to
conquer India.

of India.

was made
occupied Qbaznin and raided
second attempt was made

The

first

of these attempts

150 5 A. C.

V hen

Babar

as far as the Indus.

The

in

in

1519 A.

C.

It

was,

The followhowever, confined to the borders of India.

ing year our trans-border hero crossed the Indus and
marched
called
his

into the interior of India; but he

back to Kabul to

old

attempts

enemies,

convinced

the

was soon

meet a combined attack of

Uzbegs. L These preliminary

him that he could not conquer

MUHAMMAD BABAR

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

13

So
India without strengthening his base at Qandhar.
he seized Qandhar from the Arghuns and organised
Next he established his
of defence.
it
in a state
Khurasan

The
Political

the

over

authority

between

in order to facilitate the

Ghaznin

and

conquest of India.

political condition of India on the eve of

Babar's invasion was terribly deplorable,

Northern

condition of
India on the eve

was

India

seething with

discontent and dissensions.

of his invasion.

in

territory

Lodhi>

1517 A. C. and

ft

capable

ru l er

Sikandar

had

died

Ibiahim Lodhi, had

His misgovernment and

his stupid s^n,

mounted the throne

of Delhi.

his own kith and kin.

arrogant behaviour had estranged
His ill-treatment had disgusted the Afgtpn nobles who

him.
Bengal
against
other
and
provinces
outlying
Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat,
had all become independent. The eastern districts of

formed

secret

conspiracies

up arms against him.

Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the Punjab and

Cudh and

Bihar

uncle

Ala-ud-DIn,
prince

ruling

and

had

taken

of

Ibrahim,

invited

Babar

revolted against

the

to relieve India of the

Rana Sanghram, or Rana Sangha, as he is

known in history, also made overtures to the King of
Kabul and asked him to intervene.
No more opportune moment could be desired.

tyrant.

Babar's invasion
First Battle of

timed.

^M*
Panipat: 1526.
.

,.

In

prepared.

was

weak and

divided.

Babar was strong, determined

1524 A. C. he set out on his

He

well-

and
final

followed his previous route and reached

Finding Daulat Khan in the train of Ibrahim

expedition.

Lahore.

India was

of India

THE MLGHAL EMPIRE

14

Lodhi, he returned to Kabul

army

there

and then

in order to reinforce his

Towards the end

to attack India.

1525 A. C. he attacked Daulat Khan, over-ran the

Punjab and thence advanced towards Delhi via
Sarhind. Ibrahim Lodhi gathered together his forces
of

and came out of Agra

invader.

oppose the advance of the

The two armies met each other on the plain

of Panipat in the

to

month

of April,

1526 A. C. Babar

army of 12,000 strong against the assaults

of his enemy by surrounding it with wagons chained
Ibrahim's
together, and a hedge ard a ditch around it.
protected his

army, consisting of 100,000 strong, far outnumbered that

but the latter had the decided advantage

of the invader

a well-trained

of artillery.

set of troops and a good park

In the battle that followed, Ibrahim Lodhi

fell

on the

of possessing

fighting

field*

and

his

army was

routed.

Delhi and Agra fell into the hands of the invader, who
was hailed as the 'Emperor of India' by the people of
On Friday, Aprilt 22, 1526 A. C.
the capital cities.
the public prayer was said in the capital mosque at
Delhi in the name of the new emperor.
The first

an end to the Afghan rule and

Mughal rule instead. It clowned the
career of Babar and gave India a series of capable
battle of Panipat put

introduced the

rulers.

The

victory at. Panlpat

Babar's difficulties

made Babar

the King

TT^J

after the battle.

of

Delhi, not yet of Hindustan, much

i,
f
T
1.1
e had
less of Indla as a wh le

surmount.
His
no
were
means
by
Afghan rivals, though defeated,
subjugated ; though crippled they were 'not cofnpletely
several difficulties to

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD BABAR

Some

of them still held out

and
defied the authority
strongholds

crushed.

15

in their provincial

of the

Emperor.

The

people were opposed to the change of the dynasty.

They hated the Mughal Emperor and regarded him as
a

usurper.

They

preferred

tyrant to

an outsider.

Babar's position was, therefore, critical, more so when

own followers deserted him and retreated to their

his

original

homes.

considerably told

The

the country had

trying heat of

upon

their health

and they requested

Babfir had not, however, invaded

India with the ideas of Taimu^: he had come to stay
He made a soul-stirring speech and revived the
there.
their leader to return.

spirits of

He

his soldiers.

them

toid

kingdom which had cost so much

wrested from him except by death'.

that

plainly

should

not

Accordingly, he

his determination

issued a proclamation, expressing

'a

be

to

He granted leave to such of his soldiers

stay in India.
as preferred safety to glory, telling them that he would
keep in his service only those who would reflect honour
upon themselves their Padsfaah and their country*.

The proclamation had

the desired effect

All

murmurs

ceased and his officers took oaths of allegiance to him.

When the Afghans were assured of his intention to stay
in India, they also sided with

him and placed them-

selves at his service.

Babar's decision to stay in India was momentous

in another way : it opened the eyes
~
His war with
_,
^1^.1
of the Rji JP uts to the danger that lay
.

the Rajputs.

at;

he had

their door.

His own

chiefs,

whom

with grants oijdgirs, reduced a large

part of the country for him.
They conquered Bianah,
satisfied

THE MdGHAL EMPIRE

16
Gwalior,

and

His

Dholpur.

son,

Humayun,

took

Gbzlpur and Kalpi and annexed

possession of Jaunpur,

He himself remained at Agra,

kingdom.
thinking out ways and means of conquering the whole
It was at that time that the mother of
of India.
them

to his

Ibrahim Lodhi made an attempt to put an end to his

by means of a poison. Had she succeeded in her

life

nefarious plan, India

Rana. Sangha or

would have had a

different history.

Rana Sanghram, who had

invited

Babar to attack India, was wrong

Battle of

Khamvah
with as

i-i

think that, like his ancestor, the

1527

much

to

new

invader too would plunder and retire

When he
of booty as he could collect.

learnt of the intention of Babar,

he made preparations

who was now encroaching upon

and
had
some parts of it. The
rediiced
Rajputana
Rana was indeed a worthy member of his famous
house. As a prince of great wisdom, valour and virtue,

to resist the invader

he occupied a high position among the Rajput princes of

India. The Rajahs of Arnber and Marwar acknowledged
supremacy. The princes of Ajmer, Slkri, Raisin,
Bundi, Chanderl, Gargaon and Rampura all paid him
homage as his feudatories. His idea in inviting Babar
his

was

to clear his

own way

to the

throne of India.

He

resources

and
was

had

sufficiently strengthened his military

was

at that time the

the premier state.

most powerful prince and

Before his encounter with Babar, he

had already been the hero of a hundred

on

his person as

his

many

as eighty scars.

fights

and had

He had

lost

On the llth of
a hand, a leg and an eye in actions.
Babar advanced out^of Agra
February, 1527 A. C.

MUHAMMAD BABAR

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

17

against the Ran& who nad encamped at Sikri, a village

His first attack was repelled by the
near Fathpur.
The defeated detachments took to flight
Rajputs.

and caused great consternation among the Mughal

At this critical juncture Babar broke his wine
armies.
vessels and renounced the use of wine for ever.
When
he called a council of war, he was advised to leave a
"
What
strong garrison at Agra and retire to the Punjab.

Muhammadan

such a

kings of the world say of

the fear of death obliged to abandon
"
was the answer he gave to his
kingdom ?

officers

and advisors.

will all the

a monarch

whom

by him

delivered

enthusiasm.

of

His address to his

at that time,

He

called

is

as lull of

together his

followers,
interest as

companions

and said:
"

Noblemen and

Babar's address
to his

and

noblemen

soldiers.

is

take

tion.

his

world.

God

gone>

subject to dissolu-

is

When we

are passed

away and

only survives, unchange-

to the feast of

life

must, before

He who
cup
the inn of mortality must one day inevitably
the
departure from that house of sorrow

over,

arrives at

Every man that comes

the world

in ^

Whoever comes

able.
it

soldiers

drink from

How much

to live with

infamy

the

better

of

is it

death.

to die with honour than

With fame, even

if I

am

die, I

contented

Let fame be mine, since my body is death's.

The Most High God has been propitious to us, and

now placed us in such a crisis,

field, we die the death of martyrs

has

rise victorious,

that
;

if

we fall in the
we survive, we

if

the avengers of the cause of God.

Let

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

18

with one accord, swear on God's holy word,

us, then,

that none of us will even think of turning his face from

this warfare,

that ensues,

nor desert from the battle and slaughter

till

his soul

is

separated from his body."

The melo-dramatic eloquence

Defeat of

in

Rana

the

above

Sangha and the

successful

rout of Rajput

intended

in

Holy Qur'an
woe.
A. M.

On

by

that

on

effect

who

followers,

to stand

Babar embodied
a PP eal
Was wholl y
of

produced the
his soldiers and

it

now swore by

their leader

in

weal

the

and

the 16th of March, 1527 A. C. at 9 or 9-30

the battle

began and

raged hotly till evening.

the leadership

The powerful Rajput confederacy, under

of the redoubtable Rana Sangha, and
of the Turkish soldiers,

under the

the

command

remnants
of Babar,

came face to face with each other at Khanwah.

~~~~
Towards the end of a well-fought day, the Rajputs
gave way. The Rana had a narrow escape. His
Here
accomplices were, however, captured and slain.
that
the
looses of the Rajputs
it should be remembered
were almost unprecedented. Among the
slain were Hasan Khan MewatI, Rawal Udai Singh
Dungarpur and a host of lesser chieftains, who had

in this battle

entered into the Rajput confederacy against Babar.

The

battle of

Importance of
the Battle of

Khanwah.
Williams

Khanwah

is

indeed one of the decisive

have been fought in India,

importance has been beautifully

battles that
Its

summed up by
in

the

following

Professor Rushbrook-

passage:

'.'In

the

place, the menace of Rajput supremacy which had

loomed large before the eyes of Muhammadans in India
first

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD BABAR

few years was removed once

for the last

19

The

for aU.

v hich depended so

largely for
confederacy,
its unity upon the strength and reputation of Mewar,
was shattered by a single great defeat, and ceased

powerful

henceforth to be a dominant factor

the politics of
Empire of India was
in

Hindustan. Secondly, the Mughal

Babar had definitely seated
soon firmly established.
himself upon the throne of Sultan Ibrahim, and the sign

and

seal of his

achievement had been the annihilation of

Sultan Ibrahim's most formidable antagonists. Hitherto,

the occupation of Hindustan might have been looked

Babar's career of adventure;

upon as a mere episode in
but from henceforth it becomes the keynote of his activities for the remainder of his life. His days of wandering
in

search

is his,

of

And

it.

career

a fortune

of

fortune

it

which

now

are

and he has but

to

significant of

is

this

battle

passed away: the

show himself worthy
the new stage in his

marks that never afterwards

throne and life upon the
Fighting there is, and fighting

does he have to stake his

issue of a stricken field.
in plenty, to

be done

but

fighting for the extension

it is

of his power, for the reduction of rebels, for the ordering

of his kingdom. It
it is

is

never fighting for his throne.

And

also significant of Babar's grasp of vital issues that

from henceforth the centre of gravity of

from Kabul to Hindustan."

his

power

is

shifted

The Rajput

opposition was

crushed.

Rajputs

The

together

of Chanderi

Hindustan.

but

remnants

gathered

Ma dim Rao
for the sovereignty of

crippled

At

first

not yet
of
the

under

and aspired
Babar tried

THE MyGHAL EMPIRE

20

methods

peaceful
in lieu

enter

into the

offered a jdglr to

but

wfcen

in

had compelled the

(Lucknow) and

to

took the

former

Babar

army was defeated by the

received intelligence that his

Afghans, who had

refused

Just at this time

person.

Rao

MedinI

the latter

proposed treaty, the

against him

field

He

of Chanderl

taken advantage of his absence and

Imperial army to evacuate Lakhnau

to fall back on Kanauj.

Such a
of
have
the
balance
a mere
news
would
upset
staggering
mediocre, but Babar kept his head cool and pushed

on the siege
so

much

of

so

Chanderl witn great care and courage,

the garrison was reduced to the

that

hope accompanied by a heroic and

These events took
yet terrible practice of Jauhar.
A.
The
defeat
in
C.
of
Medini Rao and
1528
place
traditional forlorn

'

of Chanderl

the capture

Rajput confederacy.

the collapse of the

completed

afterwards

little

Rana Sangha,
The rebellions

hope of the Rajputs, died.

and Babar enjoyed an interim
Afghans
of peace till the end of 1528 A. C.
the

last

were subdued

The Afghans were

but they

defeated,

to resist the

strong enough
j
j
They considered

,,

Battle of the
Gogra 1529

to

entertained

They

hopes

created

the

espousing

Mahmud
later.

and

At

as he

Babar

cause

of

in

usurper

his

their

and

followers,

own supremacy.

Bihar and Jaunpur by

Lodhi's brother,

Ibrahim

Babar sent

approach,

'.

his

son, Askari,

against

provinces and himself joined him a

his

still

themselves superior

and

reviving

disturbance

Lodhi.

the eastern

of

,,

were
'

'the

enemy

little

melted away',

advanced through Allahabad to Buxar, on

his

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

way he

the

received

MUHAMMAD BABAR

21

submission

unqualified

of

the

Nusrat Sh^h, the ruler of Bengal, had

Afghan
entered into a kind of convention with Babar to the
chiefs.

effect that

neither

but he

other,

would

not only

attack the
set

territories

of the

the convention

aside

by

seizing upon the province of Sasram but also by giving

shelter to the fugitive Afghan prince, Mahmud Lodhi.

Bengal, the centre of

attacked and occupied.

The

net

that the

Afghans,

was

India

was

victories in

were crushed, the

Afghans

Rajput supremacy

"/as

shattered, the

Mughal Empire was founded, and

master of almost the whole of Northern

Babar was the

He

rebellious

result of Babar's

hxtent of Babar's
Indian Empire.

India.

the

over

ruled

the

Kabul,

Punjab,

Bengal,

Bihar, Oudh, Gwalior and a large part of Rajputana,

His empire extended from the
including Mewar.

Himalayas in the north to Gwalior in the south and

from the Punjab ir the west to the frontiers of Bengal
in the east.
He would have increased the extent of
his

spared ; but as fate would have it, he died

a year after the battle of the Gogra.
When in the hot weather of the year 1530 A. C.

empire

if

,
*
Story of his death.
,

illness that

he

Humayun
J

given

such a

away

too

ill,

his father,

Babar, was so much upset by his

resolved to sacrifice his own life in order

diamond, known
as

seriously
^

to save that of his son.

to take

fell

step

His friends

and proposed

Koh-i-Noor, might be
but the fond father regarded that

in history

instead

poor a price

requested him not

that the precious

for

as

the

life

of his

most beloved

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

22

Walking three times round the bed

son.

of his

son,

he prayed to God to transfef the disease of his son to

him. So strong was his will-power that he is reported
"
I have borne it
to have said
I have borne it away
!

"

away

From

historians,

death
last

and

Babar declined
his son,

he was perfectly

As

.,

we have

that time,

in health

from the Muslim

and succumbed to
it

Humayun, began

to recover,

till

at

well.

Padshah, or sovereign-ruler of Hindustan,

Babar reigned for less than five

His policy and

administration.

'

hjs

administration

during
&

was characterised by the

same energy, decision and promptness as he had always
this period

displayed

in his

military

Grand Trunk Road,

laid

beautiful garden-city with

wells and water-courses

exploits.

out his

He

the

restored

capital at

as a

Agra

superb palaces, baths, tanks,

ordered

the

reparation

of

mosques and other buildings and established guardintervals

and
houses and post-stations at regular
maintained an express letter-mail between Agra and
Following the traditions of a personal,
distinguished from a bureaucratic administration,
Kabul.

as

he

toured throughout his Indian dominions td study their

the
to
internal
This
state.
appealed
eventually
idiosyncrasies of his Indian

reconciled

them

huhrat-i-'Am
entrusted,

in

publication of

and colleges

'.

subjects

Mughal Rule.

The

Department)
other duties, with

was

to the ideas of the

(Public

addition

and consequently

Works
to

In

'the

and the building

many respects Babar accepted the

of schools

a gazette

system of government as

he found

in

vogue

in

those

ZAHIR-UD-DIN MUH/.MMAD BABAR

23

and divided his kingdom into fiefs and assigned

them to his officers. The country was still unsettled
and the financial deficits were untold. So Professor
times,

Rushbrook- Williams seems to be

'

just

his

in

remark

monarchy which
could be held together only by the continuance of war
conditions, which in times of peace was weak, structureless and invertebrate'.
But it must be remembered
that Babar had no time to introduce new Jaws and
that Babar

institutions

bequeathed to

the

in

newly-conquered

what he did during

that if he had lived
himself

an

his son a

his short reign

longer,

It

he would

administrator.

excellent

From

country.

amply

is

clear

have proved
His Wasiyyat

namd-i-majchfi (secret testament) to his son and successor,

Humayun, embodies in it his administrative policy,

Humayun and
and his
Akbar
logical
by
It
successors.
preaches peace and enjoins tolerance as
the motto of Mughal Rule in India, and contains the
As a
essence of its author's administrative genius.
a
and
document
monument of enlightened statesmanship
of unique historical interest and importance, it deserves
which was scrupulously adopted

carried

to

by

conclusion

its

to be reproduced here.

It reads

"GOD BE PRAISED
Secret

Babar

testament

Badshah

O my
creeds.

the

son

stability

The

Zahir-ud-Din
to

Gba-zi

Muhammad Humayun.
For the

of

Prince

May God
of

the

Empire

realm of Hindustan

that

He

Nasir-ud-Dm

prolong his
this

is full

Praise be to God, the Righteous,

Highest,

Muhammad
life!

is

written.

of

diverse

the Glorious,

hath granted unto thee the

THE MU3HAL EMPIRE

24

Empire "of

It is

it.

but proper that

thou,

with

heart

of all religious bigotry, should dispense justice

cleansed

according to the tenets

particular

refrain

from

of

each

the

community.

sacrifice

of

cow,

And

in

for that

the conquest of the hearts of the people of

way
Hindustan; and the subjects of the realm will, through
And the temples and
royal favour, be devoted to thee.
lies

abodes

of

worship of every community under Imperial

should not damage.
Dispense justice so

sway, you
that the sovereign

may

be happy with the subjects and

likewise the subjects wi*h their sovereign. The progress

of Islam is better by the sword of kindness, not by the

sword of oppression
Ignore the disputations of Shias and Sunnls ; for
therein is the weakness of Islam.
And bring together
the subjects with differenl beliefs in the manner of the
Four Elements, so that the body-politic may be

immune from

the

various

ailments.

And remember

deeds of Hazrat Taimur Sdhib-qirdni (Lord of the

conjuction) so that you may become mature in matters
the

of

Government

And on
First

us

is

but the duty to advise.

Jamadi-ul-Awwal 935

llth January,

1529." *

*The original document is in Persian and is treasured in

Hamida Library at Bhopal as one of its heirlooms. Sometime ago it was first published in the Twentieth Century oi

the

'

'

Allahabad by Mr. N. C. Mehta, I. C. S. with its English translation with the courtesy of H. H. the Nawab Sahib of Bhopal.
It may be pointed out here that Ba bar's message is only one of
the numerous Imperial Firmans which were issued from time to
time by the Mughal Emperors according to the requirements
of the time. Some similar rescripts were issued by Emperor
Alamgir, for which, vide Chapter XIV.
*

ZAHIR-UD-DIN
Babar

MUHAMMAD BABAR

25

surveys the political condition of

India on the eve of his invasion and

briefly

His account

dwe

of India.

,, s

and

also

and ^

refers

forms

to

its

geographical

however,
poor opinion of the
evident from the following passage
"
Hindustan is a country that has few pleasures

features.

He,

people, as

is

to

recommend

it.

The

people are not handsome.

have no idea of the charms

of

friendly

They

society, of

frankly mixing together, or of familiar intercourse. They

have no genius, no comprehension of mind, no politeness
of manner, no kindness or fellow-feeling no ingenuity or
mechanical invention in planning or executing their

no skill or knowledge in design or

have
no horses, no good flesh, no
they
grapes or musk-melons, no good fruits, no ice or cold
water, no good food or bread in their bazars, no baths or
handicraft

works,

architecture

no candles, no torches, not a candlestick Instead

of a candle or torch, you have a gang of dirty fellows,
colleges,

whom
a

they call divatis, who hold in their left hand

kind of small tripod, to the side of one leg of which,

being wooden, they stick a piece of iron like the top

of the candlestick; they fasten a pliant wick, of the
it

size of the

of
in

the

middle
In

legs.

finger,

their

by an iron pin, to another

right hand they hold a gourd,

which they have made a

hole

for

the

purpose

of

pouring out oil, in a small stream, and whenever the

wick requires oil, they supply it from this gourd.

Their

great

men

kept a

hundred or two hundred

of

these divatis."

He

continues

to

add

that

there

were neither

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

26
nor

aqueducts

neither elegance nor regularity

canals,

that the peasants

and the

moved about naked,

proletariat

wearing only
langoti to cover their private parts.
He, however, speaks favourably of India's wealth in
silver

work

there

and gold and says that there was no dearth of

that there was abundance of occupations
that
was flourishing trade ; and that the climate was
;

pleasant during the rainy season.

bered

him

to allow
of

Babar's

that

habits.

stay

acquaint

The Mei.wirs
.

It contains

the

traditions, their ideas

the autobiography of
for him the

'

df

prince of autobiographers

we have of
and manly expression.

the best account that

most lucid

among

and

character

the

account of India, particularly

bound to be superficial.

referred to are

title

in a

with

Babar, which has earned

His _,
Memoirs.
TT

himself

Therefore, his

in regard to her people, is

must be remem-

was much too short

customs

their

Indians,

and

to

It

in India

style

its

author

It

most precious treasures 9f Indian

ranks

historical

has jusHy extorted universal admiration

literature.
for the simplicity of its language, the sublimity of its
but the
style, and the authenticity of its contents
It

charm of

greatest

author's

this

personality.

work
and

colours, with all his virtues

the best

biographies

Asia and
fancy.

It

will

long retain

presents

temporaries in

of

is

reveals

It

the

in

his

its

true

Fit to rank with

vices.

world,

its

Babar,

the revelation of

Babar
it

stands unique in

capture our
country-men and con-

fascination to

his

their dress, appearance,

tastes, pursuits,

manners, habits and hobbies as clearly as in a mirror.

It gives an exact description of the countries hp visited,

MUHAFMAD BABAR

ZAHIR-UD-DIN
their

and above

industry.

All this,

and

impressions of

lively

the

works of krt and

features, productions,

physical

narrative at

its

the shrewd comments

all

breaking in upon
reminiscences a

author,

his

give

intervals,

27

permanent and penetrating flavour of a rare order.

of
Babar
a
lover
fine
was
great

arts.

Architecture, poetry, painting, music,

gardening and the art of illustrating

books with beautiful pictures made considerable progress
He himself cultivated these arts
under his patronage.

and encouraged those given

strong were

his

aesthetic

stormy career he could

arts

and

to similar

find

time

a keen

not like the

,,

edifices
7

He

architecture.

in

interest

Architecture.

So

them.

to satiate his thirst for

He had

pursuits.

even during his

to devote to these

tastes that

did

he came across
,

at Delhi and Agra, though he was

He formed
impressed by the architecture at Gwalior.
a poor opinion of native art and skill and therefore

pupils of

imported the talented

from Constantinople to design

architect,

according to his

Memoirs
"

own

aesthetic tastes.

writes in his

In Agra alone, and of the stone-cutters belonging

680 persons; and

Gwalior and

Koil,

in

day employed on

Agra,

have perished.

mosque

in

my

palaces

Bianah,

Dholpur,
there were every day employed on

works 1,491 stone-cutters."

Unfortunately, almost all

great

He

his buildings

to that place only, I every

my

Sinan, the celebrated

The two
the

SikrI,

his

beautiful

buildings
that have survived are the

Kabul Bagh

at Panlpat

and the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

28

Jdmi' Masjid at Sambhal.

Babar was a born poet.

He

'

cultivated

the

art of

poetry from his early days and is the

reputed author of a diwan (collection)
the
poems, many of which figure in
Tuzk-i-Babari. Abul Fazl informs us that a collection

of

Turki

masnawis (romances)

of Persian

of

his

composition,

Mubin, had a very large circulation in his days.

Besides, Babar wrote a number of other works, which

called

include an interesting book on prosody, called Mufassil.

The celebrated Smthor of the Tarilth-i-Rashidi records
to his credit

"

only

In the composition of Turki poetry he was second

to

Amir

All

He

invented a style of
was the author of a most

Shir

Mubdiydn, and
useful treatise on Jurisprudence, which has been adopted
He also wrote a tract on Turkish prosody,
generally.

verse, called

superior in elegance to any other, and put into veise

the Risald-i-Wdlidiydh of his Holiness."

man

As a
convene

of

cheerful

Mushderds

(poetical

versification

extempore
Turkish were indulged
gathering of literary

and
their

and

he used
in

contests)

The Memoirs

in.

men even

in

which

in Persian

recitation

to

and

describe

a boat wherein

a,

Babar

his associates

composed verses in order to beguile

So supreme was the sway of the
mind that even amidst the clash of

weary hours.

Muse over

his

arms he snatched a
creations

to

of

brief

interval

to

listen

to

the

poets and the conversations of erudite

At times he himself Cropped in a verse or

add to the amusement of the assemblage.

scholars.

two

disposition,

MUHAMMAD BABAR

ZAHIR-UD-DIN

29

Babar displayed a remarkable taste for painting.

He is said to have brought to India
Painting.
with him all the choicest specimens
of painting he could collect from the library of his
Some of these were taken
the Timurides.
forefathers
to Persia by Nadir Shah after his invasion of India
.

and the conquest

remained

on and

in

of

India,

they

as

exerted

new impetus

gave a

but

Delhi;

as

long

they

influence

great
the art of painting in

to

India.

The
_,

sister art of

music

also receivjd the attention

Emperor who himself was a

TT..i
connoisseur. His skill and proficiency

of the

Music.

borne out by a treatise of his own composition

which he has written all about it. This book is
of a very high order and is as interesting as it is

in

it is

in

bears eloquent testimony to its author's

love of music and his knowledge of its technicalities.

informative.

The

It

paintings
mistm'ting books,

books

of illustrating

practice

and

in

India

evidence

His

by Babar.
in

illustrations,

pictures

making them more

ing was, for the

this

respect

also.

lucid

first

Memoirs

with which this book

with

and

and

thereby
interest-

time, introduced

afford a crowning

Profusely
is

beautiful

coloured

embellished,

form

an essentially attractive feature of it, and the coloured

animals
of
described
therein
are
^presentations
particularly charming.

There are repeated

flowers and gardens in

Babar was a great gardener.

_
Gardening.
.

references
his

to

Memoirs.

Among

the

gardens

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

30
that h^ laid out,

Bagh-i-Wafa and Bagh-i-Kilan near

an4 *Zohra Bagh at Agra may
be
the most fascinating.
be regarded as
It
will
idea
here
that
the
the
interesting to remark
underlying
Great
was
of
the
the garden
Iram,
gardens
Mughals

Ram Bagh

Kabul and

held out

Muslims

the

to

reward

for

their

their entertainment

for

good

deeds

in

as

world.

this

have been given

Unfortunately, many of such gardens
over to cultivation ', yet there remains enough to show
Beautiful flowers,

the artistic tastes of their founders.

beasts

birds, gontle

bright

and a vast

houries and ghilmans

earthly

(fair

multitude

boys)

of

constituted

the splendour that was Mughal.

Babar ioved

celebrities.

Some

and used to associate himself

with men whose memory we will
had a
court
His
cherish.
ng
eminent scholars.
brilliant set
of

literacy

them

of

were

Gfaiyas-ud-Dm

Muhammad

and author
Kbudamir, the celebrated Persian historian
^
of the Hablb-us-Siyar, the Khuldsat-ul-Akbar and
i

Maulana Shahab-ud-DIn, the

famous enigmatist, poet and punster and Mir Ibrahim,
a native of Herat and a skilled performer on Kanun.

many

works

other

Apart from these, those who came into close contact

Shaikh
with him were Shaikh Mazi, his own tutor
Zain Khafi, translator of the Wdqiyat-i-Bdbari; and
;

Maulana
day.

It

one of the most learned men of ths

also be mentioned that Babar was greatly

BaqT,

may

by the erudite
minister of the King of Herat/ who had 'collected
a valuable library of the most esteejmed works of the

assisted

in

his

literary

undertakings

MUHAMMAD BABAR

ZAHIR-UD-DIlSi

time and placed him in charge of

it

achievements
"

the

in

place

in

Indian

his

upon

Babar's

following

His permanent

rests

history

conquests, which

'.

summed up

S. Lane-Poole has beautifully

words:

31

an imperial line
way
but his place in biography and literature is determined
rather by his daring adventures and persevering efforts

opened the

for

days, and by the delightful Memoirs in

which he related them. Soldier of fortune as he was,

in his

earlier

Babar was not the

less

man

of

culture, the

of fine literary

In

fastidious critical perception.

Latin of Central Asia,

and

he was an

taste

and

Persian, the language

as

it is

of India,

native Turki

in his

accomplished poet,
he was master of a pure and unaffected style alike in
The Turkish princes of his time
prose and verse.
prided themselves upon their literary polish, and to
turn an elegant ghazal, or even to write a beautiful

manuscript, was their peculiar ambition, no less worthy

or stimulating than to be master of sword or mace.

Wit and
on the

learning,

quoting

spot,

or

good hand,
appreciated
valour,

and

singing a

infinitely

will break off in the

dangers
battles

to

art of

the

Babar's

in

and he found

the

improvising
Persian classics,

good

more than

as well

virtue.

perhaps as
Babar himself

middle of a story to quote a verse,

an ode on

as his

breath of poetry."

highly

much

leisure in the thick of

compose

were

song,

world, as

a quatrain
writing a

orgies

his difficulties

his misfortunes.

were

and
His

humanised by a

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

32

Another long quotation

has
His Estimate.

on the

heels of

one which

considerable

occupied
v

already
'

_.

space may appear to be a little too

as
it
much, but,
gives a correct estimate of Babar, it
may appropriately be cited
:

"

Upon

the

the

history of
are entitled to

whole

if

we review with

Asia,

we

rank

higher

shall find

than

impartiality

few princes who

Babar in genius

and

His grandson, Akbar, may

accomplishments.
be placed above him for profound and
perhaps
benevolent polify.
The crooked artifice of
Aurangzib
not entitled to the same distinction. The merit
is
of
in

Chingiz
their

I^han,

and

of

splendid conquests,
achievements of Babar; but

Tamerlane,

which
in

far

activity

terminates

excelled
of mind,

the
in

gay equanimity and unbroken spirit with which

he bore the extremes of good and bad fortune, and in
the possession of the manly and social virtues, so
seldom the portion of princes, in his love of letters and
the

his success in the cultivation of th<*m, we shall

probably
find no other Asiatfc prince who can justly be placed

beside him."

CHAPTER

NASIR-UD-DIN

III

MUHAMMAD HUMAYfiN

(1530- 39 and 1556)

Babar was succeeded by

his beloved son,

who ascended

the

Introductory.

under

festivities

great

Humayun,

throne
the

amidst
title

of

Muhammad Humyaun two

NasIr-ud-Dln

day: before
the end of the year 1530 A. C.
The new king was
not destined to enjoy a peaceful
reign, partly because
he himself created his own difficuHies and
partly

because he was outmatched by his

diplomacy and
Acting
r

Division of
the empire.

in

rival,

Sher Shah, in

statecraft.

accordance with the advice of his father,

Humayun bestowed upon his brothers
.,

the

governorships

of

..

different pro-

Kabul and Qandhar were

Alwar and Mewat were allotted
to Mirzfi Hindal, Sambhal
was, assigned to Mirza
Askarl, and the government of Badakhshan was entrustvinces

given

ed

to

to his

the

Kamran,

cousin, Mirza

Sulaiman.

This division

of

empire \vas responsible for the ambitious intrigues

and treasonable designs of his brothers and the early

overthrow of the Mughal Empire.
Babar did not live long to consolidate what he had
i
conquered.
Humayun was not so
Political situation
and
of India and
strong
sagacious as to accomplish
U
Qn >S
what his father could not
What
?o
he
added to his own
mure,
.

sS

difficulties.

His

leniency

was

his mistake

and

his

THE MTIfmAT EMPIRE

34
inconsistency
condition
of

was

nis

India

at

blunder.

The

political

his

accession

thgtime of
Khan Afghan

was miserable.
in
the east
Sher
and Bahadur Shah in the west the former in Bengal
and Bihar and the latter in Gujarat were maturing
His own
plans for the overthrow of the Mughals.
brothers were now sufficiently strong to support their

own

and there was nothing to

The leading nobles and
prevent them from doing that.
military' leaders, whom he himself had granted large
to the throne

claims

estates in order to increase bis

possession

employed
Emperor.

of

the sinews

mutual

in

They

were

popularity,

which they

of war,

warfare and even

ceaselessly

now

in

freely

against their

and

intrigued

plotted

against him in order to push forward their own men.

A conspiracy was formed by one Muhammad Zaman

Had it succeeded, the history of

against Humayun.
India would have been differently written. The secret
was out and Muhammad Zaman took refuge in Gujarat,
where he made common cause wfth Bahadur Shah.
Another aspirant to the throne was Ala-ud-Dln, brother
of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi,

men

against

Humayun

who

sent an

under the

army

command

In the engagement that was

Bianah, Tatar was defeated and slain.

Tatar

Khan.

Entrusting the government of Kabul and

,-

Kamran

to

occupation of
the Punjab.

his brother,

out at the
against

was going

head

HumayQn)

of

40,000

fought at

Qandhar

Kamran

se f

huge army

giving out that he

him on bis assumption

Humayun was not so.simple^as

to congratulate

royal insignia.

Askari,

of

of his son,

of the
to

be

NASIR-UD-DIN
such a
deceived by
j

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
Forthwith he sent

trick.

35

advance

in

an envoy to inform his

brother

had already

that he

decided to add

Lamghan and Peshawar to the fief of

But Kamran was not content with this concesHe crossed the Indus and conquered the Punjab
sion.
and annexed it to his kingdom of Kabul and Qandhar.
Kabul.

Humayun

remained

passive;

he

rather,

quietly

acquiesced in the forcible occupation and avoided war

with his brother. This was a grave mistake on his

The

Punjab in general and of

Hissar Firoza in particular was a blunder of the first
magnitude. The former not only deprived him of a
most productive province but created a barrier between
part.

cession of the

him and the Mughal military base in the North- West,

so rich in military resources.
The latter gave Kamran
command of the new military road running from Delhi
to

Qandhar and made

the tap-root of

it

him

possible for

to cut

down

'

Humayun's

military

power

by merely

stopping where he was*.

War

Humayun was

to

deal

with

with

of

the

most

Bahadur Shah
of Gujarat.

soon called upon

Bahadur ShaH, one

formidable of his adversaries.

rftt

wag then Qne Q

the

Gujaand

^^

most powerful provinces of India. Its ruler was a man

He had immense resources at

of towering ambition.

his command. Before trying conclusions with

Humayun,
he had already increased his army and
He
artillery.
had conquered Malwa with the help of the Rana of
Mewar; and the kings of Ahmadnagar, Khandegh and

Berar paid him homage.

ledged

his

supremacy.

The Portuguese

He

also

acknow-

had warred against the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

36

Rana

of Chittor

'ruinous alike to

made

and forced aim to agree to terms

He now
his pride and his pocket'.

more ambitious venture

preparations for a

conquest of Hindustan as a whole.

He

the

enlisted in his

and the Mughal nobles, who

had fled to his kingdom and taken refuge there, and
planned the conquest of the country under the Mughal
Emperor. Humayun at once marched against him to
service the Afghan

chastise

Shah

him

for giving shelter to his enemies.

the

underestimated

opponent and

Babar

chiefs

military

capacity

tried to imitate the tactics

at the battle of I'anipat.

He

Bahadur
of

his

employed by

entrenched himself

very strongly anu expected his adversary to repeat the

blunder of Ibrahim Lodhi by hurling his troops against
his batteries.

of

war

But Humayun, who had seen enough

tactics as a lieutenant of his father, instead

of

him, sent strong

trap prepared
falling
bodies of cavalry to scour the country in the rear of
into

the

for

Bahadur Shah's camp and cut

off

his supplies.

The

beleaguered Gujaratis were reduced to a state of famine

and the Sultan, after blowing up his guns, escaped with a

few of his faithful followers. He was hunted by Humayun

from place to place and compelled to take refuge with
the Portuguese at

Diu.

Humayun,

in the

meantime,
reduced a great part of Gujarat and Malwa, but he and
his officers were so elated by their successes that they
did nothing to effect a permanent settlement of the
territory. They gave themselves up to feastand
ing
merry-making. Bahadur Sfya.h availed himself of
their negligence and
immediately despatched his trusty

conquered

officer,

Imad-ul-Mulk,

who

at once occupied

Ahmadabad

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

NASIR-UD-DIN

37

and gathered together a large army for his master, who

was also promised aid by the Portuguese Governor. This

Humayun and awoke him

alarmed

situation.
inflicted

of Gujarat

with

to the gravity of the

At once he advanced against Imad and

a defeat on him.
Feeling that his occupation

its

was

secure,

he entrusted

government and

his brother, Askari,

himself

proceeded

Sher Khan Afghan, who had headed

against
able revolt
totally

in Bihar.

tactless

absence, Askari

In his

and incapable.

His own

apace

a formid-

proved

officers dis-

him for his arrogance and unmannerliness.

There was no love lost between the master and his
servants.
Bahadur Shah, who was waiting for an
and
at
once attacked Ahmadabad
opportunity,
liked

took possession of it. Gradually he recovered his lost

kingdom, but he was not destined to enjoy the fruits
of his victories.

left

He

Malwa was
Mandu.

the sea.

died in 1537 A. C. by falling into

also lost as soon as Humayun

At the approach

Imperial army near the

borders of Bengal, the crafty Afghan
w^hdrew towards Bihar. In his
of the

absence, the Mughals occupied Gaur,

the

provincial

capital,

Again, when Sher Khan

and

renamed

it

Jannatabad.

upon the Mughal possessions in Bihar and Jaunpur and overran the territory as
far as Kanauj, Humayun mobilized his forces against
seized

Crossing the Ganges at Munghlr, he marched

towards Bihar at the head of his army. At Chausa he

him.

was defeated by his enemy, the rebellious Afghan, and

At this critical juncture he souhgt the
put to flight.

THE MJGHAL EMPIRE

38

aid of his brothers

whom

he

had so magnanimously

treated; but they not only 'offered a flat refusal but

substantially contributed to the success of his enemy by

Sher Khan, who, after his

victory at Chausa, had crowned himself king under the
title of Sher Shah, crossed the Ganges and inflicted a

hampering

his preparations.

sharp defeat on

Humayun

novelist

Un
e3e,

at

Kanauj, whither he had

and expelled him from

retired after his defeat,

India.

and not an

historian can better portray

the picture of his flight from India
and * he misfortunes that befell him
thereafter.

After

his

at the

defeat

Kanauj, he crossed the Ganges and reached

Thence he started towards Delhi with his

battle of

Agra.
treasure

and family.

Finding, however, that his cause

for Sarhind.
His brothers, whom he

was lost, he left

had so kindly treated, gave him no protection rather,
they added to his difficulties and increased his anxiety.
;

Proceeding towards Sind, he besieged Bhakkar, but

could not conquer it. It was at this time that he
married Hamida Bano Bagum, daughter of Shaikh All
Akbar Jaml. Driven to despair, he turned to Maldeva,
the Rajah of Jodhpur,
tingent

of

who had promised him

a con-

twenty thousand Rajputs. But when he

territory, he discovered that the

reached the Rajah's

Rajah meant mischief. At

Amarkot, and there he and
rousing reception by

his

he sought shelter at
party were given a

Rana Prasad, who

also agreed to

was at
haven of refuge that the future empress of India

assist

this

him

last

in attacking

gave birth to

Thatta and Bhakkar.

the greatest

It

emperor of Indi&.

After

NASIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

39

performing the necessary ceremonies on the happy

occasion of the birth of his son, Akbar, Humayiin
attacked Bhakkar with the aid of

Rana

Un-

Prasad.

fortunately, a picque having arisen between the Muslims

and the Rajputs, the latter deserted the Imperial army ;

but fortunately, the Chief of Bhakkar got tired of war

and sued for peace. According to the terms of the

Humayiin

treaty,

received

ten thousand

thirty boats,

Misbkdls, two thousand loads of grain and three hundred

camels.
Thus equipped, he advanced towards Qandhar,
it was
too dangerous a place foi him to stay in.
His brother, Kamran, was the sole master of the entire
Afghan territory his brothers, Askari and Hindal, were

but

his vassals.

After a careful consideration

to set out in search of support.

Akbar,

who was

Leaving

at that tim^ twelve

he decided
his little son,

months

old, at

Qandhar, he proceeded towards Persia and informed the

Shah

of his proposed

visit.

Hearing of Fumayun's intention, Tahmasp, the

of Persia, issued instructions to

In Persia.

his

royal
faith

officers

him a right
The Shah was a Shia by
to

accord

welcome on his arrival.

and it is said that he received the royal

fugitive

so warmly simply because he intended to convert him

In spite of his endeavours and imto his own creed.
portunities,

it is

his guest in the

stated,

he could not shake the

Sunni doctrine.

advice of his well-wishers,

belief of

In accordance with the

Humayun

agreed to accept

The

the religion of his host after a great

reluctance.

with
promised to help him
Bokhara.
and
conquer Kabul, Qandhar

a contingent

Shah

to

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

40

With an army of 14,000, Humayun attacked

kingdom of Kamran.
Having
q

rS

Klb uTa nd
Qandhar from
Kamran.

q uired

ac-

Qandhar, he advanced upon

Kabul and defeated his

,

the

his son, Akbar,

whom

Here

brother.
,

he had

left

at

Kamran who had once exposed

the boy
him after a long
Kamran, though beaten, was still ready
separation.
to recover his lost possessions.
Again he was defeated
the mercy of

to a fusillade of shots,

was restored

to

and put to flight In an engagement at night, Mirza

Hindal was slab. Kamran, the fugitive king of Kabul,
found shelter at the Court of Sultan Salim Shah who,
however, treated him so badly that he took himself to the

Gakhar country in disgust and disappointment.

Chief of the Gakhars too treated him ruthlessly.
handed over to Humayun, who remembered the
his father and so did not put an end to his life.
blinded and thus rendered
chief against his brother.

But the

He

was

words

He

of

was

incapable of creating mis-

At

his request,

he was sent

Mecca along with his wife, who served him faithfully

Mirza Askari was also
the last day of tiis life.
caught and permitted to proceed to Mecca. Having
to

to

disposed of his rivals,

Humayun

turned his attention to

the reconquest of Hindustan.

In response to the requests of influential Indians,

Humayun, who was

eagerly watching
the events ot India and was lon S in g

an opportunity, advanced towards

India early in the year 1555 at the head of an efficient
army, and occupied Lahore. Sulian Sikandar Sur, who
had played ducks and drakes with the Imperial treasury,
for

NAS1R-UD-D N

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

advanced against him, but was

a battle at Sarhind and put to

41

totally defeated

in

Humayun

flight.

entered his old capital in a triumphant procession and

ruled his Indian Empire for a brief span of about twelve

He

months.

died of a fatal

on

of his library

from the terraced-roof

fall

1556 A. C.

the 24th of January,

Endowed

he was with a retentive

as

memory,
had
Humayun
acquired proficiency in
several arts and sciences in his early

Kmpfehments.

He was

years.

very fond

of poetry

and had great skill in this art. He was an excellent

poet, whose verses were elegant and full of meaning. In
astronomy he was an adept and in geography a perfect

He

master.

indited

some

dissertations

on the nature

of the elements and ordered the construction of celestial

and

terrestrial globes as

became Emperor

soon as he

Ferishta says that he fitted up seven halls of

of India.
reception and dedicated them to seven planets in the
Judges, ambassadors, poets and travelfollowing order
:

lers were received in the Hall of the

and other military

officers in

Moon commanders
;

the Hall of the Mars

qvil

officers in the Palace of the Mercury

gens de lettres in
the palaces of the Saturn and the Jupiter; musicians
;

and

bards

in

the

Hall

the

of

Venus.

In

short

Humayun was gifted with those accomplishments and

graces which are highly prized in good and fashionable
'

societies.
'

i-Rashidi,
talents

writes

and
the

combination

have

seen,' says the

author of the

Taril$h,-

princes possessed of so much natural

'His noble nature,'
excellence as he.'

few

author of the
of

the

A in,

energy

of

marked by the
Alexander and the

'was

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

42

learning of Aristotle.'

became famous

for its

Under him the Mughal Court

splendour and magnificence.

has to his credit some

Humayun

Under

vances.
US

workT
the Jumna.

curious contri-

his instructions

his

Najjdrs (carpenters) constructed

for

him four boats and

on

Each

of

these boats

set

them

had an

When

which two storeys were very high.

afloat

arch, of
these boats

were put together in such a way that the four arches

remained opposite to one another, an octagonal fountain

which presented a picturesque

view.
The boats were provided with bazars and
Often the Emperor sailed in them from Firozshops.
Sbad Delhi to Agra with his courtiers. There was such

was formed witnin

the~n,

a bazar afloat on the

Jumna

that 'one could have what-

Likewise, the royal gardeners made a

on the surface

ever one liked.'

for their Imperial patron

moving-garden

But, the most marvellous of his

ingenious works was the moving-palace which had three
The various parts of this wooden structure
storeys.
the

of

Jumna.

were so

skilfully joined that

when

but

joint,

which

it

required,

was made.

it

it

looked

could be

The

like

one having no

split into

parts of

stairs leading* to the

upper
that
were
so
could
be
designed
storey
they
dexterously
a
and
unfolded.
It
was
folded
wonderful
easily
per-

This sovereign also made a moving-bridge,

which too was no less curious.
For purposes of administration, Humayun divided his
formance.

Administration.

Bad

(Air),

Ab

four r
government into
&
parts
&
- according
~ *
to the four elements:
Attsb (Fire),
.

(Water), and

gh&k

(Land),

and placed

NASIR-UD-DIN MUHAMB'AD HUMAYUtt

each one of them

4?

charge of a separate minister. Thewith the arrangement 06

armours and weapons and all those affairs which were
in

affairs of the artillery, together

connected with Fire, were formed into a separate department, called Sarkdr-i-Atishi, the portfolio of which

was

Khwajah Abdul

Malik; the affairs o

stable, Bdwarcfri Khdnd

held by

Karqirdq Kh>cun^ (godown),

(kitchen), Shukar Kh,dnd (camel

what was known

as Sarkdr-i-Hawdi,

which was under

Lutf-Ullah;
management of Sharbafc
-('house for sweet drinks) and AlastuchA Khdnd
the

Khwajah

Khdnd

stable), etc., constituted

(store-hcwase) as well as the construction of canals

and

Water were grouped

into-

all

other affairs -connected with

a separate department, called Sarkdr-i-Abt which was

placed inchatge of Khwajah Hassan; and agriculture,
,

buildings, the

hold affaks

management

fell

of Crown-lands

to the fourth department, called

which the ministry was vested

Jalal-ud-Dki Mirza Beg.

i-Khdki, of

Humayun
Drum

displayed

a remarkable

Sarkar-

in Khwajfthi

interest in andi

solicitude for the widespread

of Justace.

nation

the famous

and house-

Drum

...

of

justice.

of Justice, called

T,

He

intioducedi

Tabl-i-Adl r whichi

the importunate suppliant used to beat once in. case ofc

a charge of enmity, twice if the wrong done was not
righted,

tbuee

times

a theft or a robbery took place,.

murder was committed..
The:
not have been frequently beaten, but

and four times

drum

might

if

if

the Emperor's sense of justice and! his care and!

concern for its impartial .and effective; administration
jully borne out by it

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

44

He made

an elaborate classification of the people

of

his empire, created gradations

of

ranks

giving

them

constructed palaces for their

entertainment and fixed days for
The first class, significantly
audience.

the
consisted
blessed,
styled as Ahl-i-S'adat, or
the
the
and
the
learned
of
law-officers and the
pious,
the second class, known as
Ahl-i-Daulat,
wealthy, were the Emperor's
kinsfolk, his ministers and nobles as well as military
scientists of the

kingdom

or the

the

tLird

class, called
Ahl-i-Murdd, or the
were musicians, singers and story-tellers
as well as those who were favoured by nature with

officers;

people of hope,

beauty and refinement. As this class depended upon

the charity of His Majesty for maintenance, it should

have been named Ahl-i-Tarab, or the party of amusement, inasmuch as they pleased the Emperor with their
songs, beauty

To
a

Sahm,

and music.

each of the

heads of thesg classes was

or arrow,

mark

given

of distinction.

Khudamlr,
contemporary chronicler, informs us that during
the days he was employed, the Sahm-us-S'adat was in
a

Muhammad

Maulana

FarghaH, who was

entrusted with the specific performance of the affairs
He fixed the stipends and
Ahl-i-S'adat.
of the
charge of

scholarships

of

the

Sayyads,

religious

recluses,

scholars,

and with him rested

professors,

Shaikhs,

teachers
their

and

appointment as

The Sahm-ud-Dauldh was

well as dismissal.
Amir Hindu Beg, who was* responsible
management

of the

affairs of

scholars,

research-

held by
for the

the Akl-i-Daulat,

and

NASIR-UD-DIN
it

was one

of

and ranks

of

MUHAMMAD HCJMAYUN

duties to

his

The Sahm-ul-Murad was

Ahl-i-Murdd

the

grades

servants

assigned to

consisted in

duty

principal

the

fix

and

soldiers

of

45
ol

the

pay

State.

Amir Desai whose

the

controlling

and

affairs

of

the

supplying
necessary
requirements of splendour at the Mughal Court.
The Padshah also divided the days of the week

and

fixed two days

above-named classes

audience.

the

Ahl-i-S'adat,

each of the

of

inhabitants

Thursdays and Saturdays

Sundays ~nd Tuesdays for the

as follows
for

for

Mondays and Wednesdays for the

Ahl-i-Murad; and Friday was reserved for Namdz-i-

Ahl-i~Daulat,
9

Juma

or congregational prayers.

The

three

enumerated

classes

were

above

sub-divided into twelve smaller ones,

i
-,1
,1
and arrows of gold,
with varying

Twelve Subdivisions.

proportions of alloy mixed with them,

were
the

among them

distributed

as follows

The

Emperor,

first

the

of

his

indicating

in order of

importance

purest gold was given to

prerogative

royal

the

highest rank ; the second to the royal family, provincials

and other high officials
the third to the literati and
;

men

religious

nobles;

the

the

fifth

fourth

to

to

the

the Maliks,

courtiers

Amirs and

and His Majesty's

personal servants ; the sixth to the general employees ;

tiie seventh to the harems and well-behaved femaleservants

young
ninth

of

to

the tenth

of

the treasurers
to

the

eighth to the
Imperial Harem\ the
stewards of the State;

household

the royal

maid-servants

the

and

fighting

class

the

the

officers

of

the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

46
rank and
the

of the Imperial armies

file

mentals

and

the

twelfth

the eleventh

to

the palace-guards,

to

camel-drivers and the like.

The

preceding account leaves an impression upon

the
mind that Humayun
was a
_ ..
J

Court-Scholars.

magnificent

prince,

in-

profoundly

Apart from
and
he
attached
this,
importance
clearly
the place he assigned to the learned and the pious,
terested in the well-being of

the

his

musicians

and the

Khudamlr, the
Habib-us-Siyar, was one

story-tellers.

well-known author of the

of

his

subjects.

reveals the

it

associates

literary

author of the

the

Jauhar,

celebrated

Tazkirat-ul-Waqiydt-i-Humayun, or
of Humayun, was his personal

Private Memoirs

chances of
such, had ample
a
!
that
in
he
embodied
his book
personally observing
Abdul Latif, the learned author of the Lub-ut-TwariJch,
as

who,

attendant,

was

invited

also

arrived

at

the

by him

adorn his Court, but he

Imperial Capital after the death of
to

Emperor; Shahab-ud-Din KhafI, the unequalled

enigmatist and chronogramatist of the time, enjoyed
his patronage; and
Shaikh
Husain, the honoured
the

professor

of

another

recipient

gorgeous
of

madrasah
his

at

favours.

eloquent testimony to the fact

that

was

Delhi,

All

this

Humayun

bears

was a

sympathetic patron of letters.

Humayun

was a great

bibliophile.

collected a large

the

Imperial

special

pleasure-house

of

number

Library.

firm^n^

Sher Shah

Sun,

Sher

He

had

of books

.Under

Mandal,

was turned

in

his

the

into

NASIR-UD-D1N

second

during his

library

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
So

reign.

intense

47

was

his

books of the day that even in his

military undertakings he used to take with him a
love for the best

select

for

library

own

his

spite of the fact

In

use.

he was constantly occupied in a fatal contest with

a host of enemies, he managed to spare time to spend

that

in

studies.

time

of

his

Count Noer informs us that even at the

flight from India he took with him his

favourite books along with his

Beg,

officially

known

Such a

scholarly

faithful

sovereign

At

subjects.
at least

founded by him at Delhi.

professors

of

this

the

finest

cannot be

said

to

education of his

the

distant date there

this

one instance of a college

One of the most competent

institution

was Shaikh Husain.

tomb
Mughal monuments

also appears that the beautiful

of

Lala

Baz Bahadur.

as

have neglected
is

librarian

of

It

Humayun

one

seen

the

still

in

neighbourhood of Delhi

was, at one time, used as

a place of instruction, for which eminent scholars and
influential

men were

appointed as guardians.

Humayiin loved

beautiful gardens quite as

as his
ever,

with

Sher

father.

his

long

Unfortunately,

drawn-out

Shah Suri did not allow him

*o turn his artistic fancy

Nevertheless,

his

reign

to

this

tomb,

joy for ever.

which

ij

struggle

sufficient

peaceful

howtime

occupation.

was marked by the plantation

of at least one noble garden at Delhi

to his

much

still

the one attached

thing of beauty and a

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE'

48

He

Humayun was

deeply religious.
observed the dogmas

an(*

always
Muslim. All

religious beliefs.

a staunch

Sunni,
Ahl-i-Bait

for the

but

his

leaning

thought that he

favour

in

towards
of

the

Shia

that faith

is

his

Faith,

borne out

government

Hnmayfm was

a delightful friend.
In the camp, he was a bon comrade

of

his

He was
an

was

his

inclined

life,

andestlmaS
son,

faith

to live like a true

by the *act that the entire machinery of

was in the hands of the Stu&s.
In private

carefully
his

profound love and respect

(Family of the Prophet) shows that

he was favourably

and

tried

of

affectionate

and

soldiers

State

officers.

a faithful friend, an obedient

brother.

As a man

of letters, he

passed most of his leisure hours in social intercourse

and literary discussions. According to Ferishta, he
was a prince as remarkable for his wit and humour as
for

the

urbanity

Stanley Lane-Poole

of

his

'his

manners.
virtues

In the opinion of

were

Christian,

and

was that of a gentleman '. At

life
was capable of immense energy and often rose to
controlled
the height of important occasions and
his

whole

times

he

serious

some

the singleness of purpose ; but

of his best qualities were marred by the excessive
situations

with

use of opium, to which he was badly addicted. The

heroic fortitude with which he bore the misfortune*

which

befell

him during

his fugitive

life,

the buoyancy

and the cheerfulness of his disposition

His
universal
sympathy and admiration.

of his temper

exact

unqualified indolence and generosity spoiled

his

career

NASIR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

49

and often deprived him of the fruits of his victories.

But for the fact that he vvas eclipsed by the extraordinary genius of Sher Shah, who was undoubtedly
superior to him in military skill and administrative
acumen, his talents would have found full scope and he
would have ranked with the great, though not with the
greatest kings of India.
his

abilities,

difficulties in

we must

While making an estimate of

take

into

consideration

which he found himself

at

the

time

the
of

the treachery of his brothers, the

the
opposition
Afghans who regarded the Mughals
as foreigners, and the precarious condition of the
his

accession:
of

Mughal Empire, which his father had founded but

had not consolidated. So, if Humayun failed to retain
what he had received as patrimony, viz., the Mughal
Empire, it was due more to the baffling political
he had before him, than to his
situation, which
personal faults and failures.

CHAPTER

IV

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

Sher Shah and his Successors

(15401556)

A
f

period of fifteen years elapsed between the overthrow and the re-establishment of the
.

Introductory.

of

Sur,

interval.

affords

great

Mughal pmpire m India. The House

founded by Sher Sh&h Suri, bridged over the
The l fe of the founder of the new dynasty
.

an excellent instance of how the early days of

aVe often, if not always, crowded with mis-

men

fortunes, to which, to a certain

extent, they

owe

their

future greatness.

Sher Shah's

original

name was

Farld.

He was

born in the year 1486 A. C. at Hi^sar

Firozz, where tys grandfather held a

His

joglr.

jdgirddr of Sasram and Khwaspur

boyhood was neglected by

his

Hasan, was a
His early
Bihar.

father,
in

father

owing

to the

with
Disgusted
his step-mother and the step-motherly treatment of his
father, who was devoted to the youngest of his four
ill-

treatment

of

step-mother,

who treated her

home and joined

wives and
left his

his

sons with preference, Farld

the service of

his

father's

There he applied
Jamal Khan,
himself sedulously to the study of Arabic and Persian.
His receptive mind imbibed and 'assimilated all that was
at Jaunpur.

benefactor,

imparted

to

him.

Impressed

by

his

industry

and

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

of

activity

Khan, the governor

mind, Jamal

him
Farid returned home and his

sent a message to Hasan, asking

<

kindly.

51

to

treat

father

of Bihar,
his

son

entrusted

him with the management of his jagirs, Sasram and

Khwaspur. He managed his father's estate admirably
and introduced the principle of direct settlement with
the cultivators, which may be described as the Raiyatwdrl System in modern terminology. After protecting
the husbandmen from oppression and placing the revenue
administration of the estate on a sound basis, he set
himself to the task of reducing the refractory Zamlndars
to obedience.
Between 1511 A. C. and 1518 A. C.,

when he was
considerable

in

charge of his father's jagirs, he gained

'

observes,

biographer
period of

During this time, as

he was unconsciously serving

experience.

his
his

apprenticeship for administering the empire of

In 1519 A. C. he was again compelled to

home owing to the hostile influence of his

Hindustan.'
qait

his

He

went to Bihar and entered the service

Bahar
of
Khan, son of Darya Khan Lohani.
governor,
It was under Bahar Khan that he acquired influence and
step-mother.
its

importance.

From 1522

A. C. to 1526 A. C.
service

activities,

of

appreciated

and

Farid was in the

Bahar Khan, who

his

services

greatly

in the civil

In one
departments.
of the hunting expeditions of his master he killed a tiger
and received from him the title of Sher Khan in

revenue

But differences having

between him and his master, he resigned his
In recognition of
service and entered that of Babar.

appreciation of that heroic deed.

arisen

52

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

his meritorious

services

Babar bestowed

upon him the

parganas, including those of his

the death of Bahar Khan his son, Jalal Khan,

governorship of several
father.

On

became king under the regency of Sher Khan, who

gained considerable power and influence during the
When Jalal came of age, he refused
minority of Jalal.
Smarting under the galling
tutelage of an ambitious Afghan, he invited the assistance
of the r"ler of Bengal, but the allies were defeated at
to play the second fiddle.

Surajgarh and Sher Khan became the ruler of Bihar.

Sher Khan'b spirit -vas restless from the beginning.
After the acquisition of Bihar, he

turned

his attention

whose
favourable

field

anarchical

towards Bengal,
state

offered

Early

in

for his ambitious enterprise.

the year 1536 A. C. he set out from Bihar and appeared

Mahmud Shah, the ruler of
before the walls of Gaur.

Bengal, instead of repelling the invader, bought him off

with a heavy bribe. The following year he repeated his
expedition of Bengal.
tracted siege and then

Rohtas, which

He

captured Gaur after a proattacked the stronghold of

soon capitulated.

Thus ended,

for

while, the independence of Bengal.

When Humayun
Recovery

heard of Sher Khan's successes in

the east, he lost no time in advancing

towards Bengal with a large Mughal

of

army.

Humtyun.

Afghan'

At

approach, the 'wily

retired to Bihar and evaded
his

enemy. The Mughals occupied Gaur and rechristened it Jannatabad. The Afghans, however, compensated
his

themselves

in

another quarter for their losses

They

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

upon the imperial

seized

territories in

53

Bihar and jaunpur

and overran the country as far as Kanauj.

Again, when Humayun heard about Sher Khan's

and

Bihar

in

activities

Jaunpur,

Battle of Chausa.

a(

march against him under his own

He crossed the Ganges near Munghir, but

army

to

soon found himself

in

ordered

his

command.

a serious

He

situation.

tried to

make peace with

the Afghan war-lord, but in v?in.

At
Chausa, an engagement was fought between the Afghans

and the Mughals, in which f he latter were defeated

and their Emperor plunged into the river flowing by and
would have drowned had not Nizam, a water-carrier,
saved his

Nizam was allowed

life.

two days and

all

the

officers

to

rub

as king for

were ordered to carry out

his wishes.

After his victory

in his

the

battle of

aSSUmed the

Battle of Kanauj,

was read

in

The coins
name.

Chausa, Sher

Sh fih
were struck and the Khutba

In short,

all

title

the

eT

'

formalities

of

kingship were gone through and there remained not the

least

semblance of allegiance to the Mughal

Emperor.

Humayun was now assured of the superiority of Sher

He now realised how shaky his position was.
Shah.
He tried to enlist the assistance of his brothers, but
The

failed.

him

against

preparations

not only refused to co-operate with

the Afghan danger, but hampered his

latter

as

much

as

they

availed himself of the dissensions

sons
his

of

army

He

could

among

Sher

Shah

the surviving

crossed the Ganges at the head of

and took his position near Kanauj. Humayun

Babar.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

54

advanced from his capital

In the battle

Sher Shah.

defeated and put to

*
r 01.
Conquests of Sher
the Punjab

upon a career

new

of

into

fall

undisputed ruler of
Jaunpur, Delhi and

Bihar,
TT

in

to

the
.

Hitherto his energies were

Agra.
concentrated on the expulsion of the
Mughals from India ; now that he

was successful
first

now

Bengal.

r*

Shah

flight.

was

Shah

Sher

and encamped opposite to

that ensued, Humayun was

achieving

his

object,

he launched

The Punjab was the

conquests.
hands.
It was willingly handed

his

over to him by Kamran. After occupying the Punjab,

Sher Shah reduced the Gakhar territory between the

upper courses of the

Indus and the

Jhelum

order

in

guard against the danger from the North- West; for

Kamran, the ruler of Kabul, and Mirza Haider, the

to

Kashmir, might combine together at any time

and attack him. Constructing a strong fort (Rohtas)
in Jhelum, he left 50,000 men under the command of
of

ruler

his trusted generals

its

and returned

to

Bengal to re-organise

administration.

After

quelling

rebellions

and

of

Malwa

Mahmud

Mallu Khan,

II,

taking advantage of

the

one of the local

disorganised

took possession of Mandu, Ujjain,

other districts,

under

his

and

peace
Bengal, Sher Shah turned his attention
to Malwa.
During the weak rule
establishing

of

disturbances

in the province of

and

own

othej independent

state

of

chiefs,

things,

Sarangpur and a few

up an independent kingdom
Besides Mallu Khan, two
control.
set

chiefs

had established

tiieir

sway

75

80

85

90

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

55

of thu country.
MalwS and Delhi
so
being
closely situated, Sher Shah's fears were wellfounded. Therefore, he set out to conquer that kingdom

over vast tracts

some ambitious and

lest

powerful neighbour should

the troubled waters*
He reduced

successfully fish in

Gwalior, Sarangpur, Ujjain and completed the conquest

Malwa by the end of the year 1542 A. C.

of

The conquest

Malwa was followed by a

of

of conquests

Conquests in
Rajputana.

in

Rajputana.
.

series

Raisin

c
was attacked and occupied in 1543
A. C.
Sind was conquered and then
Here
Jodhpur, the capital of Marwar, was besieged.

the Rajputs offered such a

Shah was compelled

Maldeva

the

camp

of

stout

resistance

have recourse to a ruse.

Marwar,

of the

that

He

Sher

caused

following request of the nobles

forged and thrown near

to be

Rajah
Let not the King permit any anxiety or doubt

"
find

to

containing the

letters,

of

its

way

to his heart.

Maldeva and bring him

During the

battle

we

to

will seize

to you."

The trick succeeded, for when Maldeva came to

know the text of the letters, he suspected treachery
and decided to retreat without resistance. The Rajputs
gave

him

all

assurances of

the

fidelity,

battle that

believe.

In

displayed

extreme valour,

but he would not

was fought, the Rajputs

but victory sided with the

Afghans. Encouraged by this victory, Sher Shah occupied

Mount Abu and then advanced to Chittor, which was

and entrusted to an Afghan officer. Having

secured his hold en Rajputana, Sher Shah undertook
an expedition against the Rajah of Kalanjar. The
taken

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

56

Rajputs again displayed their \

were successful.
During the

but

alour,

the

Afghans

when Sber Shah

siege,

was superintending the batteries, a bomb

He was removed
exploded and injured him fatally.
to
die
This
took
there.
to his tent, only
place on May
himself

1545 A. C.

22,

Thus ended the

eventful

career

of

Sher Shah, the founder of the Sur Dynasty and the

retriever of the fallen fortunes of the Afghan Monarchy,

Sher Shah had acquired an intimate

knowledge of Indian life and character.

Born

in India,

had had enough of experience in the

worK of administration while he was
**e

charge of his lather's estate. As a king, he proved

himself a very capable statesman and administrator.

in

In

many

respects he anticipated the

"The whole

Great.

of

work

of

Akbar the

his brief administration," says

His
Mr. Keen "was based on the principle of union."
with
the
of
of
methods
dealing
India, so
peoples
different

in character

and

and language,

culture, religion

statesman-

affords a culminating proof of his sagacious

ship.

By

his administrative reforms

measures he rendered
spite of

its

his

reign

short duration.

He

for

reforming the social and

his

subjects

and

and humanitarian

so

very illustrious in
laboured day and night

intellectual

condition

advancing their material

of

interests.

The principal features of his administration are outlined

in the account that follows.
For purposes of efficient administration, the whole
Empire was partitioned into 47 DivifheEmpire.

sions, the

distributed

commands
among

the

of

which were
chieftains

of

tHE AFGHAN REVIVAL

57
>

hostile clans,

were a

whose intern jcine feuds and mutual jealousies

sufficient guarantee against their ambitions.

Division had several Sarkdrs each having a Shiqdar-ia Munsif-iShiqdaran, or Shiqdar-in-Chief, and
t

A Sarkdr

comprised a
number of Parganas, each having a Shiqdar, an Amln,
a Khazanchl, a Munsif, a Hindi writer and a Persian

Munsifan, or Munsif-in-Chief

clerk

accounts.

to write

A Pargana

embraced many

villages, each having a Muqaddam, a Chaudhrl and a

Patwdrl, who served as intermediary officers between

The Shiqdar was

the State and the subjects.

whose

chief duty consisted

a soldier,

in enforcing the Imperial

firmans and furnishing military aid to the Amln whenThe Amln was a civil officer, who
ever he required it.

Government for his

The Shiqdar-in-Chief and the Munsif-in-Chief

was responsible
actions.

were

work

the

to

the Central

principal

civil officers

of the officers of the

who

looked

Parganas under

after the

their charge.

Their chief duty was to watch the conduct of the people

and to administer justice. The Subahddr, now known
as provincial governor, was in charge
and was responsible only to the Crown
civil as well as military.

God on
As an

earth,

astute

Revenue System.
turists.

He

Division

Sher Shah

was

He was the shadow

authority.
answerable to no human authority.

the fountain-head of
of

The Crown

of a

for his actions,

all

manager of the estate of his father,

Sher Shah had realised at an early date
that the stabilit y
his em P ire de P end '
\

ed upon the happiness of the agriculhad ahc understood that the traditional

methods of the hereditary revenue

officers

deprived the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

58

of a large amount of its dues.

He, therefore,
caused the whole land under the plough to be measured

State

and portioned into bighds. The holding of every tenant

was measured at harvest time and ^th of the gross
produce was fixed as the share of the State. The agriculturists

revenue

were allowed the option of paying the land

in cash or in kind according to their conveni-

The

ence.

industrious

looked

No

after.

ryots

and

obnoxious taxation

injury

were

protected

from

their interests

were carefully

to cultivation

was tolerated

Special guards were stationed to see that no damage

was done to the growing crops.
Agriculture was

encouraged, forests were cleared and opened for cultivation.

Granaries were erected and corn stored for the
of need.

times

The

instructions

were worked with great

the

cultivators

This

to

the collectors

efficient

actual

to

lenity.

relieve their

Advances were made

distress in

measurement

of the land untier

all its essential features,

name

of

to

bad davs.

system of revenue settlement, based on the

cultivation,

subsequently developed by Akbar the Great and

the

of

revenue were couched in humanitarian terms and

land

was

has, in

survived in British India under

'Raiyatwari Settlement'.
%
was
administered
throughout
justice

Even-handed

the length and breadth of the empire.

06*58 and Mir-i-Adls (judges) tried

civil suits and criminal cases in the
Dar-ul-'Adalat, or Courts of Justice. They dealt out
inflexible justice, so much so that no one could evade law

and escape punishment by reason of his high birth or rank.

Punishments awarded were very severe, so severe as 'to

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

59

The Fanchdyat System also was in

The
Hindus
had their disputes decided in the
vogue.
The jurisdiction of these courts of
Panchdyats.

set

an

example'.

was

arbitration

restricted to civil

and the

inheritance, succession

disputes relating

to

like.

Sher Shah organised a most modern police force. He

did not make any punitive police out
f
but converted the
of
gentlemen,
PoUc^lSrce.
the
the
and
robbers
rebels,

malcontents

He

peace.

and

the

miscreants

repressed crimes

into

in his

custodians

of

kingdom by introand enforcing

ducing the principle of local responsibility

it

throughout his dominions.

for

responsible

the

detection

The Muqaddams were

cases

of

of

theft

and

highway robbery. If they failed to find out the thieves

and the robbers, they were forced to make good the
losses.
Likewise, if a murder occurred within their
and they failed to produce the murderer,
This system of
were
arrested
and put to death.
they

jurisdiction

'

local
life

responsibility

resulted in the complete security of

The

and property.

travellers

without the least anxiety even

in

and wayfarers slept

a desert, and the

Zamlnddrs themselves kept watch over them

The Police Department was
of the
king*.
assisted

by a body

Muhtasibs, who

of censors of

for fear

greatly

public morals, called

put down such

crimes as adultery and

drinking and enforced the observance of religious laws.

There

also existed a
service,

Secret Service.

age.

An

efficient

regular department of secret

because

espionage

was ab-

so i ute ly indispensable in that despotic

army

of diligent

spies

was employed

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

60
in order to

keep the Emperor in touch with

all

that

occurred in his empire.

Sher

Shah abolished many oppressive taxes and

took only
&
J those which he thought
System.
were legal and less burdensome. So
he made a clean sweep of all internal customs and
allowed the imposition of excise duties on the frontier

__
Tariff
_

and

at the places of sale

within the

This reempire.
revived trade and

of the
system
of taxation and removed
burden
the
reduced
commerce,
The Jizid was
discontent to a considerable extent.

construction

tariff

also abolished.

Shah paid great attention to the development

of the means of communication and
His name is intitransportation.
Communication.
Sher

tion

mately associated with the construcroads and highways on a large scale. The

of

of

longest

Sunargaon

roads

his

the

to

was

Indus.

the

one running

Besides

this,

from

there were

other important roads which were so dexterously

planted that they linked almost all the strategic cities

many

Of them, three
of the empire to the Imperial Capital.
deserve specific mention at this place: (1) from Agra
to Burhanpur, (2) from Agra via Bianah to the borders
of Marwar,

and

sides of these

intervals

after

from Lahore to Multan.

On

both

roads shady trees were planted and at

constructed for the comfort and

serais were

convenience

a well,

(3)

of

travellers.

Each

mosque and a garden

by a set of

in
r

officers,

viz.,

*a,h

serais had
waS looked
Imam, a Mu'azzin

of

the

it.

and some watermen, appointed by the

It

State*

Inside

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

the

serais,

separate

61

accommodation was allotted to

Brahmans were employed for
the former and Muslims for the

Hindus and Muslims.

convenience of

the

the

service of

Dwelling upon the importance

Mr. Qanungo remarks that they became

latter.

of these serais,

veritable arteries of the empire, diffusing

'the

new

hitherto benumbed limbs '.

There sprang
market
towns
them
and
a brisk trade
busy
up around
was the natural consequence.
life

among

its

Sher Shah was equally interested in the maintenance

of a highly
*

Postal Service.

The

serais,

them the news

dak chowkis, and through

parts of

remotest

organised
postal service.
B
r
referred to, served as

were

the empire

of

dispatched

the

to the

two horses were kept to

and
foot-runners
and horsemen
service;
provide postal
were posted along the highways and they carried the
imperial firmans^ or dispatches, from place to place.
In

Emperor.

serai

every

an excellent

If there

existed

Shah,

was because he had

it

means

of

postal system under Sher

sufficiently

developed the

communication.

Sher Shah
Military Reforms.

endeavoured

introduced several reforms in the army.

In the first place, he tried to put an

to

end

to

feudal

system

bring his soldiers in close contact with

Therefore, he combined in his person the

functions of the Commander-in-Chief and the Pay-

himself.

Master

General.

their officers
officers

the

not

and

He
told

as their

Emperor.

himself

them

paid

to

obey

personal chiefs

Previously,

the

soldiers

their

and

immediate

but as servants of

whenever

provincial

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

62

gove-nor rebelled against the Sultan, his soldiery sided

with him and not with the latter.
Sher Shah at once
abolished this system and ordered his soldiers to
obey
the imperial firmans first and those of their immediate

Thus, with one stroke of wisdom the

main cause of rebellions and revolts was removed. Second-

officers

ly,

after.

Sher Shah checked fraudulent

Ala-ud-DIn
the service
of

the

soldiers

The marks on

troopers.

in their

and drew up descriptive

of the State,

and

Oil

the hodies of

descriptive rolls

their

persons

rolls

of the

were entered

their horses

and compared

at

the time of

by the Emperor
were fixed after personal

salaries

The system

inspection.

the

were recruited

Soldiers

inspection.

himself and

musters by reviving
the horses in

of branding

system

Khilji's

of assigning jaglrs

in lieu of

was abolished and cash salaries were paid to

the rank and
file from
the State Treasury.
Military

service

were not allowed to stay in one place for more

years.
During their f marches they were
ordered to behave properly and were
strictly warned
officers

than

two

against damaging the growing

Shah established fortified posts

kingdom

in order

to prevent

invasion.

As

result,

immunity

from

foreign

population was kept

At

his

its

credit

and

many

Sher

parts of his

the possibility of external

India enjoyed
complete

attacks,

Sher Shah

SyStem

and

the recalcitrant

the

found the currency

COuntr y under his

control in

the financial

in

Finally,

in check.

accession

Currency Reform.

crops.

stability of a
credit upon

confusion.

He knew

that

government depended upon

He, therefore,
currency.

its

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

undertook

the

establishing

He

of

task

issued gold,

silver

the

reforming

the financial

63

stability

and

coinage,

of his

and copper coins

government.
in

abundance

and gave them a fixed standard of weight, fineness

and execution. The twofold advantage of the reform
in the current coins of the country was that prices
were low and trade was brisk.
Sher Shah was a remarkable
S

UC

Welfa re

aim-houses,

patronised art

maktabs and madrasahs,

monasteries,

and

teachers
of free

public

agriculture,

systematically constructed roads and

bridges, laid out beautiful gardens

and terraced-walks, erected

caravan-serais,

of

promoter

He encouraged

welfare.

and

hospitals

founded

literature,

established

and

mosques

and

granted stipends and scholarships to the

the taught, maintained a large number

kitchens

in

short,

he tried to

do

all

that he

betterment of his subjects.

His guiding
one
should
be
of
principle
deprived
of
State benefactions and that no one
his due share

could for the

was that no

should have a superfluity of the same.

Sher
A

Shah was a good builder

a

Architecture.

magnificent

erected
in the Punjab.

city
J

the famous

also.

at
fort

The mausoleum, which he

He made
Delhi

and

of Rohtas
built

while

he was living and in which he was buried after his

\ieath, is one of the splendid monuments in India.

The

palace he constructed in the Fort of Agra has

exacted the encomiums of Fergusson, the historian
of Indian Architecture?

"

Ini

the citadel

of

who

writes

Agra there stands

or

at least

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

64
stood

when

was there

a fragment of a palace built

which was as exquisite

Sher Shah, or his son Salim,

by

a piece of decorative art as anything of its class in India.

Being one of the first to occupy the ground, this palace
was erected on the highest spot within the fort hence
;

the present Government, fancying this a favourable site

for the erection of a barrack, pulled it down, and

by a more than usually hideous brick erecThis is now a warehouse, in whitetion of their own.
washed ugliness, over the marble palaces of the Moghals
it

replaced

two

fit

standard

of

comparison

of the

tastes of

the

races.

"Judging from the fragment that remains, and the

received on the spot, this palace must have

accounts

gone far to justify the eulogium more than once passed

on the works of these Pathans that they built like
for the stones seem
giants and finished like goldsmiths
to have been of enormous size, and the details of
'

'

most exquisite
like

many

finish.

another

under

has passed away, however,

its
noble
class,
building of
It

our

rule.

Mosques we have

and sometimes tombs, because they

were unsuited to our economic purposes, and it would
generally

not

spared,

answer to

offend

the

religious

feelings

of

the

But when we deposed the kings and appropriated their revenues, there was no one to claim their
now useless abodes of splendour. It was consequently
found cheaper either to pull them down, or use them
as residences or arsenals than to keep them up, so that
natives.

very few
*

now remain for

the adrrfiration of posterity."*

Ferguson's Indian and Eastern Architecture, pp.

572-73.

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

65

Sher Shah's ideal of kingship was very high ^nd be

Shah's ideal

*.

!t -

u
He

he

fell little
i

j.

use d to sa y

T^
"

behoves the great king to be always

himself looked into the minutest details of

He

active."

*.

s " ort

of kingship.

to his credit that

said

it

vShcr

government and kept a vigilant watch on his civil

and military officers. He spared no pains in advancing
his

In his

the interests of his subjects.

"The
tecting

essence of royal

the

(kings) should
in

all

should

of the

They

subjects.

use the principles of justice and equality

dealings with

their

protection consists in pro-

and property

life

own words

instruct powerful

their best to refrain

all

classes

officials

and

of people,

so that they

from cruelty and oppression

may

try

in their

jurisdiction."

Suffice

secured

the

he lived up to this ideal and

homage and acquiescent good-will

to say that

it

sincere

Hindus and Muslims alike.

Sher Shah is a most interesting figure in the history
oi Muslim India. Commencing career

of his subjects,

TT

His estimate.

a private soldier, he raised himself

sovereignty of India and ruled successas

gradually to the
fully for

about

one who

hesitated to

the capacity of an emperor.

cessary bloodshed and
3,

staunch

He was

five years.

never

SunnI,

handle

He

self-made man,

spade even in
never indulged in unnea

was all averse to cruelty.

was not intolerant

but

He was
of

other

He was

a bigot without intolerance. He was

his Hindu subjects. He exempttowards
kindly disposed
ed them from the JiziZ and other taxes imposed upon

creeds.

the Zimtnls (non-Muslims).

He

encouraged education

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

66

among them and took them

in his service

without

restric-

As a

general, he occupies a high place in history.

His military operations against Humayun were directed

tion.

wonderful

with

and

skill

strategy.

In the

decade he overthrew the Mughal Empire

space of a
and revived

Afghan Rule by founding the Sur Dynasty. His

successful campaigns against Malwa, Bundelkhand and
Rajputana speak much for his military genius and
show that he was a great military commander. But
the

he

will

tration

go deep down

which

vvas
If

more for his adminisju^t, wise and vigorous, than for

he knew how to conquer, he also
in history

anything

else.

knew how

to consolidate his conquests

by

his indefatig-

industry and sleepless vigilance.

By his administhe
land
revenue
reforms, by
system which he
introduced, and by tho policy of religious toleration
able

trative

which he always adhered to, he prepared the ground

for the greatness of Akbar the Great.
In view of his
civil and military achievements, one is inclined to agree
with one who says that 'if he had b'een spared he would
have established his dynasty, and the great Mughals
would not have appeared on the stage of history'. Unfortunately, like Babar, he enjoyed a brief ^eign of about
five

short

years

period,

but

all

that he

entitles

accomplished during this

him to rank with the greatest

sovereigns of India.

Sher Shah was succeeded by his young

Khan,

who

son,

Jalal

was

proclaimed king
because of his arrival in the camp in

time on

Becoming

king, he

assumed

the

death

of his

father.

the title of Sallm'Shah, but

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

67

maxim " Uneasy

wears a crown". The turbulence of

soon he discovered the truth of the

the head that

lies

the

unruly Afghans compelled him to have recourse to drastic

He issued several regulations and strove
measures.

hard

to

his

strengthen

He

position.

arrested

the

Amirs, who were

against him, and imprisoned them,

or put them to death, as he thought fit.
Although he
fell far

short of his father's standard, he proved himself

Barring out a few disturbances, he

a
enjoyed
peaceful reign of about eight years.
quite a capable king.

The

was Shuja'at
Malwa, who had
Khan,
accumulated enormous wealth and had

to feel the force of his arn*s

first

the governor of

M^wa^and^
the Punjab.

effectively

over

the

established

hfc

under

country

authority
his

rule.

Receiving intelligence of the indentions of the Emperor,

he sent submissive and reverential representations and
so secured

the

his

safety.

was

Punjab,
Salim Shah

When

not go

act

orders to

Punjab.
of

the

lebellion.

of

Azim Humayun, governor

but

prudent

summoned him

personally

but

sent a

The King took

representative.

an

less

insubordination.

more

of

arrogant.

to his court,

he did

substitute to act as his

an

this

as

He

issued

insult

and

peremptory
head against the
Azim anticipated drastic action on the part
Emperor and therefore broke into open
his

army and

He was

set out at its

defeated

at

Ambala and put

to

Again he gathered strength and fought an

engagement and again he was defeated and put to flight.
In Kashmir he was shot dead by certain tribesmen.
flight.

The Punjab was

occupied.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

68

Another important event of Salim Shah's reign was

r

the

Under
it

eloquence

pursuasive

masses and

when

rise

of

religious

movement.

created

the influence of

Alai's

disturbances in the Punjab.

assumed threatening

it

Shaikh

roused the religious zeal of the

dimensions

But,

and

its

adherents began to defy the State authorities in the

open, the Sultan was compelled to order the immedi-

and execution of the Shaikh.

arrest

ate

were carried

out and Alai was put to death.

the movement
author died

The orders
With the
when it

death of

its

was quite

in its inception, its followers gradually

dwindl-

ing into insignificance.

repression in order

Salim Shah adopted a policy of

to establish his authority in his

Government
ot Sriliin

Shah.

dom.

He

standing
enforced

his

authority.

..

king.

maintained a well-organised
army and through it he

He

curbed

Amirs and took away from them

all

the power 01 his

the instruments

war they had in their possession. He deprived

them of their elephants and put an end to the practice of

of

granting money for a certain quota of horses supplied

He held the strings of tne State coffers
to the State.

own hand and effected economies wherever

He maintained an efficient spying
possible.

tight in his
it

was

system and kept himself informed about all the events

of his reign through it.
A new code of regulations was
formulated and justice was administered in accordance
with
the

it.

Neither the

Munsifs,

were

Qazls

nor

empowered

regulations. In order to enforce the

the
to

Muftis,

interpret

only
these

new code 'throughout

THE AFGHAN REVIVAL

69

the kingdom special troops were stationed and the King

himself endeavoured to see that the machinery of his

government worked well.

Salmi Shah died in 1553 A. C.
by

Muhammad
Shah

Shah

'Adil.

a profligate debauchee.
the nickname of 'Adali,
his

after

followed

to the throne.

Khun,

K^

and

king

Muhammad

He was

The latter was, however, killed by

hjs und ^ Mubariz
who became

'Achl

1553-5o.

his son, Firoz

'

enthronement,

assumed

the

title

of

The new king proved

himself

He

himself

soon earned

the fooMsh

he

began

for

'

Tor

to

immediately

dissipate

the

resources of the Imperial Treasury in senseless prodigality.

Himself a chartered libertine, he allowed t^e adminisof

tration

his

empire to be controlled by his clever and

capable minister, Hemu, who managed the affairs of

But even
the State with great vigour and wisdom.
then it was impossible to bring under control the

elements

jarring

Salim
the

The

King's

and

Delhi,

machinery

when

broke
of

out

at

the

death

everywhere

administration

of

and

collapsed.

own

cousin, Ibrahim Khun, seized upon Agra

but he was soon beaten by his brother,

Sikandar Sur,
whole of the

Ganges.

had escaped

Rebellions

Shah.
entire

that

who succeeded

in securing for himself

the

between the Indus and the

was
the
Such
chaotic condition of Hindustan
territory

messengers

Humayun,

inviting

were

him

sent
to

to

the

occupy the

ex- Emperor

throne of

his

ancestors.

This brings us to tne main theme of our history.

Humayur, our homeless hero, was not idling away his

THE MTTGHAL EMPIRE

70

Though

time.

the

of

their

his

courses

of the

help

defeated

deposed and driven out

was not altogether deserted by fortune

India, he
stars in

defeated,

Sultan
lost

months he

Persian

fighting

King,

Sikandar Sur

empire.
fell

were

After

from the

on January 24, 1556 A.C.

stairs

he

of

the

him.

With

attacked

India,

for

and

took

possession

brief

reign

of

of his library

twelve

and died

CHAPTER V

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

(1556-1605 A. C.)
Reconquest and Reconstruction

Humayun was
j

succeeded

Akbar,

who

unrivalled

He

Indian history.
about fifty

for

mighty

human

by

his illustrious son,

stands as a splendid and

figure in the annals of

successfully ruled in

years,

and during

this

this period

country
he made

and

enduring contributions to the cause of

His versatile activity, embracing
happiness.

every sphere of human endeavour, and manysided achievements assign him a place second to none
in the history of India.
No other Mughal Emperor

almost

is

extolled so

much by

historians as he for his sagacious

statesmanship, dexterous diplomacy and military skill.

In this short space it is impossible to do justice to his
reign, which most unmistakably comprises the brightest

epoch

of

therefore,

The present account is,

history.
to be imperfect.
It does not, however,

Indian

bound

omit anything important. For the sake of clarity and

convenience the subject is divided into five parts:
(1)

Reconquest

Annexations,

(3)

and

Reconstruction,

Din-i-Ilahl,

(4)

(2)

Territorial

Administration,

and

(3) Literature and Fine Arts.

Akbar was born

Akbar's early
against

life.

Sind

Amarkot on the 23rd of

November, 1542 A. C. His father,
Humayun, was out on an expedition
at

with the Rajah of that place (Amarkot)

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

72

when
son.

he

received

He

searched

the

news of the

birth

of

his

the saddle

bags of his escort and

found only a bag of musk which he distributed among
his friends and prayed that the fame of his son might
spread in the world like the smell of that substance.
The boy was brought up in the camp by his mother,

Hamida Bano Begum.

At the tender age of twelve

months his father left him in Qandhar at the mercy of
his uncle, Kamran.
There his education was sadly
At the age of five years his vindictive uncle
neglected.
exposed him

when

the

latter

of

shots fired by his father

was besieging

he had

however,

volley

narrow

Kabul.

escape.

By

Fortunately,
the time he

attained the age of twelve, he had acquired considerable

in the control of camels, horses and elephants.

skill

He had had enough

of experience in the use of arms

much of warfare as a companion of his

and had seen

father in his fugitive life.

At the age of thirteen he was
called upon to occupy the throne of Hindustan on the

death of his father.

While Akbar was on his way back from the

where he had gone with his
Punjab,
J
u accession.
His
father's faithful friend, Bairam Khan,
.

put an

end to the misgovernment of its governor,

Abdul Mali, he received at Kalanaur the news of the
to

death

of

his

father.

After performing the customary

mourning, the coronation ceremony was gone

through in a garden on the 14th of February, 1556

rites of

As the new king was only a boy of thirteen,

1
Bairam Khan began to act as regent and formally

A. C.
took

charge of

the

Imperial

Government.* Akbar's

JALAL-UP-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

73

brother, Muhammad Hakim, was confirmed

government of Kabul, which, though a dependency of Hindustan, was none the less an independent
kingdom.

younger
in his

After his restoration,

Humfiyun

did not live long to

establish his authority in Hindustan.

The political

He

condition of
India in 1556.

died only
,

Akbar,

son,

year

and

after,

therefore,

In 1556

a troublous inheritance.

to

his

succeeded

A. C. anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in India

and famine and pestilence were rampant in the rank

and

The

file.

fairest

and Agra,

Delhi

including

which carried away

were

Northern

visited

by

India,

plague,

number of f he people.
Delhi had become a bone of

large

throne of

the

Politically,

of

provinces

contention between the Afghans and the Mughals, and

the country had been reduced to a mere geographical
or

expression,

congeries

of

small

The

states.

North-West India was contested by

on the one hand, and Muhammad Shah
'Adil on the other.
The former had collected a large

sovereignty

of

Sikandar Sur

arrny in the Punjab and was aspiring for the sovereignty

of the whole of Hindustan the latter had retired to the
;

uas increasing the area of his

but his indomitable commander-in-

eastern provinces and

influence
chief,

there

Hemu, who had earned

for

himself

unique
as

many
by successfully fighting
from
was
battles,
advancing
twenty-two pitched
towards
his
of
the
master,
Agra
Chunar,
capital
with a large army, gathering strength on his march
military

distinction

as

from the enemies of the Mughal cause.

Before Bairam

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

74

Khan came
Beg,

to the rescue,

Governor

the

and

put

Hemu

occupied Delhi,

to

coins

struck

Canopy

Agru had fallen and TardI

defeated
Delhi, had been
fall

of

Agra,

ascended the Mughal Throne,

own name,

his

head

his

the

After

flight

in

over

of

and

raised

the

Imperial

assumed the title of

he was with the ambition

Consumed as
Vikramaditya.
of conquests, he was equally aflamed with

idea

the

of

The fact that Humayun

acquiring the empire of India.
was dead and that a boy of thirteen was on the throne
broadened the horizon of his ambitions.

Kabul,

under

Muhammad Hakim,
all

intents

threatened

enjoyed

was an independent kingdom to

and purposes. Its existence as such was
by

its

of

inflicted

Badakhshan.

of

under

independence

The Rajputs
shock

Sulaiman

Rajasthan

its

Bengal

Afghan

Chiefs.

had recovered from the

on them by Babar

they were

now

in

Malwa ?nd
unchallenged possession of their castles.
Gujarat had renounced their allegiance to the Central
Government during the

Gondwana

was

ruled

reign of

by

its

Muhammad
own

local

Tughluq,
chieftains.

Orissa was independent. Kashmir, Sind and Balochistan

were free from external control. The Deccan Sultanates
of

Ahmednagar,

Khandesh and
own Sultans, who were at

Bijapur,

Golconda,

Berar were ruled by their

daggers drawn with one another.
of

Vijayanagar

then

towered

The Hindu Empire

supreme

in

wealth,

The Portuguese were powerstrength and civilization.

ful in the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf ; they
sway of the western sea-coast and possessed
some good sea-ports, including Goa and Diu.

held the

JALAL-UD-DIN

Such was the

MUHAMMAD AKBAR
India

of

situation

ascended the throne.

eof

when Akbar
was fortunate

he

Mughal Dynasty that the

young Emperor had a powerful supand an excellent general and statesman in Bairam
for

ISt!lSk
porter

It

75

Khan, who served his master and secured

he attained the age of discretion.

till

his position

The

first

important thing that he was required to do as

regent

Hemu, who was advancing

against

was

to fight against

the

Mughal Emperor

at the

head of a huge army. Almost

Mughal armv advised the Emperor

to retreat to Kabul,
but Bairam Khan successfully
resisted such a pusillanimous step as would have spoiled
all

the officers of the

Forthwith he
prospects of the Mughal Dynasty.
ordered the immediate arrest and execution of TardI
the

Beg on a charge of misconduct

enemy, and himself marched out

in the face of

to

the

oppose Hemu.

Fo-tune favoured the resolute Mughal general from the

An advance-guard had already handicapped

outset.

Hemu

by capturing the whole park of

his artillery.

The

commanded by a military genius of no

came to severe blows at the memorable

two armies, each

mean

merit,

plain of Panipat.

Hemu made

a furious charge of his

wing of the Mughal

elephants and soon threw the
army into confusion, and there was considerable conleft

sternation

in

the

turned at once in
thick of fight,

Mughal Camp. The tide of

favour of the Mughals when,

Hemu

was

and rendered unconscious.

his

elephant

decided

Mughals won the day.

the

hit in his

The
fate

fall

of

victory
in

the

eye with an arrow

of the leader from
the

battle.

The

Hemfl, the hero and the hope

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

76
of

the

Hindus,

was

taken

and

prisoner

brought

Emperor. Bairam was anxious to see the

young emperor slaying a most formidable enemy, but
the chivalrous Shahinsktih refused to do so, saying
before the

that

it

was unchivalrous

to slay a

upon Bairam Khzln took out

Hemu.
The

his

fallen

There-

foe.

own sword and

slew

removed the most powerful

Hemu was
opponent of Akbar.
His army was
defeated and slain.

victory at Panlpat

the'eatul

routed.

ruthlessly

large

including a big treasure and 1,500 elephants,

fell

booty,
into the

Delhi and Agra and the

hands of the victorious army.
were
The way was
districts
occupied.
neighbouring
prepared

Hindus

for

further

own

to establish theu

The

The

conquests.

rule in

hopes of the
India were dashed

Mughal arms was

established and Akbar was hailed as the Emperor of
The Afghan Rule came to an end and the
Hindustan.
Mughals began to rule in India. These were the net
to the ground.

results of the

A month

prestige of the

Second Battle of PanTpat.

after the Battle of Panlpat,

and
Submission of Sur

Akbar

towards
thr n6

the
f

turned

their

attention

Sur claimants to the

^^

elusions with

Bairam Khan

Bef

re

^'^

Hemu, Bairam had

CO "'
sent

against Sikandar Sur, who had retired to

the Siwalik Hills
and had taken shelter in the

an army

stronghold of Mankot, from where he could easily

defy the authority of the Emperor. The fort was

beleaguered and Sikandar

was reduced

to su^.h straits

JALAL-UD-DIN
that he

was compelled

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

77

He

consented

to sue for peace.

to surrender himself if he was decently provided for.

The stronghold was occupied and Sikandar was assigned
an estate in the east, where he died in 1569 A, C. In

1557 A.

C Muhammad Shah

Adall met his death in a

Thus, within a

conflict with the king of Bengal.

span

time, the three acknowledged

of

Akbar were got

of

and he was now securely seated

Delhi.
Next year (1558) Ajmer,

rid of,

on the throne of
Gwalior

brief

adversaries

and Jaunpur

were annexed to the

Mughal

After these conquests, Bairam Khan turned

his serious attention to the internal administration of the

Empire.

But ere long he carne into conflict with his

ambitious and impatient royal ward. The story of his
rise and fall is an interesting episode in the early history

country.

of the present reign.

A Turkman
Bairam Khan,
or

by birth and a Shia Muslim by faith,

Bairam Khan was one of the most

and

devoted

Khan Bba.

Humayun.
master

by him
his

been

all

in

He

followers

had suffered with

of
his

and had stood

the privations of a fugitive
some of his most trying situations. But for

advice
able

faithful

life

and
to

assistance,

reconquer

Humayun would

India.

Akbar was equally unmixed and

not have

loyalty towards
his services to the

His

was at his instance

Mughal cause were invaluable. It
chat the Second Battle of Panlpat was fought and a
At his accession Akbar cannot be
decisive victory won.
It was
said to have possessed any definite kingdom.
and the surrounding
during his regency that Delhi, Agra
were occupied, and Ajmer, Gwalior and
districts

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

78

It
was he, again, who
Jaunpur were conquered.
removed the rivals of his young master and securely
seated him on the throne of India.
His ability, age and

experience enabled him to acquire an inestimable

influence in the Mughal Empire.
He was a shrewd

He was

and a

rigid disciplinarian.
his master's youthful friendships and

politician

any favours which the

jealous of
tolerate

would not

might bestow upon

latter

his

servants without his consultation.

Unfortunately
TT

His

,,

fall.

enongh, Bairam Khan had made

many enemies at the Court byJ his
.

haughty

Hamlda Bano Bagum,

behaviour.

Maham

the

Ankah,
and

foster-brother

Delhi

all

demeanour

foster-mother

him

Adham

Khan,
Governor of

the

reasons of

for

arrogant

the Queen-mother

Shahab-ud-Dln,

these disliked

and

their

own.

They availed themselves of every occasion to foment

the feelings of irritation between the Emperor and the
At last a trifling incident brought about a
Protector.
serious quarrel between

two.

the

was amusing himself with an

got out of

Once,

when Akbar

elephant-fight, the

two

broke

contesting animals
They
the
Bairam,
Kuan's
enclosure, stampeded
camp
through
In spite of Akbar's
close by, and put his life in danger.

strong

protestations

accidental, the

Khan

that

the

lost his

control.

occurrence

temper

and

was purely
immediately

execution of an innocent personal servant

At this Akbar's indignation knew no
of His Majesty.

ordered

bounds.

the

For some time there was a

between the
reconciliation

feeling of coldness

Emperor and his Atallq (tutor), but a

was effected when the former soothed the

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
ruffled

feelings

of

the

79

by giving him the hand

Humayun. But before

htter

of Salima Sultana, the niece of

long Bairam executed another courtier, Pir Muhammad,

for an alleged offence.
By such actions as these he not

only strained his relations with the Emperor but also

The
earned for himself a host of enemies at the Court.

appointment of
(Shias) to

high

his

own

and

offices

kith

kin

and

co-religionists

in the State grossly offended the

Sunnl Orthodoxy. His punishment of the Emperor's

servants and courtiers for the most trivial misconduct
had already estranged him to the Emperor but when
that his regent was harbouring
learnt
latter
the
;

plans of placing Kamran's son, Abul yasim, on the

The breakingthrone, the tension took a serious turn.
Now a conspiracy was
point had already reached.

organised

against

him and

at the instance of

Maham

Bano

Ankah,
Begum,
Shahab-ud-DIn, the Emperor went to
pretext

hunting,

with

order

his

feelings

mother,

regent.

Maham Ankah

Bairam
against
the Emperor,

Khan.

Soon

following

henceforth

to

tutelage

of

govern our

far-removed

Mecca
from

to Delhi to see

While he was

already smarting

rather

domineering

'

being our intention

people by our judgment, let

our well-wisher withdraw from

retire to

matter.

from Delhi, Akbar issued

after his return

declaration

his

the

employed all arts of

She fomented the

who was

of

under the galling

and

Bianah, on the

to discuss

it

intrigue

the

in

was arranged that he should go

mother, who was given out to be ill.

There
his

of

Hamida

Adham Khan and

It

all

worldly

to pass the rest of his

the toils

of

attachments
life in
1

public

life.

prayer,

Bairam

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

80

Khan soon

what was passing behind the

that
he had gone too far, he sent
Realising

screen.

discerned

two trusty officers to the Court with

assurances of
unabated
and offered
loyalty towards the throne
and
Akbar
supplication
humility.'
imprisoned the
*

',

messengers and sent a certain Pir Muhammad Khan,

once a subordinate of the Khan, at the instigation of the
Court Party, in order to hasten his departure to Mecca.

Bairam Khan's pride was touched

the

outburst

He

rebellion.

and

of

him

in

he

wrath,

was, however,
the

before

brought

pardoned

his

view of

and

to the quick,

broke

in

open

taken prisoner

defeated,

Emperor,

into

who

graciously

When

his past services.

he

reached Lahore, where the Emperor was holding his

Court, he was greatly impressed by the reception
He threw himself at his sovereign's
accorded to him.

and burst into tears. The forgiving King at once

raised him up and made him take his former place on the
right hand side at the head of the grandees of the

feet

Then His Majesty

Empire.

robe

magnificent
alternatives

would be

(1)

of

honour

invested

him

and offered

with

him

three

he preferred to remain at Court, he

honour as the benefactor

If

treated with profound

(2) If he chose to remain in

Royal House
be
he
would
office,
given the governorship of one of the
Imperial provinces, and (3) If he wished to retire to a

of the

he would be honourably provided for and

comfortably escorted to on his pilgrimage to Mecca
He replied that, having once lost his master's confidence,
religious

any more
added that the clemency of the Padshah was

he was

and

life,

not

willing

to continue in his service

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

81

enough, and his forgiveness was more than a regard

"
for his former services.
Let me, therefore, turn my
"
to another and be
thoughts from this world," he said,
to

permitted

Padshah approved
suitable escort
his

the

to

proceed

the

Holy

Shrine."

of his decision, provided

The

him with a

and assigned him a liberal pension for

But he was not destined to reach

maintenance.
'

He was murdered on

Holy Shrine*.

private

This

at Patan.

enemy

his

way by

took place in January

1561 A. C.

Bairam Khan's dismissal cleared the way for the

Court Party, the most prominent
'Petticoat
Government':

member

1560-64 A. C.

whom
,

which was Mahr.m Ankah,

v
u
j
historians have described as
of

u-

'

the

'prime confidante of the Ring in all the affairs of

the State.
While dwelling upon the dismissal of Bairam

Khan, Dr. Smith remarks that the Emperor shook off

the tutelage of the Khan-i-Khanan only to bring himself
under the monstrous regiment of unscrupulous women ',
'

and further observes that the most unscrupulous of them

was Maham Ankah, who conferred high offices upon her

The Doctor

worthless favourites.
in

his

remarks.

Akbar was not

Had

at

all

that been the case,

his fall,

enemy

the

terrible

facts.

for

he had no greater

Court than that women.

contrary to her wishes that the

treated after his rebellion.

been undei the

all justified

dominated by Maham Ankah.

the fate of Bairam Khan, after

would have been

at

not at

is

His views are contradicted by

thumb

of

Khan

Again,

Maham

if

It was quite
so
was
honourably

Akbar had

Ankah, as he

is

really

alleged

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

82

Adham Khan, her son, would have been

man to receive a high title or a big jagir. But
we know for certain that he was not entrusted with any

to

the

have been,
first

Doubtless, he was
responsible post in the State.
sent against Malwa at the head of an army, but

once

when

the spoils of war after success,

marched
against him in person and chastisEmperor
ed him for his brazen insolence.
Afterwards, when he
murdsred Shams-ud-Dln Atka Khan, on whom the

he

misappropriated

the

Emperor wished
the

against

will

thrown down
result that his

to

bestow the

of

his

from

office of

Vakil, quite

foster-mother, he was twice

the ramparts of his

brains were

fort,

with the

knocked out and

his

life

came to an end. If,

Emperor had been
under the influence of Maham Ankah, the punishment
awarded to Adham Khan must have been much milder.
therefore, the

Akbar acted independently

own judgment, though he sought the

That was, however, not

so.

according to his
advice of the Court

Party in certain affairs of the

kingdom and held his foster-mother in high esteem.

By

the year 1564 A.C. Akbar had fully establishS

A. c!

seated

firmly

ed his authority; he had taken the

reins of administration in his
own
hands, had overcome his rivals and had
himself on the throne of Delhi.
He had

the tutelage of Bairam Khan and the influence

of the Court Party and had entered upon his personal
As a man of strong imperial instinct,
government.

shaken

off

he aspired to become the spyereign-ruler of India.

Before he entered upon a career of conquest, he was
called

upon

to suppress a series of rebellions

and

revolts.

JALAL-UD-DIN

One

of the

MUHAMMAD AKBAR
officers

of

to the position

of

Uzbeg

Akbar had

xisen

Kban Zaman

appreciation of his valuable

KhanZamln.

83

at the Battle of Panlpat

U556

in

services

A. C.).

In 1560 A. C. the Afghans of Bengal, headed by Sher

Muhammad

'Adali, made an
were
They
utterly defeated
by Khan Zaman, who, however, refused to send to His

Shah

II,

son of

Shah

attempt to recover Delhi.

the elephants, included in the spoils of war.

The Emperor took the field against him in person and
advanced towards Jaunpur. When the Kh?n heard of the

Majesty

Emperor's advance, he marched out to pay homage

to His Majesty, taking with him not only the elephants
but the rest of the booty as well as other propitiatory
With his usual generosity, the Emperor
offerings.
passed over his act of insubordination and confirmed

him

government of Jaunpur shortly afterwards.

Adham Khan was employed by Akbar against Baz
Bahadur of Malwa. He won a decisive
in the

AdhamKha n.

Zaman by
quest.

As

victory near Sarangpur over his enemy,

but followed the example of Khan

and retaining the spoils of the conwas not enough, he went a step further

rebelling

if

this

Elated by his success, he

made

a lavish distribution of

the booty in order to increase his popularity, retaining,

however, for himself the royal ensigns and a major part
of the treasure, which ought to have been sent to the

Emperor as a matter of course. Akbar instantly

marched into Malwa at the head of the Imperial army,
took Adham Khan by surprise before he could break into
open rebellion, captured the booty and removed him

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

84

from the government of Malwa

After his misconduct

the expedition against Malwa, Adham Khan was kept

the Imperial Court, where he grew jealous of the
promotion of Shams-ud-Dln to the position of Vakil, i.e.,

in

at

Smarting under the loss of his

government of Malwa, he entered, one night, in the
Diwan-i-KJ}as with some of his retainers and stabbed

Prime

Minister.

Vakil

the

to

The

death.

noise

that

the

followed

mi Her, aroused the Emperor from his sleep, brought

him out of his private apartment and attracted him to
1

the scene of the occurrence.

the

Finding

his minister dead,

dealt such a blow to the traitor that he

Emperor

senseless to the ground.

He was

twice thrown

fell

down

from the terraced-roof of the royal palace inside the

and killed. This took place in 1562 A. C.

fort

superseded by Pir Muhammad

the government of Malwa.
But

Adham Khan was

in

Abdullah Khan.

was more a man

the

people

letters

than

His barbarous treatment of

of war.

of the province strengthened the cause of

Baz Bahadur,

who was

thus

enabled

to

expel

the

dominions with the help of the

Mughals
Pir Muhammad .was drowned
Sultan of Kbandesh.
out of

while his

Narbada.

command

his

defeated

troops

were

crossing

the

river

Akbar dispatched another army under the

of one Abdullah

Khan who

inflicted

a severe

Baz Bahadur and recaptured Malwa. After

some futile efforts to recover his kingdom, Baz Bahadur

defeat on

took

service

under

the

of the province

Mughal

wa made

Emperor.

The

over to Abdullah

government
Khan, who soon followed the example of

his predecessor

JALAL-UD-DIN
by an attempt

him and,

after

at

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

85

Akbar marched against

fighting, compelled him to take

rebellion.

some

refuge in Gujarat.

Hotly chased

into

(Abdullah)
Revolts of Uzbeg
Chiefs- 1565-1567

chief

rebellious

ultimately

the

Gujarat,

made
.

his
,

way
,

Jaunpur, where he joined hands

with the traitor, Khan Zaman, and

in *

common cause with them against

Mughal Emperor. An insurrection of threatc:;In &

Asaf Khan, and made

the

dimensions broke out in Jaunpur in 1565

lasted

till

1567 A. C.

rising of the

Uzbeg

family of Babar,
of

Akbar and

was somjthing

A. C.

and

like a general

Chiefs, the hereditary enemies of the

who
his

It

did not like the Persianised ways

sympathetic

attitude

towards

his

much so that they now intrigued

favour of Kamran's son, Abul Qasim. The

Persian officers, so
against him

in

Imperial army sent against Khan Zaman was defeated in

156j A. C. Thereupon the Emperor himself advanced

towards the insurgent chiefs, who at once made a show

of submission, but never submitted.
A little afterwards
they were joined by the disaffected Afghans and the
discontented
Musalmans of the eastern provinces.
Before Akbar could find time to suppress the rebellion

he was called upon to protect the

was
which
simultaneously invaded by Mirza
Punjab,
Muhammad Hakim of Kabul. At this critical juncture

of the

Uzbegs,

he displayed marvellous courage, resourcefulness and

He lost no time in marching to the
presence of mind.
the
allies of his brother and putting
Punjab, dispersing

them

to

discomfited

flight.

The

Mirza

returned

to

Kabul

After restoring internal tranquillity in the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

86

Punjab, the Emperor again turned his attention to the

insubordinate Uzbegs.
Post-haste he marched into the

and took them by surprise at Mankuwal (ten miles

from Allahabad). Khan Zaman was killed in the battle
which ended disastrously for the
His
Uzbegs.
east

accomplices were severely punished while Abul Qasim

was executed in the fort of Gwalior. Thus, the back of
the

Uzbeg

"nnressed

rising
till

was broken, though

it

was not

Another instance of insubordinate and

of^cers,

Monstrous act
of

finally

1573 A. C.

who

head-strong

tried to take

law

in their

own hands and

Khwajah

escape punishment
misconduct owing to their
.

for their

Mu'azzam.

friendship with or influence over the

of Khwajah Mu'azzam, a half-brother

Emperor, was that

dowager-queen, Hamida Bano Begum. This

half insane monster
took his wife to his country-seat

of the
1

'

and stabbed her to death. This tragic accident took

At the request of the deceased's
place in 1564 A. C.
mother, Emperor Akbar hurried to the scene of the
occurrence, seized the murderer, Mu'azzam, and his
accomplices, and threw
Gwalior.

them

Akbar did not take long

into the State Prison

to

realize that

there

of

was

something grievously wrong with the

P
i
TT
soon
He
policy of his predecessors.

Akbar and

the Rajputs.

discovered
establish his empire he

that

if

must broad-base

he

wanted to
on the

his rule

acquiescent good- will of his subjects, irrespective of their

creed.
Of all the dynasties that had yet

caste or
ruled

India, that of

Tamerlane was the most insecure

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
in its foundation.

secure the

the

Rajputs
born

This sense of insecurity led him to

of

sympathies

the Hindus

in

general and

The latter constituted the

Hindu community. They were

in particular.

of the

military class

the

'

87

war-lords

indispensable

the

to

and

India

of

cause

new

the

of

was

their support

dynasty.

Accordingly, Akbarset himself to the task of reconciling

Rajputs to the ideas of the Mughal Rule. The

following were the methods he adopted
(1) With the true acumen and insight of a statesman
the

he entered into matrimonial alliances

Matrimonial

...

.,_

--

TU
The

-a.

Wlt " t" e Rajputs.

alliances.

c.

*.

first

-o--

-.

Rajput

Rajah to give him his daughter in

marriage was Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber. This
support of a brave
It symbolised,
Rajput family.
says Dr. Beni Prasad,
the dawn of a new era in Indian politics, it gave the

marriage secured

the

powerful

'

'

'

sovereigns ; it secured to
emperor the services of some

of remarkable

country a line

four generations of

Mughal

f
cap ains and diplomats that mediaeval
India produced'.
This marriage was solemnised in
1562 A. C. In 1570 the Emperor married princesses

of the

greatest

from the Rajput States of Jaisalmir and Bikaner. In

1584 A. C, Prince Salim (Jahanglr) was married to the
daughter of Rajah Bhagwan Das.
(2) Towering above the trammels of religion and the
petty

prejudices

of

the Age, Akbar

appreciated and rewarded the services

and other Hindus,

of his

Hindu

Rajputs.
posts of power

and

subjects, particularly the

He

responsibility,

granted

both

them

high
and

in the civil

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

88

He

departments.

military

took them

dence and admitted

into

confi-

his

them to every
Todar
Mai, Rajah Bharmal, Rajah Bhagwan
Rajah
Das and Rajah Man Singh were some of those who
degree of power.

enjoyed high commands in the army. Nearly half of

Akbar's soldiers and many of his generals were Hindus.
(3)

The

was

basic principle of Akbar's policy

To

his subjects

all

toleration.

he granted

freedom of worship and the

liberty of

conscience.

conscience.

He

the

liberty of

abolished the Jizia,

,

levied

upon the Ziwwts (non-Mus-

the taxes imposed upon Hindu pilgrims.

treated his Hindu subjects as well as his Muslim

lims),

He

and

all

'

subjects

former

rather,

To

'.

adopted

their

with

please

customs

Hindu

his

and

Akbar took a

mixed

of

the

he often
freely with

beliefs.

lively interest in the welfare of his

Hindu

subjects.

He

tried to eradi-

ev ^ s that had honeycombed

While following the
society.

cate the

Reforms.

Hindu
policy

favour

subjects,

practices,

them, and seemingly shared their

(4)

in

leaning

toleration

of

hesitate to

and

reconciliation,

remove the abuses

he

did

of Hindu* society.

not

He

forbade child-marriage, discouraged Sati* and encourag-

ed widow-remarriage.
against

caste-restrictions

humanity.
*

Besides, he

He

and

practically

inculcated

preached
love

encouraged fellow-feeling among

of

all his

rite of burning widows alive with the dead bodies of

husbands, in vogue among t he Hindus in ancient and
madiaeval India.

their

The

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

89

and imparted education to all and sundry.

During his reign the Hindus studied side by side with
the Muslims without any restrictions of rank, race or
subjects

religion.

By such methods as enumerated above, Akbar

won over the Rajput element to his
Effects of the

Three

side

above methods.

accrued

benefits

from

the policy of toleration and reconciliation

over

him:

adopted by
;

(2)

when
was
and

support

Uzbegs

the

used

The Rajput danger was

(1)

Rajputs were
as

reconciled,

against

counterpoise

insubordinate

officers

and

(3)

their

the
their

loyalty served as a strong safeguard against the opposition of the Afghans who had been freshly dethroned.

For the

Emperor

operation
universally

hand,

it

it

was wise to

enlist

the

active co-

the Rajputs whoi.e martial qualities were

For the Rajpilts, on the other
admired.

of

was equally wise

their

appreciated

merits,

submit to a sovereign who

rewarded their services, res-

to

pected their feelings and tolerated their faith.

After erecting the famous Ibadat-Khana at Fathpur
Slkrl for the meetings of the intele

lectuals

of his

formal

letter of

reign,

Akbar sent a

invitation

to

the

Goa, requesting them to send to

bis court some of their most learned and well-qualified
Christian theologians to enlighten him on the philosoPortuguese authorities at

phical

basis

of Christianity.

The hopes

of the Portu-

guese ran high at the prospect of winning so desirable a

convert as the Emperor of India.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

90

In 1580 A. C.,
.

Rudolf

whom

the

after

invitation,

they

with the Imperial

complied
request
r
r
^
t
and sent a mission under Father

_.
...
First Mission.
.

a year

Acquaviva and
were renowned

Father Monserrat,
devotion

their

for

both

of

the

to

Akbar accorded the missionaries a most

He treated them with great respect
hearty welcome.
and permitted them to build a chapel at Agra. He
Christian faith.

evinced a keen

ana

Mary.

their

He

even

in

order

tuition

teachings on

sacred pictures of Christ

interest in the

the

placed

his son,

tc

the

try

unbiassed

Sallm,

effect of

mind

of the

under

Christian

young

but

nothing could shake his belief in his own faith. The

Fathers were grievously disappointed in their expectations ; for indeed the Emperor was a hard nut to crack.
first

achieving

mission
its

years at the Mughal Court,

returned in 1583 A. C., without

three

After a stay of

the

object,

i.e.,

without converting Akbar to

Christianity.

The second
***.
Second
Mission.
.

mission, sent from

Court
Mughal
~T

in

it

failed

to

convert

Akbar

590 A. C.

It

at the

too did

not fare better

for

Goa, arrived

than
to

its

predecessor

Christianity.

The

convinced the Jesuits that Akbar's

inscrutable, though he still remained

failure of this mission

mind was most

most favourably disposed towards them and loved to have

some of them with him. It remained at the Mughal
Court for three years

(1590-1593

returned, as unsuccessful as the

first.

A.C.)

and then

JALAL-UD-DIN

The

third

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

mission arrived
Imperial

Third Mission.

91

Lahore, where the

then resided, and it

at

Court

was extended a rousing reception. It

fared better than the first two inasmuch as it was
allowed to build its chapels in Lahore and Agra and to

make

converts

valuable trading

permanent

To

if

it

could.

facilities

and

institution in the

the Portuguese

Akbar's object.

secured

it

Besides,

more or

became,

many
less,

Mughal Empire.

Akbar was

at first

ment, then an enigma,

an encourage-

and

finally a

disappointment.
Why ? because his object in inviting the Portuguese missionaries
to his Court and showing profound veneration for the
bitter

Gospel was
to befriend

political

rather than

the Portuguese at
of artillery,

and

to

He wished

religious.

Goa,

who

secure

possessed

their

assistance

large park
against the stronghold of Aslrgarh as well as against his
own son, Salim, who had rebelled against him. Akbar
was more a politician and a statesman than a religious

Behind all his acts there

propagandist or a missionary.
were always some ulterior political motives

CHAPTER

JALAL-UD-DIN

VI

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

(CONTINUED)
Territorial Annexations

(Conquests)

The

the

experience of

and the events daily

notice alike awoke

past

to

his

coming
Akbar to the dangers and difficulties
that he would have had to face if India had continued
J

Introductory.

to be a congeries

He

pression.

at the centre

was

to

or a geographical ex-

of small states

felt

the

necessity for a

to control the outlying

enjoy

the

blessings

paramount power
provinces

eternal

of

if

peace.

India

The

unification of India, therefore, presupposed the conquest

of all those

no

which the Mughals had

parts of India over

control.

After the Battle

U556

of

Panlpat
occupied Delhi

Early conquests.

the

and

V>

Protectorate of

A.C.)

Akbar

Agra.
During
TT-I_
Bairam Khan he

Chunar and
Gwalior, Jaunpur,
conquered
Ajmer,
1 564 A.
he
had
C.
the
Mirtha
firmly seated
year
By
himself on the throne of
instinct,

he now

the

whole of

own

sway.

aspired

Delhi.
to

As a man

make

himself

of imperial
the ruler of

Accordingly, he buckled
himself to the task of reducing the whole of India to his

Hindustan.

He embarked upon

which was crowned

Aslrgarh.

in

1601

A. C.

career

of conquest,
the
by
capture of

MUHAMMAD AKBAK

JALAL-UD-D1N

In 1564 A. C. ht dispatched an

(1)

army

Gondwana in the
under the command

^
Central Provinces

of Asaf K]]an, the governor of Kara-Manikpur.

vati,

defended

as regent for her

acted

was

futile,

Gondwana was overrun and

battle-field.

The

dued.

Finding, however, that

she stabbed herself to death

army.

Imperial

further resistance

Rajah, resumed

(2)

By

which was

at stake.

the end of the year 1566 A. C. Akbar had

broken the back of almost all his

He now

formidable foes.
self free to

had been

Bir Narayan, the

and perished on the

the fight

a desperate defence of the reputation

field of battle after

of his house

sub-

was plundered and immense

royal treasure

booty was obtained by the invaders.

minor

Durga-

young son, gallantly

offered a stout resis-

kingdom and

her small

tance to the

on the

against

the Rajput State of

Oondwaiia.

who

93

found him-

campaign against Rajputana, which

postponed owing to the Uzbeg Revolt and
renew

his

Akbar, who
wanted to rule over a united and peaceful India, could
not brook the existence of such strong forts on the

An

other rebellions.

borders

Rana

of

frs

ambitious

empire

as

king

like

Chittor and Ranthambhor.

Rajput chivalry was dead.

His son, Udai Singh, was now the premier prince of
Rajasthan. Udai utterly lacked the qualities that had
Sangha, the

characterised

flower of

unworthy scion
Colonel James

Mewar had

He

proved to be the most

of the famous house of Bapa Rawal.

his father.

Tod

justly

remarks

'
:

Well had

it

been

poniard fulfilled his intention ; and

had the annals never recorded the name of Udai Singh

for

the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

94

'

It was, therefore, high

catalogue of her princes
time for the Mughal Emperor to resume his campaign

in the

He

Rajputana.

against

did

not,

forget that

perhaps,

Rana had given shelter and even pecuniary help to

Baz Bahadur of Malwa after his defeat at the hands of
the imperialists. The Ranas of Chittor were very proud
of their noble ancestry.
They had refused to enter into
matrimonial alliances with the Emperor and had all
the

An attack on Chittor was,

along defied his authority.
In 1566 A. C. Akbar
a
conclusion.
therefore,
foregone
took the

person against Udai Singh at the head

At his approach, the Rana retired

field in

of an efficient army.
to the inaccessiole

leaving a

his person,

Rajput

soldiers

command

mountainous country

of

in

garrison of

the

eight thousand brave

stronghold under the

and Patta. In October, 1567

Jayamal

thousand craftsmen

by which

order to save

charge of the

A. C. the famous fortress was

five

in

walls

who had

invested with the help of

skilled in engineering operations

were

to

be

undermined.

the decided

The

of position,

advantage
Rajputs,
defended themselves with great courage, but they could
not check the progress of the siege which was conducted
in the

or

most

covered

planned to

scientific

manner then known.

were

made

approaches,
blow up the stronghold

Two
and

with

sabats,
it

the

was
aid of

gunpowder. During the operations the powder exploded

and killed no less than five hundred of the

too soon

and many more of the besieged, crowded on the

The Emperor ordered the construction of new
mines and continued the siege with renewed energy.
besiegers

bastion.

By February, 1568

A. C. everything was ready and a

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

95

furious

attack

was

made- on the

Rajputs.

One

night

Emperor chanced to se^ Jayamal while the latter

was directing the repair of one of the breaches made by

the

the besiegers and shot him through his head. As usual,

the fall of the commander decided the fate of the

As Akbar advanced

garrison.

them undefended.
the

rite

of

to the breaches,

The Rajputs had

Jauhar.*

Wishing

to

he found

retired to

spare

perform

their lives,

Akbar summoned them to surrender. Committing their

wives and children to the flames, they came out "ana
fought and fell on the field of battle. Some of them
cut their way through and others saved themselves and
their families
by binding their own women and
'

children as prisoners, and, seizing a favourable opportunity, marched quietly through the cordon of besiegers
as

if

were a detachment of Akbar's

they

conducting

their captives to

the Rajputs resorted

the rear

to this ruse to

'.

It

Rajput

allies

appears that

save their families

from death, availing themselves of the knowledge that

the

Emperor had abolished the

prisoners

of

tolerated the

war,

otherwise

humiliation

daughters to fall into the

of

practice of enslaving the

would not have

allowing their wives and
they*

hands of the Mughals.

Akbar

returned to his capital, bringing with him this time as

trophy a pair of wooden gates instead of a beautiful bride.
*

When defeated and driven to despair, the Rajputs maswomen in order to prevent their falling into the

sacred their

hands of their victors and plunged themselves in the field with

swords in their hands, fought their foes without fear and fell
fighting on the field and dhd to a man. Sometimes their women
willingly perished in the flames kindled by their own hands. This

was known as Jauhar.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

96

folio we J by the capture of the two

Ranthambhor and Kalinjar. A little
after the conquest of Chittor, Akbar sent an army under
efficient generals for the reduction of Ranthambhor in

The

fall

famous

of Chittor

was

fortresses of

Rajasthan and himself appeared at the scene of action

in February, 1569 A.
Taking his position on the top
of a hill close to the almost impregnable fortress, he

commenced bombardment and

such

Rajah, Surjana Hara, to

He

to sue for peace.

the

and

Emperor who
sent

the Rajput
he was forced

sent his sons, Bhoja and Duda, to

robes of honour on them

conferred

them back

was so much

reduced

straits that

to

impressed

father.

The Rajah

this act of

magnanimity

their

by

serve His Majesty,

was complied with.

that he expressed his willingness to

Emperor Akbar. His wish

At first he was made a Qildddr at Garhkantak,
and a little later he was appointed governor of
the

Benares and Chunar.

Before advancing

thambhor, Akbar had

detailed

an

against Ran-

army under the

Majnun Khan Kakshak against Kalinjar.

Rajah Ram Chandra had already received the news
of the fall of the two famous fortresses of Rajasthan.
He submitted in 1569 A. C. and surrendered his

command

of

resistance.
He
stronghold to the imperial army without
was granted zjagir near Allahabad, and Kalinjar was

placed in

mander

Majnun Khan, the valiant comMughal army. Ram Chandra's example

charge of

of the

was followed by many

other

surrendered their states to the

Rajput

princes,

who

Emperor and joined his

But Udai Singh was ^ecure in his mountain
fortresses, whither he had retired at the approach of

service.

JALAL-UD-DIN
Akbar

There he had

at Chittor.

named
1572

it

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

after his

Udaipur
was

A. C. and

Pratap Singh,

new

built a

his

by

to be a

destined

city

He

own name.

succeeded

who was

97

and

died in

son,

Rana

most

deter-

mined enemy of Islam and an avowed champion of

Hinduism. He is said to have taken a vow to vindicate
and to expel the Musalmans
from India. Although his resources, as compared to
those of the Mughal Emperor, were absolutely insignifithe honour of his house

cant and

chances

his

between, yet he
those

who

fight

were few and

success

of

was fighting

for a principle

the chances of success or failure

for his

principles

do not stop
'.

rar

and

measure

to

This bravest of the

brave Rajputs plunged himself into a life-long struggle

to retrieve the sinking fortunes of his famous house and
continued an unbalanced war till he recovered a
considerable

excuse

for

part

of

the lost territory of Mewar.

war against him was needed.

No

Since he

refused to submit to Akbar, his destruction was, there-

determined upon. Rajah Man Singh, assisted by

Asaf Khan II, undertook an expedition against the
fore,

Rana

at the

head of a large army.

He

attacked

the

Gogunda in the Iravallies, but Pratab Singh

was guarding the pass of Haldlghat leading to Gogunda.
At the approach of the imperial army, a fierce hand to
hand fight began and ended in victory for Akbar. The
fortress of

Rana

received

serious

wound and

retired

to

the

For some time he was hardpressed by the

and
was compelled to live in the distant
Mughals
But in 1578 A. C. he was again in the
hilly fortresses.
mountains.

field

though

only

to

lose

Gondwana and Udaipur.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

98

Afterwards he was able to recover

almost

all

of

Mewar,
absence

Ajmer and Mandalgarh,

whose
presence at Lahore was highly
Emperor
Rana
necessary till the danger from Turan was over.
of
C.
the
whole
in
died
1597
A.
after
filling
Pratap
The danger from the
India with his undying fame.
in the

except, Chittor,
of the

North-West Frontier being over,

son, Salim, against
of

Rana

Emperor sent his

Amar Singh, the son and successor
the

Realising the impossibility of success

Pratap.

mountain warfare against an indomitable race, the

Prince retreated to Fathpur and thence to Allahabad,
leaving Amar Singh secure in his possessions to the end

in a

The net result

Mewar was that

of his father's reign.

of the

campaign against
Rana was humbled and the famous

the

protracted
of the

pride

fortresses of Chittor

and Ranthambhor were taken, Kalinjar and Ajmer were

occupied and Rajputana was constituted into a separate
province of the

Rajputs on

Mughal Empire. With most of the

Akbar could now freely indulge in

his side,

his ambitious projects in other regions,

(3)

It will

be Remembered that Gujarat was conquered and occupied by Emperor Humayun

though
therefore

wished

only
to reclaim it

Akbar
temporarily.
as a lost province of

Mughal Empire. Even in his own reign it had

become a place of retreat for insurgent officers and
The Mirzas, the Uzbegs and the
refractory chiefs.

the

had taken refuge there. It was there that

a serious insurrection had occurred.
Above all, the
wealth and plenty of the place, its flourishing trade and
maritime commerce had a lure that was
thriving
royal cousins

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

99

The time was highly favourable for the

Mughal Emperor to recover what was once a province of

irresistible.

For anarchy and confusion reigned

supreme in Gujarat owing to the struggle between
Muzaffar Shah II and the Mirzas who had established

his father's empire.

themselves there

Humayun. The nominal

in the reign of

king, Muzaffar Shah, was a mere puppet in the hands of

this faction or that. Moreover, Akbar received an invitation from Itimad Khan, the minister of Muzaffar Shah,

requesting
it

was

him

in.

Shah, who

to relieve the fair province of the chaos

Forthwith, he marched against Muzaffar

concealed himself in a corn field when he

heard of the

arrival

Ahmadabad.

After

chiefs

of Gujarat

foster-brother,
laid

siege to

of

the

receiving

Emperor
the

and putting

its

In

his

capital,

submission of

the

under

his

capital

Kban-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka, Akbar

Surat which surrendered soon afterwards.

The Emperor, who had never seen a sea, made an

excursion to Cambay and enjoyed a short sail on the
ocean. He also made acquaintance with the Portuguese
there. After introducing necessary administrative reforms,

Akbar returned

to

Fathpur

his back, the Mirzas

Slkrl.

As soon as he turned

broke into a serious revolt.

Post-

haste he marched again against Gujarat and, covering

six hundred miles in nine days, he reached Ahmadabad
'a marvellous

the rebels by

upon them.
rebellions

(1573 A.

surprise,

The

physical endurance*.

he

Mirzas,

inflicted a

crushing defeat

who had headed

the

Taking
so

many

were

Emperor,
finally crushed
Order was soon restored and fortune

against
C.).

feat of

again began to smile over Gujarat.

Rajah

Todar Mai

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

100

played a conspicuous part in restoring peace and plenty

to this province

The conquest

his indefatigable efforts

by

of

marks a new

Gujarat

history of Akbar's reign.

Mughal Empire,

it

bounds.

It

increased

vastly

After
to

began
to

brought

the

income,

its

epoch in the
annexation to the

prosper

by

leaps

and

Exchequer

Imperial

roughly

The Emperor

Rs. 50,00,000 annually.

and industry.

estimated

was

for

at

the

time brought into personal contact with the Portuguese, whose dealings with him had important political

first

Finally, the con-

on the history of the period.

effects

for further conquests.

quest of Gujarat prepared the way
It was used as a jumping-off point for the invasion of
It opened the way into the
the southern kingdoms.

Deccan and

Sulaiman Kara-am, who had founded an independent kingdom of Bengal in 1564 A.C.,

(4)

6nga

also accelerated the conquest of Bengal.

'

was wise

enough

to

acknowledge
1572 A. C.,

Akbar as his suzerain. On his death in

he was succeeded by his headstroiig son, Daud.
accession, the

He

decessor.

new king
read the

At

his

reversed the policy of his pre-

Khutbd and struck coins

in his

own name and openly defied the authority of the Emperor.

The conquest of Gujarat had extended the Empire of
Akbar

the west

in

natural

that the

right

up

ambitious

to

the

sea.

It

Emperor would

was but
desire to

Only a pretext
acquire a similar frontier in the east.
was enough to enable him to achieve his object. He
found one when Daud attacked and occupied the fort
of Zamania.
Akbar himsejr marched against him

and drove

him from Patna and

Hajipur.

He was

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

101

defeated at Tukarai in Orissa and was compelled to

submit to the Emperor and pay him tribute. Bengal
was annexed to the Mughal Empire and Munim Khan

was made
his

its

death

governor.

Munim

Daud

enabled

to

died in 1575 A. C.

recover

his

and

lost territory.

Akbar could not bear such an audacity. At once he

ordered his army to march against him under the

command

Again he was defeated

Rajmahal (1576 A. C.)
In connection with the conquest of Bengal
a
of a capable general.

and taken prisoner

at

must bt made

u _i
The Qaqshal

reference

Rebellion in
Bengal.

which broke out

T*.

causes were

Its

Jahan.

who

Q{
(1)

to the rebellion

in tha* province after

its

governor>

Kh

Muzaffar Khan Turbati,

was appointed

governor after
Khan-i-Jahan,
his measures and offensive in his speech*.

was 'harsh in
He was disliked by the people, specially the Qaqshals,
for the new methods of assessment and the new regulations regarding the confiscation

unauthorised hold-

of

His harsh policy and its rigid enforcement earned

ings.
him enmity from all quarters. (2) Owing to the bad
climate

of

allowances

When

the

Bengal,
of

his

Emperor had

soldiers

in

increased

the

that

province.
Imperial Diwan, reduced these
half, the soldiers suffered and agitated.

Mansur,

serving

the

allowances by
To allow discontent to enter the army was a blunder of
So rigorous was the inquest that
the first magnitude.
even the Sayurghal lands were not exempt from it. This
offended the Ulama, who preached and propagated against
the Emperor.
(3) Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul policy also precipitated the

crisis.

The

bigoted

Udlmd

declared

him

THF MUGHAL EMPIRE

102

an apostate from Islam and called upon the people to

a

carry

The

crescentade

impious emperor

the Chughtai Qaqsfadls

'.

who

pay the ddgh tax and advanced upon the

arms in their hands under their leader,

refused to

with

capital

Baba Khan.
tents

were

revolt

to

first

'

the

against

who

joined by other malcon-

They were soon

aggravated the

Rajah Todar Mai

trouble.

was sent by the Emperor to suppress disorder in Bengal,

uui the rebels had gained strength and the situation had
taken a serious turn.
Muzaffar was murdered and the
whole of Bihar and Bengal lay at the feet of the

Koka

Al;bar then sent Aziz

Qaqsbdls.

to the

aid

of

Todar Mai, and the two generals combined to crush the

Their efforts were crowned with success
Qaqshdls.
;

but soon after the suppression of the Qaqsbdl rebellion,

A
there appeared another danger on
the horizon.

Jdglrddr of Jaunpur, called

against the

him and

defeated

Siwalik

established

hills

him.

Imperial
private
in

Bengal

he did

favours

enemy
for

compelled

refuge
favour and the

But
a

his

not

Shah Baz Khan

time,

him

to

Emperor was
live

long

into

to

fury

the

put in

reconciled

enjoy

was cut short by

Though

the

flee

Aziz Koka

there.

career

little later.

some

Farankhudi, rebelled

government.

to find

a word in his
to

Masum

the
his

fighting continued

of

the recalcitrant

movement had considerably abated and the danger was

practically over.
(5)

Many

of the orthodox

Musalmans,

particularly of

the eastern provinces, intrigued against

the Emperor and wished to depose

him

iu favour of his

younger brother, Mirza

Muhammad

JALAL-UD-DiN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

103
>

Hakim.

Encouraged by this and emboldened by, the

and revolts that followed one another in
rapid succession, the Mirza sent an army under one of
rebellions

When this expedition

Punjab.
he launched another under his general, Shadman,

his officers to attack the

failed,

who was
head of

by Rajah Man Singh. In

the Punjab at the
thousand horse. In vain he tried to

and

defeated

Hakim

1581 A. C.

fifteen

slain

invaded

himself

induce the inhabitants of India to join him.

Akbar not
only repelled him, but pursued him to Kabul and compelled

him

surrender his

to

the sovereign-ruler
teristic
till

anJ

territory

to

With

Hindustan.

of

submit to

his charac-

clemency, he allowed his brother to retain Kabul

Mirza Hakim died in 1585 A. C. and

his death.

Kabul was converted

It

Empire.

into a

was placed

who was soon

in

charge of

Mughal

Rajah Man

Singh,

called back because he could not keep

He was

the unruly Afghans under control.

Rajah BIr Bal,

the

of

province

who

relieved

by

was, however, killed in a campaign

The results of the conquest of

against the Yusafzals.
Kabul may be enumerated here In the first place,
:

it

to

dealt a death-blow to the orthodox rebels

make Mirza Muhammad Hakim

who wanted

the ruler of India,

inasmuch as he was regarded as a strict Sunm. Secondly, it cowed down the conspirators and the personal
awe, inspired by Akbar's character, courage and capacity,

held the waverers

a free
indulge

hand
in

impunity.

for

his

to duty.

the rest
religious

Fourthly,

it

of

his

gave him
he could now

Thirdly,
life

innovations

removed the

it

with absolute
barrier

which

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

104

had hitherto prevented the inhux of hardy soldiers from

Afghanistan and immensely increased the military
resources of the Emperor.
Finally, it removed the
possibility

Frontier and

from

invasion

of

kept

India

in

beyond the North-West

immunity from external

aggression.

The problem

of the North- West Frontier has always

engaged the attention and influenced

North-

Chat's
Frontier
West

t he

Policy.

policy of

internal as

well

the

as

external

almost all Indian governments. During the early Muslim period

the Emperor-Sultans adopted effective measures against

the

invasions.

Mongol

by constructing a series
points in the

They safeguarded

their

kingdom

of military outposts at vulnerable

North- West

Frontier

and

by stationing
there.
and
Balban,
garrisons
strong
experienced
redoubtable
made
Gbazi Malik and Ala-ud-Din Khilji
With Akbar as
efforts to fortify the frontier outposts.
officers

the emperor of India, it was but natural to

firm hold on the North-West Frontier.

conquest of

Kabul,

he tried to

reduce the

establish a

After

the

tribal terri-

He shifted his court to Lahore, where it remaintory.

ed from 1585 A. C. to 1598 A. C. During this period
he was busy

in

reducing

The Uzbegs, under

the Uzbegs and the Afghans.

had ousted

their leader, Abdullah,

Badakhshan and had now fixed

Abdullah, an ambitious and
experienced general as he was, was likely to receive
support from the orthodox Afghans against the 'heretical
Emperor '. Akbar's fears were not ill-founded and he
was ful'y alive to the gravity of the situation.
Mirza Sulaiman

their

out of

eyes on Kabul.

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

105

But, before dealing \.ith his formidable enemy, he

turned his attention to the suppresRoshanite
,
sion of disaffection caused by the
Movement.
.

Roshnai Movement. The Roshanites*

were defeated and

their leader, Jalal,

was

who had

intended

at Gbaznln and his

and
sent
to the Imperial
captured
accomplices
Court.
This occurred in 1600 A. C. After effectively
suppressing the Roshanites, Akbar undertook to put an

an invasion

of India,

killed

were

end

who

to the agitation of the Yusafzai Pathans,

make common cause

Zain Khan was sent

migni,

against him with Abdullah Uzbeg.

He defeated them
against them.

twenty-three fights and established fortified posts to

But the Imperial troops were soon
hold them in check.

in

exhausted owing to
foe, so

much

so that Zain

for reinforcements.

activity of

the wily

Khan was compelled

to apply

the ceaseless

The Emperor

ness of the situation and

realized

soon sent an

the serious-

army under

the

Rajah Bir Bal and Hakim Abdul Path,

none of whom had any experience in the use of arms.

command
As soon

of

they joined Zain Khan, the three generals

began to quarrel among themselves and thus gave their
enemy the advantage of divided counsels. The result
as

campaign was that as many as 8,000 Imperial

Bir Bal
soldiers were slain with stones and arrows.
of the

was

also

killed

In order to

and Zain

retrieve the

Khan had a narrow

escape.
disasters of this campaign, the

Emperor sent Rajah Todar Mai and

his

own

son,

* The Roshanites wre the followers of one

Bayazid, who
claimed to be a prophet himself and attached little importance

to the teachings of the

Holy Qur'an.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

106

This
Prince Murad, at the head of a large army.
was
the
luck
in
for
store
better
a
imperialists.
completely crushed

the

rebels,

and according

to

time

They
Abul

'

Fazl,
large number (of the enemy) were killed, and
many were sold into Turan and Persia. The country
of Sawad (Swat), Bajaur and Bunir, which has few

equals for climate, fruits

cleansed of the evil doers/

and cheapness

of food,

was

The result of this campaign

was that the Yusafzals were subdued and Abdullah was

convinced of the imperial resources, so that he gave up

the idea of Indian conquest.
(6)

The conquest

Kashmir was accomplished in

1586 A. C. without any serious
/
The Muslim
opposition or difficulty.

Kashmir.
rulers of

Kashmir

cruelties

on

their

of

were reported
subjects

to

have committed

who were mostly Hindus.

This afforded a favourable opportunity to interfere with

the

independence

of

that

kingdom.

The

excellent

climate of the valley and its natural scenery must have

During
equally attracted the attention of tHe Emperor.
stay at Lahore, Akbar availed himself of the
anarchical state of Kashmir and made an attempt to

his

annex

it

to his empire.

He

sent Mirza

SLah Rukh and

Bhagwan Das against Yusaf Shah, its ruler. A

was
peace
patched up between the imperialists and the
Sultan when the latter agreed to send his two sons to
the Emperor as hostages.
Akbar disapproved of this
and dispatched another army under the command of
Rajah

Qasim Khan

to

wrest

Kashmir from

its

ruler

who

had evaded the humiliation of paying personal homage

to His Majesty.
The imperialists pressed Yusa* so hard

MUHAMMAD AKBAK

JALAL-UD-DIN
he offered

that

his

who had managed

But

submission.

107

his son, Yiaqub,

to escape, continued to struggfe

he too was defeated and forced to submit.

and his son, Yaqub, were enlisted

Both Yusaf

tnansabddrs

as

Kashmir was constituted into a part

In 1589 A. C. Akbar paid a
Kabul.

till

and

of the province of
visit

to

Kashmir

and entrusted its administration to efficient officers of

Henceforth Kashmir became
ability and experience.
the
of
the summer-seat
Mughal Emperors.
(7) Multan had been under the Mughal EmperoiS
since 1574 A. C. Its governor, KhanSmd and
_
T
i-ivnanan Abdur Kahim, was entrusted
Balochistan.
.

,,,

with the task of conquering Sind and

still outside the ambit
of the

Balochistan which were

Empire. Mirza
Sind, was defeated

Indian
of

Beg,

the Tarkhan ruler

two

engagements

Jam
in

and

compelled to surrender both the stronghold of Sehwan

and the small state of Thatta. This took place in 1592
A. C.

Through the good offices of the governor of

Multan, Mirza Jam Beg was allowed to retain the
principality of Thatta and was made a commander of
5,000.

He

gave a good

proof

of

his

loyalty

and

The

distinguished himself in the Deccan campaign.

year 1595 A. C. saw the annexation of Balochistan.

Mughals attacked and occupied the

Mir Masum.
As a result, the
Balochistan succumbed to the Mughal arms.

In February the
fort

of

whole of
(8)

^
x
QandhSr.
..

Sibi

under

The conquest

of Sind

Akbar

and Balochistan supplied

with

an excellent ^
point

d*

appui

for the conquest

of Qandhar,

the scene of his ancestors' activities and exploits.

In fact

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

108
it

was a necessary prelude

Mirza

tu

that premeditated idea.

Muzaffar Husain, the

King of Qandhar,

was

harassed by the Turks and theUzbegs.

A kbar benefited
from this weakness of the Shah. He sent an expedition
to

Qandhar

at the

invitation

the

of

Shah,

who was

In May, 1595
entangled in a conflict with the Uzbegs.
A. C. the imperialists took charge of the province
without bloodshed.
It was indeed a master-stroke of

Without straining his relations with the

Akbar annexed Qandhar to his empire. The

diplomacy.

dian,

conquest of Qandhar completed the conquest of Northern

It secured Akbar's position in the countries of
India.
the North-West.

It

brought home to Abdullah Uzbeg

the military strength of

he

tried to

Uzbeg

Emperor Akbar and henceforth

now

invasion of India was

The

The

maintain friendly relations with him.

a thing of the past.

acquisition of Kabul, Kashmir, Sind, Balochis-

and

tan

conquest

rounded

completed the
Northern
and
India

Qandhar
of

off

the

Mughal Empire which

The turn of
steadily extended and consolidated.
It
was
next.
Akbar's
the South came
long-cherished

was

desire to bring the Shia Sultanates of the

his

Now

own sway.

Deccan under

that he was successful in establish-

the North, he found himself at

authority
The
leisure to turn his attention towards the Deccan.

ing

in

his

distracted state of the Sultanates induced

the troubled

With

waters.

Hindu Empire

the

him

destruction

to fish in
of

the

of Vijayanagar, the motives of co-operaSultanates had died, giving place to

the
amongst
disunion and disorder
Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda,

tion

JALAL-UD-DIN
Berar and

Shia

109

had renewed their hostilities against

Akbar could not tolerate this. First he

Bidar

one another.
tried

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

methods and sent embassies

diplomatic
Sultans,

them

to the

acknowledge his
As only
regular tributes.

inducing

to

suzerainty and to pay him

the king of Khandesh agreed to the imperial proposals
and the remaining four gave a flat refusal, war was

declared against them.

(9)

Owing

to

Ahmadnagar.

geographical position, the state of

Ahmadnagar was first to be attacked.
its

Moreover,

its

a bone of contention between

throne was at that time

two

rival claimants,

one

of

whom had

sought theassistance of the Mughal Emperor.

Akbar sent a large force under the joint command of

Murad, and Khan-i-Khanan Abclur Rahim,

who laid siege to the city early in the year 1595 A. C.
But, owing to the heroic defence and stout resistance
his son, Prince

offered

by Chand

Sultana,

make
when the

to

the

imperialists

in

lady herself
sword in her hand and a veil on her face, and

breach

failed

the ramparts except one

appeared on the scene with a

any serious breach

In the end the

repaired.

Mughal

had

the

generals,

who

did not co-operate with each other in perfect harmony,

were obliged to abandon the siege. A treaty was made

who

with the Sultana

Mughal Emperor.
the minor prince, for
regent,

Owing

In

agreed
return

to

for this,

whom Chand

was acknowledged

cede Berar to

Sultana acted

as the king of

as

Ahmadnagar.

to the internal dissensions which resulted in

Chard Sultana and

the

Bahadur Shah,

the

the attempts of the

the
of
terms
treaty by recovering
intriguers to violate the

assassination of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

110
Berar from

the

was

war

Mughals,

again

declared

Ahmadnagar. In February, 1597 A. C, an

was fought, in which both the parties
and
warfare
claimed victory.
followed
Desultory
continued till Akbar sent his intimate friend and
to restore discipline in the
Fazl,
counsellor, Abul
Abul
imperial army despatched against Ahmadnagar.
Fazl reached the Mughal camp after Murad had died
of
In 1600 A. C. the Emperor himself
drinking.
advanced against Ahmadnagar and took the field in
person.
Burhanpur was easily occupied Prince Daniyal
and Khan-i-'vhanan Abdur Rahim attacked Ahmadagainst

indecisive battle

nagar.

Chand Sultana, the

life

and a singular instance

and soul

of

heroic

was no
was
stormed
Ahmadnagar
and about 1,500 of the garrison were slain during the
siege.
Ahmadnagar was then annexed to the Mughal
defence

longer alhe.

The

of self-sacrifice,

fortress of

Empire.
(10)

The campaign

against the Deccan was brought

to a termination -in 1601 A. C.,' when

Khanclesh.

the

famous

fortress of Asirgarh (in

was stormed and the entire kingdom of

Khandesh annexed to the Mughal Empire. Before the
siege of Ahmadnagar, Khandesh was submissive and
its ruler, Raja 'All, was a friend of the Mughal Emperor.
But the new Sultan, Miran Bahadur (also known
Khandesh)

as
off

Bahadur Shah) was a headstrong youth, who threw

the imperial yoke and refused to recognise Akbar as

his overlord, relying for his safety

Asirgarh,

which

impregnable

was undoubtedly

fortresses in

on the strength of
one of the most

the South.

Akbar himself

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

111
t

undertook an expedition against Bahadur Shah and* laid

siege to Aslrgarh early in the year 1561 A. C. .The

months and the beleaguered

siege lasted for full seven

most heroically

out

held

to surrender.*

Emperor
fell

the whole kingdom

they were bribed by the

Asirgarh fell and with its fall
till

of Khandesh.

The southern

conquests were organised into three siibdhs, or provinces,

and their
and Berar
viz., Ahtnadnagar, Khandesh
;

government was made over to Prince Daniyal.

At his accession in 1556 A. C., Akbar inherited an
India divided and ruled by different

Mh

the
lers,

Mughal,.Lmpire

On

under Akbar.

Hindus

his death,

as well

as Muslims.

he beqreathed a solid

and compact empire to his successor.

A.
1605
C. he was the sole monarch of the
By the year
*

There are three different accounts of the siege of Aslrgarh

as given by 'Allama AbulFazl, Faizi Sarhmdl and the Jesuits.
My account of the siege is based on a careful study of these three
sources. Dr. Smith calls in question the evidence of the first
the accounts of the Jesuits as entirely correct.
no reason why the accounts of the foreigners be preferred

two and accepts

1

find

to those of the natives, especially when there are other sources

of evidence, too reliable to be refuted. FenshtS, than whom

there can be no more trustworthy historian of the Deccan,

in important
supports the accounts of Abul Fazl and Faizi
When the Dr. charges Akbar of perfidy and says that
details
he had recourse to treachery in order to capture the stronghis condemnation is wholly
Akbar bribed the garrison against
Bahadur Shah and there is ample justification for this In the
first place,
the prestige of the empire demanded that Aslrgarh
should be captured by any means.' Secondly, Prince Salim had
revolted in Northern India and the Emperor's presence was

hold, he

not at

is

unfounded.

It is

all

justified;

true that

'

'

Considerations such as these urged the

urgently needed there.
emperor to employ bribery to g;un his ends, and in apportioning

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

112

whole of Northern India and

in

the Deccan

as the

his

sway extended

Godavari.

as far

North the

the

In

Himalayan range formed the boundary of his empire.

Within these limits the Mughal Empire extended from
sea to sea.
It had as many as 18 important provinces
:

(6)

Oudh,

Delhi, (2) Agra, (3)

(I)

(4)

Gujarat, (7) Bengal, (8) Bihar,

(II)

Sind,

(12)

Multan, (13)

Allahabad,

(5)

Ajmer,

(9) Orissa, (10)

Malwa,

Lahore,

(14)

Kabul,

Kashmir, (16) Kbandesh, (17) Ahmadnagar, and

Akbar died soon after the capture of Aslrgarh.
Berar.
(18)
Had he lived a little longer, he would have conquered the
(15)

remaining parts of InJia and annexed them to his empire.

The closing years of Akbar's reign were embittered
sorrows and disappointvv
His sons were a great source
Murad and
anxiety to him.

by
J a

Last

days

series of

ments.

of Akbar.

of

Daniyal had already gone down

graves in 1599 A. C. and 1604 A.

C.,

Salim

son

(Jahanglr),

the

pilgrimages, was no

surviving

into the

less inveterate

drunkard's

and
prayers and

respectively,
of

and intemperate

in

the use of intoxicating liquors.

He survived probably
He became the
because of his stronger constitution.
chief cause of

annoyance to

1600 A.

while

C.,
in

the

his father in his old age.

In

was conducting

his

Emperor

the Deccan, his son, Salim, revolted and set

campaign
up an independent kingdom at Allahabad. In 1602
A. C. he gave another terrible shock to the old Emperor

by engaging a robber-chief, Bir Singh Bundela,

for the

blame, we ought to bear in mind the difficulties and anxieties

of a statesman, whose reputation w.;s staked on the success or
failure of a single siege.' Smith should be studied with caution.

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAK

assassination of Abul Fazl.

Akbar was reconciled

lious son

However, before

to his over-ambitious

through the good olfices of

He

servants.

nominated him as

formal manner with

some
his

due ceremonies.

113
his cteath,

and

rsbel-

of his trusted

successor

in

But the Prince

was far from being popular with the people. A party of

the Rajputs at the Imperial Court, headed by Rajah
Man Singh, attempted to secure the succession for
Prince
failed

Khusrau (Sallm's son). Though the intrigue

in the end, it had none the less disturbed the peace

aged Emperor on the eve of his departure from

world.
In 1605 A. C., Akbar 'became ill with

of the
this

severe diarrhoea or dysentery which the physicians failed

He was buried at
and he died of it.
cure
*

to

Sikandara
during his

tomb which he had begun to build

lifetime and which was subsequently com-

in the

In the reign of Emperor

pleted by his son, Jahanglr.
the
'Alamglr
Jats plundered the tomb, dug out the
bones of the deceased and burnt them to ashes.

CHAPTER

JALAL-UD-DIN

VII

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

(CONTINUED)
Din-i-llahi

ovo usque ad mala Akbar's

life was an enigma

his religious life,
was
more enigmatic
ntroc uctory.
which has ever since remained wrapIn
in
mystery.
trying to reveal it, historians have
ped
Whereas some
hit either above or below the mark
h
m
as
others
have
a
branded him
extolled
have
prophet,

Ab

The present is an attempt to clear the

as an apostate.
to
a
In order to understand the subclose.
controversy
ject

and

to appreciate the spirit that lay behind

it,

it

is

on the
one hand, and to the history of Hindustan on the other.
necessary to revert to the history of the Saracens

The Prophet

of

Islam, to begin with, united in his

person
Reference to the

the

Church and

history of the

Islam.

Saracens.

headship of the Muslim

of the

TT
was
He

well as temporal

were the

also

after the other.

four

Caliphs

Commonwealth
.

of

the lord spiritual as

of his subjects.

So

who succeeded him ope

Under them the Crescent was

carried

and wide.
The motive force underlying their
expansion was their religion. The Commonwealth was
far

ruled

in

accordance

with

the

commandments

of the

Qur'an, the precepts of the Prophet and the discretion

The State, in brief, served the interests of
of the ruler.
the

Church.

But with the

rise

of

the

Ommeyades

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

Under them the Chvarch

took a different turn.

events

was harnessed

to the State

its

115

interests

were subordi-

nated to those of worldly well-being.

And, gradually as
the globe was girdled by the followers of Muhammad,
there sprang up a world-wide empire of Islam, which
attained

widest dimensions

its

under Walid

him, when the Caliphate sank

governors of

the

far-flung

to

the

supreme

allegiance

I.

After

into insignificance, the

provinces

renounced their

authority at the Centre,

the State separat-

Thus was

except in matters religious.

ed from the Church for the first time. This separation

was the inevitable outcome of the unwieluy growth of
the Commonwealth and the collapse of the Caliphate.
With the appearance of the Abbassides on the stage,
there

a new chapter in the annals of Islamic

Under them the Church was once more

opens

history.

the State in the person of the ruler, who

became the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the
united

with

Faithful.
of

the

Baghdad became

Abbassides and

the Capital (Dar-us-Saldm)

there the rules regulating the

Caliphate were systematised by the jurisconsults, and the

conception of the Caliph-Imam (Pope-Emperor) took
its

and developed into a doctrine.

While the rest of the Muslim World was passing
through such metamorphoses, Muslim

birth

Reference to the
history of Muslim
Rule in India.

India was following

and
by the Muslim
to

it.

Here,

an independent
not different in aim
.

policy of

World

own,
character from
its

as elsewhere,

the

that

followed

but

almost parallel
king based his powers

in general,

not on Islamic law but on Persian tradition.

Kingship

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

116

had been a secular

throne,

the

with

interfere

he did

impossible for

institution ever

since the

advent of

The Skariyat was seldom allowed

Islam in India.

take

not

him

When Akbar came

Stat2.

long

realise that

to

to rule successfully

to

to the
it

was

a country, signi-

museum', on account of
and religions, customs and

ficantly called 'an ethnological

the

diversity

of

races

its

To
cultures and conceptions of morality.
the
class
the
selfish
the
powerful,
priestly
cap this,
and the self-centred Mullahs - would not allow him to
traditions,

rule as a liberal king.

of inventions, and

the hour of need.

uniting in his

own

Necessity

has

ingenuity did not fail him in

Ere long he hit upon the idea of
>bar's

double duty of a
doing this he did not go

person the

and a Mnjtahid and in

beyond the Muslim Kings outside
;

tions of the country,

played.

been the mother

1r

moreover,

India.

justified

The Divine Faith was only

The
the

King

much
condi-

r61e

phase of

he
the

same movement. It crowned its author with success.

ever a gordian knot.
It aimed at Hindu-Muslim Unity

Through

it

Akbar endeavoured

concordance among
succeeded

to a

all

to bring about a general

the existing creeds in India and

extent.
Here it may be

considerable

pointed out that in

all his

undertakings and experiments

he was guided by bis confidential friend and advisor,

Abul Fazl, who has left an ineffaceable impress on the
history of the Akbarian era.
From the date of his accession (1556 A. C.) to the

Akbar's
orthodoxy.

the

dogmas

year 1578 A. C. Akbar lived the life

of a staunch SunnI, strictly
observing
of his faith

and swerving not an inch from

JALAL-UD-DIN
the path of the

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

Shariyat (Muslim

Law).

117

He

offered

his prayers regularly in the mosque along with the

He paid
congregation and often acted as Mu'azzin.
due respect to the time-honoured Ultima and did

the pious and the holy.

So supreme was
of the sages on his simple mind that he used
to keep their company for hours together and never
hesitated to do them the meanest service rather, he felt

homage to
the sway

pride in carrying out their smallest wishes.

he made a pilgrimage to the tomb of

Chishti

at

Ajmer,

Every year

Shaikh

Sallm

circumambulating the sacred

and,

sepulchre several times, he sat there for a considerable

time.

He

and had named

believed in miracles

his son,

after the name of the celebrated Saint

who had promised him three sons. 'Yd Hddi

Sallm (Jahangir),
of Ajmer,

and Yd Mu'in' (O Guide

and

at the tip of his tongue.

Helper

!)

exercised

were always
a mesmeric

They
mind and fired his followers with
immense enthusiasm. As soon as he uttered them, the
whole of his army, Hindus as well as Musalmans, responded sonorously to his calls and fell fearlessly on the
He believed in Pirs and Faqlrs and visited their
foe.
influence

on

his

His inquisitive nature inspirthe ambition of studying the Qur'dn and

shrines often bare-footed.

ed him with
the Hadith

his

marvellous

imbibe and assimilate

his teachers.

He

all

memory enabled him

that was

imparted

to

to

him by

did not stop short at this ; he appointin every part of his kingdom in

ed Qdzis and Muftis

order to administer justice in accordance with the Code

and went so far as to persecute 'the heretic in
'

of Islam

obedience to the dictates of the Uldtna.

Besides,

Bairam

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

118
the

Khan,

of

victor

merit and

tried

and a servant of proved

Abdullah MaWidum-ul-Mulk

Panlpat

fidelity,

and Shaikh Abdun-NabI were his religious guides. The

young king was so fond of the Shaikh that after the fall
Bairam Khan he appointed him Sadr-us-Sudur and
himself used to call on him daily to learn lessons of
the Hadith at his feet.
By deeds such as these, he
completely won over the SunnI orthodoxy to his side.

of

So

far so well.

of

hSfsm

t0

Now

a change sets in to the shock

the

SunnI

sect.

The Emperor,

hitherto an orthodox SunnI,

a liberal

Once, on

Musalman.
so runs the

anniversary of his birthday,

coloured his clothes, presumably under

with

becomes

story,

Hindu

the

Akbar

influence,

and appeared before his preceptor, the

who was so highly exasperated at this

saffron

Shaikh,

unexpected sight that he instantly raised his cane in

such a way that it almost touched His Majesty. The
youthful king could not brook this insult and the

would have been sealed had not the

queen-mother appeased her son's anger by telling him
that the incident would be the cause of his salvation.

fate of the Shaikh

Singularly enough, the prognostication proved only too

true, as will be evident from the ensuing account.

The Ulamd were not

only narrow-minded, but their

was wholly schismatic. The

implicit obedience, which they exacted from the Boyunbounded
them, and the
Badshah, intoxicated
from the orthodox sect
reverence
they received
blinded them to the interests of the State.
They
influence

in

the

could not tolerate

State

the honest

difference of

opinion in

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
matters

governed their
a

Pow^r,

religious.

number

of

and prejudice

Under the charge

passions.

Musalmans

pride

119
alike

of heresy

suffered death at their

hands,

many more escaped

many
with their lives and lived as exiles. Apropos of this may
be cited an instance:
Both Makhdum-ul-Mulk and
died in dungeons, and a good

Abdun-Nabi, demanded the summary

execution of Shaikh Mubarak, the most erudite man
of the day, on the ground that he subscribed to the
Mahdi Movement. They even succeeded in securing a*.
his

colleague,

Imperial firman,

ordering

But

imprisonment.

which

Mubarak

his

the

for

received

immediate

from

arrest

and

information,
timely
a
friendly quarter,

enemies would have spared him no insult bound

chains they would have dragged him to the court

his
in

most formidable of his foes. However, having

lived the life of an exile for some time, he returned
to Agra only when Mirza Aziz Koka had put in a
of the

word in his favour. Though allowed to return, he

was never in immunity from the hostility of the
Ulama, who frequently hurled charges of heresy
and blasphemy against him and never allowed him
to rest

a liberal

in

So much did the Ulama

peace.

Muslim

their

dislike

against the Zimrnis,

against the Hindus, knew

hatred

(non-Muslims), particularly
They could not

no bounds.

any concession
Akbar was fully
and would not allow it to
tolerate

accorded to them by the Emperor.

alive to this

state of

Once

affairs

he decided to curb the power of

one stroke he broke loose
With
priestly
from MaWidum-ul-Mulk and Abdun-Nabi and
felt
persist.

the

for all

class.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

120

the acts of

sorry for

commands

committed under

injustice

their

(fatwds).

1575 A.

in the year

Early

C.,

when

the

returned from his military

Emperor
undertak-

winning decisive victories

enemies, he was full of love

in g s after

over his
for

God and

time

adoration for Islam.

and attention

Accordingly, he
hall (Ibddat

arrive

facilitate

the

devoted his

of his

subjects.

a debating

of

erection

Fathpur Sikri and invited the

discuss the controversial points and

Khdnah)

at

He now

interests

the

ordered

Doctors of Islam to
to

the

to

at

definite

conclusion

in

order

Islam.

None

but

of

unification

to

the

Sayyads, the Shaikhs, the Doctors and the Ulamd of

Since
high rank was admitted to the Ibddat Kljandh.
all

these classes were mangled

promiscuously, disputes
did not take long to arise as to the seats and the order
His Majesty did not like this and was
of precedence.

soon constrained to assign

a separate

quarter

to each

of the classes, himself gracing the four apartments, into

which the House ,vas divided, on every Thursday

But the Ulamd, the most clamorous class, who

had hitherto dominated the State and had so jealously
guarded their supremacy, had, in fact, become too
night.

self-centred to

Calumnies,

have a stomach for defeat

contumelies

and

in

vilifications

arguments.
replaced

and arguments. Charges of

and
apostasy, heresy
blasphemy were hurled by one

common-sense,
against the
against
different

the

reasons

other.

Fatwds were

accused.

sects of Islam

Thus,
into a

ceaselessly issued
instead of fusing the

common

brotherhood,

JALAL-UD-DIN
these

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

dogged discussions rekindled

and divided them asunder.

It

may

their

121

animosities

be said

that the

foundations of the Debating Hall were laid with a view

to reform the Ulamd, but as they proved incorrigible,

was thought expedient to render them politically

In 1578 A. C. the discussions took a more
impotent.
it

with a tendency to defeat the purpose of

the Emperor.
Even in the presence of His Majesty
the Ulamd lost their temper and called one another
serious turn

Unity had already disappeared, now even the

ordinary rules of etiquette were cast to the winds. One
Thursday night, when a polemical discussion was
Kafirs.

raging hot, in the bebel of several conflicting voices,

the question was raised as to what was the final seat
authority in matters religious when, at a certain
Shaikh Mubarak
point, the Doctors were at variance.

of

Emperor as
In conjunction with his sons, Abul Fazl and
he drew up a document, in which Akbar was

set the ball

such.
Faizi,

rolling

by acknowledging

the

recognised as Imdm-i-'Adil and therefore higher in rank

than a Mujtahid.
The document reuds as follows:
"
Whereas Hindustan has now become the centre
_.

^
The Document.
T

of security
J
.

and peace, and the land

_
and beneficence, a large
learned men and lawyers,
.

of justice

number

of people, especially

have immigrated and chosen this country for their

home. Now we, the principal Ulamd, who are not only
well-versed in the several departments of the Law and in
the principles of Jurisprudence, and well-acquainted with
the edicts which rest on reason or testimony, but are
also

known

for our piety

and honest

intentions,

have

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

122

duly considered the

deep meaning,

first,

of the

verse

'

Qoran (Sur. IV, 62)

Obey God, and obey the
Prophet, and those who have authority among you ',
and secondly, of the genuine tradition, 'Surely, the man
who is dearest to God on the day of judgment, is the
Imdm-i-'Adil whosoever obeys the Amir, obeys Thee,
of the

and whosoever rebels against him, rebels against Thee ',

and thirdly, of several other proofs based on reasoning
or testimony
and we have agreed that the rank of
;

Sultdn-i-'Adil (a just ruler) is higher in the eyes of God

than the rank of a Mujlahid.
Further we declare that
the King of Islam, Amlroi the Faithful, Shadow of God
in the world, Abul Fath Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
Padshah-i-GbazI, whose kingdom God perpetuate, is a

most

a most wise, and a most God-fearing king.

just,

Should, therefore, in future a religious question come

up, regarding which the opinions of the Mujtahids are

and His Majesty, in his penetrating understanding and clear wisdom be inclined to adopt, for the
benefit of the nation and as a political expedient any of
the conflicting opinions which exist on that point, and
should issue a decree to that effect, we do hereby agree
that such a decree shall be binding on us and on the

at variance,

whole nation.
"Further,
think

fit

we

to issue

declare that

new

order,

should

His

we and

the

Majesty
nation

shall likewise be bound by it, provided always that such

order be not only in accordance with some verse of

the Qoran, but also of real benefit to the

such

and

any opposition on the part of his subjects

an order passed by His Majetsy shall

further, that

to

nation

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
involve

damnation

property and
11

the

in

123

world to come and

loss of

religious privileges in this.

document has been written with honest

intentions, for the glory of God, and the propagation of
Islam, and is signed by us, the principal Ulamd and
lawyers, in the month of Rajab of the year 987 of the
This

Hijrah."*

This document,
of

had

better

Supremacy

Importance of the
Infallible Decree.

we

of

call

it

Akbar's

the Act
reign,

stands unique in the history ot Islam.

its
astonished
at
Historians are

Here it is reproduced in full for

worldly character.
In the first place, it reveals most
some special reasons
:

the statesmanship of Akbar, \vho caught

the ferocious lions in their own dens.
Prepared by the

unmistakably

Emperor,
Ulamd.

it

It

was written and signed by the principal

bore the signatures and seals of men like

Makhdum-ul-Mulk and Abdun-Nabi, and was presented

Like King John's Magna
to His Majesty for rpproval.
Charta it was a petition to the king from the most
influential

Ulama, but unlike

it,

it

increased rather than

In the second
the royal
prerogative.
of the Imam-i-'Adil
it declared the authority
place,
to be higher than that of a Mujtahid and based it

diminished

on the

threefold sources

the Qur'an, the

Hadlth and

In addition to his being a temporal head,

the Reason.
he was recognised as the most supreme spiritual guide
Ulama were
It was thus that the
of his subjects.

reduced to the state of a cipher

* Ta.'ihh-i-Badaom, vol.

ii,

p. 279.

in state-politics.

In the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

124
third place,

it

authorised the

Emperor

to pass orders of

kinds as political expedients, provided always that

they were beneficial to the whole nation and were
all

supported by a verse from the Qur'an.

The

document was fraught with

signature of this

Em P eror

freed

It

consequences.

far-reaching

the

from the bigoted Ulama

and enabled him to give currency to

One Friday, 1580 A. C M he ascended
the pulpit of a masjid and played the part of a Mullah.
In keeping wi;h Arab and Persian traditions, he himself
his catholic ideas.

the

delivered

following verse

which

Khutba,

is

contained

in

the

"The Lord

to

me

the

Kingdom

gave,

He made me prudent, wise and brave,

He guided me with right and ruth
Filling my heart with love of truth
No tongue of man can sum His state
;

Allaho Akbar.

This

body

sent a

God

thrill

of Islam in India.

of

is

great."*

horror

through

For the bigoted

it

the whole

was a

bolt

from

the blue.
It stirred up a storm of opposition
which soon assumed a threatening character. In 1589
A.C. afatwd was issued against the impious emperor*
by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and a conspiracy was
'

hatched up with a view to depose him in favour of his

brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim, who posed to be an

orthodox Muslim.

At the same time a rebellion broke

out in Bengal and Bihar.

*

This

is

Considering

this

to

be an

Mr. Green's translation of Faizi's verse in Persian.

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-D1N

125

Mirza in /aded the Punjab at

Akoar had anticipated such a

opportune moment, the

this critical juncture.

and was fully prepared to nip it in the bud.

was repelled, the eastern disturbances
were quelled, and normal conditions were restored.
Now that he had established his supremacy, he could

storm

The

invasion

take larger liberties with his subjects without courting

opposition he could now defy all hostile criticism with
All this was rendered possible by
absolute impunity.
;

the success of the Kabul Expedition.

Had that failed,
the history of India would have taken a different course.
In this way, threading his
Preliminaries to
the promulgation
of the Divine
Faith,

way through a series of

commotions, the Emperor proceeded
.,,

a P ace Wlth the task of fusing hostile

elements into a homogeneous whole.

Favourably impressed by the unmixed

Hindu subjects, while sitting

on
moods
the solitary stone at Fathpur
pensive
devotion of his

he had resolved to

them co-equal
alone

could

utilize

status with

not

bring

their

the

about

services

in

his

Sikri,

by allowing

But this
Hindu-Muslim Unity.

ruling

race.

Something more than this was required to unite the

two different peoples, possessing not only different but
also mutually antagonistic religions,

ceptions

of

morality.

Before

cultures

long, Akbar

or founding
necessity for finding
mon to both the communities a

and confelt

something

common

the

com-

platform,

where they could meet and greet each other in perfect

harmony. But what was that common platform to be
a Masjid or a Mandir ? Neither, but a new religion,
which could command sincere devotion.
Carefully

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

126

considering the pros znd cons of the experiment, Akbar

decided definitely to establish a religion, embodying

the principal features of all the religions of India.

in

it

He

Hinduism was nothing more than a set of

ceremonies, to which the Hindus clung so tenaciously;
that other religions had little political importance; and that

knew

that

Islam alone, being superior to

all

others, could best serve

Having gradually gained the sympathies of

the Rajputs and other important sects by seemingly
sharing their beliefs and adopting their practices, by
appreciating their merits and rewarding their services,
his purpose.

he proceeded to prepare the

common

of that

for

way
It will

religion.

introduction

the

be remembered that

formerly the Musalmans alone could have free access

to the Ibadat Khanah ; now the learned professors of
all

other religions were

and asked

invited

The

case for their respective creeds.

the whole experiment was indeed

mon

religion acceptable

Now what
Would

to

everyone

was that common

Zimmls

the

to

accept

idea

of

his

com-

subjects.

religion to be ?

Islam

The answer

it ?

There was, however, one way out of

fuse the rituals of Hinduism and of other

into Islam, or to unite the fundamentals of

underlying

establish a

evident.
to

make

to

is self-

this fix

religions

and

Islam

other religions with Hinduism.

The ground having been

tA

Its

promulgation.

prepared, a coup de etat

was required to carry the experiment to

.,..?.

its

points

and

feeling secure in his position,

convened a
military

logical conclusion.

meeting,

to

which

all

commanders and masters

A
Armed

the

at all

Emperor

religious experts,

of

learning

were

JALAL-UD-DIN

and the

invited

addressed them
"

of

evils

religions were exposed

MUHAMMAD AKBAR
the

existence

in their presence.

in these

wordo

127
so

of

many
The Emperor

We

ought to bring the different religions of

India into one, but in such a fashion that they should
be one and

with the greatest advantage of taking

good in every creed and discarding the
In this way, honour would be done to
remainder.

what

all

is

God, peace and prosperity would be restored

people and security to the empire."

The

resolution

was carried

The
Its principles.

,.

the

unopposed.

new

salient features of tha

almost

to

faith

having been discussed,

its

principles

and practices were read aloud. It bore the name of

Din-i-Ilahi, or Divine Faith, also Tauhid-i-Ilahi, or
Divine Monotheism. Its basis was the Unity of God,
was eclectic,
Its
ritual
the corner-stone of Islam.
borrowed chiefly from Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.
to
perfect disciple of the Divine Faith was bound
believe in the Unity of God and to acknowledge Akbar

as His Caliph

He had

to

make

a four-fold dedication

honour and religion to His Majesty.

was expected to abstain from eating meat of all

of wealth, life,

He

to the

was allowed to be done

Reverence for the sun and veneration

Prostration, or Sijdah,

kinds.

Emperor.

became a prominent part of the ritual. Sunday

day of performing the ceremony of
conversion, when the convert received from His Majesty
the Great Name and the symbolical motto
Allaho
for fire

was

fixed as the

'

Akbar.'

Instead

of

the

usual

Muslim

salutation

As-Saldm-Alaikum and Wd-Alaikum-As-Salam, which

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

128

the brethren in faith observed on seeing each other

the members of the Divine ]?aith saluted one another
'

by saying 'Allaho Akbar* and J all-a-J alalohu\ From

time to time disciplinary rules and regulations were
passed by the Emperor
according to his need.

careful

for the

consideration
practices

members
the

of

of

the

to the

his

principles

Divine

summarised above,
reveal

of

and

Faith, as
not fail to

will

reader the

embraced almost

creed

statesman-

the important
cleverly manipulated as to
Its soul was the cardinal
attract the entire population.
the
Hindu and Zoroastrian
its
body
principle of Islam,

ship of

its

religions of

ritual.

author. It
T

It

ndia.

The

all

was so

monotheistic

principle

of

Islam

was

other religions were adopted

retained and the
in proportion to their importance in the political history
rites of all

To

was Islam preHindu, whose

prominent ceremonies were incorporated, it was nothing
To a Zoroastrian, whose articles
short of Hinduism.
of Hindustan.

sented

in

a liberal Muslim,

To

different form.

it

sun-worship and fire-worship were included, it was

nothing but their religion. Sunday was fixed as the day

of

of initiation only to please the Christians.

Thus, almost
every shade of Indian religious opinion was represented
It was, in a sense, a universal
in the Divine Faith.
having enough in

religion of India,

to

its

Indian

originator.

of

to attract

whose

anyone
knowledge of

pre-Islamic

times,

is

and whose acquaintance with the history

of

history,

superficial

Historians,

it

particularly

the Saracens, particularly with that of the

Ommeyades

JALAL-UD-DIN
and the Abbassides,

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

is deficient,

ha,e

failed to

129
understand

the real meaning of the Divine Faith and the sole

of

Branding Akbar

author.

its

have condemned

his

an

as

creed in the

aim

apostate, they

bitterest of

words.

"The Divine Faith,"

of Akbar's folly
calls

"
it

silly

others have

says Dr. Smith, "was a monument

and not of his wisdom." Elsewhere he

invention".

Blochmann and

Similarly,

been deceived by

They have mistaken

it.

Following Badaoni, a bigoted

appearance for actuality.
over-strict Muslim, with whom the omission of a

and

ceremony of Islam amounted to apostasy, and

adopting the same line of argument as hs, they have
As a proinevitably come to the same conclusion.
found student of Indian as well as Islamic history,
single

Akbar made a

direct appeal to the innermost sentiments

by giving his Sdngha a religious characNeither the aim of the order nor the object of its

of his subjects
ter.

author can be duly appreciated unless it is regarded as

an instrument with which the master-mind endeavoured
to consolidate the

Mughal Empire by

the minds of the ruled their sense

Muslim

rulers.

The

chief

eradicating

from

subordination to

of

motive

underlying the prowas the unification of

mulgation of the Divine Faith

To achieve this, it was

India.

conquer and then to

command

to
necessary first
sincere devotion from

and sundry by granting them the freedom of worTherefore, he drew

ship and the liberty of conscience.

all

up such a

religious

mentas

would commend

Momentous
was,

code

in

essence

itself to

as the proclamation

equally

far-reaching

were

political

docu-

the whole population.

of
its

the

Divine Faith

consequences.

It

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

130

of

Muslim Rule

The Mughal Emperor was no

longer regarded

changed the character

completely
in India.

as a foreigner trampling

the

sons

of

birth-rights.

the

soil

upon the lives and liberties of

and depriving them of their

The members

of

the Divine

Faith

had

bound themselves by an oath to stand by the Emperor in

weal and woe, to sacrifice their religion, honour, wealth,
The vow was faithfully
life, liberty and all for him.
His
could
and
always rely upon them.
Majesty
kept

The

fact that

he was able to induce the proudest of the

Rajputs, who prided upon the nobility of their birth

and the purity of their blood above everything else, to
give

him and

speaks

his

volumes.

sons

their

Dealing a
Faith

daughters in marriage,
coup de grace to Rajput

supremacy, the Divine

kept up the integrity of

the Mughal Empire for a century and a half.

Thus, there can be no doubt that the Divine Faith

(Din-i-Ildhi)

was not a

religious

cult

or

creed,

but

not
political code, prepared by a politician and
a prophet, in accordance with the conditions of the
country, the tendencies of the times and the sentiments
a

of his subjects.

As long

as

Akbar

lived,

he enjoyed

After his death,

the unmixed loyalty of his subjects.
his
successors
a
he bequeathed to
legacy of loyalty to

dynasty immeasurably richer than any other Muslim

No one can
king before him had left to his heirs.

his

appreciate the real importance of the Divine Faith and

its exact place in Indian
history except in connection
with the history of the Saracens on the one hand, and

The Divine Religion

the'history of India on the other.
was the child of the Age ; its founder was the true son of

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

131
*

the Renaissance and the Reforn.ation.

There can be

no shutting ones eye to the fact that Akbar was

statesman, splendid and unsurpassed in the annals

He was

an empire-builder
Indian history.
a religious propagandist or a missionary.
indeed the Apostle of Indian Unity, and his

Message
his

of Peace.

He

a
of

rather than

established

He was

was the
and consolidated

empire through the instrumentality of

but in formality.

religion,

not

in reality

The promulgation
by a

of the Divine Faith

was followed

series of anti-Islamic ordinances

alle g ed to

have heen

iss ~ ed

b Y Akbar

with the sole aim of destroying Islam,

Badaoni has recorded them in his book and repeated

them more than once.

serve our purpose:
to the

Emperor,

enjoined, (3)

(2)

The

following

will

suffice

to

Sijdah was allowed to be done

fire-worship and sun-worship were

(1)

boars were kept in the Imperial Palace and

every morning was regarded as

meritorious, (4) the use of beef, garlic and onion, and
the wearing of beards were forbidden, (5) Mullahs and
Sfaaifahs were exiled, (6) circumcision of children before
looking

at

them

the age of twelve and the marriage of girls before the

age of puberty were prohibited, (7) the study of Arabic
was discouraged, (8) public prayers and the Azdn were
abolished,

(9)

Muslim names, such

as

Muhammad,

Ahmad

and Mustafa, were changed to other names

because they had become offensive to His Majesty,
(10) pilgrimage to Mecca and fasting in the month of

Ramzan were

Qur'an and the

Hadith were tabooed, (12) mosques and prayer-rooms
discontinued,

(11) the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

132
were turned

into

s'

ore-houses

and guard-rooms

so

:<

much so, says BadaonI, that the straight wall of clear

law and of firm religion was cast down, so that after
not a trace of Islam was left in him
and
(Akbar)
everything was turned topsy turvy,' and
"
Akbar showed bitter hostility to the
concludes that
faith of his ancestors and his own youth and actually
Blochmann and
perpetrated a persecution of Islam."
Smith follow Badaoni and maintain that by the year
1582 A. C., which saw the proclamation of the Divine
five or six years

Akbar had ceased

to be a Muslim.

According
them, he died without the benefit of the prayers of
any church or sect.
Faith,
to

Before examining these ordinances,

to enquire

n
1 heir criticism.

into

it

their

Born

in

essential

This

origin.

...

."

necessitates a criticism
their author.

is

,.

of

Badaoni,
an age, when party-politics ruled

supreme even in Islam and when sectarianism swayed

the hearts and the minds of even Muslims, Badaoni

was the product

of his environment.

Educated

in

the

orthodox school under the influence of the most bigoted

Ulama, his views had been moulded accordingly.

He was a Muslim with whom, in common with his
He regarded
class, ritual weighed more than religion.

of the

the

omission

of

single

ceremony

as

amounting

Naturally, therefore, he did not

like the Emperor on account of his liberal ways and
As a necessary sequel, he was hated by
catholic views.
His Majesty, who always kept him at arm's length on

almost to apostasy.

account

of his inflexible orthodoxy.

'Allama Abul
Fazl was, on the other hand, "a man capable of teaching

JALAL-UD-DJN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

the Mullahs a lesson."

133

when he was taken

Aiid,

into

confidence by the Emperor, Badaom's anger knew no

bounds. Thus exasperated, he began to pour out the
venom of his wrath on the Emperor and his confidential

His diatribe

friend.

is

couched

in

He

teems with anathemas and exaggerations.

the 'Allama responsible for the acts of the

"The

'Allama was the man,"

world on flames."

he

said,

All this creates doubts in the

mind

^e

Von Noer's

anc^

appraisal of

account at

Badaoni.

cannot
.

set

the

of the historian,

Badaoni's

accept

holds

Emperor.

"who

face value.

its

that

language

bigoted

and narrow-minded sectarian as he

was, he could not help misconstruing Akbar's catholicity.

He saw everything with jaundiced eyes and so painted
a melancholy picture.
Von Noer's criticism of his
"
character is significant :
Badaoni certainly takes every
opportunity of raking up the notion of Akbar's apotheosis
for the

purpose

current

among

renewing attacks upon the great

He, however, was never in intimate relation
emperor.
to the Din-i-Ilahi, he repeats tlie misconceptions
of

and alloyed by
Akbar might justly have

the populace, marred

popular modes of perception.

contemplated the acts of his reign with legitimate pride,
but many incidents of his life prove him to have been

among the most modest of men. It was the people

who made a God of the man who was the founder and
head of an order at once
religious.
all

One

time a pre-eminent place

humanity

political,

philosophic

of his creations will assure to

among

him

and
for

the benefactors of

greatness and universal tolerance in matters

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

134

very deed he had contemplated

the deification of himself, a design certainly foreign to

of religious belief.

his

If in

character, these

"

his vindication

words of Voltaire would serve as

C4st

le

du vrai genie

privilege

du gbnie qui ouvre tine

impundment de grandes fantes.
surtout

et

carriere, de faire

19

Sufficient has been said

prostration.

prostration,

the

examine

their

it

character

their veracity.

one of the positions

concession to
of

old

it

Hindu sentiment

was a recognised

indicated the depth of devotion

by

his subjects.

With

it

shown

had

been the

popular

to

of

faith

it

was a

Hindu

kings

place,

the

was quite

Secondly,
At the court of
Persian traditions

prostration

first

institution

and

to

Muslim prayer,
It was allowed

at the

In the

us

Sijdah, or

and no one except God is entitled to it.

to be done to the Emperor, not as an article
but as an act of salutation.

the

of

origin

now behoves

ascertain
i?

about

ordinances

inasmuch as

it

to the sovereign

keeping with
Persian autocrats
in

mode

of greeting.

Thirdly, the Abbassides had also adopted this ritual

They made their subjects kiss the ground before them.

Sometimes a concession was accorded

who were

to high officials

hand or foot or
the edge of his robe.
Finally, when Akbar was treated
his
friends
as the representative of God on
flattering
by
required to kiss the Caliph's

'

he had to permit this practice, else the people at

large would never have submitted ',
Fire-worship and sun-worship were adopted only

earth,

Fire-worship and
sun-worship.

to enlist the sympathies of those with

whom

these constituted the ; r creed>

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

135
'

where the v^ry word 'Muslim was an

to
the
natives, Akbar thought it expedient
eyesore
In

land,

Hindu

subjects in spite

respect,

he went even so

to subscribe to the beliefs of his

of their hollowness.

In this

far that the professors of

reasons

identity in

"

convert

to their

fact,

The Hindus who

animals

his

cults.

religious

believe in incarnations said that

bar belonged to the ten

God Almighty had

^he

Why were boars

kept in the
Imperial Palace ?
these

as

had good

religions

he always concealed
byways and corners.
in

Whereas,

him

claim

to

various

which

forms
once
-

assumed.
were

in

kept

number

So a

certain

the

Imperial Palace to

of

please the Rani-Queens, whose smallest wishes the

Emperor took care to carry out to their entire
satisfaction.

To
Women

the ignorant of Indian history the presence of

a large number of women in the
the
Imperial Hprem.
i mper ial Harem may appear as another
one
to
but
sacrilege ;
acquainted with it, it is a monu-

ment

in

of his

wisdom.

daughters of Rajput

Emperor.
alliances

whom

Among the number, there were

Princes who owed allegiance to

To cement
were formed.

this

allegiance,

the

the

matrimonial

From

every Rajput Prince,

he reduced to obedience, Akbar took his daughter

him independence, subject

to
his
Thus were the most formidable
control.
of
reduced to vassalage. For once
Islam
antagonists
in

marriage and

granted

they entered into matrimonial alliances with the Emperor,

was then no escape: They could not withdraw

there

their allegiance, for that

would have meant an attack on

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

136
their

own

daughters.
Exactly in the

same spirit Akbar introduced some

Hindu customs and practices. For

Hindu customs
and practices.

His Majesty himself used

mark, called tttak, on his
The use of garlic and
forehead to please the Ranis.
of
were forbidden partly
beards
onion and the wearing
to

wear

nstance>

Hindu

the

because they were inconvenient in kissing and partly

because they were repugnant to his Hindu wives.
Cow has prevented the possibility of Hindu-

Muslim unity more than anything

/.
TTT1
TT
Whereas Hindus regard it as
slaugter of
forbidden?
M&f& (mot her), and hold it
thejr
its flesh and regard it their
eat
sacred, Muslims kill it,
favourite food.
Akbar understood the philosophy of
Gau Ralthshd and Gau-Bhakhsk<*> and knew that it was
impossible to unite the cow-caring and the cow-killing

Why was

classes in

cows

else.

view of the teachings of contemporary Hindu

As he wanted to unite and rule, the

religious leaders.

slaughter of cows was prohibited.

Some of the Mullahs and Shaikhs were doubtless

banished from the

Why

were
Mullahs and
Shaikhs exiled

g ut
?

their

Mughal Empire

t h e ir

banishment was due not to

but to the
religious beliefs

enmity they cherished against the established regime,

which was characterised by the freedom of worship and
the liberty of conscience.
They were exiled because
they had become a source of trouble to the State.

The remaining

regulations were passed, as

admitted by Badaoni himself, to please the

and the Ranis

inside the Palace.

is

also

infidels outside

They, however, were

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
never

en forced, as

strictly

indicated

is

137

by the trend

ol his

They were issued time and again under presrure

from Hindu friends and wives. Some of them were such
narrative.

were cancelled soon after they were passed.

Others remained confined to the Palace and were never

that they

ventilated

hearsay,

Most

outside.

there

for

had personal knowledge

his narrative or that

veracity.

took

their

He

them were based on

show that he

of

no evidence to

is

he

recorded

in

he ever attempted to ascertain

its

of all that

supported only by the Jesuits, who

cue either from BadaonI himself or from
is

others of his class,

i.e.,

war against Akbar,

'

the orthodox,

who nad

the impious empenr'.

declared

Under the

it is not fair to attach any importance to

the allegations made by BadaonI.
Dr. Smith has exhausted his eloquence in trying to
were
prove that these regulations

circumstances

Criticism of
Smith's views on

many

_
<

acts of fierce intolerance

If

British Government
attempted
"
such measures, "says he, it would not
last a week." Does he mean to point out that the Mughal
Emperor was successful in enforcing them because his

the

government was stronger than the British Government ?

be sure if the British Government, with its incom-

To

parably vast

incalculable

resources,

weapons

in

its

its matchless organization, is unable to stem

the tide of opposition once excited by religious intolerance, how could Akbar, who did not possess even a
single standing army, succeed in systematically outraging

armoury and

the

sentiments

of his

ubjects, specially the

Elsewhere he remarks that

Muslims?

on occasions he performed

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

138

from motives of policy/ Now, if it is

permissible that the Emperor after 1582 A.C. conformed
to the faith of his forefathers from motives of policy,
acts of conformity

there

every reason

is

to

believe that

similar

motives

prompted him to discard its ceremonies sometimes.

And, when he did this, theZiwwJs, specially the Hindus,
were quite satisfied.
with the Muslims was
the

Underlying his disagreement

his agreement to disagree with

Hindus

without offending their susceptibilities.

This enabled him to introduce his beneficial legislation

which would have been impossible otherwise.

While declaring him as an apostate from Islam,

~
Dr. Smith says
that Akbar died as he
J
Conclusion.
had lived a man
whose religion
nobody could name and he passed away without the
'

benefit of the prayers of

any church or

sect

'.*

In

the

same breath he

strikes the following note:

"Akbar,
been
have
in
his failings
practice, was
may
a sincerely religious man, constitutionally
devout.
Jahangir declares that his father never for one moment

whatever

'

God

He

performed his prayers fourf times a

spending a considerable time over them
day
Apart from formal religious exercises, his whole course
of life testified to the extreme interest taken by him in

forgot

'.

the problem of

and many of

the
his

relations

sayings

between

express

his

God and man,

views

on

the

* Akbar the Great Mogul, by V. A. Smith, p. 323.

fAs a rule, Muslim canonical prayers are offered five times
a day, but in certain circumstances t vo afternoon prayers can
be offered together and the number of times is thus reduced to
four from five.

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

139

subject."* Such a man cannot be said to have 'died Without the benefit of the prayers of any church or sect '.
The Ain-i-Akbarl and the Akbarndmah, written under

who

by 'Allama Abul Fazl,

his orders

held the highest

place in the innermost circle of his intimate friends, and

the Tttzk-i-Jahangiri, written by his son, Jahanglr, do

not

the slightest

betray

religion

of

his

fully confirm

sign

On

forefathers.

the

fact

of

that

his

renouncing the

the other hand, they

he

remained

Muslim

throughout his life. The assertion of some scholars

that he made formal profession of his faith in Islam by
repeating the Raima and declaring himself a Musalman

on

his

death-bed,

consistent

as

it

is

with his career,

by foreign con-

when corroborated
temporaries and when viewed in the light
carries

conviction

discussion.

According

to

Father

of the

above

Antony Botelho, a
'

he (Akbar) died
contemporary Portuguese missionary,
as he was born, a Muhammedan .f
Sir Thomas Roe
f

supports the statement of Father Botelho

that
sect

'

'.{

he (Akbar) died

Major

in the

when he

says

formal profession of his

Price's translation of the

Tuzk-i-Jahdngirl

contains the following passages apropos of the topic

"He (Akbar) had .... desired me (Jahanglr) to
send for Mlran Sadr Jahan in order to repeat with him
:

the

Kalmd Shahadat

Jahan on both
*Akbar

the

knees

On his arrival, I placed Sadr

by my father's side and he

Great Mogul, by V. A. Smith, pp. 349-50.

to the Emperor Akbar, J, A. S. B, part

1[The Jesuit Missions

Vol. Ixv, 1896, by E. D. Mac.agan.

%The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe,
Society, 1899.

ed.

1,

by Foster, Halkuyt

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

140

commenced

reciting the creed of the faithful

After expressing himself as above, he directed Sadr

Jahan once more to repeat the Kalmd, and he recited

the solemn text himself with a voice equally loud and
distinct.

He

then desired the Sadr to continue repeating

Surd Neish, and another chapter of the

his pillow the

by
Koran, together with the Adeildh prayer, in order that
he might be enabled to render up his soul with as little
struggle as possible.
Accordingly, the Sadr Jahan had
finished the Sara Neish and had last words of the
prayer on his

lips

when with no

symptom than a

other

tear drop in the corner of his

father resigned
eye,
his soul into the hands of his Creator."*

my

The

down to this that Akbar

Born as a Muslim, he lived as a
a Muslim and was succeeded by a

discussion then boils

was a Muslim

Muslim, died as
Muslim. To say that he
benefit of the prayers of

'passed

any

away without the

church

or sect'

is

a gross

misrepresentation of facts.
*

Tuzk-i'Jahangiri, trans., Major David

Also see A. Yusuf

Ah

in

/. of

E.

I.

Price, pp.

75-76.

July, 1915, p. 309

Assoc.,

Darbar-i-Akbari, by M. Muhammad Hussain Azad, p. 36 ff.; and

Tarikh-i-Hindustan, M. ZakSullah, vol. v. pp. 808 ff. I may
appropriately point out at this place that recently some
doubts have been cast on the genuineness of the Memoirs o/

Jahangir, which Major David Price translated in 1829 A. C. and

from which I have reproduced the above extracts. They are
regarded as spurious by some and as genuine by others. It is
not easy to ascertain the truth.
However, on the question

whether Akbar died as a Muhammadan or passed away

without the benefit of the prayers < t any church or sect \ the
evidence of the two contemporary Christians
quoted above is
conclusive, unless their accounts too are called in question.
*

'

'

CHAPTER

JALAL-UD-DIN

VIII

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

(CONTINUED)

A dministration
Akbar did not take long

to realize that the existing

based on the

system of government,
Introductory.

strength

commanded by

of

who

general

position in his province

each

standing armies,

occupied

and cared uiore

foi his

central

personal

aggrandisement than for the interests of the empire as a

It was woefully
whole, was absolutely unfounded.

wanting

in

the

principle

unity and cohesion.

of

secured no attachment, conciliated no

cared

little

the

for

and

faith

It

and

prejudices

feelings,

customs and

traditions, ideals

and aspirations

and,

remained without root, exposed to

therefore,

of the sons of the soil

all

storms oi misfortune. Considering carefully the pros and

jons of the old system, he evolved an entirely new system
quite in consistence with the spirit ot the age

and the

He built up an empire and

sentiments of his subjects.
a nation not oil the foundation of swords and military
terrorism
subjects.

but

on

the

acquiescent good- will of his

In Indo-Islamic history he has always figured

as a

champion not

of

his

subjects and,

as

any

particular section but of all

such,

he

There was not a

present day.
cut off from active

hard to find a

sympathy

is

recognised

single person

with him.

parallel, either in

to

the

who was
It will

be

ancient or in modern

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

142

history, to the far-sighted statesmanship

and construc-

tive administrative genius with which he fashioned and

set in motion the wheels of his government
The Emperor himself was at the helm of civil as well
He was
as military administration.
.

the fountain-head of

Government.

and

religious

were unlimited and his

number
than

will

of ministers, but

authority,

His

secular.

as

pupil,

marvellous

government,

powers

was irresistible. He had a

he was their teacher rather

suggested by Smith.
organization, which he effected

their

both

The

is

was mostly the

outcome

of

in

his

his

own

He

was, no doubt, an autocrat,

little short of Banthamite demo-

extraordinary genius.

but his autocracy fell

He secured the greatest happiness of the
cracy
He was indeed the beau ideal of a
greatest number.'
'

statesman.

couched

in

methods of administration were

humanity and fellow-feelings. He employed
His

the services of a set of brilliant officers in the various

departments of

The

administration.

his

Vakil was

the highest officer, next only to the Emperor. He was,

so to say, the Vice-regent, Chancellor, or Prime Minister.
did not hold any definite portfolio but, like the Vazlr
of the Abbassides, acted as the alter ego of His Majesty

He

in

important administrative
serious

sought

in

Diwdn,

the Chief

the

Exchequer,

affairs.

situations.

Revenue

who

His counsel was

Below

him

was

the

Officer, or the Chancellor of

controlled

the finances

of

the

Empire, superintended the state treasuries and audited

He regulated the fiscal policy and decided
all accounts.
revenue matters

in

concurrence

with

the

Emperor.

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

143

He had

a separate office where all revenue papers,

and dispatches were received from the various
parts of the Mughal Empire and disposed of under his
returns

The

personal supervision.

Paymaster-General
Secretary of

War

of

the

BaJchshl was, so to say, the

Imperial Army, and the

rolled into one.

of all civil

and military

passed by him.

Besides his

bills

officers

own

As such, the salarywere examined and

duty, he performed a

odd jobs he assigned positions to military

number
commanders before the battle, laid the muster-roll
before the Emperor and looked after the recruitment of
of

new

soldiers,

though

it

did

not

fall

to his duty

to

The Khdn-itake command himself in the battle-field.

Sdmdn was, as the word implies, the Superintendent of
He was in charge of the Imperial household
Stores.
establishment and had the entire control of the Royal
Mess and other supplies. He accompanied the Emperor
in all his

tents

out-door undertakings and managed his food,

He was also the head of His
stores.

and

Majesty's personal

stiff.

The Sadr-i-Sudur was

the

He

might be
highest judicial officer in the Empire.
called the Lord Chief Justice of India at the time of
Akbar. The Mohtasib was the censor of public morals.

and foremost duty consisted in seeing that the

Sfiariyat was properly observed and the Muslim Law
His

first

was obeyed in its entirety. He suppressed public

immorality by punishing those who drank, those who
gambled and those who paid court to dancing-girls.
Besides these, there were some other officers who held
different portfolios of the Mughal Government.
Their
duties cannot be detailed here but their

names

will give

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

144

They were the

Awdrajah Nawis, or

a sufficient idea of the naturp thereof.

Mustaufi, or Auditor-General

the

of

Superintendent
daily expenditure at the Imperial
Court; the Nazir-i-Buyvtat, or Superintendent of the
Imperial Workshop ; the Mushrif, or Revenue Secretary,
or Admiral and Officer
the Mir-i-Bahri,
of the

Harbours the Mlr-i-Barr, or Superintendent of Forests

Qur Begi, or Superintendent of the Royal Stud
;

the

Kiiawdn Salar, or Superintendent of the Royal

Kitchen; the Wdqd Nawls, or the News- Writer, and

the

the Mtr-i-Arz, one

brought

Majesty

who

b'y

before the Euiperor,

For purposes
Gowranfent.

i.e.,

all

-presented

who

those

petitions to His

wished to lay them

Secretary.

and effective administraabolished the system of

Akbar
tion,
and parcelled out the
assigning jagirs
of efficient

Mughal Empire

into

provinces

or

Subahs, as they were then called.

Each Subdh was

replica of the

and each Subdhddr

The Subdhddr was

in all respects,

Empire
was a sovereign on a small

officially

known

scale. $

as Sipdhsdldr.

As a representative of tiie

Emperor, he exercised unlimited powers as long as he

enjoyed that office. His jurisdiction embraced civil as
well as military department.
He
in-Chief of the provincial forces

was the Commanderand the head of the

He

own

could appoint and dismiss officers at his

sweet will. But he was not authorised to declare

war,

or

judiciary.

interfere

make

treaty,

in religious matters.

questions

and were

sanction.

Next

punishment, or
These were imperial

inflict capital

Emperor for his

importance was the Diwan,

referred* to the

in order of

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

who

acted

responsible

145

independently of the Subahdar and was

to the Central Government
He was in

charge of the revenue and finance departments and

new appointments and

dismissals

all

rested with

therein

'He possessed the power of the purse, and all

payment were signed by him/ Besides, he

him.

bills of

looked
officers

almost

came

after

and
all

such

judicial

functions

as

the revenue

were entrusted with

collectors

When

revenue cases.

into conflict with the

referred to the Central

at a

and

tried

certain point he

Subahdar, the point was

Government

for

decision.

The

provincial BaJchshl had the same status ,and performed

functions

similar

province had a Sadr,

Sudur

of the

his

as

Imperial

who was deputed by

Central

provincial Sayurghals.

Government

He was

Each

prototype.
thfe

Sadr-i-

to administer the

quite

independent of

Subahdar and the Diwdn and had a separate

He looked after the welfare of the
office of his own.
the

rent-free

Jdglrddrs and regulated public

charity.

commanded great influence and respect in the

The Amil was the revenue collector. He was

He

province.

entrusted

with the task* of maintaining general law and order by

suppressing highway robbery and other similar crimes,
ascertaining the extent of the area of land under the

plough, reclaiming waste lands, promoting cultivation,

punishing illegal exactions in the collection of land
revenue, and submitting monthly reports

regarding the

market prices and the economic

condition of the people to the Central Government,

rates of

tenements,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

146
,

To

control and systematise the machinery of govern-

ment more minutely, each Subah was

sub-divided

Administration.

of

Pargands
modern

Faujddr.
as military.

Sarkdrs

and each Sarkar into a multitude

The Sarkdr corresponded

District

The

and was

duties of the

As a

in maintaining

several

Mahals.

or

to our

into

civil officer,

administered

by the

Faufddr were civil as well

he assisted the Sipdhsdldr

law and order.

According to Professor

the only commander of a military

Sarkar,
force stationed in the country to put down smaller

"he was

rebellions, disperse or arrest robber gangs, take cogniz-

ance of

all

force to

or the

and make demonstration of

violent crimes,

overawe opposition to the revenue authorities

criminal

or

judge

the

censor."

Though

his

appointment as well as dismissal rested with the

Subdhdar, he was required to keep himself in direct

communication with the Central as much as with the

Provincial Government. The Kotwdl was the custodian
His duties were multifarious.

of public peace.

first and foremost duty

and
detect, punish
prevent crime, to trace the
abouts of all offenders and evil-doers, and to
He kept
the life and property of the people.

Policeman-in-chief, his

As a
was

to

whereprotect

watch

over the movements of strangers, patrolled the city at

night to prevent theft and robbery, examined weights
and measures, kept a register of houses and roads, and

took care of the property of the heirless

missing persons.

He

in certain cases.

The

as the

A mil.

deceased and

also exercised magisterial powers

Bitikch* held the

He was

expected to

same

have a

status

thorough

JALAL-UD-DIN
knowledge of the customs
Sarkdr in

in force in the

good accountant and a

consisted

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

vogue and the regulation?

He must be a
hi* charge.
in

facile writer.

supervising the

in

147

work

His chief duties

of

the

Qdnungos,

preparing revenue abstracts and submitting a report to

the Court every year.
The Khizdnddr, also known as

Potddr, was the treasury officer. He received payments

from the cultivators, issued a receipt for every payment

made and
absolutely

kept a ledger in order

He

accurate.

unless he received

Waqa Nawis was

occurrences.

Waqa Nawis

keep his accounts

not make payment

to

signed by the Dlwan.

the recorder of events and

a voucher

The

could

When

the Sipdhsdldr held his court, the

took his seat near him and penned

down
to

the proceedings on the spot and submitted them

the Central Government.
There was a regular

army of these officers and it was through them that the

Emperor acquainted himself with the events that took
place

in

officers,

his

Other important
provinces.
in
the
subordinate
services,
large

various

who loomed

were the Karkuns, the Qdnungos, the Muqaddams

and the Patwdrls. All these were revenue officers,
but in addition to this, the Qdnungo was the head
of a

Pargand and the Muqaddam was the head

of

a village.

Akbar appreciated and rewarded merit from whatever sources it was evinced, irrespective
Imperial
of caste or creed.
The Imperial
Service was not the monopoly of the ruling class. It was
open to all men of merits, rulers or ruled. No ban was

put on the Hindus.

Those among them, who deserved,

148

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

were entrusted

with

the

of civil as well

highest

as

As appointment to every post rested

military posts.
with the Emperor, he used his judgment independently
in

By

the selection of the pick for the Imperial Service.

opening careers to talents he secured the services

of the best brains of India

of

departments

Service

Imperial

If

the different

Government worked
Akbar, it was because the

Mughal

time of

the

in

efficiently

the

and outside.

was maintained

a high

in

state of

efficiency.

While

the

conduct
officers

of

was

Secret Service.

military

to the
subject
J

scrutiny
...

of

separate

and

civil

all

department

the
of

sovereign,
secret

there

was

intelligence.

still

There

who watched the movements of

and kept the Emperor informed of their
The Subahdars also employed spies in order

were several scouts

State

officials

actions.

acquire information about the working of the

administrative machinery and to prevent corruption.

to

The system worked

officials

so well that almost

all

Government

to be honest in their dealings with

tried

the

people and the Emperor.

Akbar himself was the fountain of justice.

His
was
the highest court of appeal, and
Administration of
law and

him.

justice.

everyone could have

The Sadr-i-Sudur

tried all

especially of religious character.

free

access to

important

civil suits,

The Qazi-ul-Quzat,

Qazis and Muftis and Mir-i-Adls,

disseminated justice in accordance with the Code of
assisted

by a

set of

The Qazl

and sifted
the evidence, the Mufti expounded the law and the
Islam.

investigated

the

case

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

149

Mir-i-Adl delivered the judgment. The proceedings

were usually verbal and there were no professional lawyers
as

we have

awarded

The usual punishment

days.
minor crimes was detention in prison
Fines were not unknown, but were rare.

for

or whipping.

The
and

these

in

sentence of death was awarded for treason, rebellion

wilful

murder,

the

by

serious cases were referred to

All
Emperor himself.
him and he could annul

or reverse the decisions of the lower courts.

ments

were

inflicted

The

punish-

very severe

certainly severe,

if

judged by modern notions of criminal law and procedure,

but they served as excellent deterrents.

Akbar was deeply

promotion of
Schools and colleges were

interested in the

Promotion of

education.

education.

founded and

richly

endowed.

Not

institutions provided with

the
entire system of education
but
professors,
In the first place, the curriculum
reformed.

only were the

educational

renowned

was

was so modified

as to enable the

students to equip

according to

aims and

themselves

intellectually

ambitions.

Secondly, the modus operandi of teaching

it took comparatively very little

their

was so improved that

time to acquire a fairly decent education. Stipends and

scholarships were granted to deserving students and

arrangements were made for the free education of poor

Provisions were also made for the education
students.

Hindu students in Muslim schools and Persian was

made a compulsory subject for all. Women's education
was not neglected. The Emperor himself maintained a

of

girls'

school

in

his

Technical education

own
was

palace
diffused

at

Fathpur

SikrI.

by the system of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

150
apprenticeship.
'

There existed a welUorganized

system of postal

service in India at the time of Akbar.

Postal Service.

the serais along the imperial

routes horses were kept to provide a regular mail-service
in order to acquaint the Emperor of the important events
In

all

that took place in the far-flung provinces of his empire

The Waqa Nawis sent daily dispatches to the Central

Government through the horsemen or mail-servants

Swifter, perhaps,
employed especially for the purpose.
On every
than the horse-post was the foot-post.
imperial

highway there was,

at

an interval of

six miles,

a post-office, called Chowkl. Every runner, who brought

the imperial dispatches, placed them on its floor and the

runner appointed to go to the next Chowkl picked them

up and set off at full speed without delay. Thus were
the news transmitted.

At night time the runners were

and
protected by the avenues of trees planted on
guided
either side of the roads.
Where there were no trees,

heaps of stones were set up at a distance of every five

hundred paces and ,kept white- washed by the residents
of

the neighbouring

Thus

village.

it

was that the

runner was often swifter than the horseman

in the

for at night

dark the former ran on undeterred by darkness

or storm, but the latter was compelled to ride slowly.

This system
stability

close

of the

contact

served
subjects.

worked

as

so

well

empire by

with

the

that

keeping

provincial

it

the

secured

Emperor

governments.

connecting link ^between

him and

the
in
It

his

JALAL-UD-DIN

The

principal

means

MUHAMMAD AKBAR
of

communication and

151
trans-

communication

portation were roads and highways,

Tfaey were , ooked after fay the p ubHc

transportation.

Works Department.

Means

of

Great

arterial

roads linked the remotest parts of the Mughal Empire

over myriads of miles.
Special care was taken to
At
secure the life and property of the travellers.
roads
along
stages
public
important
with fruit-gardens, water-tanks and provision-

convenient
hostels,

shops, were built and separate arrangements were made

for the lodging and messing of Hindus and Muslims.

Rivers were also availed of for popular traffic and trade

purposes, but chiefly where the nature of the country
did not permit of proper road-making.
Previously, the various mints had been under the
Imperial Mints

and

their

administration.

char e

of

minor

officials,

called

Chaudharis, who did not possess

sufficient rank and personal weight to
.

secure satisfactory administration.

Abolishing all local
coinages, Akbar established five imperial mints in

Bengal, Lahore, Jaunpur, Gujarat and Ahmadabad and

them to Todar Mai, Muzaffar Khan,
entrusted

Khwajah Shah Mansur, Khwajah Imam-ud-Din Hussain

A responsible Master of
and Asaf Khan, respectively.
of the Mint was appointed at the Capital to exercise
general administrative control over the provincial mints
selected was Abd-us-Samad.
Subse-

and the person

quently,

several

mint regulations.

modifications were

The

result

introduced in the

was an extremely varied

coinage, excellent as regards the purity

fullness of weight and artistic execution.

of

metal, the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

152

The
...

Police Department

was maintained

satisfactory state.

officer

have been described at

by a number
manifold

The

in

a most

principal police

was the Kotwdl whose duties

some length. He was assisted

of subordinate officers in discharging his

He was

authorised to employ spies

in order to obtain information about the actual state of
duties.

the

affairs in

cities.

The Kotwdls worked

so efficiently

and security prevailed in cities, business was

and foreign merchants were well protected '.

that 'order
safe,

The
,

1 he

crowning

achievement

Akbar

of

as

an

administrator was the reorganization

T
Land

Revenue System.

of the land revenue system.

indeed

the

boon

greatest

It

was

that he

But it presented no
conferred on the people of India.
new invention. Strictly speaking, neither Akbar nor his
revenue ministers are exclusively entitled to the tribute
a
they have exacted for having evolved so elaborate
Sher Shah Suri must have his due share, for
system.
it was he who made a systematic survey of the land

under cultivation and

laid the

foundations

on which

Akbar raised the superstructure. As he died too soon,

much of his excellent work was destroyed by the
anarchy that followed his death. At his restoration,
Humayun found the empire divided into two parts,

and Jdglr land and the timewas in vogue. When

honoured
Akbar ascended the throne, he resumed the work of
Sher Shah and accomplished what the latter had only
His principal revenue officers were Itirnad
attempted.
Khan, Muzaffar Khan TurbatI and Rajah Todar Mai.

Crown

land, or Kb.dlsd

practice of crop division

JALAL-UD-DIN

The one

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

named had

served under Sher Shah duwng

and
had acquired considerable
short-lived regime

his

last

experience in revenue

affairs.

In order to elaborate
Its

153

J L

broad

system
'

basis.

necessary

paimdish

(measurement)

the

existing

land

four

things

were

of

(1) to

the

make
whole

revenue

found

correct

land

under

cultivation, (2) to ascertain the average produce of each

bighd of land,

and

(4) to fix

the share of the State per bigha,

the equivalent for the share of the State so
(3) to fix

money. In order to survey correctly

the entire area under cultivation, the instruments of
mensuration were improved. The Jarlb, joined together
fixed in terms of

was adopted as the standard landmeasure and the land survey was carefully done on its

with iron rings,

To

basis.

ascertain the average produce per bigha, all

the cultivable land was divided into four classes, viz.,

(i)

Polaj, which

was constantly cultivated

and was

never allowed to remain fallow, (ii) Parautl, which was

left fallow for some time after continuous cultivation,

(M) Chachar, which was allowed

to remain fallow for

about four years in order to recuperate, (iv) Banjar,

which remained out of cultivation for more than five
years.

The

All these four classes were dealt with differently.

two were further divided into three grades

The
good, middling and bad, according to fertility.
average of these three grades was to be the estimated
first

basis of
produce per bigha and this was to serve as the
the
For example, suppose
the assessment.
yield from
the good grade of land is 60 maunds of wheat per bigha,
from the middling it is 45 maunds per bigha and

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

154

from the bad grade it is 30 maunds per bighd. Now

the total produce from the three grades together is
135 maunds. The average produce per bigha, therefore,
maunds of wheat. The remaining two classes
is 45
were treated separately, inasmuch as they were not
equal to the first two classes in point of fertility and the
produce

Their revenue was to be increased only

In the assessment of the land revenue,

raised.

progressively.

other circumstances were also taken into consideration,

e.g.,

access to

water,

Great care was

situation, etc.

taken to apportion the different descriptions among the

The
all.
peasantry in such a way as to give benefit to
average produce per bigha having been ascertained, the
share of the State was fixed at one-third of the aggregate

produce for good. To revert for a while to the example

cited above, the average produce per bigha, as worked
One-third of this is 15 maunds,
out, is 45 maunds.

which

the share of the State,

is

demand

fixed the State

commute

it

into cash

in

i.e.,

kind,

payment.

it

mahsiil.

Having

was necessary

To do

this,

to

statements

of prices current for ten years preceding the survey were

town and every village, and the

the Government as its legitimate share

sent for from each

produce due to

was commuted

payment according to the

At
average of the rates shown in those statements.
times the commutation was reconsidered at the request
of the peasant and he was allowed to pay in the produce
rate was fixed too high.
if he thought that the cash
The commutation business was done by Government
officers

and

for

the

cash

cash

rates

were

fixed

Different rates were fixed for different crops.

by

them.

The

rates

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
for barley

and wheat were

different

155

from those of indigo

was the first or tentative

sugarcane.
settlement made by Rajah Todar Mai and Muzaffar

and

This

Khan Turbati

It
Gujarat during 1573-75 A. C.
served as a model for the rest of the Mughal Empire

in

subsequent years. It was known as the Zabti system

of assessment as against the Nasaq and Ghalldbhdsha.
in

The system

of farming was abolished and the collectors

were instructed to deal directly with the agriculturists.

At

first,

regularly

made

annually. But since

and
measurements, valuations

the settlements were

recurring

assessments of individual holdings were found to be

vexatious and cumbersome, the settlement was soon

made decennial on

the basis of the

average payments
This
preceding decade (1571-80 A. C.)
alleviated
another
evil
inherent
of
term
the
prolongation

of

the

in the existing

system

since

with the kind of crop cultivated,

tithe

inasmuch as

it

assessment varied

the
it

had the

effect of

indisposed the cultivator to obtain

a richer description of produce, which, though it might

yield a greater benefit, would have a higher tax to pay
at

made
and

Arrangements were
succeeding settlement.
to record with great assiduity the measurements

the

classifications detailed above.

The

distribution of

land and increase or decrease in the land revenue were

entered

regularly

in

the

village

The

registers.

husbandmen were allowed the option

of paying the State

share in cash or kind as they pleased, but the latter

method

of

payment was

beneficial both to the payer

preferred,

because

and the payee.

it

was

They were

encouraged to bring their rents personally to the State

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

156

at definite periods so that the malpractices of the

intermediaries

that the

be

might

prevented.

If

low

they thought

amount claimed by the State was too high or

any way dissatisfied with the average fixed,

were

in

they

could

on the actual measurement, division

of their crops.
They were exempted

insist

and valuation

from a number of obnoxious taxes and ensured easy

means

of access to

rents

were

rebates

Emperor

from

collected

on the

especially

the

in

them.

exorbitant

case

In

demand were allowed

full

when the land

suffered

cases

many
to

them,

from droughts,

floods,

inundations or famines, or remained out of cultivation

for certain reasons.

loans were

Besides liberal allowances, Taqqavl

granted to

them from the State treasury

to

purchase seeds, cattle and agricultural

implements, and were recovered in easy instalments.
When famine was rampant, remissions were common in
enable

them

to

the case of the poor and public works were constructed

Akbar stationed
to afford relief to the famine-stricken.
a

Dlwan

in

each Subah and entrusted him with the

task of collecting the State revenues and remitting them

In
to the Chief Dlwan of the Central Government.

each Sarkdr an Amil, in each Pargana a Qunungo and

in each Dastur a Muqaddam, assisted by other revenue
the
officers, collected the State demand and remitted

These officers were

Treasury.
not
instructed to deal kindly with the cultivators and

same

to the Imperial

'

to extend the

hand of demand out

of

season

'.

To

facilitate the collection of the State revenues, the empire

was parcelled out

(

in

= 10,000,000) of dams

parts,

each

(=Rs.

250,000 or

yielding

Crore

25,000) and

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

157

having a collector, called Qrori. Formerly, the revenue

Henceforth they w~re
accounts were kept in HindL
kept in Persian.

The importance

of the revenue

the ^System.

system as organized
Akbar merits
by
perfected
a careful consideration. In the realm

of administration

it

and

Importance of

Akbarian Age.

the most enduring glory of the

was twice-blessed
It benefited the

It

is

State as well as the peasantry.

The

share of the State

being fixed for ever, fluctuations in the land revenue

and frauds on the part of the revenue officers were

Consequently, the Imperial Treasury was

enriched and the prosperity of the peasani. increased by

prevented.

leaps

and bounds.

We have

seen

and

The
(i)

law and order the need

The

Artillery,

four

important

(Hi) Cavalry,

infantry consisted of

the environs

for a well-

better imagined than described.

Imperial Army had

(ii)

recover

army can be

Infantry,

To

'

his patrimony, to establish his autho-

to restore

organized

career with-

definite territory.
out any
J

Military Reforms.

rity

how Akbar commenced

and

divisions
(iv)

Navy.

or riflemen,

Banduqchls
Shamsherbaz or swordsmen, Darbdns,
or porters, Khidmatyds or guards of

of

the

Imperial

Palace,

Pehalwans,

or

and Kahdrs or doli-bearers. The Emperor

himself acted as the Commander-in-Chief and had a
number of commanders under him, called Sipdhsdlars.
The artillery was in charge of the Mir-i-Atash or

wrestlers

Ddroghd-i-Topjckdnd (Superintendent
of Ordnance Department), who was

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

158
assisted

by another

officer of

importance called

"The Mir-Atask laid before the Emperor all demands

made on his department all orders to it passed through
;

He

pay-bills and inspected the

of the Arsenal before sending them on to the

him.
diaries

checked

Khan-i^Saman
ings

of

losses

hands

by him. The desof artillery recruits passed through his

new appointments and promotions were

was nominated

pay-office

all

made on his initiative.

The cavahy constituted
* t ^ie I

Cavalry

to the post-

and received reports as to

The agent at the head of the

force

deficiencies.

criptive rolls

He saw

Lord Steward.

or

the artillery

and

artillery

the

most important

the

m P er a
i

part

Army. The Mansab-

'

ddri System, a

short

description of

will
nothing
presently follow, was
excellent organization of the cavalry.

which

Akbar maintained a well-organized

but

fleet in

defend the coasts against the

an

order to

Maghs

Arakan and the Portuguese from

The Naval Department was placed in
of

Mundalgarh.
charge of an

whose

officer called

fourfold duty

was

Amir-ul-Bahr,
to

provide vessels capable of

to appoint expert

carrying elephants ;
diagnosing the temper of the sea

and

or Admiral,

seamen

skilled

in

guard the rivers,

imposition, the realization and

to superintend the
remission of tolls and duties.

to

The Emperor gave

number of Pargands to the Amir-ul-Bakr to

meet the requirements of his department. The fleet
was maintained at an annual cost of Rs. 8,40,000. The

large

ship-building industry received a

considerable attention

JALAL-UD-DJN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

159

Emperor. The important ^hip-building centres

were Lahore, Allahabad, Kashmir, Bengal and That f a
banks
The vessels were
the
of the Indus)
(on

of the

variously classified according to

Naval

strength.

batteries

their

were recruited from the sea-faring tribes.

There was also an elephant corps.
.

tained

Llephant corps.

The

and

size

kind,

were installed and

sailors

was main-

It

high state of efficiency.

elephants were organized into
in

groups of ten, twenty or thirty, commonly called Halqds,

Some of the Marsabddrs were asked to
or circles.

maintain a

number

certain

number

a fixed

horses.

of

of elepnants in addition to

All

elephants

had

their

names.
Literally, the

word Mansab means

place,

rank,

The Mansabddrs,

Mansabdari

dignity, or office.

System.

(rank-holders) were administrative

normally engaged

cers,

in civil work,

offi-

but each of them

number of troopers of which he held

The Mansabdari System, therefore, imthe Mansab.
were bound to render military
plies that civil officers
had

to furnish the

whenever they were called upon to do so. On

paper there were as many as sixty-six grades of Mansab-

service

ddrs,

but

in

(thirty-three).

actual

Of

practice

only

half

the

number

these, the first three grades, ranging

from 7,000 to 10,000, were reserved for the members of

Sometimes exceptions were made to
the Royal family.
this rule

and men

of extraordinary merits were admitted

to the rank of 7,000.

held the

Rajah Todar Mai, Rajah

Man

Rukh and Qulich Khan, for instance,

Mansab of 7,000 each. The Mansabddrs were

Singh, Mirza Shah

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

160

paid regular salaries from the State treasury and were req^ired to pay the cost of their quota of horses, elephants,
beasts

of

and

burden

Their

carts.

appointments,

promotions, suspensions and dismissals rested with the

Emperor, who enforced

his regulations in respect of the

Mansabddrl System with great strictness. The Mansab

was granted for personal ability and military merits.
The sons of the Mansabddrs
It was not hereditary.
had to start anew, independent of their fathers' services
In connection with the Mansabddrl System
or status.
two
there are
important terms, viz., Zdt and Sdwdr,
which have

baffled the ingenuity of scholars in distin-

guishing betwsen. Dr. Ishwari Prasad only approximates

The Zdt was the personal rank
the truth when he says,
of Man*abddr, but to this was added a number of extra
'

which an officer was allowed to draw extra

allowance, and this was called his Sawar rank.' Besides
the Mansabddrs, there were some other soldiers, generThe
ally foot, known as the Dalzhlis and Ahddis.
of
number
soldiers
in
former formed a fixed
charge of
horsemen

for

the Mansabddrs.
latter

They were

constituted

class

gentlemen soldiers, enlisted

The

paid by the State.

by themselves.
by the

Emperor

They were
himself

for

his personal service.

The system

of assigning jdglrs to the officers of the

was abolished by Sher Shah

__
,
,
Suri only to set in after his shortAkbar did not like a
lived regime.

State

System of
payment.

system which put so much power in the hands of the

Jdglrddrs and diminished the revenues of the State. He

resumed the/d&tfs, which were, so

to say, states within

JALAL-UD-DIN
states,

and converted

lands, fixing cash

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

their, into

161

the Khdlsa, or

salaries for his officers.

Crown

There were,

Officers claiming kindred

however, a few exceptions
with the Emperor or enjoying his favours and such
:

charitable institutions as schools

and seminaries were

since no danger accrued to the Govern-

granted jagirs
ment from them.
If

Mansabddri System worked well

because the Emperor took

the

the

safeguard against
O rpen to. False muster

brandmgTo^es
and keeping
descriptive

rolls.

it

was

care to
it

was

was an

evil

abuses

from which the Mughal army must

check this he revived the system
To
have suffered.
of branding the horses in the service of the State and of
keeping descriptive rolls of the troopers and their horses,

by Ala-ud-DIn Khiljl, continued by

Gbiyas-ud-Din and reintroduced by Sher Shah Sun. A
was created and placed
separate department of branding
first

introduced

under a separate Btf&hs&i and a Darogha.

Descriptive
rolls of officers were prepared and their names, parentage,

and personal description were entered.

Chirahs (descriptive rolls) of horses were

caste, residence

Likewise

and the details of their descriptions were

At the time of inspection the marks on the
entered.
body of every soldier and his horse were compared with
It can be
those detailed in the descriptive rolls.
prepared

gathered from the

Am

that elaborate rules were

in respect of admission, inspection,

of

horses.

and ordered

The Emperc*
his

officers

muster and the

himself inspected
to

like,

the horses

look after them

maintain their military efficiency.

made

and

to

CHAPTER

JALAL-UD-DIN

IX

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

(CONCLUDED)
Literature and Fine Arts
Akbar was a great patron

of art

The contemporary

Introductory.

and

of the

most renowned

names

and scholars

artists

have

chroniclers

preserved for posterity the

some

literature.

of

whom

As one
the Imperial Court took under its warm wings.
one
comes
across
a large
reads through their accounts

who sought and

Court without fail. The

number
of the

of those

secured the patronage

well as the

artistic as

literary productions of that period are still

excellence.

their

Here

it

account of literature and

is

admired

for

intended to give a short

without which no

fine arts,

account of Akbar can be called complete.

Great as was Akbar's love ol learning, no

less

was

his fondness for fostering literature,

Literature.

j/j

j
ij
which feeds on knowledge and feeds
knowledge again, and becomes a valuable asset to the
His reign was remarkable for its
cause of civilization.
.

literary activities.

Numerous books on

various subjects

were written, compiled and translated under his auspices,

and historical literature of a very high order was the
result.

'AlUmah Abul
Akbarnamah.
fascination

Fazl's

hook

Akbarnamah,

of

will

and charm as a minute

Akbar,

called

always retain its

account of the

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

163
>

customs and
historical

set

traditions ol the people of India.

Thp
of
this
work
has
been
importance
excellently

by one of

forth

words

its

translators

in

the following

'

It crystallizes

and records

Its historical

state of

importance.

itg

in brief for all

Hindu

statistica i

time the

learning, and,

serves

utility>

besides

an

as

admirable treatise of reference on numerous branches of

Brahmanical science and on the manners, beliefs, traditions, and indigenous lore, which for the most part still
retain

mind.

long continue their hold or\ the popular

Above all, as a register of the fiscal areas, the

and

will

revenue settlements, and changes introduced at various

periods, the harvest returns, valuations and imports

throughout the provinces of the empire,

originality

is

surpassing historical importance/

valuable than the Akbarndmah is the Ain-i-

indisputable as

More

its

its

ii

which

is

by

far the finest fruit

of the Emperor and partly a minute

partly a history
record of the revenue, royal household, treasury, military

and other important matters, with a gazetteer

India and -a collection of His Majesty's sayings and
No other work gives a better and more

regulations
of

teachings.

elaborate pen-picture of contemporary India

customs,

traditions,

religious innovations

etiquette,

cookery

its

lore,

recipes,

and

under the pompous style of Court

Apparently a fiscal manual

Journal, than this book.
of all the departments of the State and its industries, it
is

much more than

an encyclopaedia.

a history, a gazetteer, nay

must form the foundation of every

that
It

it is

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

164

book written about Akbar the Great and

The

Tdrilch-i-Alfi,

his reign.

history of the

millennium

from the dawn of Islam to the days of

j
j * u
-iju
Akbar, was ordered to be compiled by
a company of distinguished scholars singled out by the
Emperor, including the reluctant Badaoni. The important events of a thousand years of Islam were accordTankh-i-Alfi.
~"

from the Athnd-i-Ashariyah point of view

and the chronology was reckoned from the date of the
of his
Prophet's demise and not from the date
ingly related

emigration, *&, Hijra.

Apart from these books,
at this

many more were written

time. The Tdr%l$h-i-Baddom,

- ,.
,
A
by Abdul Qadir ; a
commentary on the Ayat-ul-Kursl, by Abul Fazl and
and his letters ; the T&bqdt-i-Akbari by Nizam-iid-Din
Ahmad and the Mun&iat of Abul Path are some of the
Other books.

secretly written

other

literary

monuments

produced

at

this

time.

Historically, they constitute a great asset to this reign.

Akbar extended every possible encouragement to

those engaged in the work of translaTranslated
versions.

^t

^j s dj rec tion several copious

from other languages.
Persian
works were translated into
Khan-i-KhanSn Abdur-Rahlm put into Persian the
t j on>

Wdqiydt-i-Bdbari (Memoirs of Babar) from the original

Turkish for the first time and presented the Persian
version to his Imperial patron, who was not slow in
rewarding him handsomely for his labours. The Jamd-iRashidi was translated into Eersian from Arabic by

Abdul Qadir and the Mu'ajam-ul-Buldan, a geographical

work of singular charm, by Mullah Ahmad Qasim

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

165

Munawwar, Abdul Oadir and many other

The celebrated Shahndmah was turned into

Shaikh

Beg,

scholars.

prose

and the Hayat-ul-Haiwan was rendered

into

Persian.

Akbar patronized Hindu

literature just as

Muslim. In order to encourage

...

......
,
Hindu
Literature.

and

social

as

and

it

<

also to
religious

much

exchange of
promote
ideas and ideals between the Hindus
free

and the Musalmans, he ordered the translation of many

an important Sanskrit and Hindi book.
Here are a few
instances
Faiz! and a number of learned Brahmans
:

put their heads together

and turned

into

from

Persian

Sanskrit an episode of the Mahabhdratd, called Nail

Damyanti, after the manner of Laild and Majnun.

1582 A. C. Akbar ordered the whole of the

translated into

Persian.

Having

invited

to

epir

some

and
In

be

erudite

Pandits, he gave them directions to indite an explanation

of the copious epic and for several nights, says Dr. Law,
he himself devoted his attention to explaining the meanMullah Sben, Abdul Qadir,
ing to Naqib Khan.'
Sultan Haji Thanes war! and Shaikh Faizi were constant*

ly

in

engaged

its

translation.

When

the arduous task

was accomplished, the Great Shaikh wrote its epilogue

and the book was rechristened as Razmndntah, or the
Book of War. When the Imperial Court was at Kanauj,
(then

known

BadSoni
Persian

to

with

Parshotam,

as

Akbar
Shergarh),
the
Singdsan

translate

commissioned
Battisl

into

help of a Brahman scholar, called

When the rendering was complete, it

the

received the appellation of Khirad-afza-ndtnah, or the

Book of Increasing Intelligence. Above all, the Rdmdyana

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

166

was put into Persian by BadaonI

in

1589 A, C.

After

*our years' strenuous labour che Lilavatl (a treatise on

arithmetic), the Bhagvatagita and the Atharvavedd

were rendered into the language of the Court by Faizi

the history of Kashmir, called Rnjtarangini, written by

Kalhana, was translated by Maulana Shaikh Muhammad

the Panchatdntra, or
Kaliladamnah, was also done at this time by N asm 11 ah
Mustafa and Maulana Husain Waiz. The translation of
the book last-named being difficult, an easier adaptaA
tion was also made under the name of Ayarddnish.
f
Tables
he
Astronomical
of
of
was
Beg
Ulugh
portion

Shahabadi;

the translation of

also translated into

Amir Fathullah

under the supervision of

The Sanskrit works of Kishu

Persian

SbJrazI.

Gangadhar and Mahesh Mahananda were turned

The
into Persian under the guidance of Abul Fazl.
of
the
Persian
version
was
also
for
the
latter
responsible
Holy Bible. The Haribansd was also put into Persian.

Josh!,

The

mentioned above being

Illustrated
complete, they were profusely embelversions.
Hshed with charming illustrations and
supplied with beautiful bindings. They were then placed
translation of the books

The elaborately illustrated

Imperial Library.
of the Mahabh&ratd, now called Razmndmah,
were given gratis to the nobles of the Court. Among

in

the

versions

the

Persian works, the story of

ndmah, Akbarndmah,

etc.,

Amir Hamzah, Zafar-

were

also

decked with

illustrations.

The

Imperial Court was a 'iterary focus because the

Muslim CourtEmperor was a prominent patron of
Scholars.
letters.
By means of his extensive

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

167

had drawn around him a galaxy of famous

The author
scholars, historians, philosophers and poets.
of the A In has given a list of as many as one hundred
and forty learned men and about sixty poets whom the
generosity he

raised above want, even to affluence.

Here is
account of some of the most brilliant luminaries

Emperor
a brief
of

His Majesty's Court

The

ablest

and the most renowned among the

literary magnates was Akbar's intimate
friend

and confidential

Fazl, the celebrated author of

He

Akbarndmah.

ranks

Abul
the Ain-i-Akbari and the

among

adviser,

the greatest Persian

scholars that India has ever produced.

He was

'

man

and pure spiritual ideals '. Dr. Smith

compared him with his 'junior contemporary/
Francis Bacon, for combining in his person 'the parts of
His
and man of affairs '.
scholar, author, courtier
was a magnatic personality, permeated with an almost

of wide culture

has

mesmeric

The judgment

force.

of

posterity

on

his

penmanship is admirably summed up by the author of

the Ma'sir-ul-Umara in the following words
"
The Sheikh (Abul Fazl) had an enchanting
:

He was

literary style.

and epistolary
the

tricks of style

collagation

diction,

another to imitate.
Persian words,

it

secretarial

and the force of

pomposity
his words,

of the expressions, the application

single words, the beautiful

power of

from

free

of

compounds and wonderful

were such as

As he strove

has been said of

would be hard

for

make special use of

him that he put into

to

prose the qualities of Nizaml."

The

talented

Shaikh

was indeed

the

greatest

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

168

writer of the day.

assign

him a

India.

The

His unique

achievements

literary

place splendid in the literary history of

reason why some of the Westerners have

failed to appreciate the linguistic

beauty of his works

books, with

to be found in the fact that Persian

is

all

enchanting metaphors and pure

cannot
stand the ordeal of translation,
vigorous diction,
their captivating style,

and

as

Prof.

Blochmann

justly

remarks,

'a

great

familiarity not only with the Persian language but with

Abul Fazl's style is required to make the reading of any

of his works a pleasure
Abul Faiz, known in history as FaizI, the elder
'.

brother of Abul Fazl, comes next in

~
A
Abul
Faiz.
.

He was

the Imperial
Librarian and the Persian Poet-Laureate of the India
order of merit.

of his time.

His inquiries into Hindu

form a most conspicuous part

age.

He

translated a

arts

and sciences

of the literature of that

number

of Sanskrit

and

Hindi

books on mathematics and other sciences into Persian.

giant whose literary
d
He was great book-lover and,
activity was prodigous.
like all other bibliophiles, he took immense pleasure in

Truly,

he was

an

intellectual

the collection of useful books in a library of his own.

On his death about forty-six thousand ^volumes were

obtained from his private collection and removed to the

Imperial Library.

Shaikh Mubarak, the learned father of Abul Faiz

and Abul Fazl, was a man of no
Shaikh
Mubarak.
versed
riddles.

in

He was wellordinary learning.

Persian prosody ariJ the art of composing

In mystic philosophy he

was an adept.

He

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN
was one

169

most delightful companions, being full of

"
I have known ", says Badaoni, his
no man of more comprehensive learning tfcart

of the

curious anecdotes.
"

enemy,
Mubarak."

Khan-i-Khanan Abdur-Rahim, son of Bairam Khan,

was an accomplished
scholar in many
A
n
r
J
Abdur
Rahim.
,

He was

languages.
versant
Brij

with

Persian,

thoroughly conSanskrit, Turkish and

Arabic,

The Kabits and

Bhasha.

the

Dohas

of

his

simply bewitching and

a
deal
of originality of thought and
display
good
style.
He was an excellent writer of nrose and verse alike.

composition

in vernacular

are

He

wrote under the pen-name of Rahiml. The best of

works was the Persian translation of the Waqiydt-iBdbari.
The Khan was an energetic promoter of
his

learning

and an

eminent

patron

of

The

letters.

Maslr-i-Rahimi records that

'ninety-five literary personalities enjoyed his patronage in various

ways, and

many more came

to

him

to

become

his pupils.

Masih-ud-DIn Abul Path was another

Akbar's Court, about

Abul Path

litterateur of

whom both Abul

Fazl and Badaoni supply us with a

favourable information.
He was considered among the
best writers bf the day.

has been carefully

rare

treasured

copy of
the

in

Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal.

poet

of Shiraz,

was

his

his

library

Urfi, the

encomiast; Faizi

It is

a sufficient proof,

his literary genius.

if

proof

is

of

the

renowned

composed a

heart-rending elegy on his death ; and the

himself offered a prayer at his tomb
not
reasons.

Mun&iat

Emperor
without

required, of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

170

Over and above those mentioned above, there were

numerous other gens de lettres at
Court-Scholars.
Court
the
They were
Ilpperial
Abdul Qadir, Bairam Khan, Pir Muhammad, Amir Mir
TaqI SharifI, Maulana Kher-ud-Dm Ruml, Shaikh
Abun-Nabi Dehlawi, Mirza Muflis, Hafiz Tashqandl
and Mullah Sadiq Halwi, all endowed with varied
Other Muslim

accomplishments.
Akbar,

who always appreciated and rewarded merit

and made no distinction of creed or

Some Hindu

be
genius unremunerated

He

literature.

among

for their

selected his

'

justly remarks,

have

said to

Hindus and

both

,.

colour in choosing his officers, cannot

Court-Scholars.

Hindu men

left

of

achievements in arts and

friends

and advisers from

Musalmans, and as Smith

with a leaning in favour of the former

His Court exhibited

a*

assemblage

greater

of

'.

Hindu

any other Muslim Monarch in India had

Here is a list of some of
ever been able to produce.

scholars than

them

With the exception

-,

.,

1 odar Mai.

He

Service.

among

the

of

Sufi

(Abul Fazl

Brothers

and Abul Faiz) Rajah

Todar Mai
J
was the ablest man in the Imperial
was unquestionably* the most 'distinguished
,

Hindus,

wielding his

pen

as

well as his

sword with equal skill. He was a consummate scholar

of Persian and is credited with the Persian translation
of the Bhagvatapurdna.
Hitherto, the Hindus had not
evinced

any

real

interest

in

learning
*

Persian,

the

language of the Court. This meant their practical

from the loaves and fishes of the State

exclusion

JALAL-UD-DIN
Service.

By means

of an extensive

paganda he succeeded
take seriously

in

the

to

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

171

and persuasive pro-

inducing his co-religionists to

study of

the Imperial language.

The Hindus,

accordingly, began

of literature

and not a few works have come down

us the authorship of which

Blr Bal
_ _
BirBal.
,

domain
to

ascribed to them.

is

was another learned Hindu attached to

the Imperial
Court.
His intellectual
r

uncommon

gifts,

won him

to shine in the

a place

in

the

as they were, soon

innermost

circle of

Akbar's

He was a past-master of witty-sayings and in

that capacity he is remembered to this day.
He was a
>
musician, a poet, a conversationalist, a story-teller and

friends.

a clown,

all

rolled in one.

His Majesty had conferred

upon him the title of Kabrdi, i.e., Hindu Poet-laureHe was a man of extraordinary eloquence and rare

ate.

intelligence.
literary repute, who were the
recipients of Imperial favours in the
form of jagirs, mansabs and posts,

Other Hindus of
Other Hindu
Scholars and
Tulsi Das.

were

Man

ah BKagwfin Das, Rajah

Nath, etc.
Mai, Han

Bihar!

Singh, Rajah
author of the time,"
the
says
greatest
"
does
not
Hindu
seem
the
Tulsi
Dr. Smith,
Das,
poet,

"

But

to

have

been

known

Ramcharltamanas, or
from the Sanskrit
field

of

Hindi

epic,

to

is

literature.

The

Akbar personally."

the Hindi

Rdmayana, adapted

an enduring
It

is

glory

regarded

in

as

the

'the

great national work of the Hindi-speaking population

of India '.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

172

Another distinguished poet of this time was Sur

Das, the blind bard of Agra. The
simple and pathetic figure of this
remarkable poet next continued the line of Hindu poets
in Muslim India.
Devotion to Krishna in its entirety
the keynote of his poetry.
Be it said to the credit of
the Emperor whose friendly attitude towards Hindu
is

learning

afforded

a favourable

for the
opportunity
Hindi literature. Tulsi Das and his

development of
contemporary, Sur Das, passed their days undisturbed
under the Mughal Rule, the former in the celestial
Benares, and the latter in Agra, plying their occupations
in peace.

Akbar was endowed with an

n

He had

genius,
b

Painting.

His views on

developed a strong

artistic taste

from

the art of painting

exquisite aesthetic
.

are characteristically

own words by Abul Fazl as follows

There are many that hate painting, but such

expressed in his
41

men

his very early days.

do not

like.

It

seems to

me

that a painter has,

of recognising God ; for he,

that
has life and in devising its
in painting anything
limbs, one after the other, is ultimately convinced that
he cannot bestow individuality on his cieation and is

as

it

means

were, peculiar

thus forced to think of God, the giver of life."

He gave the first definite spur to what came to be
.,

Mughal School
of Painting.

known

on as the Mughal
*- School
He founded and enPainting.
later

dowed a State Gallery under

personal care and control.

runners and

inspirers of

The
the

his

own

celebrated Persian fore-

new

art

soon coalesced

MUHAMMAD AKBAK

JALAL-UD-DIN

under the influence of the Indian native

173

talent,

with the

Mughal School Proper was born,

which has continued to our own days.

result that the Indian

As the might and means

of the

Emperor

increased,

of Imperial palaces began

tO take sha P e and ver y SOOn the need

his visions
'

Painting

was

felt

paintings and pictures of

architectural

monuments

were accordingly

ornament them

to

decked

the

The

splendour.

unparalleled
of

with

Town

of

with pictures

Fathpur
which

in

Slkrl
ele-

gance was wedded to beauty. He encouraged the

painters with bonuses and increase of their salaries in
proportion to their progress in their pursuit of painting.
In the Painting Gallery which he constructed, painters

assembled from

far

their art so as to

and near to emulate one another in

become more proficient in it The

Mughal magnificence is now a thing of the past, but

the Town
the remains of the mural decorations of
Victory, among many others,
memorials of that glorious age.

of

Among
Prominent

stand as

splendid

the most prominent painters, patronized by

the Emperor, may be mentioned Mir

Sayyad AH Tabrez, who illuminated

the Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah Daswant, who could paint
and Barwan, a rival of Daswant
figures even on walls
in his art.
Khwajah Abdul Samad and Kesu were other
painters.

famous painters attached

victories achieved in the

strikingly

set forth in

to the Imperial Court.

Most

this

art

an exacting passage

Akbarl, which reads as follows

11

of

field

The

have been

in the

Ain-i-

excellent painters are

now

to be found

and

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

174
masterpieces
the side of
painters

who

worthy of a Eihzad may be placed at

the wonderful works of the European
have attained world- wide fame
More

hundred painters have become famous masters of

than
the

art,

or

of

while the

those

number

who

of those

are mediocre,

who

is

reach perfection,

very great.

This

is

particularly true of the Hindus, their pictures surpass

our conception of things,"
The art of music reached the summit of its splen.

dour under the Imperial

patronage.
r
r
o

Art of music.

It

received considerable

encouragement
from the Emperor, who himself was highly accomplished in this art and had an adequate knowledge of its
"
"
His Majesty," says Abul Fazl,
technicalities.
pays

much

music and patronizes those who

Hearing of his bounty, numerous
practise
musicians hailed from Persia, Turan, Kashmir and other
attention
this

to

art."

Mughal Court. They belonged to both the

sexes.
Some of them were Subhan Khan, Sarud Khan,
Sri GiSn Khan, Mian Chand, Mian Lai, Daud Dhari,
Muhammad Khan Dhgri, Mullah Is'haq Dhari, Nanak
Jarju, Bites Khan, Tantarang Khan, Rang Sen, RahmatBut the
all experts in this art.
ullah and Pir Zadah
most skilled and proficient of them all was Mian Tansen,
the matchless musical gem of Akbar's Court and the
places to the

By the
greatest musician that India has ever produced.
said
his
voice
he
is
(metaphoribewitching sweetness of
cally

speaking)

to

have

set

the

Jumna on

fire.

His

in Gwalior has become a place of pilgrimage for

Besides Tansen, there
the later-day musicians of India.
flourished in his time two other famous singers, Ram

tomb

JALAL-UD-DIN

Das and Hari Das, the

Instrumentation of

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

175

Mughal Darbar.
a very high kind and bewilder-

bi:lbuls ot the

ing variety has been a

most

disting-

uishin g feature of Indian music

principal
6tn, flute,

musical

'

The

instruments were

ghlchakj karana, qabuz, sarmandal, surna,

tamburah, rabab, and qdnun. The best instrumental

performers were: Shaikh Dawan Dhari, Shihab Khan.
Purbin Khan, Ustad Dost of Meshed, Mir Sayyad AH of
Meshed, Bahram Quli of Gujarat, TSsh Beg of Kipchak,
Bir Mandal Khan of Gwalior, Ustad Yusaf of Herat,
Sultan Hashim of Meshed, Ustad

Ustad

Muhammad Amin,

Abdullah and

Qasim.

Muhammad

Husain,

Ustad Shah Muhammad, Mir

As to the use to which the

instruments were put, nothing can be definitely said, but

their high and complex kind certainly points to a
It is just possible that some
developed state of music.
of them were invented in this very reign, e.g., Qasim is
reputed to have invented an instrument intermediate

between rabdb and qabuz.

divers

The

vocal

music with

its

rags and ragnls, some of which are now out of

many of which have long been forgotten

fashion and

want

of

were popular in those days ;

music was equally indulged in.
The Darbarl music, which became so popular afterfor

cultivation,

whereas instrumental

wards, was introduced at this time.

The

Indian

Hindu-Muslim
social intercourse

through music.

intermutation

music, like other fine arts, proved a

new channel of intercourse between
the

Hindus

and

process

co-operation and
thing in the time of

The

was not a new

of

the

Musalmans.
^.

I/O

IHfc,

MUUHAL,

had begun centuries before. In the domain

of music it became distinctly perceptible how the two
communities were borrowing from each other the
precious stores they possessed in this art, and thereby
Akbar.

It

enriched each other.

which was

Khiyal, for example,

invented by Sultan Husain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur, has

become an important limb of Hindu music. Dhrupad,

on the other hand,

has engrafted

on Muslim

itself

music.
Calligraphy as a separate branch of the fine arts had
been cultivated by the Musalmans in
Calligraphy.
/
India ever since their advent in this
.

Akbar encouraged the

country.

'

art

of fine

writing,

'

hand, the obvious reason

nastallq
invention of the printing
that
before
the
the
fact
being
the

particularly

and

press

beautiful

its

introduction into India, clear,

hand was an absolute

legible,

and

It is idle to

necessity.

has long ceased to be recog-

linger long over this art as

it

nised as a fine art.

equally futile to enter into

various forms.

It is

Suffice

it

to say that

it

received

its

its

due

share of encouragement from the Emperor.

Akbar loved buildings and,

A

he

Architecture.

possessed
;

like

a cultured prince,

for
unique taste
,1
His Majesty,
says
and dresses the works
.

architecture.

"
Abul Fazl, plans splendid edifices
of his mind and heart in the garment of stone
and clay." Smith informs us that this imposing phrase
not merely a courtly complement that the historian is
paying here. It is sober truth and is endorsed by Fergus'
son, who describes Fathpur Slkri as a reflex of the great
is

mind

of the

man who

built

it.'

Even

architecture speaks

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

JALAL-UD-DIN

177

for Akbar's statesmanship,

aiming at Hindu-Muslim Unity.

His buildings were characterised by a happy blending cf
Hindu-Muslim styles.
They combined both Hindu

and Muslim
sometimes
architecture,

monuments
be

other

execution

his

the

The style of
was eclectic. The existing

predominated.

was any,

there

if

of

expected,

which sometimes the one and

features, of

the

are

reason

fewer

than

the fact that

might
several

being
were subsequently pulled down by
Shah Jahan, whose canons of tastes

of his superb edifices

his

grandson,
from those of his grandfather.
The best that
have survived are
the tomb of Ilumayun, the most
differed

Persian in style and renowned for the simplicity and

purity of its design ; the magnificent Masjid with

Darwaza

Buland

classic

its

or

the

Lofty

Portal,

"

appearance noble beyond that of any portal attached

"
to any mosque in India, perhaps in the whole world
;
the Jahangm Mahal at the Agra Fort ; the Tomb
in

of Shaikh

Salim Chishtl

the

handsome mosque

erected

the Palace of Jodhabai ; the Central

Hall of Akbar's original Palace the Liwdn, or Service-

at

Fathpur Sikri

portion of the Great Mosque at the Town of Victory

the beautiful Masjid built at Mirths in RajputanS ; the
;

Tomb

of

Saint

Muhammad Gbaus

at

Gwalior

the

of
Sati-burj, immortalizing the self-immolation of a wife
Rajah Bihar! Mai ; the Hall of Forty Pillars at Allahabad ;

the

House

of Bir Bal

the four temples of Gobind Dev,

Madan Mohan, Gopi Nath and

honour to the

tomb
India

deified KrighnS

at SikandarS,
either

'

before

quite unlike
or

since/

Jugal

Kishor,

and above

doing

all, his

own

any other tomb

built in

considered

as the

are

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

178

admirable specimens

moist

the architecture of that

of

period.

Most of the monuments

_

beautiful gardens within their premises.

Gardens.

The gardens
Kashmir may
it is

Thus

town

of

Fathpur

at

'

on which the popular remark,

earth,

at the

Sikandara and the Naslm Bagh at

be mentioned among those fortunate places

and those

Sikri

had

enumerated above

flits

is

a paradise on

here/ has repeatedly been passed.

it is

here,

there

if

the pageant of a

reign,

the

panorama

of Akbar, his achievements in the arts

r
n
r
j u*
war as well as of peace and his

Estimate
of Akbar.

contributions to the cause of Indian

culture

and

deliberate policy of

promoting

was a systematic and

literature,

architecture,

dancing, calligraphy, poetry and other

which made considerable progress under

music,

painting,
fine

His

civilization.

arts,

What

his patronage.

gave

a tremendous impetus to

these fine arts was his

catholicity of mind which, soaring
above the snares of sectarian psychology, appreciated

and encouraged true worth without making invidious

The widespread

distinctions.

diffusion of education, the

extensive
perfect

promotion of fine arts, the maintenance of

religious freedom and liberty of conscience, the

abolition of the hated Jizia

the

and other obnoxious

taxes,

Sail and female infanticide, the

prohibition
encouragement of widow-remarriage, the extinction of
the

of

evil practice

and that of

of

trial

enslaving

by

elaborate system of land

restoration

of law

ordeal,

prisoners

the

introduction

revenue,

and above

war

of

the

of an

all,

the

and order and the establishment

of

JALAL-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AKBAR

179

peace and prosperity throuchout tlie length and breadth

of the Mughal Empire by the introduction of such wise
innovations

as

issued not from a Parliament, a Cortes

or a States-General, but from the head of one man

whose era was that of Queen Elizabeth, Philip II and
Louis XIV, whose age was that of religious intolerance,
rigid
Inquisition and ruthless persecution, and whose
evironments were those of malice, tyranny and oppression

are

the

index

annals of the world.

of

unsurpassed in the
whatever side we approach

a genius

From

him, whether as a man, a soldier and a statesman, or

as a philosopher, a military commander and a political
administrator ; or as a reformer, a legislator and a peace-

maker, the conviction is forced home on us that he was

really one of those few inspired personalities of bupreme

powers and singular endowments

who

have, as it were,
In view of his
revealed the future to their present age.
contributions to the wisdom of the world and the
science of humanity, he has been called the 'guardian
of mankind '.
As a protector of Hindu learning, as a
promoter of Hindu civilization, as a patron of Hindu

genius and, above all, as a social reformer of Hinduism,

the Hindus have recognised him a hero after their own
hearts.

CHAPTER X

NtJR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANGlR

(16051628
Having put down

all

A.C.)

political

Salim

intrigues,

ascended the throne of his father at

Accession of

Agra;

Agra on the 24th day of October,

1605 A.C. under the proud title of
World Grasper '. At
Jahangir, or

1606.

'

was

that time he

thirty-six years old.

His addiction to

wine and indulgence in luxuries afforded little prospect

but his natural abilities, combined
of a happy reign
with his liberal education and strong common-sense,
;

him

to

Mughal Empire

to

carry on the administration of

the entire satisfaction of his

to

secure the

amply
the

qualified

order

In

subjects.

co-religionists,

religion

to

he

promised

alleviate

to

of

sympathies
protect the

the suspicions

and

his

Muslim

fears

of his

and trusty officers, he confirmsd

them
appointments and to gain the goodwill
of his Hindu subjects, he extended his pardon to men
father's faithful friends
in their

Rajah Man Singh, who had espoused the cause of

He abolished a number of obnoxious
Prince Khusrau,

like

granted a general amnesty and instituted a gold

connected
with a cluster of bells, in his chamber
chain,

taxes,

receive the petitions of aggrieved persons

with a view to redress their grievances.
The chain of
not
have
been
justice might
frequently pulled by the
in order to

importunate suppliants, but the Emperor's interest

in

the

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN
dissemination of justice

These
.

acts were
.

Dastur-ul-Amal.

is

sufficiently borne out

181

by

it.

accompanied by twelve ordinances,

popularly
J called the rules of conduct,
,/
,
^
^
(dastur-ul-d mdl), which the Emperor
,

ordered to be strictly observed by his officers throughout

his extensive empire.
According to them (1) Jahangir
forbade the levy of several customs and transit duties of
vexatious nature and of the oppressive tolls and cesses

which the landlords of every province had imposed for

own benefit and increased at their own sweet will.

their

He

ordered the Jdglrddrs to encourage in every

possible way a residential population
along solitary
roads by erecting rest-houses, mosques rnd wells, and
(2)

for the purpose.

(3) He
of
to
the
merchandise
be
bales
strictly prohibited
opened
the
consent
of
their
transit
the
without
owners.
during

providing

He

other

facilities

abolished the

whereby the property of the deceased was appropriated by the State and
ordered that henceforth it should go to the rightful
If anyone died without heir, his property was
heirs.
(4)

existing practice

used for the repair and reconstruction of mosques and

(5) He forbade the manufacture, sale and

madrasahs.

consumption of such spirits and intoxicants as opium

and wine throughout the kingdom. (6) He prevented

and Jdgirddrs from misappropriating the lands

of the ryots and cultivating them on their own account.
his officers

He

ordered the construction of State hospitals in all

the cities of the Mughal Empire a number of Govern(7)

ment

dispensaries

werp established

and provided with

paid physicians. (8) He prohibited billeting ; henceforth

soldiers were not to be stationed in private houses.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

182

He

abolished the barbarous punishments of mutilation by which the limbs of offenders were amputated
and their eyes were put out. (10) For a certain number
(9)

of days in the

year he

animals.

He

forbade the slaughter of certain

(11)
put a ban on inter-marriage by
ordering that officers of the same pargana should not
marry within their own pargana. (12) By a regular

firman he forbade, on pain of capital punishment, the

horrid

practice

of

which was prevalent

and

making

selling

at Sylhet in Bengal.

confirmed the jaglrs and

offices of his

Having secured
_.

Finally,

his

of

his

in

and planted his

the hearts and the minds

succession

popularity in

Ar

First Nauroz.

he

father's faithful

and increased them by 20 per cent and

cases b*> 300 and 400 per cent.

servants
certain

eunuchs,

subjects,

Hindus as well as

Muslims, Jahangir celebrated the first Nauroz of his reign

with great pomp and show amidst ecstatic rejoicings at

March, 1606 A.C. The festivities

lasted for over a fortnight and were finally crowned with
a lavish bestowal of gifts and presents on the grandees

Agra

in the

of the

month

of

Empire by tne Emperor.

It will

be

recalled

that in

1605 A.C. a party ot

Ram Das,
Rajah
J
...
T .,
Murtaza Khan, Sayyad KjQan, Qulich
Muhammad and Mirza Aziz Koka, and headed by Rajah
Man Singh, had intrigued against the accession of Sallm
in favour of his son, Khusrau, but had failed.
Though

_
Khusraus Revolt.
,

nobles, consisting
* of

the father and the son were reconciled after the death of

Akbar, there was no love lost between them. The former

thought that he was irreparably wronged by his son

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-D1N

183

the latter's fiery spirit and

impetuous youth would not

rest
on
He could not forget
to
his*
him
oars.
allow
that he had once contested the claims of his father.

manners and attractive carriage

had made him extremely popular and the cynosure of
Moreover, his engaging
not

few

of

officers

Rajah Man

Singh and
son

As a nephew of
importance.
the son-in-law of Mirza Aziz
'

delicice of the people,'

the amor et
Emperor, and
he was the centre of sedition and

the pivot of

intrigue.

Koka,

as

of

the

Actuated by ambition,
goaded by both, he escaped

political

or driven

by despair, or
from Agra in 1606 A.C. and marched towards Lahore
at the head of as many as three hundred and fifty

At Mathura
horsemen, gathering strength on his way.
he was joined by not less than three thousand horsemen
<

under their leader, Husain

Panlpat he was joined by the
ly,

Diwdn

Abdur Rahim, who was on

*k

Badakhshani.

Beg

At

Lahore, nameway towards Agra.

of

his

At Taran Taran he received the good wishes of Guru

Arjan, the editor of the Granth Sahib, and also some
pecuniary
opposition.

help.

At Lahore he encountered a serious

When

juahore, refused

siege to the city

Dilawar

open the gates

and burnt one of
to

was reinforced by Said Khan

week.

Khan,, the

After that,

when

its gates.
Dilawar
and the siege lasted for a

the Prince learnt of the arrival

of his father, he fled towards the

to stir

up opposition

in

father

quarter.

His

in order

flight

was a

Negotiations having failed, the

came to grips at the battle of

there.

and the son

that

North-West

Emperor who feared the Uzbegs

serious matter for the

and the Persians

governor of
of the city, he laid

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

184

The rebels were routed and put to flight,

Bahjowal.
and the Prince had a narrow escape. His jewellery-box
and other valuable things formed a considerable part of
the booty obtained.
ists

The

and producing him

capturing
and
hand-cuffed
chained heavily.
Emperor
of the royal captive were sewn, and he was

succeeded

before the

eyes

thrown

After a hot pursuit, the imperial-

in

in

His accomplices

prison.

were

ruthlessly

treated.

Guru

Arjan,

who had
distress,

^
Court

Execution of

Guru Arjan.

helped Khusrau in his dire

called to the Imperial

was

to explain

property was
fined at the instigation
to

annoyed by refusing

The Guru

declined

of

j.

conduct.

confiscated

TT-

His

and he was

Chandu Shah, whom he had

marry

his

pay a single

to

uhis

son to his daughter.

cowrl and was at

'

It must
suspicious proceedings '.
be remembered that his execution was not the outcome

last

executed for his

of religious

was due

bigtory but

to

political

Dr. Beni Prasad has justly stated that the

have ended

his

the cause of a

days

Guru would

he had not espoused

peace,
But the murder was a mistake

in

rebel.

reasons.

if

up the Sikhs against

the Mughal Empire and had no mean share in mould-

of the

first

magnitude.

It stirred

ing the subsequent history of the Punjab.

Qandhar was conquered by Akbar in 1595 A.C.

Its loss was deeply resented by the
Under their King, Shah
Persians.
Abbas, who was one of the greatest
Asiatic

rulers

of his

time,

they

made an attempt

to

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN
recover

but

it,

resorted

failed,

In

to.

was ably defended by

failed, diplomacy was
gam his end, the ShSh made

because

When

Khan,

Shah Beg

185

it

force

order to

overtures and exchanged sugar-coated compliments with

the Mughal Emperor, who was thrown off his guard;

and as a necessary

sequel,

the

defences of

Qandhar

were neglected. In 1622 A. C. the Shah again attacked

Qandhar and took possession of it without encountering
Jahangir ordered his son, Khurram, to
accompany the expedition against that far off province.
The Prince thought that hi? absence would ensure his
opposition.

and

exclusion from the throne

the

His

orders.

Imperial

therefore refused to

refusal

was

obey

fully availed of

Jahan who wished to secure the succession for

Shahryar, the rival and opponent of the
Prince.
She poisoned the ears of her husband against

by

Niir

her son-in-law,

him and convinced him that

The Emperor
the

Prince

forces he

at

his son meditated treason.

once issued an order to the

should send

had with him

in

effect that

back to the Capital all the

the Deccan.
Khurram hesi-

and again Niir Jahan found a chance to inflame

iTiis time she sucher husband's mind against him.

tated

ceeded

in securing for

Khurram had long

Shahryar the

desired to obtain.

her husband to promote her

of

Dholpur which

She

also persuaded

fief

son-in-law to

the

mansab

Zdt and eight thousand Sawdr, and

head of the campaign against Qandhar.
All these circumstances combined to horrify the Prince
of twelve thousand
to put

him

at the

who now found safety in

He tried to allay
father.
making apologies

submitting to the will of his

the anger of the Emperor by

for his past conduct, but the backstair

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

186
intrigues of

Nur Jahan drove him

As a result, Qandhar was

to break into

rebellion.

lost

was made

to recover

The crowning

open
and no attempt

it.

exploit of the reign of Jahangir

was

indeed the

of Kangra
in the
conquest
^
b
Punjab, which commanded an excellent situation and enjoyed a wide

Conquest
of Kangra.
as an

reputation

centre

important

Murtaza Khan, who was

in

of

Hindu worship.

charge of the Punjab,

was

entrusted with the reduction of Kangra but owing to the

opposition of the Rajputs, he could not make headway
;

against the

liill-chie's

in possession of the strongholds

famous fortress of Kangra. After

took place a little later, Prince
which
Murtaza's death,
Khurrani was appointed to the command of the Kangra

that surrounded the

campaign. The hill-chiefs of the surrounding strongholds were defeated and the formidable fortress inside

was besieged.
were cut

off,

The supplies of the beleaguered garrison

so much so that they were compelled to

feed themselves on boiled dry grass.

After a protracted
for over a year, the inmates of the
siege, which lasted
to such straits that they found
reduced
were
garrison
safety in

The conquest

submission.

of

Kangra wab

November, 1620 A. C.

accomplished in
In Mewar, the

Premier

heroic
Subjugation
of

u-

of Rajputana, the

Rana Pratab was succeeded

A
Amar

O-U^TTJ-

Singh, at Udaipur
in the year 1597 A. C.
The new
he
While
his
father.
would not
was as patriotic as

Mewar.

Rana

State

by

his son,

submit to the Muslim yoke, Jahangir could not tolerate

the existence of an independent and rather hostile State

NUR-UD-DIN
on the border of

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

187

his empire.

Reruming the ambitious

an attack on the
principality, putting his son, Prince Parvez, in command of the Mughal army and providing him with
The Rajputs offered a stout
ample war material.
policy of his predecessor, he ordered

and

resistance,

concluded

after

between

an

the

indecisive

battle a truce

belligerents.

After

lull

was
of

about two years war was again declared against Mewar.

This time the supreme command was entrusted to

Mahabat Khan who defeated the Rajputs but failed to

accomplish anything substantial owing to the mountainous

Mewar

The ill-success of the

country.
campaign was due, to a considerable extent, to the
nature of the

frequent changes in the command of the Imperial army

In 1614 A.C. Prince Khurram received oHers to

also.

an expedition against Mewar. He opened the

campaign with renewed energy and fresh vigour. Aided
lead

by able military officers, he established strong military

posts round Mewar and cut off the supplies of the Rana
in

order

to

starve

the

State

into

submission.

military tactics took the Rajputs by surprise

the

Rana

to

His

and reduced

such a state that he expressed his desire to

in which victories were as costly

put an end to the war

as defeats. Negotiations were opened for peace. The Rana

agreed to acknowledge the overlordship of the Mughal

Emperor and

sent his son, Prince Karan, to the

Mughal

upon the Emperor. He also agreed to

contribute a contingent of one thousand horse to the
Capital to wait

Mughal army. In return for this, the fortress of Chittor

was restored to the Rana and his son was enrolled as a
commander of five thousand. He was not forced to

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

188
enter, into a

matrimonial

alliance

with

the

Emperor

rather, he was exempted from personal attendance at the

Mughal Court on account of his old age. Not only

Emperor treated him in a most chivalrous

In order to remove the humiliation of defeat
and to do special honour to his vanquished foe, he
caused two full-sized portraits of the Rana and his son
to be carved in marble and set up in a garden at Agra
this,

the

manner.

"

below the Jarukhd (audience window).

Jahangir's
"
is
conduct in this affair," observes Dr. Ishwari Prasad,
wholly worthy of praise. Mewar had given the Mughals
no small amount of trouble, but the emperor forgot the
past and adopted a conciliatory policy in dealing with
the

R&na.

honoured

"

his

By such

acts

of

chivalry, Jahangir
as
as
well
himself.
In appreantagonists

against Mewar, Prince Khurram

was honoured with the appellation of h.ah Khurram
and a mansab of thirty thousand. Quite in consistence
ciation of his success

with the condescension of his father, the Prince received

the son of the Rana with all respect and treated him

He

bestowed upon him a

of
a
honour,
jewelled sword and dagger,
superb dress
and a horse with a gold saddle and a special elephant '.
with marked

It will

generosity.

Akbar had conquered

and KhSndesh.
Ahmadnagar,
His ambition was to advance further

be remembered

that

Berar

Deccan campaign.

South, but immediately after the capture of Asirgarh,

he was obliged to go back to the North, where his son,
His absence from the
Salim, had rebelled against him.

Deccan adversely

The

imperialists

affected
failed to

the Mughal position there.

follow their successes with

NUR-UD-DIN

When

vigour.

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

Jahanglr came to

the forward policy

of his

Ahmadnagar was

first

t>"e

throne, he resumed

against the

father

to be

189

attacked

but

Deccan.
in

Malik

Ambar

the imperialists found a tough foe and a military

leader of the first water, one whom it was not easy to

overcome.

A word might

be said here about the

Malik Ambar.

military
of

Kingdom

perience had enabled him

matters of
activities

tration.

j
commander

.,-

and
Nizamshahl

abilities of

Malik Ambar, the Abyssinian minister

Ahmadnagar.

the

to acquire a deep insight into

civil as well

importance,

of

Age and ex-

as

military

His

embraced almost every department of adminisHe was a great financier. His multifarious

reforms have earned him fame that cannot be tarnished.

His most remarkable achievement was the re-organizaIt

tion of the revenue system in his master's kingdom.
was modelled after that of Akbar the Great. His
political

elicited

acumen and sagacious statesmanship have

But he was
admiration e TT en from his enemies.

He was

no mere administrator.
rr

of

genius
Marhattas in the
!itary

of the

No

and revolutionized the

State by

introducing

wonder, therefore,

fallen fortunes of the

nagar.
of

his

also

He was
king

against him.

endowed with a

He

order.

enlisted

the

army and organized them into a

He trained them in the guerilla mode

fighting force.
of fighting

rare

if

entire military

he succeeded

Nizamshahl

speedily recovering

when

system
where necessary.

reforms

JahangTr

in retrieving

dynasty of
the

ordered

lost

an

the

Ahmadterritory

expedition

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

190
-

Khan-i-Khanan /bdur Rahim was entrusted with

the supreme

He was

army.
Malik

command

__

Ahmadnagar.

Ambar owing

Jahangir replaced

of the Imperial

totally

defeated by

Prince Khusrau.

to the rebellion of

him by Khan Jahan

Lodhi, who
1611 A. C.

assumed the offensive with fresh vigour

A combined attack was to be delivered on AhmadPrince Parvez and Khan Jahan were to march
nagar
from Khandesh, and Abdullah, the governor of Gujarat,
was to proceed from his own province. The plan
matured a little too soon for the latter advanced before
the fixed time and vvas defeated by Malik Ambar.
The
in

imperialists were compelled to beat a disgraceful retreat.

Abdur Rahim, who had been recalled from the scene

of operations, was reappointed to the command.
The
veteran Khan forgot the past and earnestly undertook
to

the

retrieve

Deccan.

He

prestige

of

defeated the

Mughal arms

the

enemy

in a

in the

hotly contested

but again he was ordered to withdraw for notwithstanding his brilliant success, he was accused by

battle,

his

In
the

enemy

of having accepted the Deccani gold in bribe.

another army under

Khurram who had become
success in the Mewar campaign.

1617 A.C. Jahangir detailed

command

Shah Khurram

of Prince
after his

by able imperial generals, he compelled All

'Adil Shah to accept the terms of peace dictated by
Assisted

the

Emperor

The Shah waited

Prince and offered

him presents

in

person upon the

of the value of fifteen

and promised to cede all the territory which

Ambar had seized from the Mughal Empire,
The Mughal Emperor bestowed upon him the title of

lakhs

Malik

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN

Farzand

(son)

191

and treated him with great love. The

Khurram were duly appreciated and

services of Prince

the

of

title

do him

Shah Jahdn was

To

conferred upon him.

special honour, Jahangir

poured

head a

over his

small tray of jewels and a tray of gold (coins) from the

The Empress held a special feast in his
Jhartikha.

honour and showered upon him some valuable presents.

Other officers were, likewise, rewarded without stint for
their

profuse gifts and

Dr. Ishwari Prasad, lay the hard

'Behind

services.

these

all

'

to

rewards,'
fact, that

the Deccan was not conquered, and that

Malik

of

spirit

quote

Ambar was

as

unbroken as

The campaign terminated in 1629 A. C.

of Jahangir and Ahmadnagar was lost

the

ever.'

after the death

to the

Mughal

Empire.
Prince Khusrau had been thrown

After his revolt,

_

into

Subsequent career
of Prince Khusrau.

his

father.

blinded
tatter,

the

and

The
his

prison.

succeeded

in

affection

accomplices

of his

rebellion

having again

Prince was

winning the hearts of his

captors and organizing a plot against

The Prince was
plot miscarried.

only four were executed.

memory

Not long afterwards he

partially

were ^arrested.

With

wore

revived,

restored

Of the

the lapse of time,

off

and the fatherly

the

eyesight of the

through

the

skill

of

an

and he was permitted to pay his

He was regarded as
every day.
the heir-apparent and the future sovereign of Hindustan.
Shah Jahan resented this very bitterly. But he had neither

efficient

physician,

respects to his father

the power to dissuade his father from his intentions, nor

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

192

the attractiveness to dislodge his brother from the place

he had found in the hearts of the people. Nur Jahan, who

push the claims of her son-in-law, Shahryar,

She
hated Khusrau from the very nature of the case.
succeeded in supplanting her husband's affection for his
wished to

own son with

hatred,

and Khusrau was forbidden

to

pay
he
on
the
that
showed
no
of
signs
pretext
respects
he
was always mournful
openness and happiness and
and dejected in mind '. In 1616 A.C. he was made
'

his

over to the custody of his most relentless enemy, Asaf

Khan, and in 1620 A.C. he was transferred to his hostile
brother,

Shah Jahan, who had him murdered

A.C. at

giving out,

Burhtinpur,

He

died of colic pain (Qulanj).

burial

when

his

father,

in

1622

had
however,
was accorded a second
that he

Jahanglr,

relented

and

felt

compassion for him. His remains were removed to

Allahabad and interred in a garden, since known as

Khusrau Bagh.
Khusrau was indeed
.

His character.

one

figures of

tribute

deserved.

Says he

'
:

of

the most captivating

the present
reign.
r
his
character

to

For that

he

prince,

presence and

gentleman

of a

Saetonius

writes of Titus, he

very lovely
so exceedingly beloved of the

Terry's
J
is

well-

was

fine carriage,

common

people that as

was amor

et delicice, etc.,

and delight of them, aged then about

He was a man who contented himthirty-five years.
self with one wife who with all love and care accomthe very love

panied him in all his straits, and therefore he would

never take any wife but herself, though the liberty of
his religion did

admit of his

plurality.'

MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R

NUR-UD-DIN

Usman, who had

rebelled in

P rovince

the

the

He

rule in India.

of

harboured

Mughal Empire and aimed

against the

He

and branch.

rallied

removed
b^n

Man

Mughal

desire

the

in

had

but

Rajah

by

to

allegiance

cherished

secretly

^g*

of

suppressed

owed outward

Afghan

1599 A. C.

reign of Akbar in the remotely

Rebellion of

but

193

Singh,

Emperor,
the

reviving

bitter hostilities

to destroy

root

it

round himself the rebellious

The rapid
Afghans and Zamlndars of Bengal.
of
in
that
enabled
him
change
governors
province
In 1612 A. C.
to fortify his position without fear.
made an attempt

he

again

the

In

dynasty.

to overthrow the

that

engagement

was

Mughal
the

fought,

Mughals were victorious over the Afghans. Usman was

so great was his composure that
fatally wounded, but
'

even

in

movements
defeated,

where

them

of

the

their
in

condition

this

men

his

enemy

he
for

retired

continued
six

hours

to

their

to
',

direct

On

the

being

entrenchments

gallant leader died of exhaustion, leaving

a state of confusion.

This was the

last

Afghan

Jahangir was so much

rising against the Mughal Rule.
pleased with Islam Khan, the governor of Bengal, and
his officers

who had

suppressed

it

that he raised their

ranks and rewarded their services without

treated

the

Afghans with kindness and

stint.

He

conciliation.

without
They were taken
As a result of this policy, the Afghans
restrictions.
were completely won over and the security of the
in the service of the State

Mughal throne was ensured.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

194

The Memoirs of Jahang^r and

Outbreak

concur

of the

bubonic plague.

the

Iqbdlnamah
the bubonic

in recording that

p j ague broke Qut j n India for the

firgt

As usual, the epidemic first affected

It began in
the rats and mice and then the people.
whole of
over
almost
the
soon
the Punjab and
spread
time in 1616 A. C.

Northern India.

ravages were so great

Its

'

contemporary

chronicler,

that

one

in

says a
house ten or
',

twenty persons would die, and their surviving neighbours,

annoyed by the stench, would be compelled to desert
their houses full of habitations.
Mortality was extremely

heavy

in

again in

The

Lahore and Kashmir.

Agra and took away a

disease broke out

large

number

of

the

people.

The most romantic event

was

of the reign of

his marriage

Jahanglr
with Mehr-un-Nisa,

the most beautiful daughter of Mirza

Qbiyas Beg, a native of Tehran.

student

is

acquainted

with

the

Almost every Indian

story

of

her

birth,

Her father, Mirza Ghiyas, was

marriage and character.
reduced to such straits that he proposed to leave his
native-land

Accordingly,

good and to try his luck elsewhere.

he set out towards India in search of

for

employment.
was then in a

When

he reached Qandhar,

state of expectancy,

his wife,

who

was delivered of a

who was

destined to be the empress of India.

daughter,
Qbiyas was so poor that he could not take care of the
newly-born baby and her mother.
Luckily, a certain

kind-hearted

whose

merchant,

protection he

compassion

for the

was

named Malik Masaud, under

towards India,

felt

woe- begone family and offered

his

travelling

NUR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANG1K

195

assistance, but for which Ghiyas, v horn fate had fouied

so much, would have found his lot intolerable.
The

merchant commanded some influence

He

Court.

him

introduced him to Akbar

at the

who

at

Mughal

once took

into his service.

By sheer force of character and

capacity, Gbiyas soon made his mark in the service of
his master, who raised him to the rank of three hundred
in appreciation of his excellent

and

Nisa

her

mother

work.

Little

Mehr-un-

were allowed access

the

to

Harem where

Imperial
they were shown great favours
by the Royal household.
When Mehr-un-Nisa attained the age of seventeen,

she was married to All Quli

Mehr-un-Nisa
married to Ali
r
a
SherAf an

surnamed
Thrower'.

<-t

Sher

Afgan,

Originally

(table servant) of

Istajlu,
*

or

*r*-

Tiger

Saj^rchl

Shah Ismail

II of

AH

Persia,
Quli had distinguished himself in the service
of Emperor Akbar.
He was appointed to the staff of
Prince Salim when the latter was ordered to march
He acquitted himself so admirably that
against Mewar.

the Prince was pleased to reward

and cleverness,

Afgan

him for his courage

and bestowed upon him the title of Sfaer

for slaying a tiger.

When

the Prince broke into

he was deserted by many of

and
his followers,
After
Sher Afgan was one of them.
his accession, however, Jahangir extended him
his
pardon and placed him in charge of the government of

rebellion against his father,

Burdwan

When
Murder
Afgan
*

in

Bengal.

reports

of Sher

came from Bengal,

province,

that

'

insubordinate

the most troublous

Sher

and

was

Afgan

disposed

to

be

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

196

summoned him

rebellious/

Jahanglr
his
conduct.
explain

On

refusal to

to his

Court

to

obey the Imperial

Qutb-ud-Din Koka, the governor of that

commanded to send the refractory officer
was
province,
to the Capital.
Qutb-ud-DIn made a foolish attempt to
firmans,

arrest

him.

Finding a large number of

men surrounding

In a fit of rage
him, Sher Afgan portended treachery.
what proceeding is this of thine ?
he exclaimed
As soon as
addressing the governor and his retainers.
'

'

the governor approached him to convey the Imperial

message, he attacked him with his sword and inflicted
serious injuries on his person.

enraged the retainers

who

This unexpected incident

upon Sher Afgan and cut

fell

him to pieces. After the murder of her husband, Mehrun-N *a and her little daughter were sent to the
;

Harem where

they were entrusted to the

In
custody of Sallma Sultana, the do wager- queen.
1611
A.
C.
May,
Jahangir married her.
Sher Afgan's death was purely incidental and
Imperial

Jahangir had nothing to do

Was

Sher Afgan's
murder premeditated and whether
d "
n

hand fn

if?

with

it.

The

report from Bengal that he was

insubordinate and disposed to be
.

<

'

rebellious

the Imperial firmans, sumto the Court to explain his

moning him
conduct;

obey the Imperial commands;

his refusal to

the appointment of Qutb-ud-DIn Koka, the governor of

Bengal, to bring the rebel to book if he showed any
'

'

futile,

seditious

ideas

the

foolish

attempt of the

governor to arrest him without ascertaining his offence

Sher Afgan's apprehension of treachery and his attack

on the governor in self-defence all these are important

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN

links in the chain of the crsis

murder of 3her Afgan.

whrh

They

197

culminated

in the

cumulatively contribute

What subsequently

to the theory of Jahanglr's innocence.

the story that the murder was manipulated

by Jahanglr, or that he had a hand in it, was that soon
rise to

gave

the

after

occurrence

were issued to

orders

Imperial

remove Mehr-un-Nisa to the Royal Harem, where she

was entrusted to the custody of Sallma Sultana and
then

married to

the

But

Emperor.

this

militate against the theory of innocence.

show that the death

It

by Jahangir,

It

not

does not

Afgan was brought about

of Sher

only

Emperor was

does

gives

birth to a suspicion that

but

the

suspicion does not stand in the face of other facts

and

the

with

love

in

the

kdy,

vanishes like a phantom.

De Laet, the Dutch witer,
that
in love with her when
had
been
says
Jahanglr

she

was

Dr.

Ishwari

still

'

maiden.
4

Prasad,

If

the

were

this

motive

for

'

true

says
the murder is

Granted that Mehr-un-Nisa's beauty had attracted

the attention of Jahangir during his father's lifetime and
clear/

had been madly in love with her granted also

that the murder was premeditated, now was it that
after her betrothal to Sher Afgan when the latter was
appointed to the staff of Salim (Jahangir) in the Me war
campaign, the Prince treated him so kindly and
that he

conferred

upon

him

the

appreciation of his courage

title
?

the

him

charge of

Sfaer

why was

at his accession, did not punish

when

of

him

it

Afgan

in

that Jahanglr,

for his desertion

Prince Jahangir had rebelled against his

but
extended him his pardon and even placed
father,
in

Burdwan

in

BeogSl

why was

it

that

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

198

Jahangir, an impetuous lover as he was, waited for such

a long time when the object of his desire was well
To be sure, if Jahangir had wished
within his reach ?

remove Sber Afgan from his way to Mehr-un-Nisa,

he could have found one hundred and one pretexts and

to

achieved

his

long

object

before

waited for such a long time.

is

no clue to

and would not have

As apart from this, there

Afgan was murdered

this story (that Sher

Jahangir) in the accounts of

contemporary chroniclers, nor is there any corroborative
evidence of European travellers who were too prone to
at

the

instigation

of

upon the scandals relating to the Royal family

and raking th^m to the utmost. The so-called positive
seize

'

'

historians
are based on a mere
and
be
cannot
relied upon.
ephemeral suspicion
Four years after the murder of Sher Afgan,
Jahangir marries
Jahangir saw Mehr-un-Nisa and fell

assertions

of

later

Mehr-un-Nisa.

month

jn

ove wjth her

He

married her

May, 1611 A. C. Faithful to her former

husband, Nisa was equally faithful to her new husband,
who loved her so much that sometimes he would call
her Ntir Mahal, the Light of the Palace and sometimes
the

of

'

'

Nfir Jahdn,
Nisa,

the

'

the Light of the

World

'.

Thus, Mehr-unthe most adverse

who was born in

who had lived with her husband,
sixteen years, and the widow who had

baby

circumstances, the lady

Sher Afgan, for

wept in chaste seclusion for four years, emerged as the
Empress Nur Jahan, the most beloved wife of Emperor
In token of his love for her, Jahangir put her
on the coinage along with his own a unique

Jahangir.

name

circumstance in the history of Muslim money.

MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R

NUR-UD-DIN

Nur Jahan was endowed with

the

Nurjahan's

all

is

noble

in

She was a highly

nobler sex.

accomplishments.

that

199

cuUured ady> we ll. V ersed in Arabic

and Persian literature. She was a good poetess.
One
of her charms with which she captivated Jahangir was
;

her facility in composing extempore verses.

Under her
edifying influence the Mughal Court became famous
for its

'She

noon-day splendour.

age, designed new varieties

fabrics, and suggested new models

the

unknown
roses for

Her

in

Hindustan/

which she

is

silk

of

and cotton

of jewellery, hitherto

She invented the attar

remembered

of

to the present day.

physical feats were on a par with her personal

charms and
Her

set the fashions

of

endowments.

intellectual

valour.

She used

to

She was very tond ot outdoor Barnes.

accompany her husband on his hunting

excursions and often shot

one

occasion

feat

of

Jahangir

valour

that

bracelets

precious

of

he

down
was

so

ferocious tigers.

On

by

her

impressed

presented

her

pair

diamonds and distributed

of

one

thousand asfarafis among the poor to mark the excess

So remarkable was her presence of
of his happiness.

mind

that she never wavered in dangers and difficulties.

She displayed ample courage and resourcefulness when

was taken prisoner by
husband
her
(Jahangir)

Mahabat
soldiers

Khan.

generals

and veteran

were surprised to see her seated on the back of

an elephant and
in

Experienced

firing a fusillade of

the thick of fight.

arrows

at the

enemy

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

200
If

she had become what Dr. Smith

behind the throne/

'

a power
was because

calls,
it

she was possessed of a quick understanding and a sharp intellect which

'

enabled

her

to understand the

most

intricate political

problems without any difficulty/ To quote Dr. Ishwari

Prasad
No political or diplomatic complication was
beyond her comprehension, and the greatest statesmen
'

and ministers bowed

to her decisions/

She

carried

on

the administration of the country so carefully that even

the minutest details could not escape her ever-vigilant
eye.

So supreme was her sway over the Sovereign and

the State that even the proudest peers of the realm paid
her homage because they knew that a word from her

would make or mar

their careers.

But her influence on the State was not all for good.
She used her power and influence in
e

advancing

ontte State

the

interests

of

her

own

She surrounded herself with

family.
her own kith and kin and appointed them to responsible
In order to strengthen her position,
posts in the State.
she married her daughter by Sher Afgan to Shahryar
and

tried to

push him

fact that Prince

to power.

Notwithstanding the

Khurram was the acknowledged

heir to

Mughal throne after Jahanglr, she put forward the

This
claims of her own son-in-law in preference to his.

the

led to very serious consequences.

Harem

alike

became

The Court and

centres of political intrigue.

the

By

playing upon the feelings and fancies of her husband she

ceaselessly intrigued to dislodge Khusrau from the place

he had found

in the hearts of the people.

She worked

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN

201

hard to undermine the increasing power and influence of

Khurram, who had become Sfaah Khurram after the

Mewar campaign and Shah Jahan after the Deccan. It
will

death of

be seen that the

the

Khusrau,

loss

of

Qandhar and the rebellions of Khurram and Mahabat

Khan were owing to her machinations and mischievous
influence.

Nur Jahan

Although

resorted

to

sorts

all

of

underhand means, plots and intrigues,

was not devoid of genuine sym-

Her character.

she

She was

pathies, so often the share of the softer sex.

generous patron of the poor daughters uf Islam, for

She was
she found both husbands and dowries.

whom

She protected the

for orphan and poor girls.
weak and the oppressed and provided for the poor and
Her charity and
the powerless out of her private purse.

an asylum

munificence enhanced her reputation and increased her

Her
She was a most faithful wife.
popularity.

was unmixed. Under her

Jahangir's paroxysms of rage and drunkenness diminished and the expenses of the Court were
Her filial affection was no less
considerably reduced.
devotion to

her

husband

influence

intense,

and she

enter tained the

warmest

feelings for her

brothers and other relatives.

Shah Jahan could not disentangle his father from the

web of romance which Nur Jahan was
/T

Rebellion of

at the

infatuated

instigation

his posts

and

revolt

self-defence.

in

around

weaving
'

him,

Shah Jahan.

fiefs,

the

him.

When

the

'

old

emperor

deprived

of his imperious consort, of all

Prince
In

unfurled

1623

A. C.

the

flag of

the

Prince

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

202

advanced upon Agra with as many troops as he happened to possess at that time. The armies of the fatjher
and the son met each other at Balochpur and in the
battle that followed, the Imperialists inflicted a crushing

Imperial general, Mahabat

Kban, drove him from place to place till he reached Asir

defeat

on

the Prince.

and occupied

pwn

The

Deserted by
without opposition.
Malik Ambar
he
turned to
followers,

his

it

for

On receiving a curt refusal, he sought refuge

support.
in Golconda against the Imperialists who were pursuing
him under the
Mahabat K^an.

command
The ruler

to quit his country

and seek

of
of

and
that State ordered him
Parvez

Prince

shelter elsewhere.

Driven

he betook himself to Bengal where the local

authorities espoused his cause and owed him allegiance.
to despair,

Becoming master

of

Bengal, he

Orissa and advanced against

there he
flight.

Oudh and

was defeated by the

Resting for a while in

reduced

and put

fortress of

next proceeded to the Deccan where he was

received by Malik Ambar, the old enemy of the

he

and

Allahabad, but

Imperialists

the

Bihar

to

Rohtas,

warmly
Mughal

Having made common cause with him against

In the
the Mughal Emperor, he attacked Burhanpur.
the
meantime he was overtaken by
Imperialists again.
the Prince
Ambar's
Malik
alliance,
Notwithstanding
found further opposition impossible. His generals and
soldiers had deserted him and gone over to the side of
the Imperialists.
Although he was still in possession of
the famous fortress of Rohtas in the North and the
Empire.

stronghold of Asir in the South, he could not stand

against the vast military resources of the
Empire.

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

203

safety and prudence compelled

father to forgive his
faults.

The

NUR-UD-DIN

write

Empress,
of

to his

who viewed

Mahabat Khan and

at

him

of

Considerations
to

once agreed

with fear the growing influence

his alliance

to the

proposal

with Prince Parvez,

of Prince

Khurram.

Accordingly, the Prince surrendered the strongholds of

and

Rohtas

Aslr,

sent

his

two

sons,

Dara

and

Aurangzeb, aged ten and eight respectively, to the Court

as a guarantee of good faith, and offered gifts worth
After this he retired
Rs. 100,000 to the Emperor.
Nasik with his spouse and son, Murad.

The

to

splendid successes of Shan Jahan had silenced

Nur Jahan for SOITIP time and the

Mahabat Khan.

question of succession was temporarily

But the
relegated to the corner.

Khusrau and the defeat of Shah Jahan

revived the idea dorment in her mind, and in order to
death

of

secure the succession for her son-in-law, Shahryar, she

began to mobilize her forces of intrigue against Mahabat

Khan, the most redoubtable general and diplomatist of
*

the empire/ whose only offence was his intimacy with

Prince Parvez, the principal claiman to the throne and
4"

the most serious rival of Shahryar at that time. Orders

were issued for Mahabat to resign the command of

the

Imperial

army

and

to

take

charge

of

the

government of Bengal. Prince Parvez protested in vain

against an order to which both he and his associate
ultimately bowed. As if this was not enough, Mahabat
was accused of embezzlement and corruption. He was
ordered to account for the moneys he had acquired by
dismissing certain fief-holders.

He was

further indicted

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

204

having betrothed

for

daughter to the son of a certain

Naqhbandl without royal permission.

Khwajah Umar

b''s

His prospective son-in-law was treated with unsparing

He was deprived of all his wealth and ordered
insults.
to attend the Imperial

was

Mahabat

Court to explain

his

conduct.

by this unmerited
treatment.
Suspecting treachery, he set out, suitably
escorted by five thousand Rajput followers, and seized
the person of the Emperor when he and his wife were
about

to cross the

her son-in-law.
in-Chief,

but

offended

deeply

Nur Jahan

Jhelum.

escaped, so also

Fidai Khan, the Imperial Commanderan heroic dash to rescue the Emperor,

maae
Nrr Jahan

crossed the river on an elephant

and tried to organize the Imperial forces but in a state
of contusion the panic-stricken officers took to flight.
failed.

Asaf

Khan,

with

his

thousand

three

sought

soldiers,

Although Nur Jahan

her
characteristic
displayed
courage and coolness in this
shelter in the

fort

of

Attock.

her

crisis,

Where

masculine qualities proved of little avail.

force failed, the wiles of woman succeeded. She

joined her husband in his

captivity,

and by a

clever

stratagem she managed to throw Mahabat Khan off his

She plundered his treasure and reduced him to
guard.
sore

straits.

Thus,

after

short-lived

ascendancy,

Mahabat made his way to Mewar and thence to the

Deccan, where he joined Shah Jahan and concluded an
alliance

with him.

When Mahabat Khan

Shah Jahan's
subsequent

movements.

revolted

the Deccan

towards the
,,

Shah Jahan was

in

Forthwith he proceeded
North to try his luck

there once more.

..

Reaching Smd, he

NUR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

205

made an attempt to capture the fort, but failed. Cowed

down and crest-fallen, he retired to the Deccan again.
There he met Mahabat and made an alliance with him,
Prince Parvez died in 1626 A. C.

as remarked before.

and Jahangir

1627

in

The

Kashmir.

on

A. C.

claims

way back from

Shah Jahan were now

of

for his only serious

strengthened
who was a mere mediocre.
;

While the corpse

buried at Shahdara

War of Succession.

was Shahryar,

rival

Emperor was

the

of

his

in

being
Dilkusha

the

^T

Garden or Nur Jahan near Lahore, the

At this
fate of the Mughal Empire lay in the scrle.
time there were two sons of Jahangir who had survived
him
Shah Jahan and Shahryar, each of whom had
:

his

own

was

Prince Shah Jahan

supporters at the Court.
the
Deccan
at
the
time of his father's
away in

The news

death.

him by

his father-in-law,

towards the

North

Shahryar was

in

his mother-in-law,

finished

to

event

secure

Lahore.

his

succession.

Prince

His cause was espoused by

that time

Nur Jahan, who had by

the

with

was conveyed to
Asaf Khan, and he set out

of the sad

funeral

rites

of

her

husband.

Encouraged by the Empress and egged on by his wife,

Shahryar seized the Imperial Treasure and proclaimed
While Asaf Khan, who
himself emperor at Lahore.
wished to see

up

at

his

own

Agra the son

son-in-law

on

the

throne,

set

of the ill-starred Khusrau, called

Dawar Bakhsh,

as a stop-gap emperor till the arrival of

Nur Jahan wanted to see her
Meanwhile
Shah Jahan.
brother, Asaf Kban, in order to gain him to her side
but the latter thwarted her plans by evading her. At
;

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

206

army, Asaf advanced upon Lahore

and inflicted a sharp defeat on Shahryar. The defeated
prince was imprisoned and his eyes were put out.
the

head

of a strong

Meanwhile Shah Jahan's arrival was anxiously awaited

at the Capital. His coronation took place on February 6,
1628 A. C. immediately

after his arrival.

Finding that her cause was

to
f

Shln's
the

forgot

respect

and

pension

of

wishes.

life.

private

Nur Jahan

retired

Although she had

been the arch-enemy of Shah Jahan

and the main cause of his misfortunes,

carler.

latter

lost,

the

kindnens.

past

and treated her with

He

granted

two lakhs and took care

her an

all

annual

to carry out her

Now

she gave up all thoughts of luxury and

and began to live a simple life. She passed
days at Lahore in company with her daughter,

luxuriance
her last
the

widow

December,

She died on the 8th of

Shahryar.
1645 A. C. and her body was interred in
of

mausoleum which she had raised over the grave

her husband. Thus ended the days of Nur Jahan.

the

of

CHAPTER

XI

MUHAMMAD JAHANGlR

NUR-UD-DIN

(CONCLUDED)
the

During
Introductory.

was

reign of Jahangir India

number

of

visited

by

representing

foreigners,

*u

ri-

Portuguese, the

the
nationalities,
European
Dutch and the English, all of whom

endeavoured

establish

three

to

Mughal Emperor, who was

them.

friendly

of

Jahangir's
of

their

this

impressions
under the Great Mughal.

the

favourably disposed towards

In the present chapter

short account

with

relations

it is

intended

relations

country and

to

give

them and

with

condition

its

In order to please the Sunni orthodoxy and to

secure his succession to the throne,
...

,
I

Jahangir had severed his connections

...
~
.,
^
with the Portuguese.
But as soon

relations with
the Portuguese.

he firmly seated himself on the throne, he renewed

his relations with them and began to "how favours to

as

the

Jesuit

reign of his

churches

Fathers as liberally as he had done in the

He allowed them to run their
father.

in

Agra and Lahore without molestation, to

conduct their church processions with complete Catholic

ceremonials through the streets of the city of Agra, and
He
to make converts to their religion if they could.
himself loved to

around him.
adorned

his

see

the

Figures of
rosary

pictures

is

Christian saints

and the Virgin Mary

reported to have granted

Christ

and he

of

THE MUGHAL RMPIRK

208

cash allowances to Christian missionaries for ecclesiasti-

So

and reverence for

and Mary that the Christians had come to claim

cal purposes.

Christ

him

as

great

convert

was

to

his love

their

creed.

It

that

appears

JahSngir's policy towards the Portuguese was actuated

by an ulterior political aim his object was to secure the
;

support

of

the

who

Portuguese

possessed

a strong

artillery imported from Europe. In 1613 A. C., however,

they incurred the wrath of the Emperor by seizing

four

imperial

and plundering

ships

retaliation, their settlement

wen

churches

their

All

stopped.

their cargoes.

Daman was

In

attacked,

closed and their ceremonies were

was

this

at

due

to

their

own

high-

handedness.

The East Indian

.u
u n
iu
\Vith
the
English.
AI-

of

was extremely lucrative. To

Portuguese, who had a monopoly
A
it, it yielded enormous profits.
trade

...,,,

European nations were attracted to India to

and the English were among them. The
participate in it,
East India Company was founded by them in 1600 A. C.,

number

but
to

it

of

was only

make

India.

the reign of Jahanglr that they began

earnest efforts to advance their trade interests in
in

Between

1600

C. and

1608 A,

C.

the

Mughal Court to
Company
establish friendly relations with the 'Great Mughal and
The
to conclude a commercial
treaty with him.
sent

three

missions to the

'

missions

failed

in

hostile influence of

their

the

object

mainly

Portuguese who

owing

to the

looked

the English as their rivals and therefore intrigued

plotted against them.

upon
and

NUR-UD-DIN
was

It

1608 A.

in

En g lish

William Hawkins
and William
Edwardes.

seeking

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

William Hawkins, an

that

sea-captain,

'Hector,' arrived at

from

rr .

King

James

the

^commanding
Agra with a letter
T
I

of

T^

England,

trade with India and to build a

to

permission

209

Hawkins was hospitably received by

Emperor and granted a mansab of 400 with a salary

factory at Surat.

the

The

of thirty thousand.

asked

concessions,

which he

were readily granted, but were subsequently

for,

withdrawn

owing

to

Portuguese.

After

the

only
the

trade

when

the

the

inimical
of

departure

Portuguese
another

influence

had

Hawkins,
fallen

out

of

the

it

was
with

William

that

Englishman,
Emperor
Edwardes, arrived at the Imperial Court and secured
trade facilities which were, however, withdrawn a little
later at the instigation of the

The
Sir

Portuguese.
Hawkins and
of
missions
informal

^
Thomas

Roe.

Edwardes

were followed by a formal embassy

'
,,
^
Sir Thomas Roe, the accredited
.

of

plenipotentiary of the King of England,

the

Mughal

Court

in

1615

A. C.

who
in

arrived

at

order

to

As a dexterous
negotiate a trade treaty with Jahangir,
diplomatist and a shrewd politician, eminently endowed
common-sense and business capacity, Roe was
He
best-fitted for the task he was entrusted with.

with

was

far superior to his predecessors in point of intellect,

education and experience.
By offering valuable presents
to Nur Jahan, Asaf Khan and Prince Shah Jahan, he

gained them to his side and presented the terms he

wanted to secure for his nation in the form of a treaty.

Though the

draft of the

treaty,

which he submitted,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

210

was ^not accepted in

the Emperor, which

The English were

hire

to

any

site

toto, yet

he secured a firman from

otfered

considerable

concessions

allowed to build a factory at Surat,

they liked for the factory to erect on,

and to enjoy the

The evils and abuses of the
right of self-government.
custom-houses were put an end to, and tolls were
Above
not to be levied on articles entering into a port.
to trade freely within the

all,

if

the British

country

merchants

were attacked

by the

Portuguese, they would be assisted by the local governor

with boats and other necessary requisites. The grant

indeed an important landmark in the

In short, it humbled
history of Anglo-Indian relations.
the pride of the Portuguese, enhanced the prestige of
of

this

firmun

is

the English and laid the

British

A
Foreign

foundation-stone of the

first

of India.

Empire
large number
accounts

of Jahangir's reign
and their veracity.

of

Europeans

visited India

the reign of Jahangir.

have

Some

during
of

them

impressions about
-^
,
the Emperor
and

left their
^

Court

, ,

of

the
.

the

Roe's Journal deals almost

condition of the country.
exclusively with crart life and the political intrigues of
the
it

time.

As regards the condition

reveals very

same from

little,

though we can

of the country,
catch glimpses of

Terry's account contains

a description of the country and the condition of the
people; whereas Hawkins* account is mainly confined

the

it

at intervals.

to the description of the personal character

and

his daily routine.

these

They

But

it

of Jahangir

must be noted that

all

accounts are not entirely free from exaggerations.

are useful only so far as they corroborate certain

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN
Indian

of

facts

and contradict others.

history

where they come

with

conflict

in

211

the

But

cumulative

contemporary native historians, their

authenticity must needs be called in question. Ignorant
as the European travellers were of the life and thought
of the people and their psychology, their accounts
of

testimony

cannot be expected to be unmixed, more so when

sometimes their wishes were not complied with,
From Sir Thomas Roe's accounts it can be
that

gathered

and

its

order

customs.

to

he

achieve

had to bribe
his

object.

speaks of some grave abuses

ports where the
arbitrary prices.

and tyrannical

They

were,

foreigners.

luxurious.
festivities

governors seized

local

Most
in

of the

He
sea-

upon goods

at

Subahdars were exacting

dealings with

their

at

their subjects.

however, generally sympathetic towards

The Court was magnificent and even

Roe

length on the customs and

He
of the Court and the fashions in vogue.
dwells

at

says that the nobility was courteous and the courtiers,

The highest
as a class, were corrupt and unprincipled.
officials

were

extravagantly

paid

and

bribery

was

commonly practised. His narrative also shows that

travelling was unsafe between the coast and the capital,
and the port officers were grossly cruel. There was
no written constitution.
his

word was

law.

The

The King was

the State- aixl

provincial governors behaved

as d^SpoSfand their aUegiance to the Central Govern-

ment

According to the Law of

the property of the deceased belonged to the

was

Escheat,

half-hearted.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

212

The

State.

the

of

cities

neglected appearance.
Speaking of the

D';ccan

Emperor was
drunkard, but by day

remarks that the

an inveterate

was

he

personal
character.

_,

of temperance.
..
, ,,
witnessed the scenes

picture
,

The ambassador

of drunkenness

and

character of Jahangir,

personal

Roe

sad

bore a

his nocturnal

and revelry only during

Emperor never allowed anyone, whose

visits.

The

breath

smelt of

wine,

to

enter

addiction to
spite of his excessive

his daily

levees.

In

wine and occasional

was not
paroxysms of rage, tue Emperor, remarks Roe,
wanting either in good sense or in good feelings. He
describes His Majesty as an amiable, cheerful man, full
When
of passion, but free from pride and prejudice.
Roe visited India, KJjusrau was alive. He found the

He describes
Prince a general favourite of the people.
him as a man of lovely presence and fine carriage.
According to the ambassador, Prince Khurram was
He

portrayed as one who was

flattered by some, envied by many and loved by none.
Roe
The fine art? were in a flourishing state.

cold, stiff

and

repellant.

was
State of Fine Arts.
his

is

amazed
,.

of Indian

at

...
artists.

the

workmanship
learn from

We
XT7

account that once he presented an English picture

Emperor, who immediately had it copied at

^ The
the hands of his own artists.
copies were so
to the

faithful

could

that even after a close scrutiny the ambassador

not distinguish them from the original. A

somewhat
follow.

detailed account of the fine arts will presently

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN
As mentioned

befcxe,

213

Hawkins too has

an

left

the Emperor, his Court

and the country ; but his description

account of

Hawkins account.

confined mainly to the character of Jahangir and the

He describes the Emperor
daily routine of his Court.
is

as very fond of
drinking and giving feasts, the most
notable of which was that of Nauroz.
His account

shows that Jahangir was cruel and unpopular that he

took delight in inflicting barbarous punishments that his
administration was not good, that the Law of Escheat
;

was

in force

common

that bribery was rife and corruption was

the local authorities were oppressive

that

and the pay of the nobles was extravagantly high.

It must
be remembered that Hawkins had left the

Mughal Court
be

in disgust,

to

expected

have

and

been

for this reason

he cannot

unbiassed

writing his

in

narrative.

The

essential elements of administration introduced

by Akbar the, Great were continued

,.
,.
uuTUand kept in order by his son, Jahangir
whose Dastur-ul-Amal is a decided

Administration
of Jahangir.

improvement on
predecessor.
reign was

king,

the administration

Dr. V. A. Smith's

'

who

'

inglorious

retained

is

not

intact

view

borne
the

of

his illustrious

that

out by

Jahanglr's
facts,

vast possessions of his

House, with the solitary exception of Qandhar, must

have been a successful administrator. The fact that
peace and prosperity,
question of succession excited

his reign constituted a period of

except

only when

the

rival interests, speaks

administration.

much

for

The view may

the efficiency of his

hold good in respect

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

214
of certain traits of

his oersona*.

respect of his administration.

of truth in the

by a

certain

view that his

amount

but

character,

not

in

There may be a measure

administration was marked

compared with

of deterioration as

high standard maintained by his talented father,

but the view that his reign was inglorious is not at all

the

'

'

justified,

Jahangir was not deficient in natural

His love of

unfortunately
letters.

Ha

use of wine and opium.

was

highly

of

his

great

j u u
were marred by his excessive

,,

faculties

he

some

but

abilities,

proficient

himself
in

us

informs

Turkish

and

that

Persian.

William Hawkins, who knew Turkish well, found him

well-versed in that tongue.
This knowledge of the
Turkish language enabled him to read the Wdqiydt-iBdbari in the original. The copy which he possessed

was not finished.

and wrote a few

He

supplied the four wanting sections

lines in Turkish to indicate that the

complementary portion was added

by him.

He was

a profound

common

with other

student of history.

In

Mughal Emperors, he had an innate desire to leave

behind him a record of all the important events of his
With this aim in view, he wrote his autobioreign.
called
the Tuzk-i-Jahangiri after his own name,
graphy,
with the help of two consummate historians, Muhammad
Hadi and Mu'tamid Khan, When the work was done,
the mutasaddls (amanuenses) were ordered to make
other copies of the original in order to distribute them
among the high officials of the Imperial Service and
the

influential

dominions.

The

men
first

of

the

copy

different

parts

was presented

of

his

to Prince

NUR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

215

Khurram (Shah Jahan) s a mark of honour to him.

Under Jahangir the Imperial Court was the cradle
i

of the sage and the scholar, the poet

and the painter, as much as of

It

accomplished savants of both the sexes.

can be gathered from the Tuzk-i-Jahangir% that the

Emperor used

associate himself with learned

men,
of
Some
the
on
and
recluses
divines,
Friday evenings.
best scholars attached to his Court were: Ni'mat-Ullah,
the historiographer who crytallised into a book the
to

material accumulated by Haibat

Khan

of

Samana about

the history of the Afghans; Mirza Gbiya^ Beg, the able

arithmetician, who also stood splendid and unsurpassed
elegance of composition ; Abdul Haq Dehlawi,
one of the most erudite men of the day, who came
to wait upon the Emperor and presented him with a work
in

the

written by

him on the

lives of the

Shaikhs of Hindustan;

Naqib Khan, the most honoured historian, who wrote a

and Mu'tamid Khan, who
of books on history

number

assisted Jahangir in preparing his autobiography, since

styled as the Tuzk-i-Jahangiri, or the Memoirs of

Besides these literati, the celebrated author

Iqbalndmah (an account of Jahangir's reign) has

Jahangir.
of the

given, at the

end of

his

book,

of

list

some more

scholars and prominent poets of the present reign.

Great as was Jahangir's love of learning, no less

was

his zeal for the extension of education

f

USSSiin?

Tarilch-i-Jdn
his

accession

structed even

"

in his kin g dom -

to the

those

Jahan

throne, he

is

recorded in the

that

"
repaired

soon after

and recon-

madrasahs which had been,

for

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

216

three decades, the

dwelling-pKces of birds and

professors and students."

them with

beasts

One

and

filled

the

twelve clauses of the Rules of Conduct ordained

of

that the property left by the heirless deceased should be

used for the repair and reconstruction of moribund

madrasahs.
Sir

me

Thomas Roe

us

gives

understand

to

manual arts were in a

and were not confined

r s*

that

flourishing state
to those peculiar

to the country. The plenipotentiary of England presented

the Great Mughal with a handsome coach.
Within a
"
short
time
several
others
were
very
manufactured,
very

and

superior in materials,

JahSnglr was
Painting.

X""

the

workmanship".

He is
lover of painting.
"
Prince of Artists".
rightly called the
an ardent
,

Himself a painter of no

he gave a fresh
creation,

fully equal in

and

Indian

the school

impetus to

his appreciation

mean

of his

merit,
father's

and encouragement raised

the highest pitch ever

"
In this time/ says
Timurides.

painter's

art

to

attained under the

"
there were found
Catrou,

in the Indies native painters

who

copied the finest of our European pictures

fidelity that might vie with the originals."

One

of Roe's presents to the

of extraordinary elegance.

presented with
"

number

Padshah was a

with a

picture

The envoy was soon

of

its

copies,

after

including the

original, and
they were so very similar that by candlelight one could not be distinguished from the other."
It was only after a close scrutiny that he could make

out the original picture.

MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R

NUR-UD-DIN

From mural
.

as

decoration,

connection

Portrait Painting.

with

217

remarked

already

Akbar's reign,
b

in

the

Mughal Painter passed on

to exquisite

which reached the zenith of its glory under

Jahanglr, than whom no keener or more discerning,
more critical or more aesthetic, more lively or more
portraiture,

patron has ever been found in the whole

The bulk of his commissions

munificent

Hindustan.

of

history
consisted

of painting

of portraits

Amirs and

the

of

at the Mughal Court and of Court scenes.

Under Jahanglr Persian and Hindu artistic tradieach impioving and
tions were happily
blended,
each
the
other,
striking the chord and stirring
enriching

Maliks

the sensibilities of the seer, each demanding

ness of

attention

to

the creations of that

a minute-

details, which, on account of

time, have been a marvel for the
its

succeeding generations and a despair to

all

the would-be

imitators of this art.

If art

found

took
the

it

best painters

of Jahangir's Court

mentioned the names of the following

that prince of painters

Nadir-ul-Asr* (the
his art*

and

his

aften

whom

Wonder

Jahanglr

may

be

Ustad Mansur,

officially styled

of the Age),

was unique

in

He

was a past-master in animal portraiture

pictures of birds and beasts are still the living

* Martin says
a painter,

Jahangir's

was mainly through the

Imperial patronage, which, no longer

the monopo j y of the poet or the
every kind of artist under its wings.

Patronage.

Among

in

highest expression

reign,

Painters under
the Imperial

painter,

its

"
:

Mansur,

worthy

Jahanglr was a great lover of birds, and had

portrayed his favourites (birds) in a way

who

of Diirer."

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

218
creatures of his

immortal b ush.

He

found a fervent

devotee to his art in the person of the Emperor. Abul

Hasan was another eminent painter attached to the

He was an adept in producing

Jahanglr.
and
human
Once he brought to
landscapes
portraits.
the Emperor a delightful picture of his Court, which
was used as a frontispiece to the Jahdngirnamah. He
Court

was

of

held, in

common

with Mansur, in
Das was another

Bishan

Jahanglr.

About him Mr. K. T. Shah

was *Ind

high esteem

by

portrait painter.

writes in his Splendour that

"

Every granaee of the Court has been immortalized

by his undying brush and every noteworthy incident
at Court or in the Camp, where the Emperor was
present, or in which he was interested, has been recorded
and preserved by the labours of these immortals."
;

had a

Jahanglr
.

_. A

keen

The

Architecture.

sense

architecture.

of fine

magnificent monuments

of his

to those of
in comparison
reign,
and son, are very few and insignificant,
unless we ascribe the Jahangiri Mahal at Agra and the
tomb of Akbar ?t Sikandara to him. The mausoleum
his

father

Mirza Gbiyas Beg (Itimad-ud-Daulah), a stately

structure in which elegance is wedded to beauty,
of

was

built

Jahan,

at

the

marble, on a

his

Agra by
cultured
raised

octagonal tower

wife

beautiful

of

platform, in

on each

angle,

Jahangir,

two

in

storeys,

with a

snowy
with an

central

pavilion enclosed by a square walled garden.

most

Nur

daughter,

It

open
is

the

striking specimen of the architectural achievements

of Jahangir's reign.

NUR-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

219

This aesthetic Empero. had also an ear for mus'c.

The Iqbalnamah

Music.

the following

records the

names

who were

singers

of
in

on him
Jahanglr Dad, Chatar Khan,
Parvez Dad, Khurram Dad, Makhu, and Hamzah all
noted for the captivating sweetness of their voice.

attendance

This Imperial Artist surpassed even

aesthetic

Gardens.

order

He

tastes.

number
win

to

the

his father

in

planted a large
?
\.
.

of gardens in his

in

Nur Jahan.

heart of the reluctant

Dilkusha Garden (Shah Dara) at Lahore

kingdom

Nishat Bagh,

Shalamar Bagh,
Bagh and Verinag Bagh at
Kashmir the Royal Garden at Udaipur the Garden
Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah at Agra and Wah Bagh at
Achibal

Hasan Abdal were

Salim,
'

the

all laid

out by him.

promise, was
ptayer and
extravagantly loved and spoiled in his
He g reW U P to be a
earl y y uth

son

of

'

most

violent,

man.

indulgent,

He was

indolent,

and
if
it
not
thwarted
was
was, his
sympathetic if
Almost all authorities
outbursts of wrath were terrible.
He was
and
vigorous.
agree that he was just, wise
endowed with an intellect which enabled him to

wilful

and

easy-going
his will

kind

comprehend the most

intricate problems of the State

a confirmed drunkard, he
Himself
without difficulty.
forbade the manufacture and sale of wine and prevented
"
As he advanced in age,
his subjects from using it.

the old impetuosity of his temper was sobered down,

and his outlook was modified by the appreciation of the
1

responsibilities of his exalted office.'

When

sober,

he

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

220

work wisely and carjfully for the betterment of

kingdom. He administered even-handed justice and

tr'ed to

his

Law and order

suppressed tyranny with a heavy hand.
were maintained throughout the length and breadth of
the Mughal Empire and even the remotest parts were
not neglected in this respect.

Jahanglr was extremely

benign and generous. His Memoirs teem with instances

of his munificence and good-will.
There was no man
of merit who was not rewarded by him.
A slight
'

claim

of service,' he used to say,

a great thing with

He felt great pleasure in patronising the poor and
us.'
supplying tneir material requirements.

The me
TI

remarkable

Jah:.n

'own

and

Sh

trait of his

character was his

Jo

appreciation of beauty and everything

His love ,for XT

Nur
.

is

.,

beautiful.

his

He

was

passionately
attached to Mehr-un-Nisa, whom he
used to call Nur Mahal, or the Light

d km.

of the Palace, and

Nur Jahdn,

or the

Light

of

the

No misunderstanding or mistrust,' says Dr.

world.
ever marred the happiness of their
Ishwari Prasad,
While the Empress loved him
conjugal relations '.
*

with

all

her

heart

and guided him through

all

the

problems of the State, the Emperor shared with her the

sovereignty of his Kingdom and cherished her above all
in the world.

As a

son, he proved to be

most untoward

during the lifetime of his father ; but on becoming king,

he repented of his acts of disobedience and became a
In his Memoirs he speaks reverently of his
father and praises him for his noble qualities.
Many a
dutiful son.

time he walked to his sepulchre at Sikandara to pay him

homage. As a father, he was forgiving and forgetful.

MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR

NUR-UD-DIN
If

the fate of Khusrau was tragic,

was owing

it

He

Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan.

of

221
to the

treated his

enmity
kinsmen with great kindness, but he never forgave them
for political offences.

As a man

u refined
His
~

of learning,
lettres.

tastes.

biography

history,

He was

he was very fond of belles

His favourite subjects
were
J

a good poet

and a penman.

and

geography.
According to Dr.

Ishwari Prasad 'his intimate knowledge of the flora

and fauna of Kashmir and other parts of Hindustan
will cause surprise to a naturalist in these
Like
days '.

he loved

his father,

Hind* songs and took

hear

to

delight in patronising Hindi poets.

and encouraged

He
Born

their cultivation.

Indian parents, Jahangir loved things

delighted in Indian environments.

loved fine arts

in India

and of

and

Indian

felt

Just like his father, Jahangir too has suffered on

account of his
HlS rellglOUS

ans have

beliefs

opinion
opinion
their

of

own

his

as

a sincere

Christian.

beliefs.

It

an

eclectic.

Muslim,
is
not

religious beliefs.

about

his

Histori-

J/-- A

definite

The

religion.

was

contemporaries

religious

atheist, to others

liberal views.

r-ij^r
failed to form

coloured

by

To some he was an
Some looked upon him

whereas
difficult

others
to

state

Although he took a

called

him a

his

positive

lively interest in

the teachings of other religions, specially of Sufism and

Veddnt, and never persecuted anyone on account of his
'

religious

and

said

beliefs,

his

he

prayers

denounce him as an

retained
like

atheist or as

intact his faith in

Muslim

'.

God,
Those who

an apostate from Islam,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

222

which he was
brought up and the influences that surrounded him in
his early days.
Nurtuied as he was amidst the most
probably forget

the

liberal influences,

it

enviro iments in

was natural

for

him

to

remain above

the trammels of religion.

He was Akbar's son and his
was the same Sulh-i-Kul policy.
To sum up, Jahanglr was a great ruler, capable of
If
he had not
immense energy.
J
e
allowed himself to be dominated by the

His estimate.

Nur Jahan

clique,

he would have

excellent administrator,
of his father.

the

real

It

worthy

proved himself an

to be placed

must, however, be

pointed

by the side
out

that

glory of his reign has been greatly eclipsed

the splendour

of

the

two

reigns

that

followed

by
and

preceded his, and he himself has suffered much on

account of coming between two illustrious sovereigns
Akbar the Great and Shah Jahan the Magnificent.

CHAPTER

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

XII

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

(1628-1658 A. C.)

When Shah

Jahan

from

returned

Dawar Bakhsh,

the

the

Deocan,

emperor

stop-

,
,,
^
was allowed
to escape to Persia
but the rest of his collaterals were
murdered
and their supporters were ruthlessmercilessly
So startling were the scenes of the
ly chastised.

Accession of
Shah Jahan.

6 a P>

Royal Harem were taken

aback, so much so that some of them went even so far
as to end their lives by committing suicides.
Thus
tragedies that the ladies of the

wading his way to the throne through bloodshed,

Shah Jahan crowned himself at Agra on the 6th day
of February, 1628 A. C. in a formal manner and
assumed the title of Abul Mazaffar Shahab-ud-D!n

Muhammad

Sahib Qiran-i-SanI Shah Jahan

Badshah

The Khutba was recited and the coins were

The coins
struck in the name of the new emperor.
that bore the name of Nur Jahan were at once withGbazl.

drawn, and

she

was asked to

retire

to private

life.

becoming dignity and was

allowed to pass her days in peace on a handsome
Amidst odes and
pension of two lakhs a year.
encomiums, prepared by the prominent poets that had
ceme from far and wide, the coronation ceremony
was gone through and the beat of drums implied,

She

was

treated

perhaps, that a

new

with

era

had been ushered

in the history

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

224

melted

man

But, for the

of India.
at

the

was

felt

thickness

blood

of

becoming the

Emperor of
fitting retribution, and no
when the inhuman acts of Shah Jahan

prospect
India, fate had reserved a
surprise

/hose

of

were imitated by his son, Aurangzeb, towards the close

of

own

his

reign,

as

be

will

seen

a subsequent

in

chapter.

The new emperor inaugurated

number
His early acts.
ations

of

his

by

reign

important

acts.

began by strengthening
laws of Islam, which, if Abdul

Lahorl be believed, were

Sharlyat was

strictly

by

Akbar

in

enforced.
as

an

of

state

act

of

He

Hamid

decline.

Sijdah

found _

the

the

introduced

of

The

which was

salutation

and

continued by Jahanglr as such, was regarded as bid' at

and was at once replaced by Zaminbos, or kissing the
ground, from which the Sayyads and the Shaikhs, the
learned and the pious

were exempted.

however, Zamlnbos too was looked upon

little

later,

as similar to

Sijdah and was therefore soon superseded by a much

milder mode of salutation, called Chahartasllm.
Quite
The solar
in the same spirit was the calendar reformed.
system was stopped because

it

was tantamount

to bid'at

and its place was taken by lunar computation. In recording official events the lunar system was adopted and
A number of administhe Hijra era was adhered to.
trative changes were also introduced and the city of

Agra was named anew as Akbarabad, after the name

of Akbar, for whom Shah J^han had the greatest
The officials of the Empire, who had espoused
regard.
the cause of

the

new

king,

were

rewarded for their

SHAHAB-UD-D1N MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

services

according
they
on
honours
his
great
helped him
of his sister,

r,
c AU
Rebellion of the
Bundelas under
jo ar mg
.

had

their

to the throne after

checkmating the plans

Shah Jahan was

of

called

with

the

clan

under their

gj f

murdered

instigation

deserved.

Nur Jahan.

Meanwhile,
.

nd

mansabs were raised

2hah Jahan conferred
father-in-law, Asaf Khan, who had

without stint
as

225

the

to cope

Bundela

ambitious

chief,

gj n gj^ fae Imperial protege

Allama
Prince

of

rebellion

upon

Abul

Sallm.

Fazl
at
Bundelas

The

who
the

had,

blackmailing their neighbours, become

Towards the close of
a power to be reckoned with.
of the Central
control
the
Jahangir's reign, when

by means

of

Government had slackened, they had acquired considerIn 1628 A. C. Bir Cingh
able power and influence.
His son, Johar Singh, incurred the wrath of the
new Emperor by quitting the Capital without taking

died.

his

permission.

Lest he

should

be called to

the

Court to explain his conduct, as Qazwini suggests, he

hostilities
against the Empire.
began to harbour
Miscalculating the strength of the

Imperial

army and

over-estimating his own limited resources, he concluded

that he could easily defy the authorities from his

mountainous country, which, he knew

well,

was well

Reaching his stronghold, Undcha

nigh inaccessible.
(or Orcha), he set about raising his forces, strengthening
'

munitions of war and closing the

roads.'
Shah Jahan could not brook this insult. Forthwith he ordered his generals to conduct a campaign
the

forts,

providing

against the rebellious clan.

Islam Khan, Firoz Jang and

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

226

Mahabat Khan,
order,

highest

Mansabdars

associated with the

of the

advanced from three directions

and

appeared before the walls of the fort of the Bundela Chief.

but bloody battle, in which two or three
were destroyed, Undcha was stormed with
Asaf Khan's artillery and Johar was taken aback by the
a short

After

thousand
attacks

lives

of

the

Imperialists.

Reduced

to

sore

straits,.

the Chief surrendered himself without further opposition.

He was made to pay fifteen lakhs of rupees as

indemnity and one thousand gold mohars as a present

to His Majesty. Besides, he surrendered forty elephants

and agreed to contribute a contingent of 2,000 infantry

and 2,000 cavalry in the impending campaign against
In return for all this, he was allowed as
the Deccan.

would have enabled him to enjoy the mansab

of 4,uuO Zat and 4,000 Sawar.
The rebellion of the Bundela clan was followed
by the revolt of Khan Jahan LodhI,

much

as

Counting upon

otherwise

known

account

of

the

as Salabat

Khan on

military

talents.

his

uncertainty of

succession

to the

he had displayed
Shah Jahan ascended

throne after the death of Jahanglr,

hostility

for

Shah Jahan.

When

the throne in a formal manner, he implored forgiveness.

His offence was pardoned and an Imperial firman was

issued

to

Deccan.

confirm

him

After sometime,

in
it

the governorship of the

was discovered that he

for the Emperor.

He was,
to
back
the
where
he
lived for
therefore,
Court,
seven or eight months, but all the time gloomy and
The court life had no attraction for his
dejected.

still

cherished

called

hatred

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

restless

the

became the more miserable

lifv

received intelligence from a

State

he and

that

imprisoned.

and

His

spirit.

when he

The

his

certain

officer

guarantee of good

repeated assurances of the

Khan, were not a

prudence
disgust.

The

overtook him

Emperor
sufficient

Considerations of safety and

him to quit the Court in

faith.

alike compelled

of

would be shortly

sons

Minister, Asaf

his

227

Imperial army, sent for his arrest,

near Dholpur.
Crossing the Chambal,

passing through the Bundela country and skirting along

Gondwana, the rebel reached the Deccan, where

and support.
The
and
defeated
him in
Imperialists
some skirmishes. Crossing the Narbada on his retreat,
he reached the neighbourhood of Ujjain, where he
Chased into Bundelkhand
plundered its inhabitants.
and defeated in a contested engagement, he was put to

him
pursued him

Nizam-ul-Mulk

lent

shelter

thither

and was ultimately brought to bay near Kalanjar,

was totally defeated and killed at Tal Sehonda, His

flight

The commanders

followers were slain in large numbers.

of

the

Imperial

Muzaffar,

were

iorces,

fitly

honoured and rewarded

successes in the arduous campaigns.

of the former general was raised to

and
the

six
title

mansab
and the

and

Abdullah

particularly

for their

While the mansab

thousand Zat

six

thousand Sawar and he was honoured with

of Firoz Jang, the latter was promoted to the
title

thousand Zat and

thousand Sawar,
of Khan Jahan was conferred upon him.

of five

Shah Jahan celebrated the

4

Celebration of
first Nauroz.

five

first

reign in the

month

w tfa

great

A C

Nauroz
of

of

March,

edat

In

his

1628
the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

228

the courtyard of the Daulat Kh ma a splendid canopy

was set up and the found was covered with carpets

The Mnghal Emperor, surrounded

of divers colours.
his

sat

on the throne placed

sons,

daughters,

presented

picturesque

held, and the grandees

participate.

The

granted

and

gifts

and

wife

by

other

view.

relatives,

The scene

the centre.

in

was

feast

grand

the Empire were invited to

members of the Royal family were

titles.

of

Mumtaz Mahal,

the

Imperial

consort, was the recipient of the richest reward She

was granted fifty lakhs from the public treasury. Jahan
Ara received twenty lakhs and her sister Raushan Ara,
:

To

lakhs.

five

each

of the four princes,

Aurangzeb and Murad, twenty lakhs

Asaf

Khan,
honoiaed for

was

Imperial

It is said that

moities.

equal

father-in-law,

loyalty and
nine thousand

his

to

raised

Sawar.

the

Dara, Shuja',

in

devotion.

was

fitly

His

rank

Zat and nine thousand

from the day of

his

coronation

Nauroz, Shah Jahan expended altogether

one crore and sixty lakhs from the public treasury in
granting rewards and pensions.

to the feast of

17

During 1630-32 A. C. Gujarat, Khandesh and the

Deccan were visited by
a terriole
J
IA*

Famine

1630-32.

proportion

Amin
of

of

Qazwini,

the

heart-rending

in the

shop-keepers

carried

away a

According to

large

Mirza

who was an

famine-stricken,

everywhere

famine, which
the population.

sold

this

eye-witness to the scenes

sufferings of the poor and the
dire

rank and

file,

was

distress

and

powdered bones

in

rampant

the bazar

and

flour

the

mixed

together and dog's flesh which was mistaken for meat

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

by the
heels

suffering

followed

Pestilence

classes.

famine and exacted a heavy

of

and

from their houses

many

on

the

People fled

toll.

fair

229

city

became

The testimony of Abdul Hamid Lahorl,

who visited the Deccan in 1630-31 A. C.,

desolate.

Peter Mundi,

and other European

Amin

writers points

In

account.

Qazwini's

to

order

the
to

veracity

of

mitigate the

and the pestilence that followed it,

Shah Jahan remitted l/3rd of the land revenue on the
Crown lands. The remission altogether amounted to
seventy lakhs. Sarkarl langars (State kitchens) were
opened and food was distributed gratis to the poor and
the indigent.
Every week Rs. 5,000 was given away in
charity to the famished, and in twenty weeks one lakh
In Ahmadabad
of rupees was spent in this way.
horrors of the famine

'

where the famine raged most furiously, the

His example
sanctioned Rs. 50,000 in excess.

(Gujarat),

Emperor
was followed

by

Mansabdars

his

and

provincial

governors, who evinced great interest in and solicitude

for the sound administration of famine relief; they

made

similar

respective

remissions

provinces.

of

But,

in

revenue

land
those

times

in
it

their

was not

combat srch a calamity so successfully as in

these days.
Sbah Jahan was, nevertheless, fully alive
to the sufferings of his subjects, and the relief he afforded

possible to

to the

sufferers deserves

our respect and admiration.

Dr. Vincent Smith relies on the imperfect translation

the Padsfaahnamah by Elliot and Dowson and
discounts the efforts of Shah Jahan in removing the
of

distress

bring

of

out

the
the

famine-stricken.
difference

While seeking

to

between the conditions of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

230

under the Mughal Rule and the British Raj,

he forgets to allow for the time that has elapsed since
then time that has been noted for the marked
native

life

in

improvement

means

the

of

and

communications

transportation.

Both Akbar and Jahangir had shown great favours

to the Portuguese, who had established
themselves at Hugli and developed

the Portuguese.

by building a number
and provided with
of important factories,
Shah Jahan had seen enough of
fighting material.
He was
the acts of aggression committed by them.
them
to
in
for
their
a
own
coin.
looking
pay
pretext
The year 1632 A. C. saw their destruction.
The
their resources
all

causes were:

both

sides

ever the

(1)

of the

previous

taking the lease of the villages on

river Hugli, the settlers tyrannised
trade

of

emperors,

customs duties on

so

They shamelessly abused

to

granted

much
own

their

revenues of the

the

(2)

poor people.

concessions

the

By

fortified

State

so

that

account.

suffered

them by the
they

imposed

As a

serious

result,
deficits.

was
and
torture/
Often
cruelty
of both Hindus and Muslims
the
orphans
they kidnapped
to
them
(4) Their
and transported
foreign countries.
a most fanatical manner.
They
priests behaved in
(3)

They

carried

on lucrative

slave-trade 'which

accompanied by much

by force and not infrequently

(5) They had offended the
succeeded in their object.
Empress Mumtaz Mahal by detaining two slave girls
whom she claimed as hers. These acts of brazen
insolence were bound to bring down upon them the

tried

to

win

converts

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN 231

wrath of the

Emperor, who thought it expedient to

to check theik influence.

them and

chastise

1631

In

A.

C.

Shah Jahan

appointed Qasim
governor of Bengal and entrusted him with the destruction of the

Khan
16

?Sf uglfese!
settlers
fort

Portuguese Settlement at Hugli. The

were attacked and their

on

either side of the river

was besieged. The

Cunningly
of rupees,

as

siege lasted for over three

the

enough,
together with a

months.
a lakh

Portuguese offered

the Emperor, but

tribute, to

secretly they prepared themselves for a vigorous defence.

Putting their forces in order, the} organi/ed a force of

seven thousand gunners to cannonade the Mughals.
In the deadly fight

that followed, the Portuguese were

completely routed, their forts and factories were levelled

and the garrison, altogether ten thousand

to the ground
souls,

were either

killed or

drowned

Those

the river.

in

Islam were spared. On the side of

Shah Jahan as many as one thousand soldiers lost their
As a result of the war, the Portuguese tyranny
lives.

who embraced

was over and ten tnousand inhabitants of the country,

who had been confined in prisons, were liberated.

Arjumand Banu Begum,

also

Mahal,

the

Lady

woman

of

MumtLM?hT

known

as

of the

dazzlin s

Mumtaz
was a
and
was the

Taj,

beaut y

She
powerful intellect.
of Asaf Kj^an, the most influential noble of

daughter
the Mughal
the

title

jgoddess of

Empire, whose
Like
of Aristotle.
beauty.

abilities

had earned him

her aunt,

she was

the

Her name was a household word

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

232

and her charms were a subject

of

comment

the

in

Born in 1594
family circles of the Mdghal aristocracy.
A, C., she was married to Prince Khurram in 1612 A.C.
the latter was

when

Jahan loved

twenty-two years of age.

her quite as

much

for

Shah

her physical attrac-

His passionate
was
her
with added intensity.
love
reciprocated by
While he was a homeless wanderer during the closing
years of his father's reign, she was his best friend and
tions as for her intellectual attainments.

guide.

of a

With him
life.

fugitive

she cheerfully braved the privations

At his accession, she was honoured

M>.Mha-i-Zaman, and her allowances

were boundlessly increased. Her advice

with the titL of

and jagirs
was sought in all important matters of the Government
and valued so much that the Emperor took no initiative without taking her opinion.
She was entrusted
with the custody of the Royal Seal, and
instance that
afterwards.

it

was given

Since

had remained

to her

her betrothal

faithful to

it

father

was

at

her

some time

Shah Jahan, shehim and there was nothing on

to

mar the happiness of their conjugal

relations.
She bore her husband fourteen children and
remained a constant source of strength to him till she
Her death, was due
quietly passed away in 1630 A.C.

earth

that could

a fatal delivery.
The tragic event took place at
when
her
husband
was conducting his camBurhanpur

to

Her remains were

paign against Kban Jahan Lodhl.
removed to Akbarabad after six months. There she
was given a provisional burial
for later her remains
were transferred to Agra and interred in the mausoleum
;

known

as the Taj.

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

Mumtaz

Mahal

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

was

endowed

of her

time.

secured

di g nit y of

womanhood.

regarded

as a

those

all

which add

accomplishments

MuS?MahaL

with

She

233'

the

to
is

justly

most virtuous woman'

Her

pardon

She
generosity was par excellence.
from the Emperor for a number of

who had

Her charity
was boundless. There was none whose prayer was not
She could be approached for
granted at her door.

criminals

lost all

without any

assistance

hopes of

life.

To women

difficulty.

low

of

and limited means, she granted daily allowand cash money according to th^ir material
Her gentle heart was moved at the sight
requirements.
fortunes

ances

of poor

poor

orphans and widows

and

helpless

in

girl,

For many
found husbands

difficulties.

she

and provided them with

dowries.
By the
nobility of her character and the serenity of her temper
she enthroned herself in the heart of her husband and
suitable

gained the good-will of her subjects. In the Haramsarai

she was assuredly 'a warmth-diffusing bliss'. Few

polygamous households can claim

happiness

as

household

the

to

of

have enjoyed such

Shah

Her

Jahan.

memory has been safely preserved by her husband in

the Taj, a 'monument of conjugal love and fidelity', and
a thing of beauty and a joy for ever.
The existence of the Shia Sultanates of the Deccan
was
Shah Jahan's
Deccan Policy.

an

eye-sore

tmperors.
A. C. and

1605

the

to

^
Between

Mughal
.,

r Ark

the year loOO

A. C. Akbar was

Deccan campaign. He was able to annex

occupied
to his Empire the whole of the kingdom of Khandesk'
in his

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

.234

and a

large

India,

and

of

part

His ambition was

to

including Berar.
extend his sway over the whole of

prevented his plans to mature

His son, Jahanglr, resumed his

but his death

materialise.

father's policy

tough foe

in

with added enthusiasm

was

Mughal

but he found a

Malik Ambar.

'Was accomplished and

the

Ahmadnagar,

all

Hence, nothing substantial

efforts to annex the Deccan to

Empire ended

in

To Shah Jahan

smoke.

the policy of reducing the Shia Sultanates as a

It must, however, be remembered that
family legacy.
vwhereas Akbar and Jahanglr were actuated by purely
left

political

motives in their

aggressive policy

against the

Deccan Sultanates,

Shah Jahan's wars against the

Shia Sultans were the outcome of his religious zeal
mixed with political prejudice. In his object he was

more

successful than

his predecessors,

because in the

he himself was acquainted with the ins and

outs of the Deccan secondly, a devastating famine had
first

place,

-wrought havoc

in that quarter

and thus

and

lastly, Malik Ambar,

.conquest
vigorous defence, was no more alive.
;

The

facilitated the

the very soul

successful suppression of the rebellion of

Jahan

of

Khan

Lodhi afforded a favourable

opportunity to Shah Jahan to declare

war against Ahmadnagar.

which the rebellious Lodhi had received

Nizam Shahi King, was

to wage
*was
needed,
which was torn by

a sufficient pretext,

war

against

internal dissensions.

The

help

from the
if

pretext

Ahmadnagar
In 1630 A. C.

the Imperial forces besieged the fortress of Parenda, but

*soon the siege was raised in the teeth of vigorous

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

Path

opposition.
into

his

stepped
Sultan Murtaza
his

ruin

Khan, Malik
father's shoes,

Nizam

of the

Ambar's son, who had

was imprisoned by

On

for his military inefficiency.

he applied

release

235

his

newly gained

liberty to the

Ahmadnagar. At once he
Shah Jahan and, on receiving

Sultanate of

communicated with
from the

instructions

Emperor, seized the person of

Sbltan Murtaza Nizam and threw him in prison, where
he was treacherously done to death.
Then he raised a

young
himself

prince,

named Hussain Shah,

became

his

regent.

In

Mughal Government.
he proved perfidious to Shah Jahan.

support of

the

to the throne

all this

and

he had the

Equally quickly
He defended the

Daulatabad against the Imperialists under

A strong pressure of
the command of Mahabat Khan.

fortress

of

the Imperial forces, coupled with a tempting offer, was

Path's fall decided the
sufficient for him to surrender.

Ahmadnagar tor good. The young Sultan Hussain

Shah Nizam was taken prisoner and sent to the State Prison

fate of

where he sighed out his life in dark despair.

traitor, Path Khan, was amply rewarded for his

of Gwalior,

The

He was granted a liberal salary

and treated with respect. The Nizam Shahl dynasty
was thus brought to a sad close and the Mughal flag
was planted on the ruined ramparts of Daulatabad.
An attempt was made by Shahjl, father of Shivaji, to
treacherous conduct.

retrieve

the fallen fortunes

of the

Kingdom

of

Ahmad-

He set up a young boy of the Royal family on

nagar.
throne in order tc achieve his object, but the

the

Imperialists reduced

Ahmadnagar

him

to absolute submission.

as an independent

kingdom was

Thus

definitely

236

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

removed from

the political

when

A. C.

Shah

'Adil

territories

its

of Bijapur

India

of

map

were divided

and Shah Jahan.

in

1636*

between All

may be

It

pointed out that the conquest of this kingdom, as alsoothers in the Deccan, was the real cause of the

of

conflict

in

which

Hindus

of the

the

Marhattas

these

Aurangzeb was involved with the

South.

It

who had

gave

rise

served

to a third

under the

power

rulers of

kingdoms, but had been cashiered by the Mughal

Government.

Of

the five offshoot? of

the

Bhamni Kingdom, two

were added to the Mughal Empire

The Imad Shahi kingdom of Berar
:

Further
operations in

was annexed by Akbar the Great and

Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar by Shah
Jahan. As for the Band Shah! Kingdom of Bidar, it
was automatically reduced to a small principality and
the

it

ceased

remaining

an independent kingdom. The

two, namely, the 'Adil Shah! Kingdom of

to

exist as

Bijapur and the Qutb Shahi Kingdom of Golconda,

were sufficiently strong to hold their own.
Of these
the
former
was more powerful, independent and
two,

wealthy therefore its turn came

annexation of Ahmadnagar.
;

When

after the

immediately

Shah Jahan attacked Ahmadnagar, Sultan

Muhammad 'Adil Shah of Bijapur
had ma de common cause with his
neighbour, Sultan Murtaza Niz5m, lest

his

own kingdom

should meet a similar

when Ahmadnagar was annexed

the

to the

fate.

However,

Mughal Empire,

whole brunt of the Imperial forces

fell

on 'Adil

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

Shah who had openly

the authority

defied

237

of

in league with his neighbour, Murtaza Nizam.

Asaf Khan was deputed by Shah Jahan to conduct the

Jahan

He

campaign against Bijapur.

to the city,

laid siege

but the Bijapuris put up a heroic defence with the aid

of Marhatta light cavalry which cut off the food
supplies of the Imperial army and thereby compelled the
Mughal general to raise the siege without success.

the independence of Bijapur was saved for the

time being, though a large part of it was laid waste by

Thus

Further operations against the Bijapuris

the Mughals.
were postponed owing to the death of the 2 ueen f r
;

the Emperor was then occupied with the construction

of the Taj in order to immortalise the memory of

Mumtaz Mahal.
Hostilities

were renewed against Bijapur

A.

when

C.

written

in

firmans

1636
were

issued to the Sultans of both Bijapur

of Golconda.

and

Golconda,

ordering

them

to

Shah Jahan, to pay

suzerainty
acknowledge
tributes to the Central Government regularly, to abstain
from helping Shahji Bhonsla and from interfering in
of

the

the

affairs

quences

of

Ahmadnagar. Considering the consedefiance and disobedience, the ruler of

of

Golconda regarded discretion

as the better part of valour.

He complied with the demands and agreed to the terms

of the treaty proposed by the Mughal Emperor.
But the proposals of Shah Jahan fell flat on the

^f
Of

ears

of

the

ruler

of

Bijapur.

offered

therefore declared against

curt

Bijapur,
J r

refusal.

him without

who

War was

delay.

Three

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

238

him from three sides

sent to attack
from
was
aiiack
to
Khan Jahan
Sholapur, Khan-i-Zaman
was to proceed from Indapur, and Khan-i-Dauran was

armies

to

advance from

east.
all

were

The

of Bidar

the direction

territory of Ali 'Adil

in the north-

Shah was encircled on

the Imperial generals failed to take the

They, however, devastated the surrounding

sides but

capital.

country, so much so that the Sultan was compelled to

sue for peace.
Negotiations were opened and a treaty

was concluded with the following clauses: (1) Ali 'Adil

Shah agreed to owe allegiance to Shah Jahan as his
vassal.

(C)

He

offered a

pe&kasli

(present) of

twenty

lakhs to the Emperor.

(3) He made a solemn promise
the
frontiers of Ahmadnagar.
would
he
that
respect

Nizam Shahi territories were to be divided between the

two parties and according to the proposed partition,
(4)

Bijiipur received fifty

of

huns

respect

parganas, yielding twenty lakhs

or eighty lakhs of rupees.

(5) He promised to
the integrity of the Qutb Shahi Kingdom of

Golconda, the ruler of which had accepted the Imperial

he agreed to abstain from
(6)
vassalage.
Finally,

God and the

help to Shahji Bhonsla.
Prophet were made witnesses to the solemn text of
this treaty and both the parties agreed to abide by its
giving further

clauses

on a solemn oath.

Sultan, Shah Jahan sent

him

At the request of
his

portrait

the

studded with

The ruler of Golconda sent a tribute

precious metals.
in gold to his overlord, lest he should remain behind his
'

elder brother

pacified

twenty

'

in pleasing his suzerain.

and the settlement then

years.

On

his

return

The Deccan was

effected lasted for

to

Agra,

about

Shah Jahan

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

239'

entrusted the charge of his conquests of the Deccan to

his third son, Aurangzeb, who wsj at that time hardly
of the viceroyalty of

events

be told in

will

Aurangzeb

The

old.

eighteen years

connection

with his

early

career.

Shah Jahan's

attention of

"his

attempts to
acquire his
ancestral

Bz\\&

associated

with

successors.

His

the

He was

prosperity

the

to

win

encouraged

in

his

of

his

reign and

the regions

Taimur

of

was

object

to acquire

efforts

an(j Badakhshan,

glories

an d made abortive

possessions.

lands.

Deccan,

Shah Jahan. He followe d the example of his predecessors

-

11

Pohcy and

the

recovery of Central
Asian possessions occupied the serious

after the

Next

fame

the

and
in

his

distant

undertaking

by

of

his

flattery

He

began with Qandhar, because its possession

was invaluable to the Emperor of India both on account

friends.

of

its

and as a principal commercial

on the trade-route between Persia and

strategical position

station

India.
military

lying

.Moreover,

its

operations

situation afforded a strong base for

against

and Badakhshan,

Balkh

which Shah Jahan longed to acquire.

Said Khan, the Governor of Kabul, was commissioned by Shah Jahan to reconnoitre
:1638.

Qandhar and

to

make an

estimate of

its military strength. All Mardan Kban,

the Persian Governor of that province, was not satisfied

with the treatment meted out to him by his

He

was, therefore,

lukewarm

sovereign.

defending the province

result was that the Imperialists

The
under his charge.
advanced upon Qandhar and

in

easily

took possession of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

40

The

it.

who

Persian forces were defeated under their general

was encamped ~ix miles off Qandhar.
A large

booty passed into the hands of Said Khan and

his

army.

Mardan Khan was received with great kindness by

Shah Jahan. He was paid one lakh of rupees and
All

enrolled as a grandee of the

After the conquest

his

Conquest of
Balkn and

Qandhar, Shah Jahan turned

towards Balkh
and
thoughts

Badaklishan, the famous dependencies

r
of the Kingdom of Bokhara.
In

Baclakhshan.

Jahan

Mughal Empire.

of

Shah
conquering these
provinces,
with
the
same motive that of
war actuated

conquest.

His

provinces

were

result

natural

confusion

was involved

was

in

a state

of

dynastic

ruled supreme

had created
content.

invasion

there.

dispute in

the Royal

in

Jahan
1646 A. C. he sent a

generals,

intimate

following

which

Balkh was

to interfere

knowledge

month

the

without opposition,

seething

family there

Bokhara.

son

with dis-

made
Shah

In June

huge army under the command

whom were associated renowned

Mardan Khan, who

All

including

his rebellious

All this encouraged

the affairs of

Murad, with

As a

anarchy and
The ruler of Bokhara

him.

for

both the

dissensions,

in the difficulties

confusion worse confounded.

of his son,

well-timed, for

of hopeless defence.

of

the

city

Persian
of

had an

country.

Balkh

Nazr Muhammad,

was
the

The

occupied

King of

Bokhara, who had fled to Persia, leaving his vast

wealth to fall into the hand? of the Mugiials, came

back without securing any support from the Persian

In the scramble that followed his flight, the
Emperor,

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

'SHAHAB-UD-DIN
Mughals were able

only a part of the large

rupees, 2,500 horses and 300

to acquire

12,00,000

booty,

viz.,

camels

in all.

241

Caused by the temporary weakness of

the Uzbegs, the conquest of Balkh was short-lived.

Prince Murad, who pined for the pleasures of the
strong determination and

plains, lacked

not follow up his success with vigour.

call him back to Hindustan.

he returned and his place was

he requested

his father to

Despite repeated refusals,

taken by one Sa'adullah K]]an,
ment of the whole country

When

who
in

he went back to Kabul,

Aurangzeb and Shuju'

the proposed
to

proceeded

therefore could

More than once

to

campaign
Kabul to

command

effected the settle-

about three

weeks.

Shah Jahan ordered

the Imperial

army

in

against Bokhara, and himself

direct

operations

against

the

enemy. The expedition was very liberally financed,

but Aurangzeb and his brother, Shuja', encountered a
they found that their forces were
of the Uzbegs.
those
outnumbered by
Moreover, the
Mughal officers in the newly-conquered country were

serious

not

handicap;

willing

attractions

to
of

stay there.

Indian

On

social

life

the other

had a

hand, the
lure

which

they could not resist. Above all, the methods

followed by the Uzbegs added to the difficulties of the
of warfare

Mughal
4

Cossack

who

generals,
tactics

',

which

were,
their

indeed,

far

inferior

enemy followed

in

to their

But Aurangzeb was a man of

greatest advantage.
iron-will and there was nothing that could shake his
He inflicted a crushing defeat on the
determination.

Uzbegs and entered $alkh in triumph. Investing the

supreme command of that place in Madhu Singh Had a,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

242

Rajput Chief, he set out on his onward march

towards Aqcha with a view to destroy the Uzbeg hosts,
a

who were now

round the Imperial forces.

fighting continued for some time and the

Desultory

hovering

News arrived
Mughals sustained severe hardships.
from Balkh that a huge army was advancing from
Bokhara to oppose the onward march of the Mughal
army, and Aurangzeb retreated without losing time. In
the fight that

followed, the

Mughal musketeers made a

army and won the day.

furious attack on the Bokharan

Aurangzeb displayed wonderful coolness and courage in

the thick of the fight and his was the moving spirit

Even amidst

everywhere.
spread

his

carpet

the clash of arms

and say

his prayers

he

would

without

fear.

Bokhara was surprised at his presence of

The King
He was convinced that
mind and determined resolve.
of

to defy a

man of

such mettle was to court despair and desProposals for peace were made and Aurangzeb

truction.

entered

Balkh quite

safely.

Negotiations continued for

months but no permanent peace was patched

Shah Jahan wished to restore the kingdom of
up.
Bokhara to its ex-King Nazr Muhammad, but at the
same time he insisted on the condition that Nazr must
acknowledge him as his suzerain. Between the devil

over three

and the deep

sea, the

Mughal Emperor

ex-King sent his grandsons to the

on him and evaded to agree

to wait

of the treaty proposed by Shah Jahan.

attendance
was excused on the plea of
His personal
his illness.
Placing the charge of the city and of the
in the hands of Nazr's grandsons, the
Balkh
fort of
to

the terms

Prince

left for

Hindustan.

On

his

homeward march he

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

243

With great difficulty he

was attacked by the Hazaras.
This retreat of the
reached Kabul with his entourage.
army

Imperial

is

compared with the

1842 A. C.

correctly

the British from Kabul in

Shah Jahan was able

to

'

Mardan

not on good terms with the

But the Persians,
Kin S of Bokhara.
who cherished that province, recover-

under their new

it

of All

who was

expensive but

ed

the aid

1638

in

governor of that province,

b
*

Khan, the

and three highly

Qandhar

occupy

A. C. with
Loss of Qandhar

retreat of

ascended the throne

king,

in

who had
Aurat gzeb, who

Shah Abbas

1642 A. C.

II,

had been appointed to the government of Multan after

his departure from Balkli, was recalled and ordered to
conduct an expedition against Qandhar, where the

had capitulated after a desperate fight

which had lasted for nearly two months (1659 A. C.).

Mughal

The

garrison

Imperial army, numbering

and

ten thousand foot

thousand horse, advanced upon Qandhar under

the joint command of the Prince and his associate,
Sa'adullah Khan, and delivered a furious attack on it.

sixty

The

Persians,

replied

who had

by opening

that after a

siege,

strongly secured

on

their position,

The

result was
enemy.
which lasted for about four months,
fire

their

The Prince was called back by

the Mughals retreated.
his father and again appointed to the supreme command
This time the Prince was better

of the Imperial army.

equipped
crores

of rupees

was put

defray the expenses

He

was

A sum

with the instruments of war.

assisted

of

at his

the

war

disposal in
in

of

two

order to
off

land.

by Rustam Khan who had shone

in the

far

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

244
previous
general,

fight,

and

Qandhar

his

Sa'adullah

two

sons.

He

laid siege to the fort of

May, 1652 A.

the beginning of

in

famous Mughal

K]?an, the

C. and

allotted

the Imperial generals their proper places.

ordered

the

Mughal

gunners to

blow

off the

He

ramparts,

but the Qandharls frustrated their attempts to storm

the fortress so that they failed to make any breach in
The Persians,
the walls which were so ably defended.

who

possessed a strong park of artillery, ceaselessly

poured fire on the besiegers, so that a large number of

them were wounded and transported to the next world.

The siege was raised after about two months. Annoyed
at the military

ordered him

inefficiency

of Aurangzeb,

Shah Jahan
Deccan

u> take over the governorship of the

and entrusted the governorship of Kabul to

son, Dura, who had poisoned the ears of

his eldest
his

father

and incessantly plotted against

him. He took permission of his father to renew the
siege of Qandhar and boasted that he would effect the
conquest of that place within a week. At the head of a
against his rival brother

huge army, consisting

five

thousand

gunners,

six

cutters, the

of

seventy

thousand

horse,

thousand Ahadis, ten thousand

thousand sappers and five hundred stonefoot, three

This

who had

boasted, advanced

upon
was
huge Imperial army
preceded by

braggart,

Qandhar.
thousand horse

command

Rustam
Khan Bahadur, Najabat Khan and Qasim Khan as its
The siege commenced in the third week of
vanguard.
three

November,

under the

1652 A. C. and continued

for

of

full

seven

In spite of their repeated attacks, the Mughals

could not effect a single breach in the walls of the fort.

months.

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

On

the other hand, they

and

material.

When

245

sustained severe losses in nien

starvation

stared

them

in

the

they regarded discretion as the better part of

valour and abandoned the third and the last siege of
face,

Qandhar.

Thus

it is

evident that Shah Jahan's Central Asian

Policy was a colossal failure. In fact,

was so doomed from the very

It was not easy to cross the
outset.
jt

Asian

and

and

Policy

its results.

Hmdukush in order to conquer Balkn

"
To mobilise an Indian army
Badakhshan.

through the Hindukush

in sufficient

numbers

for the

"

says Dr. Ibhwari Prasad,

conquest of Central Asia was
"
a foolhardy enterprise without any chance of success."
In the fatuous war in Balkh, four crores of rupees
'

was spent in two years and not an inch of its territory

was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
The net
gain was about twenty-two and a half lakhs of rupees

which the conquered country yielded. The three sieges

of Qandhar cost Sh'lh Jahan some twelve crores of
The military prestige of Persia was definitely
rupees.
established and the repeated repulses of the Mughal
army and the final retreat of Prince Dara pronounced to
the world the weakness of the

Mughal arms.

Buoyed

up with success against the mighty Mughal Emperor,

the Persians now entertained ambitious ideas, and
henceforth the ghost of a Persian invasion of India
would haunt the minds of the rulers of Delhi
"
Such is the
throughout the seventeenth century.
terrible price ", says Professor Jadunath Sarkar, "which
aggressive imperialism

makes India pay

for

wars across

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

246

the North-Western Frontier."

Aurangzeb, the third son of Shah Jahan, was born

on October 24, 1618 A. C. His
Early career of

was

father

Aurangzeb.

the

of

viceroy

,,

,,

at that time serving as the

Deccan.

Breaking

Shah
Jahan, was ultimately compelled to surrender in 1625
A. C. One of the conditions of his submission was
that he should send his two sons, Dara and Aurangzeb,
his father,

into open rebellion against Jahangir,

The

to his father as hostages.

Princes remained

under

1628 A. C. when Shah

Jahan ascended the throne and his sons were restored
to him.
Next we hear of Aurangzeb when he tamed
the custody of

Nur Jahan

till

and controlled an infuriated elephant before the Agra

father, who was watching his

Fort and for which his

heroic

action,

rewarded

him handsomely.

Towards

the close of the year 1634 A. C., he was granted

rank of ten thousand horse. In September of
following

year

was

he

ordered

to

the
the

accompany the

Imperial expedition against the Bundelas of Orchha. In

July of the succeeding year he was appointed to the
viceroyalty of the Deccan, where he remained for about

His charge comprised (1) Daulatabad,

eight years.
with Ahmadnagar and other districts, having its capital at

Daulatabad subsequently ;
(3) Kbandesh,
(2) Telingana, with its capital at Nandar
with its capital at Burhanpur and (4) Berar, with its

Ahmadnagar

at first

and

at

capital
fairly

at

Ellichpur.

large

country,

These provinces constituted a

containing

about

sixty-four

and yielding a yearly income of about five

crores of rupees.
During his first viceroyalty of the
fortresses

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

247

Deccan, Aurangzeb made some important annexations.

He reduced the principality of Balgana, with its thirtyfour

parganas and two famous

Mallr,

The

fortresses,

Salir

and

ruler of Bharji offered his submission

and

he was

left

agreed to enter the

Service

if

Imperial
unmolested in hispargana of Sultanpur.

Shah Jahan

acceded to his request and enrolled him as a Mansabdar

of three thousand Zat and two and a half thousand

Sawar, and was

also confirmed in his possession of the

The Imperial generals, who had

Sultanpur.
already been sent by Shah Jahan to the Deccan,
the
overthrow of
the
Kingdom of
completed
fief

of

Ahmadnagar, which was

finally

incorporated

in

the

Mughal Empire. They also compelled Shahjl to submit,

and under their pressure the alleged heir to the Nizam
Shahl Kingdom was handed over to the Great Mughal

and thrown
In the

in prison.

month

His resignation

and renunciation

May, 1644 A. C. took place the

most r mantic episode of Aurangzeb's
early career, This was his renunciation
of

of

purposes,

it

the

world.

To

all

intents

and

was brought about by the machinations of

who was interested in making

his eldest brother, Dara,

his viceroyalty of the

Deccan an easy failure. Smarting

Dara and Shah Jahan's

under the undue interference of

condonation

of

that

interference,

he

tendered

his

Thereupon, his father

resignation in bitter resentment.
This
deprived him of all his ranks and allowances.

was
early estrangement between the father and the son
bridged through the good offices of Jahan Ara Begum,
the eldest sister of Aurangzeb.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

248

Living as a recluse in

seclusion

some time,

for

appeared in the
February, 1645 A. C. and
simultaneously he was made the

Aurangzeb

again

public in

governorships
of different
provinces.

_,

viceroy or dujarat, which he governed

to the entire satisfaction of his father.

From
to

was sent

there he

the

consolidate

substantial,

position

and

distant province,

if

was no

it

of

the

part.

No amount

order
that

tradition

of effort

in that inhospitable

failure against the sturdy

has become

Mughals

in

in

he failed to accomplish anything

fault of his

and endurance could ensure success

The

1647 A. C.

to Balkli in

North-Westerners

which the Anglo-Indian

rulers

have maintained by repeatedly risking their men and

money against them. His attempts to reduce and
retain Balkh having proved abortive, he retired to Kabul

1647 A. C.

in October,

From

there he went to take

over the government of Multan and Sind, but was soon

called back to undertake an expedition for the relief of

which

Qandhar,

beleaguered.
little

too

the

had

Persians

he

Unfortunately,

to

time

that

Qandhar a

reached

Twice he attempted

late.

at

recover

that

province, but failed,

Early

in

the

His second
thC

year

1653 A. C. Aurangzeb was

the governorship
When he reached

to

re-appointed
the DeCCan
-

of

and assumed the reins of his office.

.
,
,
he found that large tracts of lands
had become desolate and the Deccan as a whole had

administrative
achievements.

become a source
country

of trouble rather than of income.

could not

pay

its

own way and

The

there were

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

249

Other provinces, such as Malwa

recurring deficits.
and Gujarat, bore the brunt of the cost of administration.
The new viceroy was confronted with a serious

The

situation.

so to

land was,

say,

sucked dry, the

peasantry was in a state of decay and the recurring

deficits continued to affect the Imperial Treasury every
In order to meet the
year in ever-increasing amount.
needs of administration without rackrenting the cultivating classes, Aurangzeb began to draw on the cash
reserves deposited in the strongholds of DaulatSbad

and

spent about forty thousand in about two years. The

low cash balances still continued till at last, at his
suggestion,

which were

Shah Jahan granted him productive jagirs

These
in the hands of inefficient officers.

smarting under the loss of their jaglrs, misrepresented the whole situation. They told the Emperor

officers,

that the Prince was too

who was

ambitious and the Emperor,

never unmindful of his

his father, at

own

rebellion against
ordered
his son to
once believed them and

take half a lakh worth of

productive land in the

Asir and to diminish his cash by the same

parganas of
amount so that

The

normal.
falsity

his

less

actual

income might be made

Prince exonerated himself by proving the*

Handling the financial
allegations.

the

of

way, he devoted his time and'

energy to ameliorating the economic condition of the
peasantry of his province, despite the discouragement he

situation

in

proper

received from his suspecting father at the instigation of

vile intriguers.
He secured the services of Murshid

Quli Khan, an exceptionally skilled revenue officer, and'

with his assistance he extended the approved system of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

250

survey and revenue assessment over the whole of the

For revenue purposes, the province was

Deccan.
divided into two main parts
(1) the Balaghat, or Highlands, and (2) the Palnghat, or Low-lands. The former
:

included one- half of Berfir and the whole of Khandesh

whereas the latter embraced the

one-fourth of

gether, there were

in the

The

was measured and the share of the State was

entire land

fixed at

rest of the country.

Deccan,

now

the

aggregate produce.

Alto-

three revenue systems in vogue

viz., (I)

In certain backward areas the

previous practice of apportioning the State demand per

was adhered to, but due allowance was
plough

made

for the difference in the fertility of the soil

yield thereof.

many

places.

(2)

and the

The Batal system was followed

According

in

to this system,, the share of the

State was one-half where crops depended absolutely on

rainfall ; it was one-third
where wells irrigated the

land

and

it

was

raised high or reduced low, according

conditions suggested, where irrigation was

-done by canals, tanks and river-chinnels. <3) According to the Jarlb system, the whole land was measured
as the local

vrithjartb and the share of the Government was fixed

according

to

the

officers, similar to

and the
after.

kind

of

those in

crop sown.

the

Revenue

the North, were appointed

were properly looked

interests of the peasants

The

arable lands, which

had long been neglected

and continuous period of misgovernowing

ment, were restored to cultivation and loans were
to a long

advanced to the cultivators in order to enable

them to purchase seeds, cattle and agricultural impleliberally

ments.

In other respects he improved the administration

SHAHAB-UD-D1N

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

of the province under his charge by appointing his

men

251

own

He increased the pay of

and thus ensured their co-operation.
these reforms were wholly beneficial.

to responsible positions.

his military officers

The

results of all

Agriculture improved, the peasantry prospered and, as

"
Dr. Ishwari Prasad remarks,
the Deccan provinces
attained a high level of prosperity."

As mentioned

before,

against Bijapur

operations

"

and Golconda were stopped, because

both of them had accepted the

His forward

policy against
the Decoan.

to pay
Imperial vassalage and agreed
But when Aurangzeb
regular tributes to the Emperor.
to
the
was re-appointed
governorship cf the Deccan,

were as independent as ever. Their destruction

was determined as soon as the new viceroy took over.
they

The

causes were

martial appetite ; (2)

their wealth

(3)

the cupidity of the Prince and his

the independence of the Sultanates and

(1)

their allegiance to the

and. not to the Emperor of Hindustan

(5) their intimacy with Dara
(Shia)
;

Shah

of Persia

(4) their religion

the delay in

(6)

remitting tributes which had fallen in arrears.

To the Prince, who was waiting only

for

an

of Golconda
opportunity, the kingdom
II S
hap "
offered the first chance
'

pened that Mir Jumla, the Persian

Prime Minister of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah, who had
then fallen out with his sovereign on account of his
ambitious designs, invoked the assistance of Aurangzeb,
who accorded him a warm welcome and recommended

him

to his father.

command

of

five

The Emperor appointed him to the

thousand horse and made him a

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

252

member

No

of his son's suite.

found than

better pretext could be

to seek redress for the alleged grievances of

Mir Jumla. Early in 1656 A. C. Aurangzeb and Mir

Jumla advanced to demand justice from Sultan
Abdullah Qutb Shah and entered the

city

without any

Once there, they attacked Hyderabad and surprised its king who fled to Golconda, which
too was soon attacked.
So relentlessly did the Prince

serious opposition.

schemes of conquest that the King of

Golconda was compelled to pray for peace. According
to the treaty that was concluded, Abdullah promised to

pursue his

pay a crore of rupees and all arrears of tribute to the

Emperor, to acknowledge Shah Jahan and not the Shah
of Persia as his suzerain, to cease coining

own name, and

to

marry

money

in his

daughter to the eldest son

his

of Aurangzeb.

Golconda humiliated,

War

against
Bijapur.

the

turn of

Bijapur

came

Imperial permission was ob-

next.

,,

tamed

for

the

r>--

conquest of Bijapur

through the persuasive eloquence of

Mir Jumlu, and preparations were made for the final
conquest of that Kingdom.
made matters easy for the
Sultan

Muhammad

worse confounded.

'Adil

The

Internal

dissensions

iiad

The death of
Shah now made confusion
invaders.

fort of

Bidar was besieged in

February, 1657 A. C. and after twenty-seven days*

investment the city was taken and a large booty obtained.
Next an attack was made on KalyanI which

about two months the

whole country was being overrun by the Mughal
soldiers and the conquest of Bijapur itself was in sight

capitulated.

After a

siege

of

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

when

again orders

for the cessation of

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

were

received

from the Emperor

The

hostilities.

253

additional troops

were recalled and further supplies

Thus came a slip between the cup and

supplied to the Prince

were withheld.
the

lip.

The terms

of

the

treaty

made

with

the

Sultan were as humiliating as those concluded with

Golconda. An indemnity of one crore of rupees was
taken

from the Sultan and

he had to cede Bidar,

Kalyani and Parenda to the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb

had not yet completed the terms of the treaty when the
illness of his father invited his attention to the North

and

attracted

him

there to

make

a bid for

he throne.

CHAPTER

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

XIII

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

(CONCLUDED)

The
Fratricidal

and

its

years of the glorious reign of Shah

Jahan were darkened by a war of

closing

war

gem-Ms.

he did not appear

rumours ran

succession attending his illness. Since

in the Jharukha (audience window)

afloat

that

he

was dead.

He

tried to

allay the disquietude by appearing in the Jharukh'i

after a week, but the rumours had spread like wild-fire

and there was nothing that could pacify the people and
Before describing the events of the

the Princes.

Succession,
(1)

it is

Shah Jahan

had

four

its

ITdistinct

possessed

charaeteisketches.

of

genesis.

sons:

Dara,

Aurangzeb and Murad, each

Sons of Shah
Jahan and their

him.

necessary to trace

War

traits

Shuja',
of

whom

of character,

which had no mean share

in

deciding
rt

the scramble in his favour or against

All of them had their own claims to the throne.

Dara was endowed with commendable qualities of head

and heart.
Though he was the heir-designate, his
chances for succession were few and far between.
By
and
nature
irascible
his frivolous habits, vacillating
temper he had made many enemies at the Court.
was bitterly hated on account of his liberal views.
friendship

with

Christians

and

went against

He
His

with

the
intimacy
his inclination towards the Shia faith
the

Hindus,

his

his political interests.

Shuja' was a

man

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN
of intelligence

and refined

energy, he was none the

25S

Capable of immense

tastes.

less a slave of his

own

passions,

'and his intellect was impaired much by his addiction to

wine.
He too is said to have subscribed to the Stua>

and thereby annoyed the Sunni orthodoxy. Murad

BakLsh was brave and resolute, but otherwise a

faith

He was frank to an extent and

He stood little or no chance of
diplomacy.

brainless

booby.

despised

The

succession.

real

was,

danger

South.

further

the

Aurangzeb,
Jahan, was the ablest of his brothers

He was

and capacity.

character

however, brewing
son of Shah

third

in point of

courage^
the bean-ideal of a

cool to conceive, brave to dare and strong to

Skilled in diplomacy and a perfect master of the

soldier

do.
art

'

of

dissimilation

experience

in

the

he

',

art

had

of

acquired

he had the greatest advantage of

Sunni
of

the

Musalman.
Sunni sect

opposition of Dara.

considerable

administration.

being

Besides,,

an

orthodox

He had
with

the ungrudged support

which to counteract the

It is

evident that the two

most

Aurangzeb and Dara. The former

Musalmans, excluding the
Shlas, whereas the latter was supported by the Shias,
the Hindus and other Zimmls.
The remaining two

serious rivals were

had the support

of almost all

brothers, Shuja'

and Murad, had

When

(2)

Division of
the Empire.

Shah Jahnn
in

fell

ill,

possession

haying

their

own

adherents.

the four Princes were

of different provinces,

su ffi cient re5O urces

at

their

Dara was the viceroy of the Punjab and the

on
the North-West
provinces
Shuja' was the governor
of Bengal and Orissa; Aurangzeb held the command of

disposal

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

256

Deccan

and Murad was

in charge of the province

each
Prince
had sufficient cash and a
of Gujarat. Thus,
.pretty large force at his command, with which he could

'the

contend against the

power

the

of

division

in the

claims

Empire

of

his

put considerable

hands of the Princes and enabled them to

pursue their plans with unremitting

The

The

brothers.

had, in fact,

efforts.

Mughal tradition
of 'kingship

by the Mughal Emperors was

and
kingship recognises no kinship
c
j
the struggle for succession had to be

recognises no

fought

(3)

rule adopted

'

'

11

, i

out

end of taMit or

the

to

'

'

takltfa,

crown or

coffin

'.

Babar,

and Shah Jahan had all

Humayun,
iound themselves compelled to contend against the
and a disputed
nearest relatives,
of their
rivalry
Akbar,

succession had

Jahangir

become a

tradition in the

Mughal

family.

claimant would callously

The
rivals and all their collaterals to the
,put his surviving
the
It
sword made
disputed succession inevitable.
fact that the

successful

goaded the princes

to

fight

even

more

desperately

because they knew only too well that in the event of

Motives of selfdefeat their ends would be tragic.

were

they

pointed to the same path, though

less actuated by a sense of personal

also

preservation

no

aggrandisement,

On

(4)

was

Jahan
S

Empe ror a ncl

'nomination of
Daraashis
:Successor

1658 A. C. Shah

the 6th of September,

**

there

taken

was

no

seriously
hope of

ill

his

At this time, his eldest son,

...
,
^ ~ ...
was
with him at Delhi and was
Dara,

recovery.

faithfully nursing

his

father

at

the

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

When the
Imperial Court.
health a little, he called his

Emperor

257

improved

confidential

in

courtiers

together and nominated his eldest son as his successor

Such a state of affairs involved the

question of life and death for the remaining three
Princes, who were carefully nursing in their bosoms the
in

their presence.

ambitions of securing the succession

They made
was

there

for themselves.

preparations for the impending war and

nothing that could prevent them from

carrying out their respective plans.

Muslim India, there was no definite law
(5) In

Absence of the
law of succession.

was

'

the

determining

Muslim

the survival of the

throne.
fittest

succession

The
'.

to

principle

Though

the

adopted

the

first-

born was often allowed to have the strongest claim, yet

his brother, if any, or a provincial governor, or an

was ever ready to contest his claim,

time favoured and means were not lacking. Thus, in
the absence
of
a well-defined law, regulating the

influential chief,
if

succession to the throne, the illness of Shah Jahan was

a signal for the outbreak of a fratricidal war.

The

following measures adopted by Dara during

the illness of his father also contri '
Dara's behaviour
buted to the War of Succession to a
during the illness
(6)

of his father.

considerable

extent

(*)

He
who

took

were
guarantees from the Vakils of his brothers,
at the Imperial Court, to the effect that they would not
submit any news to the Princes about the Emperor and
his Court,

(ii)

He

and the Deccan,

carry any

closed the roads to Bengal, Gujarat

so

information

that
to

the

those

travellers

provinces.

might not
(Hi)

He

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

258

confiscated the house of 'Alamgir's Vakil stationed at

the officers of
the Imperial Court,
(iv) He recalled
'Alamgir when the latter was engaged in the conquest of
Bijapur and had almost accomplished the task entrusted

Before the Princes in the distant provinces

had stirred, he ordered his forces to march against
to him.

(v)

them

order

in

to

remove them from

his

way

to the

throne.
(7)

The war could be

if

prevented, or at least postponed,

Shah

Jahan

had re-asserted
after

his

his re-

authority immediately
He ought to
covery from his illness.
for
his
sons
from
a
scramble
have stopped
making
He ought to have
succession while he was alive.

contradicted the rumours of his death and

averted

the

which events had taken. It is quite possible

that Dsra kept him uninformed of the consternation
caused by the rumour of his alleged death; but even

course

after

the

defeat

of

the

Imperial

forces in the Battle

Dharmat, he did not stir out to oppose Aurangzeb

who was advancing towards Agra. Granted that he

of

was too weak

as a result of

his illness,

but

he could

have convened a council of war to deal with the seriousThere were many whose loyalty
ness of the situation.
for him was yet unshaken, and he ought to have rallied
But, unfortunately, he behaved in a
most impolitic way. Misjudging the trend of events
and miscalculating the strength of the Princes, he shook

them

to his side.

the faith of his other sons

in his

own

sense of justice by

continuously favouring Dara, the eldest son,

and out of season.

in

season

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

(8)

'Alamglr,

nple Alliance.

Ara Begum,
brothers,

who had kept himself in touch with

the events occurring at the Imperial
~ .,
,,
L rCapital through his sister, Rau^han
,

had

259

formed an

also

Shuja* and

Murad,

in

alliance

with

his

November 1552 A.

C.

In the presence of conflicting accounts, it is impossible

of the triple alliance with any

to tabulate the terms

One thing is, however, clear

the three
brothers agreed to take concerted action in the event of
danger, and that if anyone of them was attacked by
preciseness.

Dara, the other two

Dara

and

intimacy

would rush

Shah Jahan

with

looked

concern.

grave

and to checkmate

to

his

upon

Hip.

their

In order

to

Both

growing
frustrate

Shah Jahan
sent secret letters to them through the Khwaja Saras
(eunuchs), promising his help to 2ach of them against
This act of setting one brother against the
the other.
their efforts

their

plans,

'

'

other by issuing
the crisis.*

*The correspondence

also

letters

inflammatory

precipitated

that passed between Shah JahSn and

In one of his letters to Shah Jah5n,

his sons is very important.

"
Though I have repeatedly made a request
Aurangzeb writes
that the despatch of inflammatory Jetters should be stopped, no
notice has been taken," (Adab-i- Alamgli-i, 366-a). In another
"I have repeatedly
leiter he wrote to his father as follows
asked Your Majesty, that you should stop sending inflammatory
letters.
Though Your Majesty is all wisdom, yet as you have
written
to me that I should not expect such a thing from
clearly
:

Khawaja Saras away

I am forced to call the mischievous
from you". (A dab-i-' Alamglr", 367-a). In a letter to Mahabat
"
My DarS Shikoh will be approachKhan, Shah Jahan wrote
is no dearth of treasure at Lahore and men
There
Lahore.
ing
It is proper that the brave
and horses are abundant at Kabul.
an army, and, siding with
with
to
Lahore
general should hasten

you*

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

260

Both Shuja* and Murad crowned themselves

respective

provinces

Bengal and the

coined

latter in

money

Gujarat

their

in

in their

former in

the

they

own names

and assumed the Imperial titles. As for Aurangzeb, he

was too calm and clever to do anything of the kind.
He seized all the ferries on the Narbada and waited for
an opportune moment.

Prince Shuja' was the

He

first

to

Bengal on his
own behalf, ravaged the districts of Bihar on his way
and reached Benares on ihe 24th of January, 1658 A. C.
mobilize

his

forces.

set out

from

Dara was not idling away his time either. He

had made ample
for the
preparations
r r
r
,

41
of
Battle

Bahadurgarh

for

struggle

February, 1658.

which

succession

as certain as

.,

ir

itself.

surety

TT

He

was
,

sent

army undei the command of his eldest son,

Sulaiman Shikoh, assisted by Mirza Rajah Jai Singh
Kachwahah in order to oppose the advance of Shuja*.
The two armies met at Bahadurgarh in February, 1658
In a serious battle which was fought, Shuja
A. C.
was defeated and driven back to his base in Bengal.
In the meantime, Murad ascended the throne under

large

title of Murawwaj-ud-DIn.
The
Khutba was read and the coins were

*ke

Battle of

Oharmat

April 1558.

struck in his name.

huge army, he sent a contingent of

Having
six

collected

thousand horse

Dara Shikoh Baba, range himself against the two wretched sons,
punisFPthem for their misdeeds and release me ...... And I have
written to my eldest son, that giving himself up entirely to him
(Mahabat Khan), he should think that his welfare lies in obedience to that eminent general." (Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, vol. II,
pp. 3537). For some other similar letters, see Aurangzeb and
His Times,

p.

49

ff.

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

for plundering the port of

Ara.

Aurangzeb, who was

wrote congratulatory
in

sack

the

of

Surat, the appanage of Jahan

playing a waiting game,

Murad on
He offered him

letters

Surat,

261

to

now

his success
his services

and requested him to join the troops on the other side

of the Narbada in order to advance against the Imperial

Murad was won over and the two brothers

against the third. Dara was not indifferent to

Capital.

joined

the progress of events.

He had already dispatched an
the
under
command
of Qasim Khan and Rajah
army

Jaswant Singh to oppose the advancing

A
Aurangzeb and his brother, Murac
1

fought at
in

Dharmat near Ujjain on

April 15,

troops
battle

of

was

1658 A.C.,

which the Imperialists were defeated and the Rajah

was put

The

along with his Rajput followers.

victory increased the prestige of Aurangzeb and
to

flight

The victorious Princes

augmented his resources.
pressed on and were able to secure the passage of the
Chambal and
plain of

take their position in the memorable

to

Samugarh.

Annoyed
Samugarh,
May, 1058.

at the military inefficiency

of

the

Hindu

Rajah and his Musalman colleague,

Dara decided to take the field in
He was so impatient that he
person.

await the arrival of the flower of Mughal

who had taken the pick of
chivalry, Sulaiman Shikoh,
and had defeated Shuja* at
him
with
force
the Mughal
could

not

Having collected a large

army, whose sympathies were more with Aurangzeb
than with him, he marched out from Agra to deal with
the Battle of Bahadurgarh.

the combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad, without

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

262

He

listening to the advice of his father.

of

plain

Samugarh

towards the close of

reached

May

the

with as

many as fifty thousand strong and engaged himself in a

brothers.
On one side, the
death-grapple with his
Rajputs fought
race

most

on the other

doing honour to their

gallantly,

side,

both

Aurangzeb and

Murad

the forefront, risking their lives without any

fought
fear of death.
Both the parties displayed extraordinary
valour and
charged each other with unparalleled
in

impetuosity,
of a defeat.

for they

knew

full

the consequences

well

Hitherto, the Imperialists seemed to have

the upper hand, but the tables were at once turned
against them when, in the thick of fight, Dara's elephant

received
horse.

serious

wound and he took

This trifling incident

decided the

his seat
fate

of

on a
the

For those around him, finding the howdah

empty, thought that their leader was lost and therefore
took to their heels.
Aurangzeb achieved a decisive
victory. He now congratulated his brother, Murad, and
battle.

Dumbfounded by

attributed the cause of success to him.

the defeat, Dara and his son, Sipehr Shikoh, returned to

Agra and reached there late in the night.
After
Fate of Shah
]ahan.

the

of

war, Aurangzeb
marched upon Agra and entered it

obtaining

..

spoils

..

without encountering opposition.

encamped himself
and from there he wrote an

in

arzdasht

father, seeking his forgiveness for the

He

the Bagh-i-Nur
(petition) to his

war which conditions

and circumstances had forced upon him.*

*"

TT

He

tried

hard

As long as power was vested in your venerable hands ",

"
wrote Aurangzeb to his father, Shah Jahan, obedience was my

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN
to conciliate his father,

have preferred to rule

it

impossible to

and

in

intimate attachment to his eldest

caution,

he sent his

son,

probability he

would
found

not

confidence or to shake his

his

gain

all

name had he

in his

263

With

son.

Muhammad

studied

Sultan, to take

The Emperor was walled up

and
palace
kept a close prisoner for full eight
He was treated with great respect and indulyears.
gence by Aurangzeb, but was never allowed to come
possession of the citadel.
in

his

out even for a moment, for the clever Prince knew

well the consequences of such an impolitic action.

too

To

make

the best of a bad bargain. ShSh Jahan sent

a sword, called 'Alamgir, to his son as a
present. Bent
in age and broken in health, the mos*.
magnificent

monarch

of the

Mughal Dynasty passed away

in

1666

A. C. as a captive of his son.

passion,

and

Knowing God

never went beyond

is

my

witness.

my

limit, for

But owing to the

which the AllYour

illness of

Majesty, the prince, usurping all authority and bent upon propagating the religion of the Hindus and the idolaters and upon
suppressing the faith of the Prophet, had brought about chaos
and anarchy throughout the Empire, and no one had the courage
to sp*ak the truth to Your Majesty. Believing himself to be the
rightful ruler, he (D5ra) deposed Your August Majesty, as has
been mentioned in my previous letters. Consequently, I started
from Burhanpur, lest I should be held responsible in the next
world for not providing a remedy for the disorders that were
At that time, excepting
cropping up throughout the country.
that enemy of the true faith (Dara), siding with whom is a real
As victory is never gained
sin, there was no one between us.
without God's help, which is the result of true obedience, please
notice how Divine assistance came to my help. God forbid,
that with Your Majesty's connivance, the theories of the apostate (Dara)

become

translated into practice,

and the world

get

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

264

between Murad

In a written compact signed

*^
Fate off i*
Murad.
tr '.

as nothing

and

each brother had under-

Aurangzeb,
taken to be true to the other as long

was done by

either against

sincerity

and

of purpose.
But after the victory at Samuthe
former
garb,
grew jealous of the growing power of
the latter.
He not only cast the contract to the winds
singleness

by
by

secretly submitting his apologies to

Shah Jahan and

trying to secure the throne for himself, but also

by

He received a
entering into a plot against Aurangzeb.
secret letter* from his father, who, while conferring the
darkened with

infidelity

Under the present circumstances, thanks are due to the

All that
Master of Fate ror whatever has been brought about
I owe to you for
my upbringing is far beyond any adequate
expression of gratitude on the part of my poor self, and I cannot
on any account forget your kindness and my responsibilities, and
!

allow myself, for the sake of this short

life, to create any rancour

your heart. Whatever happened was due to the will of God,
and for the good of the country and the nation." (Addb-i-'Alam-

in

tftrt, 363-6).

another

In

position
"

letter

to

Shah Jahan, he thus explains

his

1 have repeatedly
made it clear that, in marching to Agra,
had no intention of ousting the King of Islam, and God is my
witness that such a sinful and unholy thought never entered my
I

mind.

In the beginning of your illness,

features of a

who had no distinguishing

when

the eldest prince,

Musalman, took up the

the standard of heresy and

Government and raised

took upon myself the religious duty of ousting him.
As Your Majesty, on account of prejudice and unmindful of
political conditions, wanted the eldest prince to propagate heresy,
reins of the
infidelity,

determined to

make a

Jihad against him."

(Adnb-i-Alamgiri,

367-a.)

*The

text of the letter, as reproduced

in his Tarikh-i-Shah Shujai, is as follows

"
I

by

Muhammad Ma'sum

have confened the sovereignty of the whole of India on

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

265

sovereignty of the whole of Hindustan on him, assured

him of his help and directed him to invite his brother,
Aurangzeb, and his son to his camp on the pretext of a

banquet and 'see the

last

The

them'.

of

letter

conveyed through a confidential servant, but

of absent-mindedness,

when

of

irony

fate,

Aurangzeb and

to

suggestion of

in a

one of

Aurangzeb.

a state

book, and,
it

by a curious

which
at
him
by

in the trap in

son were to be caught

Shah Jahan.

in

his servants,

Thus,

Murad was caught

his

it

placed

accidentally discovered by

was handed over

the

Murad

was

He was

invited to a

his brother, Aurangzeb, in the manner suggesthim by Shah Jahan. When he drank himself
disgracefully in the feast, he was seized and spoken to
by his brother upon his impiety and intemperance and
He was
declared unfit to occupy the Muslim throne.

feast

ed

by

to

soon bound in chains and sent to the

state

of

prison

Gwalior, where, on a charge of murder, he was executed

in

1661 A.C.
Entrusting the task of capturing

Dara Shikoh

to

Aurangzeb turned
._
c
Shuja who,
the Battle of Bahadurgarh, had taken

his trusted officers,

'

FateofShuja'.

,.

his
after his defeat in

to flight, but
for

the

was again

throne.

attention

in the field to

After

his

towards

make another

coronation,
to be

bid

Aurangzeb

most careful and

I enjoin you
illustrious son (Murad).
patient in this matter and not to divulge this secret to anyone,
however intimate. After a few days, invite your brother (Aurangzeb) and his son to your camp on the plea of a banquet and see

my

them and then have the Khutba recited in your name,

and assume the Imperial title, which I bestow on you of my own

the last of
free will.

You

should perform this important task with the

Muhammad Ma'sum.)

greatest caution." (Tarihh-i-Shah Shiijai by

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

266

marched against him and inflicted a sharp defeat on

him at Khgjwah on January 5, 1659 A. C. The
defeated Prince was hotly chased by Mir Jumla. Driven
to different places, he ultimately took

where he was

rest

in

ArakSn,

1660 A.C.
Maghs
Meanwhile, Aurangzeb's officers were busy
a

in

in

They were hunting

the unfortunate Prince from place to
Chased into Kathlawar, he
place.
pursuing Dara*.

Date's last
tJag?c

by the

killed

iS

fate.

was brought to bay near Ajmer, where he took his

position and tried to defend himself as strongly as he

He

uch a vigorous defence that for

four days Aurangzeb could not dislodge him from his
On the fifth day, however, he was defeated
position.
could.

put up

through the treachery of Daler Khan, who had promised

to leave Aurangzeb and to join him.
Deserted by all of
Firoz Mewati, Dara took the
road towards Ahmadabad.
He was accompanied by a

one

his

nobles,

few

faithful followers, including his son, Sipehr Shikoh,

except

and some other women. On his way, he

enlisted a few fugitives
but the inhabitants of the
country harassed him by pillaging his baggages, for he
still had some jewels and
money with him. When he
his daughter,

reached the city of Ahmadabad, the governor in charge

With the
of the castle closed the gates against him.

named KanjI Koli, he

Zamlndar of that place, who had
promised to marry his daughter to his son, now refused
him all help. In dire distress, D^ra proceeded towards

help of a notorious
reached Cutch. The

robber,

Sind to seek shelter there.

Skirting along Sind, he

deserted by his friend and follower, Firoz Mewati.

was

To

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

267

add to his sorrow, the only source of solace and strength

him was snatched away from him his most favourite
"
Mountain
wife, Nadir a Begum, who died of dysentery.
of
after mountain
trouble thus pressed upon the heart
"
of Dara," says KhafI Khan,
grief was added to grief and
for

sorrow to sorrow, so that his mind no longer retained

At last he took refuge with Malik Jiwan
equilibrium."

Khan who
ists

betrayed him into the hands of the ImperialHe was taken

sent by Aurangzeb to pursue him.

prisoner and sent to

Lahore and then

to Delhi.

he was sentenced to death on the charge

There

of apostasy.

Sulaiman Shikoh, the eldest son of Dara, fought

Fate of Sulaiman

faithfully

fu S itive
in

near

Ajmer.

life >

his

father

stand against Aurangzeb

pursued by Shaista Khan, uncle

his

He was

during his
but he could not J oin him

for

last

of Aurangzeb, and driven into Garhwal, where he

refuge with

its

Rajah,

He was

officers.

Imperial
seated on

an

elephant,

and then thrown

he died

who made him

then conveyed

paraded through

in the state prison of

1662 A.C.

took

over to the
to

Delhi,

the

city

Gwalior, where

Aurangzeb turned

his

attention towards the surviving sons of his brothers.

On

in

Next,

one pretext or the other he put them to the sword or

threw them into prison. Only two Princes, viz., Sipehr
Shikoh and Azad Bakhsh, were spared and married to
the third and

daughters of Aurangzeb, respectively.

Aurangzeb imprisoned even his own son who had
married a daughter of Shah Shuja* and foi whom he

showed some

fifth

affection.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

268

The
m

motives which

Motives which
actuated Aurang-

actuated Aurangzeb to enter

upon *he Fratricidal

War

have been

Only the more

variously described.

here:** be P
(1) Shuja' and Murad had already
War of
the
and
their
declared
independence
As usual, it was
Succession had become inevitable.
would
successful
the
that
slaughter his
prince
expected
rival brothers

without feeling remorse or compassion.

own safety, Aurangzeb could not

In the interest of his

but enter the war.

(2)

There was no love

lost

between

An

rangze*x The former was bent upon

the
latter in the eyes of the people and the
stigmatising
Emperor. It will be remembered that while Aurangzeb

Dara and

was

charge of the Deccan, Dara was trying to ruin

his reputation.
With a hostile brother on the throne,
Aurangzeb's position can be better imagined than
in

described.
his

affairs

All this and Dara's undue interference in

must have actuated Aurangzeb to decide

Under the circumstances, when Shah Jahan nominated Dara as his

successor, Aurangzeb's anger must have known no
The fact that Dara concealed the news about
bounds.
his father and prevented them from reaching his brothers
upon

that course

further

of

action.

(3)

made

easy for the

Princes to leave the Emperor out of account and to take
his death for granted.
(4) Aurangzeb was an orthodox

annoyed Aurangzeb.

Muslim.

Dara's

It

latitudinarianism

it

must

also

have

influenced Aurangzeb in choosing his course. Muhammad

Kazim, the author of the 'Alamgirnamah, voiced the

views of

Aurangzeb and

his

partisans

about Dara's

SHAIIAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

269

Muslim throne when he wrt>te

Dara Shikoh obtained throne and established his
power, the foundation of the faith would be in danger
and precepts of Islam would be changed for the rant of
ambition
and
(5) Personal
Judaism/'
infidelity
unfitness to occupy the

"

If

a prominent part in the chalking

also played
his

out of

programme.
All that has been said,

excuses Aurangzeb's
War, does not excuse his

if

participation in the Fratricidal

it

But

deliberate diplomacy therein.

it

must be pointed

out that without resorting to such diplomatic actions as

he did, his fate, and with it the fate of Islam in
India,

would have been

different.

Contemporary chroniclers, such as Muhammad

Kazim and others, ascribe AurangCauses of his
success in the
Fratricidal

mind

is

zeb's success in the

War.
not

to find other

In

the

first

,.

.,

to his iqbal, or
satisfied

with
of

explanations
place,

War of
,

luck.

this

his

Succession

j
The modern
*i

answer.

It

tries

success than this.

Shah Jahan's own weakness and

contributed

to

the

success

of

Aurangzeb
Immediately after his
recovery, the old Emperor should have exerted his
authority and stopped his sons from snatching away
power from his hands. He ought to have contradicted

incapacity

more

than

else.

anything

the news of his death and averted the course of events

in his

own

favour.

If

he

had acted with prudence,

he could have helped his favourite son, Dara, to the

throne. He was still popular and he would have elicited
support from

all

sides.

reins of his office in his

He

should have resumed the

own hands

after his recovery,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

270

curbed the ambitions

of his other sons

and then
enthroned Dara, if he so desired.
But, unfortunately,
he entirely misunderstood the situation and remained

passive.
after

While Aurangzeb,

Murad and

Shuja* were,

preparations, marching against the

full

Imperial

was dissuading Dara from fighting, telling

that no harm could accrue from their coming to the
Capital, he

Thus, if the Emperor was deprived of his

throne after the defeat of Dara and if Dara could not
succeed him, Shah Jahan must share the onus of
Capital.

no small measure.

Dara
army was
of
rc.w
levies.
composed
Besides, there was an utter
lack of co-operation between the Rajputs and the
in

responsibility

was

not

great

general

himself.

Secondly,

His

Muslims, who constituted the huge bulk of his army.

The former were not wanting in valour, but their
heroic attempts were cruelly frustrated
by their peculiar
notions of precedence and prestige.
The latter were

and
unfaithful.
Their
were
sympathies
more with Aurangzeb, a staunch Sunni, than with
Dara. Dara's arrogance of temper and hasty disposition

corrupt

also

produced many
SulaimSn Shikoh, was
Imperial army.

He

difficulties

in

for

him.

His

son,

Bengal with the pick of the

it but advanced

did not wait for

meet Aurangzeb in spite of the advice of his father.

This was a blunder of the first magnitude. The error
committed by him in dismounting from the elephant
to

and

riding

horse instead, comoleted

the

disaster.*

*Authors of the 'Alamgirnamah, Zafarnamah and Tdrikh~iShahjahani assert that this fatal exchange of horse for
elephant was occasioned by the fact that the elephant had

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

271

Thirdly, it was not easy to meet a man of Aurangzeb's

type, a dexterous diplomat and an excellent general who
outdistanced his rivals in the war on account of his
superior military

organized,

He

His forces were thoroughly

tactics.

equipped and

efficiently

strictly disciplined.

reserve and put

part
army
kept
it in the field when Dara's troops lay exhausted.
As a
Sunni
of
the
he
Orthodoxy,
Champion
ceaselessly played

of

his

in

upon the alleged apostasy of his rival brother, and conHe

stantly drew men from his ranks to his own side.
openly boasted of having his friends in the ranks of his
He fully availed himself of his artillery
opponent.

when his foolish brother, Dara, advanced beyond

own artillery and thus rendered it useless.

his

"

Thus, it is evident that Aurangzeb's

victory in
the war of succession was the victory of action over
supineness, of intrepidity over
tion

and

inertia,

discipline over confusion

and of organiza-

and incoherence."

AH Mardan Khan was

a Persian governor of Qandbecause he was not

Partly

<*i m*
j- r^u
'Ali Mardan Khan.

satisfied

.,

with

the

treatment of the

and

Shah
partly on account of the pressure
which 3h&h Jahan brought to bear upon him, coupled
of

Persia

with the temptation of gold, he surrendered the fort of

Qandhar to the Mughal officers. He was granted one
lakh of rupees and enrolled as a grandee of the Mughal

Empire.
become a

Later, his

mansab was

raised to six

target for the attacks of the enemy.

thousand

Bernier and

Niccolao Munucci, on the other hand, assert that the change was
caused by the treacherous advice of Khalil-uliah Khan, given to
Dara when Aurangzeb's defeat was almost in sight.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

272

Zat and

thousand Sawar, and at different times he

was appointed governor of Kabul and Kashmir. He
six

on the administration of these provinces so well

that His Majesty was pleased to raise his rank to seven

carried

thousand Zat and seven thousand Sawar, and conferred

upon him the governorship of the Punjab in addition.

In 1644 A. C. he was sent at the head of an expedition
to Balkh where he achieved a partial success.
He was
an experienced general and a skilled engineer.
The
canal which he brought from the Ravi to the city of

Lahore and the Shalamar Gardens are an imperishable

index to his engineering skill.
Asaf Khan's original name was Abdul Hasan.

was the son

He

of Itlmad-ud-Daulah

and

Malika Nur Jahan. He

entered the Imperial Service under Akbar and rose to a
high position during the reign of Jahangir, but he
brother of

honours and distinctions at the

accession of Shah Jahan to whom he had married his
We have seen how he sucdaughter, Mumtaz Mahal.

reaped a rich harvest

of

checkmated the plans and intrigues of his

In appresister and helped Shah Jahan to the throne.
ciation of his services, he was honoured with the title of
cessfully

'

Yamin-ud-Daulah or Right-hand of the State', and a

jaglr was granted to him. The Jaglr brought him
His rank was raised to nine
about fifty lakhs a year.
thousand Zat and nine thousand Sawar, and a
he became the Prime Minister of the Empire.
as the principal agent of the

little later

He

acted

Emperor in his diplomatic

was
sought in all the serious
negotiations and his advice
He remained attached to
matters of the Government

SHAHAB-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

273

Shah Jahan throughout his life and never betrayed the

confidence reposed in him by his Sovereign. The stress
and

strain of official duties

his health,

passed

he

away

his will,

retired

vast

the

during his

Lahore

at

having considerably told upon

from

1641

in

A. C.

According to
he had accumulated

which

riches,

official

and quietly

his official career

were

career,

confiscated

the

to

S*tate.

Khan was

Sa'ad-ullah

came

man

of

humble

1"

His vast

givon him .an unusual

had

reading

He

origin.

of very poor parents.

amount of general knowledge. In

the Imperial Service and was
entered
he
1640 A.
Soon a ntansab was granted to
paid a monthly salary.
C.

him and during the course

officer,

enjoying a

mansab

of

year he became an

one thousand Zat and two

some time

For

Sawar.

thousand

of

he

worked

as

Darogha (Superintendent) of the Imperial Gbusalfehana

(Bath) and was subsequently promoted to the post of
Khan-i-Satnan, or Lord High Steward. The Emperor
appreciated his ability by making him his Prime Minister
and

his

raising

rank to seven thousand Zat and seven

He

served the State most faithfully

and is justly regarded as the most upright and straightHe was often
forward minister known to India.

thousand Sawar.

employed as a

commander and

military

officer.

He

acquired

immense power and

continued

hjgh conception
credit that

he

of

to

his

fell little

rise in

Royal

influence.

duties

short of

and be
it.

settlement-

favour

He had
it

and

a very

said to his

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

274

Shah Jahan was

almost exactly the same as that of his
more
rather it was
predecessors,

The

system of

administrative

efficient

and exhibited a marked im-

provement on the previous system. In fact, what Akbar

had aimed was achieved by Shah Jahan in the realm of

was un-

administration.

Peace within

interrupted, the

revenue of the State was ever on

increase

and every department

remittingly

active.

Justice

perous.

the

The

was

people

of

country

were happy and prosadministered

carefully

the

the State was un-

and

pro-

vincial governors were warned to be honest in their

All this
dealings witli the people under their sway.

bears eloquent testimony to a just, wise and vigorous

administration.
Foreign travellers, such as Bernier,

Niccolao Manucci and Peter Mundi, speak

of the gracious rule of Shah Jahan as that of a father

Tavernier,

the Muslim historian Khafi Khan,

him
with
Akbar and points out that whereas
compares
the latter was pre-eminent as a conqueror and law-giver,
the former was pre-eminent as an administrator and a
Hindu contemporary outshines even the Muslim chronicler and the Christian travellers in extolling the efficiency
Here again Banthamite demoof his administration.
cracy was in its full swing, for every attempt was

over his children

made

to

secure

'

the greatest

happiness of the greatest

number.'

Shah Jahan was

not

made

for the glories

ne
g
rrTs und\rh?s

quest

patronage,

and was not a great general

he

re S arded

war

as

of con-

inhuman
himself,

SHAHAB-UD-DIN
though

career

early

His

strides,

during

was

reign

which

won

had

he

literature

and

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

essentially

of

period

education

flourished,

his

of

father.

peace

in

made mighty

painting, poetry

architecture,

his

in

victories

splendid
the
reign

275

and music

bounds. What gave a fillip to

progressed by leaps and
was
Shah Jahan's catholicity of mind,
these fine arts

which soured above the snares of sectarian psychology,

and appreciated and encouraged true worth from whatever sources

it

was evinced.

Court and the glory of

and

oriental colour,

are

his

The

splendour of his
with
all their dazzle
re^gn,

by-word to everyone who

has even a nodding acquaintance with Indian history.

Though much has been irreparably destroyed, yet there

remains enough of the Mughal art under Shah Jahan to

of that glorious period and the standard
give us an idea
Is there a soul that will not be
civilization.
of

Mughal

and grandeur
depths at the ethereal beauty
and
of the Taj or does not recognise the literary elegance
a
ever
historical importance of the Bcid&ahnamah,
stirred to its
;

historian ;
treasure-house of research for the ambitious
into ecstacies over the miniature and
or does not

go

of that period; or does not have an ear

portrait paintings
Das and Mahapattar, the
for the melodious voice of

Ram

Philomels

of

the

Mughal

"The

Court?

Imperial
no longer the

Prof. K. T. Shah, "was

patronage", says
but every kind of
of the poet or the painter
;

monopoly
and encouraged; giving
artist was recognised

us,

in

wonderful creations, which, like the

consequence, those
Palace and the several mosques, must
Taj and Delhi
the name of *he Imperial patron."
for ever immortalize

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

276

The
A

of

reign

Shah Jahan

in

Architecture

is

for

history
J

rendered memorable

the

excellence

of its

it is

In this hurried survey

the canons of this art or

to

public

architecture.

impossible to enter into

attempt a description of

under the Imperial patronage.

a

volume

platform

trellis-work,

The Taj

virgin

with

dome above and

fine

a pair of tombs below,

domed apartment

demands

Standing majestically
marble with a beautiful screen of

crowned

consecrated by

alone

erected

on a square

to itself.

of

buildings

of

tv/o storeys

in

surrounded by a
each corner and

connected with one another by a number of halls and

passages, \uth its main mansion lighted by a double
screen of trellis-worked marble, one on the inner and

one on the outer side of the wall, guarded at

its

corners

by four lofty tnlnars of milky marble, rearing its

stately head above its jewelled walls and lace-carved
windows also of creamy marble, this superb structure,
an

ethereal

the

beauty
a

dream

Taj

nay

the

Queen

of

marble, designed by Titans

and finished by jewellers, placed in a beautiful garden
with two masjids on either side, on the brink of the
Architecture,

in

Jumna presents a most picturesque view and refreshes

the awe-struck eyes of the native as well as foreign
'

sight-seers.

Those

critics

who have

objected to the

effiminacy of the

architecture (Taj) unconsciously pay

the highest tribute to the genius of the builders.
The
Taj was meant to be feminine. The whole conception,

and every

line

and

it express
the intention of
the designers.
It is Mumtaz Mahal herself, radiant in
her youthful beauty, who still lingers on the banks of

detail of

MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

SHAHAB-UD-DIN
the

midday

sun, or

we should say
it

India's

is

womanhood
marble

that

in

shadowed

to

tribute

'

the

in

morn,

moonlight.

glowing

Or

rather,

more abstract thought

the

Venus de Milo

of

grace
the East/

of

Indian

The

Mosque within the Agra

and loveliest house of

(Pearl

Masjid

the

early
silver

conveys a

it

noble
the

Moti

the

in

Fort), described as

prayer

at

Jumna,

shining

277

the purest

world

',

with

its

vast

dimensions,

and sanctuary, all dressed in marble

Diwan-i-Khas (Court of Private Audience) over-

the

aisles

looking the

itself

Jumna,

elegance and poetic design

Public
Audience), with

masterpiece of delicacy,
the Diw^.n-i-'Ar" (Court of

its

exquisitely

ornamented

ceiling supported by a row of richly jewelled columns,

a magnificent niche at the centre and a marble platform,
lavishly inlaid with precious stones and once the seat

of

the

Peacock Throne, with

shifting colours

fying

to the

fact

that

a lord of

and emeralds,
artists sat on

Rang Mahal with

throne; the gorgeous

blazing in

tail

ite,

of rubies, saphires

its

the
testi-

that

garden-court,

containing His Imperial Majesty's recreation chambers;

the most wonderful baths, fed by a canal worked out

from the Jumna; and the Jama Masjid at Delhi, constructed on a rocky platform and finished in full six
years,

are the finest

Mughal monuments

of that glorious

age of Indian history.

Shah Jahan was an ardent lover of painting.

Under him, miniature and portrait
r
Painting.
painting underwent a good deal of
It
was considered incomplete unless a
elaboration.
most beautiful border

of

birds

and

butterflies,

flowers

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

278

and

foliage

The

best

was dexterously woven into the main theme.

painter at the Court- of Shah Jahan was
Muhammad Nadir Sarnarqandl. It may be remarked

here that, like

was

all

other

Mughal Emperors, Shah Jahan

a painter himself and a past-master in the art

also

of illuminating manuscripts.
learn it from the

We

Mirat-ul-Alam that Shah

Jahan was also a good singer, and
Music
Dr. N. N. Law says that he was a
The two most prominent
great patron of music '.
singers attached to his Court were Rum Das and
Mahapatt?-, whc^e mention has already been made in
'

previous

They were rewarded

Mughal Darbars.
the Emperor also spent some

chapter.

services without cavil in the

for

their

Professor

Sarkar says that

portion of
his time in listening to songs by women '. This shows
that there were also female singers at the Imperial Court.
*

Shah Jahan had a

buildings
gardens, or

they

extolled

have
so

been

much

in

the Shalamar

Almost

all

beautiful

'

'

terrestrial

paradises

The Shalamar Garden

Moor's Lala Roolth at Lahore;

styled.

the gardens in the Delhi Fort

at

contained

his

as

fine taste for gardens.

the Taj Mahal Gardens

and Dara Shikoh's Garden

Bagh
Kashmir were the most voluptuous of their class in
at Delhi

Mughal Empire. Even Bernier does not hesitate to

admire them. Some of them have survived to our own
the

times'andjthey do not fail to attract our attention.

We can hardly over-estimate Shah Jahan's literary
Shah'lahan's
philomathy.

interest.

his

He

always

mental horizon

tried to

widen

by studying the

SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN

best

authors

of history
travel,

and used

lives

He was

of Persian literature.

of

to hear the recitation

very fond
*
books on

of

and holy men, memoirs and

famous in history.
sovereigns

prophets
of

autobiographies
Among these books,

the

of Taimur and

Life

Memoirs of Babar were

his special favourites.

he

learn,

to

retired

bed,

we

curtain

Himself a cultured

and a

king

Shah

the

When

readers sat behind

good
which separated them from
bed-chamber, and read him to sleep.

279

was

Jahan

the

Imperial

refined

He

scholar,

distinguished

used to

patron of

letters.

stipends

and scholarships

grant

to literary

plodders and awarded honoraria to the superannuated.

One day Abdul Hakim

in
silver.
The
\\eight
was written by

own

was

Sialkoti

rewarded

Bad^iahnamah

celebrated

Muhammad Am T n-i-QazwInI

direction.

Some

under

his

the most famous poets and

Maulana Muhib All Sayyadl,

of

scholars of his reign were

Mir Abdul Qasim

his

Mirza

Irani,

Zia-ud-Din,

Sayyad

Bukhari Gujrati, Shaikh Bahlol Qadirl, Shaikh Mir

Lahorl, Shaikh Nazlrl, KJbwajah Khwand Mahmud and
Mullah Muhammad Fazil Badakhshl.

During

the

of

reign

Monarch
tions

onearnmg.

and

all

with

created
courtiers

this

private

Magnificent Mughal
the educational institu-

their

by

vast

the

individuals,

endowments

previous

kings,

continued

in

undiminished prosperity.
Besides, we know for certain
that His Majesty himself added to the existing number
of

schools

and colleges

in his

Empire.

He

repaired

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

280
and

reconstructed
a

Eternity
entirely

the

or

Dar-ul-Baqa,

Abode

magnificent madrasah which had been

In Ib50 A, C. he founded the famous

ruined.

Imperial College at Delhi in the vicinity of the

Jama

to

his

'

all his

With

refinement/

he

rose

Jahanglr,

most <nificent member of

most magnificent house, 'excelling

be the

Character and

an

who succeeded

Jahan,

estimate of Shah
c

historic

Masjid.

Shah

of

all

culture and
and splendour,

in

contemporaries

his magnificence

was

never arrogant.
According to Mr. Stanley
Lane-Poole, no other Mughal Emperor was ever so
beloved as Shah Jahan'.
He was kind and sympathetic
*

and

his benevolence

He was

had endeared him to

staunch

Sunni,

deeply

religious as well as secular duties.

his

subjects.

devoted

to

his

The most remarkable

trait of his

Mumtaz

character was, however, his love for his wife,

Mahal, the lady in whose memory he never

As a son, he was a great source of trouble

and anxiety to his father as a father, he was woefully
married.

His partiality for his eldest son

wanting
was greatly responsible for his troublous old age. But
his patience was marvellous. For
eight years he remained
in discipline.

a captive of his son and

calmly bore the privations
of that life.
He was a great administrator, whose good

government has exacted universal praise and admiration.

CHAPTER XIV

MUHl-UD-DlN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
ALAMGlR

(1658 A. C.

1707 A. C.)

Early Acts, Afghans, Hindus and Rajptus

After removing his rivals from his
way, Aurangzeb
had ascended the throne of his father
Accession Of
j
i
r
on Jri/ioi/:eoA^
ul y 22, 1658 A. C. and deferred
Aurangzeb.
the formal coronation to a future
i

On the 5th of June, 1659 A. C. he enthroned

The Khuiba was read
himself with due ceremonials.

date.

and the coins were struck

the

pompous

Muhammad

title

of

name, and he assumed

Abul-Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Dln

in his

Bahadur 'Alamgir Badshah-iThe bestowal of high honours on the members

Gbazi.
of the Royal family and the grant of promotions and
re wards to the rank and file inaugurated, as usual, the new
reign in the right oriental manner. Of the Royal Princesses, Badshah Begum received Rs. 5,00,000
Zeb-un-Nisa,
Rs. 4,00,000; Badr-un-Nisa, Rs. 1,60,000; and ZubdatAurangzeb

un-Nisa, Rs. 1,50,000.

'Azarn was

granted

Among
Rs.

the Princes,

Muhammad

2,00,000 and a mansab of

Muhammad Sultan, Rs. 3,00,000, with jewels

and elephants Muhammad Mu'azzam, Rs. 2,00,000,
and Muhammad Akbar, Rs. 1,00,000. Among the
10,000;

high officials, Amlr-ul-Umara Fazil Khansaman, SaadUllah Khan and Rajah Ragnath were the recipients
of

robes

of

honour and

rich rewards.

In short, the

THE

282
coronation was

and

Feasts

MUGHAL EMPIRE

made an

occasion

'

and nothing was spared

source of happiness to

of

continued for

festivities

make

to

great

happiness.

two months

full

occasion

the

sections of the populace in the

all

Ambassadors came from other Muslim

empire*.
countries and congratulated Aurangzeb for his success
in

They were

securing the throne of India for himself.

with great respect and presented with rich

robes and rupees eight thousand each.
Besides them,
the Dutch and the French Governments also sent their

received

representatives to the

given

Mughal Court, and they too were

warm welcome by Aurangzeb and

treated with

due deference.
his son,

Thus, by the time Shah Jahan died,

Aurangzeb had been recognised as the Emperor

of India

by

all

The War

potentates.
of Succession
of the

lf
His
early acts.

Mughal administration out

~

several

and

taxes,

Consequently, the people were

alleviate

their

discontented.
legal

of

gear.

distressed

had thrown the machinery

They were

well as

as

sufferings,

illegal.

In

subject
order

Aurangzeb abolished

as

as eighty oppressive taxes, including the rahdari

and pandarl (a kind of ground or house-tax).

to
to

many
(toll)

He

duty on corn so that the price of

down.
should go
Among the eighty taxes
which he abolished were those collected at the fairs
celebrated in honour of Muslim saints
and Hindu

also remitted

the

food

pilgrims near their temples,

and those

levied

on alcohol,

In order to bring the

gaming-houses and brothels.
law into !ine with the tenets of Islam, the new Emperor

dispensed

with

the

solar

system

altogether

and

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAM^IR

283

he

use

introduced the

instead

lunar

Kalima on

of the

the

disallowed

an end to the Nauroz

their defilement, put

the

with a view to prevent

coins

which was

custom, repaired and even reconstructed the

mosques and monasteries which were in a state of decay

Persian

and appointed paid Imams and Mu'azzins to serve

The Mohtasibs (censors of public morals) were
therein.
warned to be very strict in the enforcement of the

Holy Law. In short, Aurangzeb tried his best

advance the interests of Islam and his solicitude
Sunnisrn won for him the title of the champion of
and he

faith,

to
for

hi*

recognised as such even to the present

is

day.

Among
A

the

Appointments and
transfers

oi

he had

of

mentioned

the

the

in

pro-

vmcial governors.
there.

acts

early

,,

Aurangzeb
he
changes
&

..

be

effected

governments

provincial

may

,.

and
4

the transfers of the viceroys stationed

Conscious of the consequences of the treatment

meted out

to

father

and

brothers

and

of the possibility of a combination against

apprehensive

him, he began to work

as he*thought

the throne.

his

fit,

To

achievement of

all

for their reconciliation or removal,

after

immediately
those

his

who had

his accession to

helped him in the

object, he tendered his thanks and

made^valuable presents.

The pay

was increased^and a new

set of

each of them.

Many

were cashiered

''and

number^of nobles
robes was bestowed on
of a

of the old governors

and viceroys

new ones were appointed

at their

Rajah Jai Singh was entrusted with the government of Sambhar in addition to that of Lahore, which
he was already governing. Shaista Kban was invested with

places.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

284

the governorship of the

Mahabat Khan was

Kabul and sent to take
Danishmand Khan
Gujarat.

Deccan.

Mir

superseded by Shaikh
over the government of

was

made

the

governor

in

of

Delhi.

Khalllullah

of

Mir Baba of Allahabad, Lashkar Kban of

Patna, Dianat Khan of Kashmir, and Allahwardi Khan's
son who had betrayed Shah Shuja' at Khajwah, was
Lahore,

All this was done to

appointed governor of Sind.
the
of
a
dangerous combination and
prevent
possibility

the arrangement was quite efficacious.

Mir Jumla, we
Career of
Mir Jumla.

Kingdom
position

learn, <was a Persian adventurer,

of his

who,
character and ability, had

made himsel f

the Chie f Minister of the

by

c^int

of Golconda.

and

Taking advantage of his high

he
had carved out for himself in
influence,

the Karnatic, an independent kingdom or and imperium

in the imperio.
No wonder if the Sultan of Golconda

regarded this as an encroachment on

his authority

and

therefore intrigued to deprive him of all his power and

influence.
The Minister saved himself by joining hands

with Aurangzeb and taking service under Shah Jahan.

He rendered very valuable services to Aurangzeb in his

Deccan campaigns and in the War of Succession. In

view of his indispensable assistance, he was appointed
It was probably because he was
governor of Bengal.
too

ambitious a

was sent

man

to be kept at the Capital that he

to that distant governorship.

Under

their

His expedition
against Assan.
and his death.

Rajah, the Ahoms of Kuch-Bihar and

Ass * m attacked the Mughal territory

and occupied

it.

An

expedition was

Rgjah

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

MUHI-UD-D1N

ALAMG'lR 285

Jumla at its head. The Mir overran Kuch-Bihar, and

Assam and penetrated far into the interior of the
country, presumably with the intention of attacking the

But his supplies were cut off when

torrential rains and heavy floods set in and prevented
his grandiose schemes of conquests to be carried to
Chinese

their

territory.

conclusion.

logical

out

broke

his

in

camp,

When

pestilential

disorder

he altogether renounced his

magnificent projects notwithstanding the reinforcements

he received from the Emperor, and contented himself
with

obtaining

such contributions

and cessions from

the Rajah as might serve a proof against the disgrace

of a defeat.
Exhausted by toil at a very advanced

age and ruined

Khizrpur

in

in

health,

he returned

Kuch-Bihar on March

31,

and died
1663

at

A. C.

His son, Muhammad Amin,

before reaching Decca.
was immediately raised to a high rank and all honours

and

which the deceased had held, were

conferred upon him by Aurangzeb.
Mir Jumla
succeeded
to the
Shaista
KJran
of
Bengal and resumed
governorship
positions,

the forward
sor.

lic y

of

his

Predeces-

The new governor began by

punishing the pirates of Chittagong and their patron,

He inflicted sharp defeats on
the Rajah of Arakan.

enemy and captured the Magh outposts by the end

of the year
1665 A. C. Chittagong was occupied
about the end of January, 1666 A. C. and it was
renamed Islamabad. Henceforth it became the seat
The island of Sondip in the
of a Mughal Faujdar.
his

Bay

of

Bengal was also captured and Bengal was saved

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

286

Sbaista Khan
pirates.
and
strengthened the
organized
Mughal
Bengal fleet by constructing a large number of ships for
the protection of the Dacca Sub-Division.
Aurangzeb was taken seriously ill in 1664 A. C. soon

from the recurring raids of the

the

-flotilla

after

the

his

new
Rumours
regime to its foundations.
Khan
Mahabat
Rajah Jaswant Singh,
accession.

ran afloat

anniversary of
This shook the

fifth

that

and many others were redoubling their efforts for releasThe partisans of the
ing Shah Jahan from his captivity.
ex-King renewed their intrigues at the Capital in order
to work out his restoration but unfortunately, they were
soon divided into two main parties those who wanted
to enthrone Mu'azzam, Aurangzeb's second son, and
1

those

who wished

to secure the succession for his

son, Akbar.

On

Aurangzeb

raised

the

fifth

day

of his

illness,

third

however,

himself up and received the homage

He sent a firman to his sister,

of his principal officers.

Raushan Ara Begum, to return the great-seal, which

had been commended to her care, and put it near
himself so that no use might be made of it except with
his special order.
He averted the dangers with his
rare presence of

these

occasions

mind and singular

he

force

of

will.

On

behaved with studied caution and

the respect and admiration which his conduct inspired

As
then went a long way in pacifying the people.
soon as he recovered a little, he set out for Kashmir to

recoup

his

health.

He was adcompanied by

the

French philosopher, Bernier, who has left us a beautiful

account of the charming valley and of the Imperial march.

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK

The Emperor, however,

287

place and never

While he was thus
seeking repose in the North, a scene was opening in the
North- West Frontier, which soon invited his serious

the

disliked

expressed his desire to revisit

it.

attention.

The North-West

Frontier has all along been a

vulnerable point in the Indian Empire
and the tribes that have ^habited
it

to

trouble

all

have

always

been

Governments.

Indian

Emperors made many attempts

source

The

of

Mughal
and

to introduce law

order in that quarter but failed to accomplish anything

Their success was shortsubstantial or permanent.
lived

for the turbulent tribes availed

weakness

Government during the War

of the Central

Succession

themselves of the

and carried

their

raids

into

the

of

Mughal

In 1667
the neighbourhood of Peshawar.
districts
A. C. the Yusafzals, under the leadership of one Bhagu,
in

crossed the Indus and attacked the district of Hazara.

they established their authority and exacted

heavy contributions from the poor peasants. They also
attacked the Mughal outposts and planned to advance
even into the interior of the Mughal territory.

There

Aurangzeb would not allow them

raids into his

Suppression of
the Ylisafzais

own

to continue their

country.

He

took

up the gauntlet thrown down by

them in response to the requests of

1667 A. C.

the wardens of the Imperial outposts on the frontier,

he issued orders to the Faujdar of Attock and the

Governor

of

Kabul

submission and

sent

for

reducing

the

Muhammad Amin

Yusafzais

to

Kfcan, son of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

288

Mir Jumla, to take over the supreme command. Amin

Kban reached the Kabul Valley in August 1667 A. C.

The

three

Mughal

generals acted in perfect

harmony

and drove the enemy into the river. Kamil Kban and
Shamsher Khan engaged the Yusafzals in several
battles and inflicted sharp defeats on them.
Rajah
Jaswant Singh was posted

Afghans kept

The

at

Jamrud

to see that the

quiet.

This time
peace restored was again broken.
the Afridls raised their heads and

up strife. In 1671 A. C. they

declared war upon the Mughals under

stirred

Acmal Khan, who had now assumed the

Muhammad Amin Khan marched
of King.
title
against them, but sustained serious losses in men and
their leader,

money

of the Imperialists were

sent to Central Asia for sale.
Amin himself

Many

All Masjid.

at

seized and

His family too was captured and

had a narrow escape.

ransom was paid. The prestige

rose
of the Afridi Chief
high after his victory over the
released after a heavy

mighty
rallied

Mughals and many an enthusiastic Afghan

round his banner in order to obtain money as

well as to achieve military distinction.

A more
,

_.

serious

Khattak Rising
and arrest of _
an

SHafFak^-

revolt,

with

which the Imperial

Government next concerned themselves, was the one headed by Khushh51

^* n

Chief

Stattak.

was invited

to

The Khattak
a Darbar at

Peshawar and arrested by the orders of the

Imperial
Government. He was detained in prison at Delhi and
then

transferred

to

the

prison of

Ranthambhor.

In

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

289

1666 A. C. he was brought out of prison and sent with

the Imperial

army

to

fight against the Yusafzals,

who

His son was with

him,,

were his hereditary enemies.

At the

sight

of his

native-land,

freedom-loving spirit revived,

his

and he

adventurous and

offered his services

Acmal Khan, the leader of the confederacy which

was organized for the overthrow of the Mughals in the
Afghan territory. When the Imperial generals, employed against the Afghans, failed, Aurangzeb took the
in
field
Accompanied by his distinguished
person.
generals, he reached Hasan Abdal and encamped there
His presence in the proximity of
in 1674 A. C.

to

Peshawar proved very efficacious. He himself organized

his forces and directed vigorous military operations
tribes.

against

the

effective

an instrument,

obedience

of

frontier

many

Diplomacy proved quite

and the Emperor received the

clan

through

offers of jagtrs,

Thus diminishing the force

concessions.
pensions and
of opposition, Aurangzeb recalled Mahabat Khan from
Kabul and sent his own son, Akbar, to take over.
Aghar Khan was ordered to lead an army through the

Khyber Pass in order to overbear the opposition of the

Afghans who numbered not less than forty thousand at
After both the sides had suffered heavy losses,
that time.

The
newly-appointed
way.
gave
reached
Jalalabad and captured
governor of Kabul
At Gandamak
of
a number
Afghan outposts.
their positions
from
Khan ousted the Afghans
the

Afghans

Aghar

Aktar proceeded towards Jalalabad

when he was pushing westwards, the Afghans could
encircled and attacked from all sides.
have been

and, had

Prince

easily

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

290

But the Prince

allowed the

failed

to

plan and thus

In 1675
escape.

follow

the

opportunity an

easy
A. C. the Afghans inflicted a crushing defeat on Fidai
Khan, an Imperial general, at Jagdalak on his way to
Peshawar. His fate would have been sealed if Aghar

Khan had not rescued him by a prompt action from

Gandamak.
The expedition of Mukarram Khan against Bajaut
was a greater failure. The Emperor
employed his best generals, but it
was extremely difficult to deal with
the hardy mountaineers who were thoroughly familiar
with the ins and outs of their passes and defiles. In

1675 A.

C.,

towards

the end,

and the Emperor came back

sent Prince

whom

were

Mu'azzam
still

at

the situation improved

to Delhi.
Next year he

Afghans, some of

against the
large.

With

the

Prince

were

Amir Khan and other distinguished generals.

Amir Khan successfully coped with the enemy and

associated

were recognised by the bestowal of the

He governed Afghangovernorship of Kabul on him.
He granted
istan with considerable tact and ability.
his

services

large subsidies to the border tribes and won

to his side by lucrative concessions.

influence of

Amir Khan's diplomatic

maintained on

the

frontier.

policy,

them over
Under the
peace was

The Afghan War

cost

Aurangzeb a great deal. While his hands were full

with Afghan affairs, the Hindus created disturbance
in

the

open.

them.

Empire and defied

the

'Alamgir therefore turned

authorities
his

in

the

attention towards

MUHI-UD-DIN

The

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

291

Mughal Emperors was

policy of the previous

extremely conducive to the growth of

Hinda

nation.

made no

discrU

between the rulers and the

ruination

Hindus held the highest

ruled.

It

positions, next only to

the Emperor's, in the civil as well as military depart*

ments of the Mughal Government. They enjoyed the

freedom of worship and the

and

liberty of conscience,

preached and propagated their faith without restrictions.

During the reign of Shah Jahan they

mosques and made niandirs on their sites

down

pulled
;

they became

so bold that they forcibly carried a'vay Muslim women

and kept them in their houses.* Towards the close of
his reign,

Central

when Dara Shikoh managed

Government,

it

they

atrocities

began committing
those with whom
household word

took
freely

'Alamgir's
will

come

the affairs of the

without

bigotry

and

liberties

larger

has

To

fear.

become

as a stunning surprise to

even at the height of their power the

Musalmans could not offer their Friday prayers in the
Cathedral Mosque of one of the biggest cities of the
that

learn

Mughal Empire

for full

one year.f

This state of

affairs

As a
by leaps and

continued to the twelfth year of 'Alamglr's reign.

result, their

power and influence increased

* See Badshahnamah, Vol.

366-b

Tdrikh-i-Ferishta, Vol.

li,

ii,

p.

58; Adab-i-Alamgtri

p. 27;

Times,?. 116ff.
"

folio

"

there
so runs a firman of Alamgir,
fora
the
near
situated
city gate
a Cathedral Mosque
the Kulis have not allowed the Musalmans to offer their
f

is

Ahmadabad

and Aurangzeb and His

In

",

year

prayers.

See that

Mirat*i-Ahamdi

no one disturbs the Musalmans,

p. 275).

1 '

(Vide

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

292
bounds, and
to

now

best

their

endeavoured

they

In

advantage.
saw the visions of

to

the

them

put

the

of

rise

a Hindu Empire.
Marhattas they
and
worked
for the overthrow
They rallied round Shivaji
Their risings in the North,
of the Mughal Empire.
particularly

in the

suburbs

Delhi

of

and Agra, and

their depredations in the South, especially in the

territories,

that

roused the Mughal

Emperor

to

Mughal

the danger

was developing so speedily and compelled him

to

reconsider his policy.

In

and

order to

make a

his achievements,

mud

it is

correct estimate of

necessary

first

to

'Alamglr

remove the

thrown upon him by his hostile

critics and then to present an accurate account of his
reign with the insight and impartiality of an historian.
that has

been

Let us begin with the re-imposition of the Jizia by

and see if it was the
'Alamgir

5*the

jS

outcome
by

of

his bigotry, as

his critics.*

The

Jizia,

is

alleged

it

must

be pointed out at the outset, was not an obnoxious tax

and was not meant to be a burden on the Zimmls. It

on the other hand, a blessing for them under

Muslim rule, and was collected from them as the price

was,
for

the protection of their person and property against

It was levied on able-bodied
males in

their enemies.

military service ; but they were exempt from it

served
in the Muslim army.
That it was not
they
*
a tax on the free exercise of religion ', is conclusively
proved by the fact that the priests and religious heads

lieu

of

if

* For a clear

and

correct

Aurangzeb and His Times, pp 140

,

account
ft

of

the

Jizia,

see

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN

Zimmls

of the

were,

rule,

exempt from

it.

In

'

inferiority complex', with

came to be associated later on, Akbar abolished

order, perhaps, to

which it
and
it,

as

remove the

293

was not levied

it

1679 A.

till

C.,

i.e.,

some

seventeen years after the accession of 'Alamglr. The

fact that it was
not
imposed for so many years
during 'Alamgir's reign shows that the much-maligned

monarch appreciated the current state of affairs and was

He would have continued the
not inclined to revive it.

same

policy were it not for

political as well as financial.

the

idea

It

serious considerations,

must

also be noted that

re-imposing the Jizia originated not with

alleged, but with the Muslwn theologians.

of

'Alamgir, as

some

is

Ighwar Das, who was intimately known to the Chief

"
The learned theologians, looking to
QSzi, informs us
His Majesty's piety, pointed out the propriety of levying
the Jizia, which was necessary according to Islamic
:

Law.

His Majesty, therefore, thinking

its

imposition

binding upon him, appointed Enayatullah Khan for its

Ishwar Das is supported by the author of
regulation."*
the Mlrat and there is every reason to rely upon his
statement.

One who

ascended the throne as

'

a saviour

and on'e who was hailed as a 'champion

could
not dare drop down the proposal of the
of Islam/
learned Ulama.
Apart from this, there were other
of his religion/

considerations

The

of as

abolition

taxes meant an enormous decrease

many
in

the

as

eighty

Imperial

This as well as the heavy expenditure entailed

in quelling disturbances and waging wars must have

income.

* Fat&hat-i-AlamgZrt
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, 190-a.

by

Ishwar
*

Das,

pp.

73-74;

and

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

294
driven

the

to the

Emperor

To him

same conclusion.

the re-imposition of the Jixia meant the adjustment of

the Imperial finances and the discharge of a sacred duty.

To

say or to suppose that it was intended to effect forced

conversion of the Zimmls in the Mughal Empire is a

grave misrepresentation of facts. The Zimmls in the

It was not
Service of the State were exempt from it.
levied

being

exorbitant,

and above the cost

it

was not

of

on the surplus of income over

Apart from this,

maintenance.

regularly collected

and was frequently remitted

in the case of the poor.*

The charge

that with one stroke of pen he dismissed

all

the Hindus from

vice

Hilffic?a ls.

in

fit

Government

of fanaticism

is

ser-

false

on

the face of it, for there were numerous

Hindus who held highly responsible posts in the civil
and military departments of the State during his reign.

them were appointed governors of different

provinces and entrusted with the supreme military commands in various campaigns. The fact that he

Many

of

Singh for
repeatedly pardoned Rajah Jaswant
and
treasonable designs, took
treacherous conduct

his

him

and acknowledged
spite
his posthumous son, Ajit Singh, when he grew up in
age, as the Rajah of Marwar, shows that 'Alamgir was

into confidence

not at

all

of all that,

in

annoy the Rajputs or

on the other hand, he

inclined to

with their services

them

to

dispense

tried his best

every possible way, so that they

might not join hands with the Marhattas against him.
to

please

in

* Fatuhtot-isAlamglri,

Ahmadl,

p. 321

by Ishwar D*s, 111-b; Mirat-iand Aurang ,-eb and His Times, pp. 153 if.

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

While making a
dismissal of the

in

Zimmls from

certain posts, 'Alamgir

no
with secular business
has
concern
Religion
matters of this kind bigotry should find no place/
*

retorted

and

a petition, praying for the

to

reply

295

'

a verse from the Holy Qur'dn To you

your religion and to me my religion,' he declared that
*
the petitioner's request were to be acceded to, we
if

Then quoting

have to destroy all the Rajas and their subjects.' *

The mere mole, therefore, of which a huge mountain has
been made by his enemies is that in 1082 A. H. a
shall

firman was issued to the effect that Hindu clerks, the

dlwans and the collectors of land revenue, who were

and Musalmans appointed instead,

though this firman was soon modified by another in
this way that of the officials in the civil and military
departments of the State one should be Hindu and

corrupt, be dismissed

one Muslim, so that one should serve as a check on the

underlying the
firmans was to prevent corruption and nothing more, t
other.

Obviously, therefore,

Another

equally

false

'Alamgir

the idea

charge
is

that

levelled

against
the

he tormented

Hindas and destroyed their temples,

and that in accordance with the
tenets

of

his

religion.

To

be

sure,

Islam enjoins

Preaching of Islam, by Sir Thomas Arnold, p. 214;

and
of Aurangzeb, by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, pp. 97100
Aurangzeb and His Times, p, 202.
Anecdotes

in

t Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, Vol. ii, pp. 249 and 252 ; Studies

India, pp. 162-63; and Aurangzeb and His Times,

Mughal

pp. 190

ff.

It

may

be pointed out here that even Ihe PathSns

and Persians were not

reasons.

freely employed by 'Alamgir for political

(See Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 191 and 266).

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

296

and

universal toleration

The

rare fidelity.

its

votaries

have practised

it

with

lot of the subjugated has never been

happier than under the ruling races of Islam.

Some time

the Asiatic Society of Bengal published a firman

addressed by Emperor Alamgir to Abul Hasan, the

ago

'

Governor of Benares, enjoining tolerance on him and

This firman, the genuineness of which

his officials.

cannot

be called

question, gives a

in

lie

direct to the

charge of intolerance laid at the door of the last of our

Great Mughals, and reveals his care and concern for the
It reads :
well-being of his Hindu subjects.
"
Let Abul Hasajj, worthy of favour and countenance,

our

Firman issued

trust to

to the governor
of Benares.

him know

tion

y al

b unty,

and

let

that, since in accordance

,.
,
4
f
with our innate kindness of disposi.

and natural

energy and

all

benevolence, the whole of our untiring

our upright intentions are engaged in

promoting the public welfare and bettering the condition

all classes,
high and low, therefore, in accordance
with our holy law, we have decided that ancient temples

of

shall not be overthrown, but that

In

new ones

shall not be

these

days of our justice, information has

reached our noble and most holy Court that certain
persons, actuated by rancour and spite, have harassed
built.

the Hindus resident in the town of Benares and

other places

Brahman
ancient

in

that

few

neighbourhood, and also certain

keepers of the temples, in

whose charge these

are, and that they further desire to

Brahmans from theif ancient office (and

temples

remove these

this intention of theirs causes distress to that

therefore, our

Royal

Command

is

community),

that, after the arrival

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR 297

of our lustrous order,

you should

no person

direct that

shall in unlawful way

Brahmans and the other Hindus

so

as

resident

future,

in

before, remain

that they may,

and
continue with peace
occupation
places,

in

interfere or disturb the

mind

of

these*

in their

to offer

up

continuance of our God-given

prayers for the

that is destined to last for

all

time.

Empire,
Consider this as

an urgent matter. Dated the 15th of Jumada

*
1069 (A. D. 1659)."

Two

more firmans issued by

II,

A. H.

'

Alamgir to his*
instructions, have come to
officers, containing
light and they are reproduced verbatim because they are
similar

highly significant

"At

this

Firman No.

auspicious time an august firman was

issued that whereas
Maharajdhiraj

R_

1.

Rftm gingh faas represente d to the

most holy, and exalted Court that a mansion was built
by his father in Mohalla Madho Rai, on the bank of the
&

Ganges at Benares for the residence of Bhagwant

Goshain who is also his religious preceptor, and as
certain persons harass the Goshain, therefore, our

Cojnmand
the

is

that, after the arrival of

present and

future

officers

Royal

our lustrous order,

should direct that in

no person shall in any way interfere or disturb

the Goshain, so that he may continue with peace of mind

future,

tp offer

up prayers

our God-given
time.
Consider

for the continuance of

Empire, that is destined to

this as an urgent matter.

last for all

Dated

17th Rabi

II,

1091

A. H."
*
/.A. S.B. (1911), p. 689: and Waqai-'Alamglrt, pp. 104
Also see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 106 ff.

ff,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

.298

"

At

this

auspicious time

^.
XT
FzrwawNo.

an august firman was

two plots of land mea-

issued that as
2.

rtrt

..

sunng 588J- aira, situated on the

bank of the Ganges at the Beni Mad ho Ghat, in BenSres
(one plot is in front of the house of Goshain Ramjivan
and on the bank of the Central Mosque, and the other
is higher up) are lying vacant without any building and
belong to Bait-ul-Mal,

we

have, therefore, granted the

his sons as Inatn, so

same to Goshain Ramjivan and

the pious
dwelling-houses for
the
on
above-mentioned
holy faqlrs
plots, he should remain engaged in the contemplation
of God and continue to offer up prayers for the conthat

after

building

Brahmans and

tinuance of our
last for

all

Empire that is destined to

therefore, incumbent on our

God-given

time.

It is,

ministers, noble Umaras, highand

officials, daroghas,
present and future Kotwals, to
exert themselves for the continual and permanent observance of this hallowed ordinance, and to permit the
illustrious sons, exalted

remain in the possession of

the above-mentioned person and of his descendants from

above-mentioned

generation

from

all

plots

to

and to consider him exempt

and not to demand from him a

to generation,

dues and taxes,

new sanad every

year.

(1098 Hijra.)"

* This and the preceding firmans have been published by Mr.

Za^ir-ud-Dm Faruqi in his valuable work Aurangzeb and His
Times with the help of K B. Maqbul Hussain Sahib, Commissioner
of Benares Division (See pp. 131-132). For other firmans issued
by 'Alamgir to the same effect, vide Mirat-i-Ahmadi, p. 253; and
Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 136 ff. Also see Ch. NabI Ahmad
Sandelvi's Waqai 'Alamgir, which contains a number of
Aurrangzeb's letters and firirZns with copious notes.

MUHI-UD-DIN

The

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

dates of

the above two firmans are highly^important in that they relate to the

Which temples

period of 'Alamgir's reign

were destroyed

lf

in bigotry

in

them

when he

alleged to have exceeded

and why ?

mation embodied

299

,.

is
...

every limit

and fanaticism. The

infor-

militates against the theory of

and iconoclasm enunciated against him by

modern writers who have little acquaintance with the
It is certain
teachings of Islam and Islamic history.
intolerance

that Islam enjoins toleration and

tried to

excel

in

this virtue.

greater liberty to the

the Muslim

its

No

votaries have always

nation has granted

subject races than that granted

whether

by

Spain, or elseIt is equally true that 'Alamgir had a profound

where.
He always tried to
respect for the teachings of Islam.
be tolerant towards the Zimmls and was true to the
"
"
Let there be no violence in religion
Quranic text
"
and the sayings of the Prophet Whoever torments the
Zimmls torments me " and " Whoever wrongs a Zimml
Rulers,

in

India,

and

lays a

shall be his

burden

upon him

accuser ".

What

beyond
then

is

his strength,

responsible for

the popular belief that he was intolerant and the current

notions that he persecuted the Hindus and destroyed

temples? The real facts, when boiled down,

When the Hindus desresolve themselves into this
their

troyed mosques and constructed mandirs on their sites,

the Muslim Emperor reclaimed them and issued an
order to demolish only those temples which had become
centres of sedition and political intrigue, and those that
had been newly erected without permission.* The
* Muntdkhib-ul-Lubab. Vol.

ii.

p. 472.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

300
later

new

Muslim

Accordingly,

temples.

the

disallowed

jurists

of

construction

obedience

in

to

this

injunction, Shah Jahan pulled down a number of new

But, curiously enough, no Hindu has so
temples.*
far dubbed him as intolerant.
Why then such a tornado of vindictiveness against 'Alamgir ? The reason

Akbar, the Hindus had found in Dara a

hero after their own hearts. They wanted him to be

is

that,

after

their king, but

turned

when

against

he was defeated and

the

'Alamgir,

new

king,

killed,

they

who was

'Alamglr was tolerant, and to a fairly

but not so tolerant as Akbar and Dara,

staunch Sunni.
high degree,

who,

order to

in

concealed their

achieve

their

ulterior

religious identities

political aims,

and even subscribed

to the religion of the ruled.

The

isolated

instrnce

recorded in the Ma'asir-i

*

'

xiru

Au
Whether

TT

schools

were

in the Province of
Alamgiri that
,
,
ThattS and MultSn and particularly in

J
HmdQ

^,

Benares the Brahmans were engaged

their
in teaching unholy books in
-

schools,
their

where the

H in d us and Musal mans flocked to learn

wicked sciences

issued to

all

the

and that

'

orders were,

governors of Provinces

therefore,

ordering the

destruction of temples and schools and totally prohibiting the teaching and infidel practices of the unbelievers',f
is not
supported by any other contemporary Persian

chronicle

on the other hand, it is contradicted by

adduced above. We cannot,

the cumulative evidence

* Badshahnamah, Vol.

i,

p. 452.

t Ma'asir-i-'lLlamgirt, p, 81.

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

therefore, but disbelieve

that

some

It

it.

301

must be pointed out here

of the

contemporary chroniclers were unusually fond of unduly exaggerating things which added to
their religious vanity, and that it would be
wholly
unsafe

taken

their effusions are

if

those Muslims,

who

idolatory at

cost

any

seriously.

Like

took delight in the extirpation of

whom the destruction of

and with

temples was a theme of

which they were never

Musts'id Khan,

weaving,

too

tired of

the author of the Ma'asir-i-

'Alamglrl, seems to
purely political

have given a religious colour to a

firman. It is certain that no firman, as

described by Musta'id Khan, was ever sent to the governors for the destruction of temples and schools ; but
even if we take the dispatch of such a firman for granted,

underlying it could be no other than to

restrain Muslim students from attending Hindu schools
the

motive

and learning

'

wicked

though in that case

'Alamglr should have checked the Muslims from going

astray

instead

of

sciences,'

ordering

the destruction

of

Hindu

In consequence, some of the

temples.
schools (attached to temples) might have been closed with
schools

and

a view to prevent the Hindus from admitting Muslim

students in their schools, but the wholesale destruction

and temples throughout the Mughal Empire

more so when viewed in the light
is highly incredible,
of the Imperial firmans issued for their protection.
of schools

The

policy

Toleration under
'Alamgir.
fact

is

testified

of

religious

toleration

adhered

to

b Y the Mughal Emperors was not

abandoned by Aurangzeb.
This
to by
Alexander
Hamilton who

happened to be present

in

India

during

the

later

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

302

Speaking about the Parsis, he

part of 'Alamglr's reign.

says that they enjoyed the freedom of worship and the

The Christians, he continues,
liberty of conscience.

were

churches and to preach their religion,

free to build

however, that those

adding,

Christianity

Gentows",
religion, and

did

have

not

who became
enviable

he concludes, have

converts

morals.

full toleration

"

to

The

for their

keep their fasts and feasts as in formei

when the sovereignty was in pagan princes'
There are above an hundred different

times,

hands

but they never have hot dis(Surat)

their
or way of worship.
about
doctrine
Every
putes
one is free f* serve and worship God in his own way.
sects in this city

And persecutions for

among them ".* With

sake

religion's

are

not

known

must be admitted,
'Alamglr was not so tolerant towards the Hindus as
Data who shared their beliefs and supported their
religion

all

this,

it

nay even overlooked the occupation of mosques

of Muslim women by them.
The

and the abduction

)ara dealt a coup d'etat to Hindu domination.

Smarting under the loss of a most powerful patron,

death of

they rose

disturbed the peace of the country

Must the
authority of the Emperor.

in rebellion,

and defied the

Emperor have kept

quiet

of affairs a free scope

No government

Five inferences can

Inferences drawn
from the foregoing
discussion.

and allowed the

be drawn

discussion

(1)

existing state

can tolerate that

from the preceding

The

...

destruction
.

of

places of worship is neither enjoined

nor countenanced by the Islamic Law. (2) The Hindus

M
Vol.

i,

New

Account of the East Indies, by Alexander Hamilton,

pp. 159, 162

and

163.

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

MUHI-UD-DIN
were the

first

to destroy the

mosques

of the Muslims.

303

The

by repaying the former in their own coin, but

Government issued firmans for the protection of all

latter retaliated

the

sacred places, masjids as well as mandirs, without discrimination.

(3) Owing, perhaps, to the narrow interpre^
tation of the Islamic

Law,

so also to the prejudice

which

the Musalmans had against idolatry, the later Muslim

jurists allowed the preservation of ancient temples and
prohibited the construction of new ones with a view to

The occupation of mosquesdiscourage idol-worship.

the
it
Hindus
be remembered, responsible,
must
by
was,
and

to a great

enforcement of the

extent, for the rigid

the construction

injunction prohibiting

of

new

temples.
resented by the ruled, no amount
of toleration is of
any avail and the places of worship
are apt to become centres of political
agitation and
(4)

Where

the ruler

is

asylums for the malcontents and miscreants. This must

have been so in the case of 'Alamglr, and as a political
expedient some of the temples might have been destroyed
during the suppression of a rebellion or a revolt in order to
effect the early submission of the rebels.
(5) It is also
possible that

some

of the temples were destroyed with a

view to teach a lesson to the Hindus

mosques and made mandirs on

,.

who had

destroyed

their sites.

In short, 'Alamgir would have continued the policy

of his predecessors if the conditions
..
.

'Alamglr justified.

.,

had not changed if the Hindus had

not become aggressive, defiant and even treacherous,
ambitious to overthrow the Muslim Empire^ and to
;

establish a

Hindu Empire

instead.

He

rightly

gauged

the strength of the forces that were gathering round

him

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

304

and changed
gested.
if

Any

his policy according as the

of his predecessors

he had found

changes sug-

would have done the same

by so many forces of
which beset 'Alamglr.

himself besieged

and
must be remembered that it was only after he had
was impossible to reconcile the
^discovered that it
that
rule
he refused to rely on them and
his
to
Rajputs
rallied round him his own co-religionists, with whose
insubordination

intrigue

It

help he succeeded

in crushing his

ing his

as well

authority

as

enemies and enforc-

restoring

law and order.

When he unsheathed his sword for the protection of

mosques and' Muslim women, he became the Defender
of the Faith, but

when he

carried

the Crescent far and

a
wide, he became the Champion of Islam
which he is remembered to the present day.

The

Jats of

Jat Rebellion.

title

with

Mathura had received great concessions

from Emperor Akbar and his spn,
While Akbar himself had
j ah ^ ng!r
.

Gobind Dev, Jugal

Bindraban and Mattiura,

constructed the palacial temples of

Gopi Nath etc., in

Jahanglr had permitted Rajah Narsingh Dev Bundela,
the murderer of Allama Abul Fazl, to build a beautiful
Kighor,

temple in Mathura with Rs. 32,00,000 which he had

During the reign of
acquired after killing the Allama.

Shah Jahan the Jats resumed

in

their

mischievous activities

Distinguished officers, such as 'Azam

and Mirza Isa Khan, who were sent to restore law

Mathura*

Khan

and order

in that district, failed to bring

them

to

book

on account of Dara Shikoh, who managed the affairs of

the Mughal Government. This state of affairs continu-

ed

to

the time

of

'Alamgir with,

of course,

added

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

energy, because Dara, their patron,

305

was defeated and

They were touched to t the quick when Sayyad

Abdun-NabI, the new Faujdar appointed by
Alamglr,
killed.

'

built

of the

Jama Mas/id and

Hindu

mosque,

into

open

zamlndar

of Gokle, a

Imperial

city.

broke

not a temple in the heart

C. they insulted the

In 1669 A.

of

and assassinated the

Tilpat,

Hassan

Faujdar.

under the leadership

rebellion

new Faujdar,

the

All,

the struggle with the Jats and inflicted a

The rebellion
crushing defeat on them in 1676 A. C.
was suppressed and severe repressive measures secured

resumed

peace for about a decade.

again in 1681 A. C. when,

absence of Alamglr

The

trouble was renewed

Jats again ran into rebellion under

time the centre of sedition was

SansanI,

some

advantage of the

taking

who was away

miles

sixteen

in the

Rajah
the

to

Deccan, the
Ram. This

stronghold
north-west

the

of
of

Bharatpur. The leader was killed and the place was

taken, but the lawless Jats continued to give trouble to
the

Emperor

they

again

to the close of his career.

raised

most acrimonious
they committed a

the

In 1691 A. C.

standard of revolt and offered a

effrontery to the Imperial House, nay,

mosjt heinous offence against

humanity

tomb of
plundered
Emperor Akbar at Sikandara and burnt his bones.*
A more serious rebellion was that of the SatnSmls.

when

they

and

desecrated

According

The Satnaims'
Insurrection.

the

to

Ishwar

Das,
the

temporary
J chronicler,
r
a filthy people
were
'

a con-

Satnamis

who were

mostly agriculturists and traders. Their headquarters

* Waqai-'Alamgiri, pp 4995 and Smith's Akbar, p. 328,
;

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

306

They were an armed and organized

them arose from an ordinary
with
trouble
The
body.
One day a foot-soldier, who was keeping
incident.
were at Narnaul.

watch over a harvest, had

dispute

with

Satnami

The

dispute developed into a deadlock and

As a result, retaliations
the former was beaten to death.

cultivator.

followed, lives were lost

and disorder spread, taking a

The Mughal

religious complexion.

officer,

who

tried to,

capture the culprits, was overpowered and the Satnamis

In some engagements they
gathered in large numbers.
defeated the detachments detailed against

R spelling,

Emperor.

advance

the

them by the
the

of

Imperial

forces, they came within sixteen kos of Delhi, enlisting

support on their way. They plundered Narnaul, demolished mosques and routed the Imperial Faujdar of the
district.

Satnamis, some
to

of the chaos created

Taking advantage

of the Rajputs also rebelled

by the
and refused

pay the revenue due from them.

This aggravated the

Emperor to take a

and

compelled the
In the short but bloody battle that was
fought, the Satnamis were badly defeated, and thereafter
they ceased to be a source of trouble to the Mughal
situation

serious action.

Emperor. Radandaz Khan,

and reduced them to sore
the

title

of

The
War

Shuja'at

Rajputs,

with

the Rajputs.

defeated the rebels

straits,

was honoured with

Khan*

who had grown

strong in the
.

missed

Muntafaib-ul-Lubab,
His Times, p, 210.

pp.

rich in resources

sinews

of

an

opportunity
arid

254-55:

war,
of

disorder.

and

and

never

disturbance
*

wha

creating

Their

Aurangzeb

and

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

anti-government

activities

307

during the Satnami Rebellion

wanted to stab the

are a case in point, proving that they

Mughals
This

is

back while they were engaged elsewhere.

the whole reign of
not the only instance
in the

'Alamgir

is

full of

such instances.

Troubles continued

Rajputana intermittantly, but the situation became

serious in 1679 A. C., when Rajah Jaswant Singh
in

whom

'Alamgir had posted at Jamrud at the mouth of

the Khyber Pass, died at that place, leaving no son

behind to

succeed

him

more so when at Lahore the

to two sons, ^ne of whom

widowed Rams gave birth

died and the other survived to secure the Gaddl of
MSrwar and to stir up the sentiments of his co-religionThe family of the late
ists against the Muslim Monarch.

Jamrud without the permission of the

Emperor and killed an officer at Attock when asked to
a sufficient ground for
produce a passport.* This was
Rajah had

left

incorporating Marwar in the Mughal Empire, or reducing it to a state of dependency under a capable ruler.

But

there

were more serious considerations

it

first

was impossible

place,
tolerate the existence of

state

on the flanks

for

any
an independent and

of the trade-route

In the

emperor of India to
inimical

through Rajputana

other flourishing cities on the

"
No
the
western coasts from
Imperial Capital.
the
in
secure
himself
feel
monarch could
sovereignty of
"
until he had obtained
Upper India," says Smith,
the two
possession of Chittor and Ranthambhor,
fortresses in the domains of the free Rajput
to Surat,

Ahmadabad and

principal

* Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, p, 259

-~

911

and

212.

and Aurangzeb and His Times,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

308
chiefs."

proved

Secondly, the late Rajah Jaswant Singh had

himself a traitor not only once or twice but
his

throughout

career.

was

It

who

he

plundered

'Alamgir's camp and formed a junction with Dara.

It was he who deserted 'Alamgir on the eve of the battle

Khajwah and retired to his home with his Rajput

made overtures to Shivaji
It was he who
contingent.

of

'

himself an implacable foe of the Moghuls), against

whom he was sent to act ' and secretly helped him in
(like

on Shaista Khan. It was he who

made an attempt to remove the Imperial lieutenants,

his daring attack

'

one by assassination the other by open force/ It was he

who incited Mu azzam 'whose inexperience he was said
1

to

guide,

to

Jaswant who

revolt
tried to

ther-in-law, viz.,
in the Imperial

against his father.

Again

it

was

tamper with the loyalty of his bro-

Rao Bbao Singh, who was his

colleague

These are some among the many

and disloyalty. Accord-

army.*

striking instances of his treachery

ing to Bernier, there

was a

secret understanding

between

him and

Shivajl, and he was supposed to have been

accessory to the attempt on Shaista Khan and the attack of

Thirdly, almost

all Rajput Rajahs were smaitunder

the
Muslim
Rule
and aimed at the overthrow
ing

Surat.f

of the established government.

'Alamgir

should

It

was but natural that

consider

seriously

the

question

of

succession of the posthumous sons

open to grave doubts, t

whose legitimacy was

He wanted to confer the Rajship

25
Annals and Antiquities of
*Tarikh-i-Dilku$ha,
p.
Rajasthan, (1894) Vol. ii, pp. 51 ff. and Aurangzeb and His Times,
\Bernier's Travels, (2nd edition), p. 188.
;

JSee Aurangzeb and His Times,

p.

214

ff.

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMOIR

on one who would be more

and

loyal

309

treacherous

less

Rajah. Lest the surviving sons of the

Rajah should become a centre of Hindu

than the

late

deceased

'Alamgir at once ordered the administration

of Marwar to
be brought under Muslim officers.
A.
in
1679
C.
he went personally to Ajmer to see
Early
resistance,

operations in Jodhpur and to overawe

Khan Jahan occupied the
opposition in that quarter.
After the
city and carried all that came in his way.

the

through

occupation of Jodhpur, 'Alamgir returned to his Capital

on April 2, 1679 A. C. On May 26, 1679 A. C. he

made Indar Singh, a grand-nephew of the late Rajah,

the Rajah of Marwar. The following month the family
of Rajah Jaswant Singh reached Delhi and pleaded the
Ajlt Singh before the Emperor, who proposed
the infant to be brought up in the Imperial palace and
promised to restore the kingdom to him when he would

of

right

the

attain

age

of

discretion.

that the intention of the

Erroneously

Emperor was

supposing
up the

to bring

boy as a Muslim, the Ranis left Delhi in disguise with

him. When the Emperor was informed of the flight, it
was a little too late. Nevertheless, he sent a force to
seize the

Ranis and the infant.

headed by

Durga Das, one

of

body

of

Rathors,
the immortals in the

annals of Rajputana, fought against the Imperial force

and succeeded in safely escorting the Ranis and the

boy to Marwar. Once in their own country, they

were free from all external molestation. The Rajputs
rallied round their voung chieftain and took up his
little

cause.

him

The Emperor, however,

as the real prince

refused to acknowledge

and declared the boy,

whom

the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

310
Ranis had

Delhi to be the genuine son of Jaswant

cannot be definitely asserted whether the

left at

It

Singh.

boy

left at

the

late

Delhi was the

Rajah, but

hand of a princess of
became the real son
This

not.

fictitious

when

the

or the

Rana

his family to the

of

boy, the

Jaswant Singh even

episode

interesting

real

son

of

of Chittor gave the

bitterly

if

latter

he was

disappointed

Aurangzeb. His wrath fell on those of his officers who

had been duped by the Rams. Tahir Khan, the Faujdar
dismissed and Indar Singh was
of Jodhpur, was
Whatever the delusion of
for
dethroned
inefficiency.
the

Emperor

in

regard

the identity of A jit Singh

to the gravity

to

might have been, there was no delusion as

prompt action. Marwar

must be incorporated and Rathor opposition must be

of the situation 'hat required a

suppressed.

The
Invasion of

Marwar was ordered and the

Emperor himself moved down to

Marwar and

Ajmer

invasion

of

from
from

Multan

command

of

and

to

in order to direct the operations

Prince Akbar was called

there.

him was entrusted the supreme

army, and with him was

the Imperial

Tahawar Khan,

the

Faujdar of Ajmer.
The Rathors were defeated and Marwar was occupied.
It was parcelled out into districts, each of which was
associated

The Rathors
placed in charge of a Mughal Faujdar.
now invoked the assistance of the Sisodians and their
request met with a ready response.
Fearing a similar
the
House
of
made
Mewar
common
cause with the
fate,

House

of

ever-loyal

Mnrwar

against the

Mughal Emperor.

The

Rajah of Jaipur continued to side with the

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

311

The war broke out with great fury in

Mughals.
November 1679 A. C. and lasted till 1681 A. C.
During

this

time Udaipur was overrun and Chittor was

Unable to stand against the tremendous

conquered.
array of the Mughal arms, the Rajputs retired to their
inaccessible retreats in the mountains and resorted to
guerilla warfare, for which the natural features of their

were so favourable.
They inflicted heavy
on the Imperial troops and caused consternation
among them, Kumar Bhim Singh, son of the Rana of
country
losses

Udaipur,

invaded

in

Gujarat

order

to

the

divert

Mughal Emperor from Rajputana. He

seized Idar, plundered some towns and destroyed as
many as three hundred mosques.* x)Ial Shah, the
attention of the

Rajput Finance Minister, made an inroad into Malwa,

plundered the mosques, burned the Qur'an and insulted
For once,' says Tod, they (Rajputs)
the mullahs'
1

'

avenged themselves,

the tyrant, even on

the kazees were bound

in imitation of

the religion of their enemies

and shaved, and the Korans were thrown into wells. 't
:

Akbar could make no headway against them. Therefore,

he was called back and his place was taken by his
who was summoned from Bengal.
brother, 'Azam,

Mu'azzam came from the Deccan, and the governor

of

Gujarat was ordered to cut off communications between

the Rajputs and the Marhattas, and to deliver an attack
* Annals

and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol. i,

294;
Mirat-i-Ahmadi,
Fatuhat-i-'Alamgiri, 80a
p.
299.
His
and
Times, p.
Aurangzeb
"\Annals

and

Antiquities

Fatuhat'i-Alamgirit 80a

of

Rdjasthan,

Vol.

i,

p.
;

p.

and Aurangzeb and His Times,

302

and
302

p. 229.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

312

on Rajputana from the South. The Rajputs were

surrounded from different directions and the new
princes converged on the hills, which sheltered Rajah
Raj Singh of Udaipur. When success was in sight, the
news of the rebellion of Prince Muhammad Akbar
arrived and Mewar was easily relieved of the pressure at
a most psychological

Driven

moment.

to despair, the Rajputs resorted to

means.
Rebellion of

They

underhand

approached
holding out high

secretly

p rince Mu azzam>

hopes to him and promising to put

him on the

Sternly advised
declined the
the
Prince
mother,
Bal,
by
offer.*
The Rajputs then turned towards Prince Akbar
and won him over to their side.f In January, 1681 he
throne.

Nawab

his

broke into rebellion

with

throne

Supported

the hope of acquiring

the

by the Rajputs, he
crowned himself emperor and marched towards Ajmer
to wrest the Imperial Crown for himself.
But he was
for

no match

himself.

for the craft of his father.

The

situation

was

extremely grave and required a master-mind to control

it.
Aurangzeb put Ajmer in a state of defence first and
then directed his energies towards the dissolution of the
Tahawar Khan, the principal supporter of
confederacy.
the Prince, was called to the Imperial Camp.
Other
officers of the army of the Prince were also detached,

and he was not so clever as to control the campaign

The defection of
against his father unaided and alone.
his faithful followers scented treachery to the Rajputs,

*Aurangzeb and His Times,

.,

pp. 229

and

230.

p. 229.

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGU*

who

flight

took

to

at

belongings and looting

deserted by his

allies,

after

night

collecting

his

camp. Finding
he mounted his horse and

313
their

himself
fled

to

Deccan, where he took refuge with Sambhajl.

From the Deccan he went to Persia and remained

the

there to die in 1704 A. C.

'Alamglr's success was due to a superior stroke of

With Akbar as their trump-card, the
statesmanship.

Rajputs would have succeeded in their nefarious plans,

but the desertion of the Prince by his followers, manipulated by 'Alamglr, turned the trend of events in his
favour.*

The war
rTTJ

Mewar and Marwar continued

March, 1681 A. C. when both the

against
till

Treaty of Udaipur.

'

parties
peace the Rajputs,
because they had become tired of war, and the Emperor,
because matters had taken a serious turn in the

desired

South and

his

presence was

for

urgently required there.

the result was

peace commenced and

Pourparlers
the Treaty of Udaipur, according to which: (1) Jai Singh
was acknowledged as the Rana and a mansab of five

thousand was conferred

upon him.

(2)

The Rana

stipulated to cede certain tracts (three pargatias) of his

territory
*

the

to

Mughal Empire and

The detachment

of

two

in

return

or three officers from the Prince

the

was

not sufficient to occasion the flight of his Muslim followers and

Rajput allies from the field. The story that 'Alamglr wrote a
letter to the Prince, showering praises on him for his pretended
revolt' and directing hirr to attack the Rajputs in the rear, and
caused it to fall into their hands furnishes a better explanation,
but it is not supported by Khafl Khan. (Vide Muntakhib-ul'

Lubab, Vol.

n,

269.)

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

314

Jizia was dropped, but the territory

returned three years later. (3) The Rana
also agreed to pay an indemnity of Rs. 3,00,000 within

demand
ceded

two

for the

was

(4)

years.

The Rajput

horsemen was retained.

not to be repaired.

(6)

contingent of one thousand

The fortress of Chittor was

The rebellious Rathors would

(5)

not be sheltered by the Rana.*

For a period
Results of the
Rajput Revolt.

elements of

about three decades Rajputana

remained in a state of open revolt
of

"
The
against the Mughal Emperor.
lawlessness that set moving overflowed

Malwa and endangered the vitally important

The
Mughal road through Malwa to the Deccan."
fitfully into

who had

completely estranged themselves and

become the bitterest enemies of the Mughal Empire,
were suppressed only for the time being ; they were not
Rajputs,

completely crushed. Since the affairs in Rajputatia

occupied the attention of the Emperor for a fairly long
time, his position was considerably weakened in the

South, where the Marhattas

had

made a monarchy

own.

Evidently he could not completely

reduce the Rajputs, though he had won decisive victories

of

their

against them.

he

advisedly

As

his

entered

hands
into

we're too

treaty

full of affairs,

with

them and

turned his attention to the suppression of the Marhatta

menace and the subversion of the Shia Sultanates in
the South.

* For a detailed
discussion on this treaty and Prince
'AzanVs secret alliance with the Rajputs regarding this treaty,
see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 231 ff.

CHAPTER XV

MUHl-UD-DlN
'

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

ALAMGlR

(CONTINUED)

Rise of the Marhattas

In the neighbourhood of
of

634 A. C. a Marhatta

soldier

named Shahjl Bhonsla,

fortune,

Introductory.
politics

to play a prominent part in the

began
of Southern India.
of

independence

the

He

served and fought for the

kingdoms of Ahmadnagar and

Bijapur against the Mughals and left a fairly large band

of followers and a modest military fief to his son,
Shivaji, the

arch-enemy of Aurangzeb.

Before taking up

the story of this mighty Marhatta, it is necessary to give

a brief account of the Marhatta country, its people, and
that

the qualities

mark them

of India

off

for these

from the remaining

are

important factors
bearing upon Shivaji's career which cannot be treated as
an isolated phenomenon.
population

Maharashtra, the

habitat of

the Marhattas,

is

com-

country lying between

prised
,.
^,
*" e mountain range which stretches
in the

Description of

Maharashtra.

along the south of the river Narbada,

parallel to the

Vindhya and Satpura ranges.

The

out-

standing physical feature of the country is the Sahyadri

range or the Western Ghat which runs like a long wall

along the
parts,

western part ?nd

each remarkable for

divides
its

own

the tracts into

peculiarities*.

situated, the triangular table-land of the

two

Thus

Deccan enjoyed

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

316

considerable immunity from the invasions to which the

North had become a constant prey.
The forts on top
It
of the ranges ensured the security of the country.
is

from these important positions that various princes

chiefs have, at different times, profited and suc-

and

of

the mighty kings of

to the peculiar nature

of their country, the

cessfully defied the

authority

the North.

Owing

have developed certain

moral qualities which
and
physical
dist n g u s h them from the rest of
Marhattas

Character and
qualities of

the Marhattas.

their

countrymen.
the

rocks,

fortified

The

winding roads up the

entrances with a succession of
in order to guard the
which studded the surface of

towers

gate-ways,

the

approaches

to the

erected

forts

all
these gave the inhabitants of
that rugged country
the country a decided advantage over their opponents.

Their guerilla mode of warfare greatly exasperated their

enemy and exhausted their resources in men and money.

Even the Mighty Mughals found

them, for

open

they would

The

field.

bracing

climate

never

ing

toil.

some raw
and

marches

or

nature

in the

and

the

simple,

and persevering. They

who

never shirked the roughest

Mounted on small ponies and carry-

parched

millet,

they

undertook long

on their enemy. They

dispersed and easily called together

inflicted

could be easily

of

enemy

country made them

strong, sturdy, daring, enterprising

and hardest

difficult to defeat

fight their

niggardliness

of their

were peasant proprietors

it

losses

of
to
the
season
the
according
Except
year.
at the time of seeding and harvesting, they were

MUHI-UD-PIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK

always at leisure to wage war.

of

and

Bijapur

Golconda
in the

They
and
of

art

317

joined the armies

soon

acquired

the

Gradually
they became first-class fighters, with ample chances of
success against the men of the North, dissipated by
luxury, indolence and ease. In the Rajput, the Mughals

necessary

training

fighting.

in the Marhad found a most worthy antagonist

for the latter would not
hatta, a most formidable foe
shrink from taking recourse to treachery when it served
;

his ends.

We

have already given a

Movement

Their religion.

centuries

Hindus.

North

account of the Bhaktl

which

appeared

in the fifteenth

and gave a new stamp

in the

and sixteenth

to the religion of the

Spreading throughout the length and breadth

of India, this

made

brief

movement, the Reformation,

the humble ranks of the Marhattas

protestant

way into
and united them into a common brotherhood wherein
there were no distinctions of caste and colour.
The
its

religious

lower
all

leaders

of

the

Marhattas

sprang from the

stratum.

persons

blood.

They, therefore, preached equality of

and ruled out the differences of birth and

They

declared a crusade against

all

those grave

was honeycombed, and

propagated the monotheistic principle which the Musalmans had introduced in India. They condemned forms
and ceremonies and succeeded in stamping out super-

abuses with which Hinduism

stition

from

the

ranks

of

Marhatta

taught their followers tne philosophy of

science
stirred

of

discipline.

By songs and

up the sentiments

of

society.

action

They
and the

speeches, they
the people and inculcated

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

318

According to Dr. Ishwari

patriotism among them.
of
the
centre
new
ideas was Pandharpur, a
these
Prasad,
seat of pilgrimage in

and the Pandharpur

the Deccan,

movement was

a powerful factor
in
unifying the
Marhatta country. The principal preachers of the
new ideas were Tuka Ram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit

and Eknath.
Under the Shia Sultans of the kingdoms
anc^

Their early

Golconda,

the

of Bijapur

Marhattas had

acquired considerable training both

in the civil and military administration of the country.

training.

They were employed

in

the

revenue department and

entrusted with important posts in the armies.

Some of
the
unmixed
confidence
of their rulers
them enjoyed

and held even

ministerial

To

portfolios in the State.

Mudar Rao, Madan Pandit and

several other prominent members of the Raj Rai family
served as ministers and diwans in the State of Gol-

give specific

Narsu and Yasu Pandit were other Marhatta

conda

chiefs

who

of Bijapur.

Hindus

instances,

of

themselves in the

Kingdom
The Bahmani Kings had employed the
the South in the State and entrusted them
distinguished

with the most responsible positions. Their policy was

followed and kept up by their successors, the rulers
of the offshoots,

i.e.,

the

five

small states into which

the Bahmani Kingdom had been

military

and

department

Bargirs,

the

split up.

While

in the

Marhattas served as Siledars

Brahman ambassadors
missions.

were sent

on

Thus,
important
diplomatic
obvious that Bijapur and Golconda were

virtually

dependent on Marhatta soldiers and statesmen

who had

it

is

quite-

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN

power and influence

acquired great
these States.

gradually
affairs of

At the commencement
I he rise of the
Bhonsla family
Shahji Bhonsla.

319

in

tfte

of the seventeenth century,

when the Kingdom of Ahmadnagar was

blotted out of existence

and those

of

Bi japur and Golconda were threatened

by the Mughals, the Marhatta

found ample scope for the
ministers and
They took a leaddisplay of their wisdom and valour.

with

similar

fate

warriors

ing part in the wars and revolutions that came in quick

succession and advanced their own national interests.

One

such persons

of

the

Bhonsla,

of the

service

was

a jagitdar,

father of Shivaji,

Sultan

of

called

who had

Bi japur

in

Shahji
joined the

1632 A. C. and

a high position
help of Murari JagLater
deva, a friend of the Vazir, Khawas Khan.
much
a
he
obtained
in
includon,
larger jaglr,
Mysore

with the

risen to

ing Sira and Bangalore, when he returned after conducting a successful campaign in the South.
Shivaji Bhonsla, son of Shahji Bhonsla by his wife
Jijabai,

Sivaner

of shivkfi.

A. C,

was born
on

On

in the stronghold of

10th of April 1627

the male side he claimed
the

descent from the Rajput Rajahs of Udaipur and on the

female side he was a descendant of the Yadava rulers
of Deogari.
ed,

Shivaji

Both
might

his parents being so highly connectjustly be

proud of

his noble ancestry.

His mother has been described as a pious and devout

Hindu lady, who used to relate to her son the thrilling
'tales

stock

famous Hindu heroes of the past from her

memory and stirred up his spirit by narrating

of the
of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

320
to

him the

stories of the

and the Puranas.

there

Thus,

Mahabharata

the

Rawayana,

ample reason to

is

endorse the view that Jljabai had an important share in

moulding the character of her son. To say with
"

If ever great men owed their greatJustice Ranade :

ness to the inspiration of their mothers, the influence

Jljabai was a factor

making of Shivaji's career

of

of

prime importance

in the

and the chief source of his

after
little time to look
As
had
Shahjl
strength."
the education of his son, he placed him under the
Dadaji Kondadev. This
aged Brahnan of immense experience was an able
tuition of his

administrator of

The

the

From him the

much

estates of Shahji.

and

imbibed

Marhatta

young
that

called

agent,

assimilated

proved him so useful in his subsequent career.

education he received comprised in horsemanship,

hunting

and military

supplemented

exercises.

experience of Dadaji himself.

the mind of the young lad by
scholars

brought

something

home

to

his

life

Marhatta saints and

him the

cause of

for the

sufficiently

and personal
The influence exerted on

from the

lessons

by

was

It

necessity of doing
'

country.

Unite

all

are Marathas,' his moral preceptor, Guru Ram Das,

used to advise him,
and propagate the Dharma of
Maharashtra.
The Guru convinced him that he had

who

'

world on the sacred mission of protect*

ing the Brahmans and the cow. Mother and motherland/
he used to tell him,
are dearer than heaven itself,

been sent to

this

'

why

live

dead, death

when
is

on a barren

religion

has

better than life/

soil.

Shivaji's

perished

The

when

seed did

outlook

faith is

not

fall'

brightened,

bts

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGxR

mental horizon widened and he

now

aspired

to

321

become

an independent polygar. The natural scenery oi his

native-land, the environments of his early life, the
influence of his mother, teacher and other saints fired

him with the ambition

carving out an

of

kingdom for himself.

Born and brought up
_

made

._

T
His
robberies.

in

Maharashtra, Shivajl had

familiar with every
J

himself

nook and corner

Mawali associates.

the help of his

career at the age of nineteen.
of

Bijapur

anarchy

fell

and

ill

indepedent

and

confusion.

his

of that country with

He

began

his public

In 1646 A. C. the Sultan

was followed by
advantage of this

illness

Taking

Shivajl seized upon the stronghold of

Torna and carried a successful raid into the fort of
He rebuilt
Raigarh, which was easily occupied.

opportunity,

Raigarh and wrested Supa from his uncle, ShambhujT.

Fort after fort yielded to the young adventurer. The
stronghold of Chakan and the outposts of Indapur

Baramati passed into

The

forts of

and

his possession in rapid succession.

Kondana, Purandhar and Singhgarh were

and the southern frontier of Shivaji's

captured next

The Sultan of Bijapur, who

family estate was secured.
the
aback
taken
was
aggressive activities of Shivaji,
by
would have reduced the young Marhatta

to submission

but the friendly intervention of the ministers convinced

the Darbar that the strongholds were captured in the
general interest of

his

family

estate.

The ambitious

Marhatta Sardar would not, however, rest on his oars.

Soon he sent a body of Marhatta horsemen under the
command of Abaji Sonder against the Konkan, and the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

322

the capture of Kalyan.

was
Next, Shivajl
marched southwards in the district of Kolaba and

result

the

enlisted

of

sympathies

the

common cause of overthrowing

The conquest of Kalyan in
and his
and

Seizure
e

the

in the

of

country roused

Bijapur

against

About this time Shahji was

arrested and imprisoned by the Sultan,

h^s flther

because

either

activities in that

authorities

him

chiefs

local

the Muslim yoke.

the Konkan by Shivajl

of

his

insubordination to Mustafa, the

Commander-in- Chief of Bijapur, or because of his son's

encroachments on the teiritory of Bijapur, or both.
of his father's
Shivajl was greatly upset at the news
imprisonment and the confiscation of his jaglrs. For
some time he gave up his depredatory pursuits and
to

planned
this

aim

in

effect

the release

view, he

appealed
his

Mughal Emperor through

who happened
his

offered

to

services

of

father.

His

to

son,

With

Majesty the

Murad

Bakhsh,

He

be in the Deccan at that time.

with

the prayer that his father be

released through his intercession.

to

his

Shah Jahan acceded

request and enrolled him as a mansabdar of five

Under the fear of Imperial intervention, tne

his

thousand.
ruler

allow

of Bijapur released

Shahji,

though

he did not

him

to quit Bijapur for four years.

There
another
view
as
to
the
release
of
however,
Shahji
:

is

said

that

it

was almost

entirely

due

intervention and good offices of Sharza

is,

It

to the friendly

Khan and Ran-

daula Khan, the two influential officers of Bijapur,

But
it must be noted that
the release was conditional for
;

Shivajl remained quiet for about six years (1649

55 A. C.),

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN
so

of

interests

were

Bijapur

concerned.

period he kept himself busy in consolidatterritory and organizing its

newly-acquired

this

During
his

ing

the

as

far

323

administration.

No

sooner was Shahjl released and restored to his

T
jSgir in the Karnatic than his son
J

Massacre at

Javli.

resumed

his

raids

in

the

tract of

land

in

the

In order to acquire the

South.

made

southern Konkan, Shivaji

Rao,

the

tract

in

of

Rajah
the

him against

name
the

the

of

Muslim

outwardly for

overtures to

who

Javli,

achieve his object in this

Javli,

relentless

that

to

join

of

King

Chandra

administered
Bijapur,

State.

failed

Having
way, he sent two agents

contracting

alliance with

his

to

to

the

Rajah, but in fact for assassinating him.

The Rajah received the agents with great respect, but
treacherously enough, the guests put their host to death

daughter of

'

its

a private interview

at

Shivaji

who

from the

fled

',

and joined

fort

had, meanwhile, detailed his troops to the

Ghats and had himself arrived there to conduct the

The citadel was stormed and
operations in person.
The sons of the Rajah
'.
sudden
was
the surprise
up a vigorous defence, but were eventually taken
'

put

and done away with in 1655 A. C. at NimgazS

For several days the ladies
the south of Poona.

prisoners
to
of

the

late

Rajah were

kept

in

confinement

at

Purandhar and then released.*

*See Bisat-ul-Qhanaim

prakaram-atmak
Bakhar, paras. 28
the above crime

p. 40

Charitra,

and
is

29.

Sir

curious.

Shiva-ChhatrapatZ-Chen Sapta

and Kalmi
pp, 81-82
Jadunath Sarkar's condonation o

Chitnis,

In his

own

words,

'his (Shivaji's

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

324
Hostilities
e

^O s

were renewed when, towards the close

of 1656 A. C., 'Ali 'Adil Shah of

of

Bijapur died and Aurangzeb advanc-

fe s

ed
opportune moment.

against

his

Shivaji,

who

dominion

at
for

longed

opportunities, was only too glad to seize this one.

that

such

He

negotiated with Aurangzeb and became his ally, but

He attacked the Mughal
failed to maintain friendship.
cities of

Ahmadnagar and Junnar.

But

for the illness

Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb would not have left the

Deccan without punishing the Marhatta brigand. The
absence of th? MugLal troops from the Deccan left

of

During the
Shivaji free to fish in the troubled waters.
war of succession among the sons of Shah Jahan he
consolidated his power
his several

strongholds.

and established

He

his

enlisted in his

disbanded soldiery of Bijapur and renewed

sway over
army the

his attacks

on that kingdom.

The

Sultan

Afzal Khan's

meetinTwith

of

Bijapur could

not

tolerate

the

He ordered
depredations of Shivaji.
his father, Shahji, to stop him from

making encroachments on the terShahji excused himself on the

ritory
was
not
son
his
The
subject to his control.
plea that
Sultan then sent his able and experienced general,
of

that

state.

power was then in its infancy, and he could not afford to be

scrupulous in the choice of the means of strengthening himself
(Shivaji and His Times, p. 53). If the soundness of this new rule
of ethics be admitted, then, mutatis mutandis, the alleged
misdeeds of 'Alamgir should not be condemned. Sarkar has
scrupulously adhered to the above rule in the case of his hero,
Shivaji, but has totally deprived 'Alamgir of its benefit.
1

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR^25

Afzal Khan, with a large force against the Marhattas.

Shivajl regarded discretion as *he better part of valour.

He

wished to achieve his object by feigning friendship

with the foe. With honeyed words and rich presents, he
succeeded

in

the help of

throwing Afzal Khan

Brahman

unescorted.

it

Shivaji

guard.

intermediaries, negotiations

With
were

opened between the two

meeting place and

off his

spot was fixed as a

parties.
was agreed that they would meet

took

precautions for the

ample

He

put on a coat of chain

and a steel cap and kept them concealed under his
embroidered cloak and turban. On the lingers of his
left hand, he fixed a Baghnakha, or the tiger-claw, and
protection of his person.

another

carried

native

weapon,

called

Bichhwa, or

'

Besides,
scorpion', concealed within his right sleeve.
he posted his soldiers behind the trees along the route
of Afzal

Afzal advanced towards the appointed

attended by a single servant. Shivaji

Khan.

place (Javli),

descended from his stronghold slowly and came to the

He was
meeting-place with a timid and hesitating air.

accompanied by a single attendant and was unarmed

He approached to meet the Kban
to all appearances.
with all humility and Afzal advanced to embrace the
As soon as the Khan stooped to raise
Marhatta.

and embrace him, the short-sized Marhatta

dispatched him with the deadly weapons he carried
Shivajl

with him.

The death
Rout

AT

of Afzal

Khan's Army.

of

Kban was

once

signalled

an d the Marhatta warriors,

who were

Afzal

...

at

sprang up and
slaughtered their enemies who were
lying

in

ambush,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

326

in their camp.
was complete.

reposing

Bijapur

The

of the

rout

large booty

of

army
into

the

at times,

re-

fell

hands of the Marhattas.

Even

the greatest of

men have

not,

frained from employing

f

Saining

their

recording

paying

tribute

to

mean methods

their ends.

glorious

their talents,

while

Yet,

history

deeds

and

must

also

however damaging, and pronounce

its verdict, however painful, on their misdeeds. Whereas
Muslim as well as European writers have uniformly
condemned the murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji as a
most heinous crime, Marhatta authorities, with the
register its findings,

solitary exception of

blame
trying
killed.

of

Kalml Bhaka^ have

at the door of Afzal

to

laid the entire

Khan, alleging that while

strangle the Marhatta, the

Relying exclusively

Khan

got himself

on the Marhatta sources

which are materially discrepant and

and
contradictory,
discarding totally the testimony of
contemporary Muslim as well as European historians,
Ranade, Sarkar and Kincaid have made vigorous efforts
to whitewash the treachery of their national hero in
information,

various ways.

They have

forensic

fully exploited their

eloquence in trying to defend the action of Shivaji on

the ground that Afzal Khan had formed a plot against

him and

that the

cage which he had

Khan himself was caught

prepared for the

The

his

opponent (Shivaji).
alleged
a mere presumption, invented either by
votaries,

is

impossible

not
to

unravelled
believe

it.

before
It

is

us.

in

the

confinement of
'plot',

based on

Shivaji

or

As such,

stated

that

his
it is

when

MUHI-UD-DIN

who

Krishnaji,

was

parties,

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

acted as an intermediary

invited

and

"

appealed

to

327

between the

by Shivaji

in

so far as to hint that the Khan

some
seemed to harbour
plan of mischief," and. further
that having learnt so much, he (Shivaji) sent the envoy
(Krishnaji) back with his own agent, Gopinath Pant,
secrecy,

11

who

he

yielded

by a lavish use of bribes that AfzaPs

he had so arranged
were convinced that
officers
at the interview,
arrested
be
would
that
matters
Shivaji
learnt

'

"

he was too cunning to be caught by open fight.'

There is not a tinge of truth in the above statements.
v
They are not warranted by Afzal K]]an conduct and
as

Even
behaviour either before or during the interview.
would
not
venture
to
the most unimaginative plotter
launch his plot against his enemy before chalking out a
programme, weighing the chances of his success and
as

to

set

Afzal was not so foolish

line of retreat.

marking out a

out on

his

alleged

mission

of entrapping

and making preparaShivaji without taking precautions

He was selected and sent
tions necessary for a plot.
Government
the
because he
Bijapur
against Shivaji by

was regarded as a great military commander. The fact

If he
is that he was honesi in his dealings with Shivaji.
have
he
must
taken
someone
a
into
had formed
plot ',
*

and issued necessary instructions to his

That he did nothing to this effect and appeared
officers.
at the interview unarmed and un-escorted leaves room

confidence

the only presumption that he boasted of his superior

disdained to take any force with him
physical strength,
and desired to achieve his object single-handed. But it

for

is

generally

admitted that

he

had

started

on

this

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

328

with 10,000 soldiers, who, however, were

behind when objected to by ShivajI's envoy.
Like-

expedition
left

the
wise,
presence of Sayyad Banda, a famous
swordsman who accompanied the Khan, was objected to
and he too was left behind. All this and the fact that
after his murder his army was taken by surprise and
routed conclusively prove that Afzal had made no
preparations which might even remotely suggest that he
'

intended

treachery

'.

The

rout of the

attacked unawares shows that

'

Afzal's

army

officers

that was

had no

'

and had received no

alleged
knowledge
plot
instructions fiDm their commander.
Consequently, one
is at a loss to understand
how Gopinath was able to
the

of

from

learn
is

his officers that

also stated that Afzal

alive

Shivaji

faqlr,

who

he had formed a

'

had publicly boasted

plot

It

'.

of bringing

the Bijapur Darbar, and that before a

belonged to the Marhatta Secret Service.
to

The

story of Afzal's boasting before a Marhatta spy

Professor
puts too much strain on our credulity.
c

Sarkar says that at the interview Afzal held Shiva's

neck in his left arm within iron-grip, while with his
right

hand he drew

dagger and
Whereas Kincaid avers

his long straight-bladed

struck at the side of Shiva

'.*

*
According to Prof. Sarkar, Afzal used a long straight-bladed
dagger, whereas Kincaid avers that he tried to stab Shivaji at
We learn from the Shiva Bharat
his side with a sword.
(Ch. XXI) that before Afzal embraced Shivaji, he had discarded

Muslim and European authorities inform us that

to meet Shivaji. When the
display of force and the presence of Sayyad Banda were
his sword.

Afzal

was unarmed when he went

'

'

objected to, there is every reason to believe that either Afzal did
not carry any weapon with him, or if he had carried one, it must
have been objected to and discarded.

MUHI-UD-DIN
was

that there

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

329

an exchange of hot words between

at first

Khan and

the Marhatta and then the former caught

hold of the latter by his neck.
If the
Khan, enraged

the

'

at

the

taunt,

with the

seized

left

arm

Shivaji

by the

neck, forcing his head under his arm pit/ as is averred

by Kincaid, then where is the element of the treachery
to

alleged

of

tion
*

this, can Afzal Khan, who is

have attended the interview with the inten-

As apart from

alleged

addressed

in

Shivaji

was

Shivaji

him by

killing

'

to be

'

to

attendants
?

Afzal.

him
him

arrest

instructions
alert,

is

And,

'?

alleged,

him

to

at

have

when
did

why

his side

or

dispatch

him,

if

his

he so

was

nothing
pre-arranged by
he had taken precautions and made necesto

his

soldiers

and both he and

fallen so easy a prey to the

he would have issued

and warned them to be on

army would not have

his

Marhatta

marauders.

fact that they were taken unawares and

of Afzal

proves the bona-fides

there

said

embrace and did not order

Obviously,
If

tones

'stao

or

preparations beforehand,

sary

the

insulting

arrested alive/ as

Afzal try to sUangle

while he was in his

desired

be

treachery,

was no

'

plot

Kban and shows

whatsoever.

The

killed conclusively

that

All this exonerates

On the other
the Khan and establishes his innocence.
hand, it was Shivaji who invited his adversary (Afzal)
to

an

interview

at a suitable spot selected

by himself,
on the route of Afzal Khan's army,
issued necessary instructions to his officers, armed
himself with the native weapons, Wagnakha and
Bichhwa, donned a steel cap, put on an iron coat,

posted his soldiers

proceeded to the selected spot

fully

equipped/ objected

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

330
to

the

'

display

of force

and

before the

Banda',

appeared
stabbed him while

in his

'

the presence of Sayyad

Khan

embrace

in

all

humility,

at the interview,

made

a signal to his soldiers who lay in ambush, and routed

the Muslim army
facts which form important links in
the chain

the plot contrived and cleverly conducted

of

by Shivajl and not by Afzal Khan.

The murder of Afzal Khan and the rout of the
emboldened Shivajl who
Bijapurls
of
next carried his arms into the nei & h .

bouring

He

territories.

seized

the

stronghold cf Panhcila and a number of other forts and

He attacked Rajhpur
even threatened Bijapur itself.

Dabhal and extended his dominions further South

In all these campaigns
along the banks of the Krishna.
he obtained immense booty, which he put to its best

and

advantage.

'AH

'Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur,

at

Shivaji's

acts

of

aggression.

1660 A. C. he put
their

Marhatta

menace.

strengthening
attacked

him

last

While

was alarmed

trumps

to

Shivajl

was

In

his generals to

cut short

occupied

the
in

the stronghold of Panhala, the Bijapurls

from

three

directions.

Panhala

was

invested by
Johar and the siege lasted for four
months. Shivajl was reduced to sore straits and he
would have been forced to surrender if he had not
Sidi

escaped to the stronghold of Vishalgarh in a dark night

after he had amused the besiegers with the prospect of

His escape was ascribed in

a capitulation.
Darbar to the treachery of Sidi Johar, the

the

Bijapur

commander-

MUHI-UD-D1N

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

in-chief of the forces of BijSpur.

the

field

in

At the bead

person.

advanced against

'Adil

331

Shah now took

of a

huge army, he

enemy and captured

Panhala, Pavangarh and some other

the

his

forts

places.

of

His

campaign continued till the rainy season, and

he would have compelled Shivajl to ask for forgiveness

victorious

if

the

rains

had not

set in

and

if

the Sultan had not

been called to the Karnatic to deal with the rebellion of

Sidi Johar.
Hostilities
ou-

and Shahji was

ceased,

negotiate the

son on behalf of

Independent

of

result

was acknowledged

appointed to

terms of treaty with his

these

the

Sultan.

As a

negotiations, Shivaji

independent ruler of the

territory lying between Kalyan in the north and Ponda
in the south and Indapur in the east and Dabhal in the
the

as

west

an area more than 150 miles

miles

in

As

breadth.

for Shivaji,

in

length

and

100

he promised to be at

At
peace with Bijapur during the lifetime of his father.
the instance of his father, he made Rairi his capital and

renamed
of

it

as Raigarh.

There he maintained an army

7,000 horse and 60,000 foot.

Shivaji

now

himself strong enough to extend

his ravages to the dominions of the

felt

Great Mughal. In order to put an

end to his aggressions, the Emperor
had appointed Sbaista KJban as Viceroy of the Deccan.
The Mughal Viceroy drove the Marhattas out of the

and captured the fort of Chakan. Next, he occupied Poona without opposition and took up his abode in
the very house in which Shivaji had passed his early
field

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

332

The Marhatta was thoroughly

days.

nook and corner of the

city

and

all

familiar with every

the ins and

outs

of

the house.
Availing himself of local knowledge, he
entered the city along with a marriage party of four
hundred men, each of whom was a trained warrior.

The Khan, who had cantoned

his

around him

troops

and had taken necessary precautions for his personal

safety, was reposing in his harem when all of a sudden
Shivaji entered his former residence and raided the room
which the Khan

in

was

fast

asleep.

In the general

melee that followed, Shaista Khan's son, Abul Path,

lost his life, ~nd he himself received a blow which cut off

two of

his

own

fingers.

With

great difficulty, he escap-

Aurangabad, whence he was called back by the

Emperor and transferred to the governorship of Bengal.
The city of Surat was at that time the most opulent and beautiful of its class on the

ed

to

Sack

of Surat.

western

Early in the year

1664 A. C. Shivaji deceived his enemies by a number
of

feigned

and

movements and swooped down on

defenceless city

horse

and

coast.

with

as

as

many

four

the rich

thousand

away immense booty which he

carried

safely

The
lodged in the stronghold of Rairi, or Raigarh.
sack of Surat was an exploit far more profitable than
the
of

Poona escapade. It amply added

Shivaji and considerably increased

to

the

resources

his prestige in the

Marhatta country.

About

this

time Shahji died in

the

Doab

of

the

Tungabhadra where he was engaged

Shivaji's assump.
tion of mdepend-

ent

sovereignty,

suppressing the re bellion of the

t
nobles of that place.
On the death

{n

MUHI-UD-DIN
of

his

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK

father,

Shivaji

which the Sultan of

assumed

the

of

title

333

Rajah,

Ahmadnagar had conferred on

He now

father in return for his meritorious services.

began to coin money

in

his

own name

to

his

mark

his

independent authority and undertook plundering expeditions

along the coast, which greatly harassed the

Mecca and the merchants engaged

trade between India and other countries.

pilgrims going to

In order to put an end to

Shivaji,

Ub

^h

Emperor.

efficient

Prince

the high-handedness

Aurangzeb dispatched
army under the command
Mu'azzarr,

with

whom

in

of

an
of

were

associated

Sardar Jaswant Singh

experienced generals.
was appointed as second-in-command. He made a few

useless attempts to
bring the

Marhatta
but nothing substantial was achieved.

Chief to

book,

Both the Prince

and

his lieutenant were called back and Rajah Jai Singh

and Daler Khan were appointed in their place, and with
them were associated some experienced generals. The

new commanders

laid siege to Singhgarh and Purandhar,

Both
the places held out heroically, but
respectively.
Shivaji seemed to have lost every hope of success and

so

Receiving assurances not only

of safety but of a special favour also, he quietly withdrew from his ranks and came to the camp of Rajah

opened negotiations.

Jai Singh.

The

result

of the interview between Shivaji and

Singh was the Treaty of Purandhar, which embodied the following

Jai

Purandhar.

terms

(1)

Shi vSJI agreed to surrender

twenty-three of his forts and retain only twelve

as

bis

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

334

He

jagir. (2)

stipulated that he

would pay

to 'Alamgir

forty lakhs of Huns in thirteen instalments

yielding an annual revenue of four lakhs of

the Konkan and

lakhs

five

in

lands

if

Huns

in

the Balaghat-Bijapur

were granted to him. (3) The eldest son of Shivaji was

promised a rank of five thousand. (4) He himself
agreed to assist Aurangzeb in his military expeditions
After the conclusion of the treaty,
against his enemies.

terms were communicated to the Emperor who duly

It
took three months to reduce
confirmed them.

its

Shivaji

to

submission and to

enlist his

on

his part,

Mughal Emoeror.

Shivaji,

support for the

rendered good

Mughals in their wars against Bijapur.

the
six months that followed the Treaty
During

services to the

turned

of
his

Purandhar, Jai Singh

towards the Kingdom of
Bijapur.
Shivaji took a conspicuous

Attention

part in this expedition

and contributed

much

to

the

success of the Mughal arms in the Deccan.

Joining
thousand horse and seven
the Mughals with two
thousand infantry, he reduced Phaltan and Thatwada

and

an attack

directed

on

Panhala

in

the

Konkan.

camhim
a
jewelled-sword and a
paign, the Emperor
robe of honour. The siege of Panhala was not a
in
success, but Shivaji's support was indispensable
Pleased

with his success

in the early part of the

sent

seizing

he

some

received

strongholds.

an

invitation

was about this time that

from the Emperor to the

It

Mughal Court. Receiving assurances of safety, the

Marhatta Sardar accepted the invitation. Putting the
administration

of his

territory

into

the hands

of his

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

mother and a council

of three

competent

ALAMGIPv 335
he

officers,

set

out towards Agra about the third week of March 1066

A. C. with his son, Sambhuji
At the Imperial Capital,

he was

received

by two Imperial

officers,

viz.,

Ram

son of Jai Singh, and Amir Mukhlis Khan.

he reached the Imperial Court, the Emperor was
celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of his birthday.
Singh,

When

Ram

ushered

Singh

him

into

the

Darbar, and he

presented 1,500 gold pieces as a nazat to the Emperor,

and a pesbkasb of rupees 6,000. After the formal
reception, he was enrolled as a mansabdar of 5,000

The

horse.*

treatment meted out to him,

it is

alleged,

short of the expectations he had formed and the

His pride was
promises held out to him by Jai Singh.
touched to the quick when he found himself seated
fell far

In a fit of anger he lost

the third grade nobles.
'
and used bold words of reproach for Alamgir.
conduct at the Court was insulting and insolent,

among

his balance

His

he was not granted any robes of honour.

following day he found himself a political prisoner

and as a

The
in

result,

his house.

Petitions

sent to

the

Emperor

for

his

In vain he protested his loyalty

rejected.
He offered his services in conto the Mughal throne.

release

were

quering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda, but

In
the Emperor would not listen to his remonstrances.
spite of his

repeated

requests,

he was

not granted

private interview.
* The mansab of 5,000 was not an inferior one. Those who
held a mansab of 1,000 were called Umara-i-Kibar or great
nobles. For a long list of the dignitaries enjoying a mansab of
5,000 each, see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 360 ff.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

336

who

Critics,

Was

the honour
conferred upon

him below
dignity

Karan

of

say that 'Alamgir could have gained

the good-will of Shivaji and ended the
..
..
Marhatta menace by meting out r.
i

his

more generous treatment to him, are,

that Rajah Rai
perhaps, unaware
Udaipur, than whom there was no more res-

was granted a mansab of 5,000 by

Jahanglr when he became subordinate to the Central
Government and that Rana Raj Singh too was enlisted
as a mansabdar of 5,000 by 'Alamgir when he acknowledged him as his suzerain. Shivajl, it will be admitted,
was not a greater personality than the Ranas of
Udaipur.
Apart from this, when ShivajI's father
Rajah,

pectable

entered

he was given a
As a matter of fact, none except the

the

service

of

Shah Jahan,

mansab of 5,000.
members of the Imperial family was granted a greater
mansab than this in th^ beginning. It must be remembered that Shivajl came to the Mughal Court in the
capacity of a conquered and that his conqueror, Mirza
Rajah Jai Singh, also held the same mansab, i. e.,
5,000, which was afterwards raised to 7,000 in recognition of his meritorious services against the Marhattas.
is

It

Rajah gave him assurances of becoming

but
nowhere does he appear to have

true that the

treatment,

promised to secure for him a greater mansab than that

he himself enjoyed, and even if he did hold out too
high hopes to him on his own account in order to
succeed

in

his

mission, the

fault

does not

lie

with

must as well be pointed out here that

Prime Minister, was at that time no
more than a mansabdar of 5,000*
Do the critics
'Alamgir.

Fazil

It

Khan, the

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

MUHI-UD-D1N
mean

would have acted wisely

that 'Alamglr

granted Sh.ivajl

a greater

mansab than

if

33/

he had

that held by the

mansabdars mentioned above t

Obviously enough,
a
him
not
greater mansab than
grant
'Alamgir could
that of the Ranas of Udaipur, the Prime Minister and
Rajah Jai Singh.

The

career and character of Shivajl

guarantee of the fact that a mansab of

7,000, or even more, would not have satisfied him.
A word might well be said about 'Alamglr's attitude

are a sufficient

towards the sons and relatives of Shivajl. In spite of

their hostilities, they were treated with great kindness

and his sonby the Emperor: ShivajI's son, SambhujT,

in-law, NathujT, were granted a mansab of 5,000 each
at the recommendation of Mirza Rajah Jai Singh, who

had reduced the Marhattas to sore straits. SahujI was

honoured with the title of Rajah and a mansab of
This is how 'Alamgir
7,000 was conferred upon him.
and how they repaid
treated the relatives of Shivaji
;

this

kind

treatment,

will

be seen in

the

subsequent

account.
After his
In the middle of August Shivaji fell ill.
rich
sent
he
presents to the
recovery,
from
His escape
In two of
baskets.
Brahmans in
big

captivity.

these

baskets,

he

and his son,

At a distance of

made good
escapes.
from Agra some horses were waiting for him
son.
Disguising himself as an ascetic, he soon
their

Sambhuji,
six miles

and his
found his way

Avoiding the vigilant eye

of the Imperial Police, he hastened to his home in the
Deccan, passing through eastern Bengal, Orissa and

Gondwana.

to Mathura.

He

reached his

capital in

the

month

of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

338

December

after

an absence of nine months.

be said

was

Sambhuji,

Mathura and was

on.
later
back
was
Aurangzeb
brought
greatly annoyed
at the escape of Shivaji which was arranged with the
it

may

connivance of

here,

Ram

at

left

Singh who was therefore deprived

of his pay and rank.*

The conquest

Kingdom of Bijapur was by

no means an eas y affair J ai Sin g h
-

Recall of Jai

Singh and
death

of the

had succeeded in detaching

from that kingdom and the treaty of

his

was a

master-stroke of diplomacy.
Free
from further troubles from the Marhattas, he organized

Purandhar

a punitive expedition against 'All

40,000 troopers at
Shivaji, along with

his

disposal.

his

He was

by
More-

joined

officers.

experienced
by Daler Khan,

he was assisted

over,

He had

'Adil Shah.

Daud Khan,

Rajah Rai Singh Sesodia, Netoji Palkar and other disBut the Imperialists did not meet
tinguished generals.
with any great

success

well protected by

from

an army

the

for the

capital of Bijapur

Bijapurls,

Golconda.

who were
his

was

assisted

by

face to

Finding
army
Singh decided upon a retreat
on the 5th of January 1666 A.C. The retreat was disasface with starvation,

trous.

and

The

Bijapurls

Jai

now

attacked the

Mughal

forces

on them

in men and
heavy
At once the Rajah was called back and the
viceroyalty of the Deccan was entrusted to Prince
Mu'azzam and Rajah Jaswant Singh was appointed as

inflicted

losses

material.

his adjutant.

Jai Singh died soon after his recall.

* SeeStoriado
Mogor, Vol.

and 'Alamgirnamah,

p. 917.

ii,

p.

139; FatuKdt-i-'Alamgiri

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

The change

of officers

was not

ALAMCilR 339

at all for the better.

Rajah Jaswant Singh was no loyal

se rvant of the Emperor.
He was
favourably disposed towards Shiva j! and was interested
Daler Khan was not liked
in the rise of the Marhattas.

ShivSji styles
himself Rajah.

by the Prince and was, therefore, sent away to Bidar.

The Prince could do nothing alone.
Moreover, a
Persian invasion threatened the Punjab and an army
was dispatched there to ward off the Persians. About
this time, the Yusafzals also revolted

Peshawar and

in

All these facts

harassed the Mughals for full one year.
combined to contribute to the chances of success of the
f

Marhatta Chief who found an open

field

for

himself.

But knowing too well the consequences *of provoking the

Mughal authorities, ShivajT remained quiet between
1668 and 1669 A. C. and utilized his time in the

Through the interorganization of his administrption

cession of Rajah Jaswant Singh, who was very friendly
'Alarngir agreed to negotiate a
disposed towards him,
treaty with ShivajT, whereby the latter was acknowledged

as the independent ruler of Maharashtra and the title of

Rajah was conferred upon him. A jagir was also

granted to him in Berar and his son, SambhujI, was confirmed in his mansab.
With the exception of Puran-

dhar and

A. C. lasted

Soon

He

till

The

Emperor promised to restore

treaty concluded in March 1668

1670 A. C.

after the

exacts Chauth

and Surdeshmukhi
from Bnapur and
Golconda.

the

Singhgarh,

all forts to Shivajl.

conclusion

Sh iv

treaty

The

of

'fjng&r

treaty with
agreed to a peaceSutlan of Bijapur.

the

with the
Sultan promised to cede the
an d a territory

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

340

yielding 1,80,000 pagodas as revenue.

Shivajl pressed
his claims for the exaction of Chauth and Surdeshmukht

from Bijapur and Golconda.

not

of

the king

kings agreed to pay

the king of Bijapur, 3 J lakhs and
Golconda, 5 lakhs. This extraordinary

recognized,

fully

some annual

tribute

was paid

tribute

the claims were

Though

the two

to Shivaji in order to maintain peace

with the Marhattas.

Hostilities

Renewal

of

between Shivajl and the Great Mughal

were renewed in 1670 A. C. when the
former launched

hostilitiesjind

sack of Surat.

Q{ conquests>

of his forts from

the

upon a

He

Mughals and

fresh career

recO nquered

many

his soldiers carried

with great caution the capture of Singhgarh, Purandhar,

Mahuli, Karnalla and Lohgarh. Lack of discipline in the

Mughal Camp and

enabled

quarrels

among

the Imperial

officers

Shivajl to carry his raids into the

neighbouring
exacted promises of collecting
Chauth and Surdesfamukhi, for the first time, from the

His

countries.

officers

immediately under the Mughal Government.

For a second time he sacked the city of Surat and
He was now at the
acquired an enormous booty.
districts

height of his power and was regarded

as the restorer of their freedom.

By

the

Coronation of

year

1674 A. C.
Maharashtra

ghivaji:l674.

of

by the Hindus

Shivaji's mastery

over

was

Dis-

complete.

from

all

victory
patches
sides,
continued success in all quarters and prosperity within his

kingdom persuaded him

Raigarh.

monies,

to

This he did with

crown himself at his capital,

full Vedic rights and cere-

and henceforth he was acknowledged as the

Shivajl's

To

fact tap

34 1

Kingdom

In 1680

A.C

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

341

independent ruler of the Marhatta country. Following

the example of the Hindu Kings of old, he established

a new

which commenced from the date of

era

his

enthronement.
Finding that 'Alamgir was entangled in
with the Afghan
tribes

hostilities

on

the

North-West Frontier, Shivaji extended

his

1676 A. C.

campaign

to

1680

in the

From
conquests further South.
A. C. he conducted a successful

South.

He

annexed

Jinji,

Vellore

and

other important places to his Kingdom.

He conquered a considerable portion of the Vijayanagar

many

Empire and was making preparations

for the final strug-

gle with

launched

'Alamgir

but

before

he

scheme, he was carried away by death

the age of fifty-three.

The Kingdom
Extent of his

Kingdom.

his

new

in

1680 A. C. at

of Shivaji comprised

a long narrow

strip of land, consisting of the

Western

Ghatg and the Konkan between Kalyan

The extreme breadth of this Kingdom from

and Goa.

was about 100 miles. In the south the

which
had been conquered towards the close of
provinces,
Shivaji's career, comprised the western Karnatic and the

east to west

territories

river

extending from

Tungabhadra,

Later on,

also added to the Marhatta

Shivaji

to the

Jinji

bank of the

and Vellore were

Kingdom.

was a good administrator and a great

Both in the civil and
organizer.

His civil
administration.

considerable

Belgaum

mi iit a r y
tact

and

he displayed
Practically illiterate, he

departments

ability.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

342

an excellent system of administration for his

Kingdom, It was based on the ancient Hindu system
and was conducted in accordance with the principles

devised

down

laid

the codes

in

There was a

Council

of

Sukracharya and

known

of State,

as

Kautilya.
the Asfata

Pradhan, or Mukhya Pradhan. It consisted of eight

members, each in charge of a separate department.
The Prime Minister was known as Pesfawa, the Commander-in-Chief was called Sarainaiibat, or Senapati,
and the Finance Minister was named Mojmu'adar, or
Amatya. Home and foreign affairs were controlled and
conducted by Sharutii+vis, or Sachiv. The Minister of
War bore the name of Dabir, or Sumant. Justice was
and the Minister of
administered by Nayayadish

was given the name of Danadhyaksha. This

was the Central Government of Shivaji. There were
Religion

as

many

as

under him

eighteen departments of public service

and the portfolio of each department was

held by a separate minister.

For purposes
Administrative
divisions of his

was

tion

S^J

Kingdom

of

three

districts,

having a distinct

Each district was organized on the

the Central Government and every district

officials.

model of
officer had eight subordinate

work

administra-

divided the whole of his

into
.

province was sub-divided into

staff

efficient

provinces an<*
r
stationed a viceroy
each of them.
administrative system followed in these provinces
a replica of the Central Government.
Each

Kingdom.

The

and

of effective

officials to

of correspondence, accounts,

important matters.

deal with the

treasury

and

other'

MUHI-UD-D1N
As

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

mentioned before,

is

justice

was

dealt out

343

by the

who was

Nayayadisfa,
guided in his
laid down in the
work by
principles
r
J the r

Administration
of

justice.

codes of

There was also a Hindu

Sukracharya and Kautilya.

appointed especially for
dealing with

Sfaastri,

expounding Hindu law and

the purpose of
religious, criminal and astronomical matters.

honoured and immemorial

institution of

The

time-

Panchayat was

It was an important instrument of dealing

vogue.
out justice.
Almost all civil disputes were decided

in

by

it.

re-organized the entire system of the

land revenue and based it on that of

also

Shivajl

hi *

Svenufsystcm.

<*rly

The

tutor,

land

in

Kandadev.
province was

Dadajl
every

and an estimate was made of the expected

produce of each blgha. Three parts of this produce were
left to the peasant and two parts were appropriated by
measured

the State as

its

own

share.

The revenue settlements

were made annually. The revenue officials were appointed directly by the Central Government. They were mostly

Brahmans.

and remit

The

it

Their duty was to collect the land revenue

to the State Treasury along with the accounts.

existing practice of farming

hereditary
henceforth

landlords

the

dues

by the officers of
cultivation,

liberal

out

(mirasdars)

land

revenue to

was abandoned and

of the State were to be collected

the

State.

advances

In order

were

to

made

encourage
to

the

from the State Treasury to enable them to

purchase seeds, bullocks, ploughs and otheri agricultural,

cultivators

implements,

etc.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

344
ShivSJI

was a great military genius, endowed with

He
organizing capacity.
united the Marhatta chiefs and tribes

uncommon
in a

He

own

common cause,

the cause of their

wielded the scattered Marhattas into

country.
a nation, thus giving

rise to a third party in the Deccan.

His army consisted of both infantry and cavalry, having

a sensible gradation of officers. In the infantry there

was a Naik over every nine privates, a Havildar over
every five Naiks and forty-five privates, ajamaldar
over every three Havildars and one hundred and thirtyfive

privates,

and

G\rer

Hazan, having as many

and

fifty

as

privates under

was a
one thousand, three hundred

ten

his

Jamaldars

there

command.

It

may be

noted at this place that the Sarainaubat, or Commanderin-Chief, in the infantry was quite a different man from
the officer of his rank in the cavalry.

In the

latter,

the

by twenty-five troopers. Over twentywas a Havildar, over five Havildars or one

hundred and twenty-five troopers was a Jamaldar and
over ten Jamaldars there was a Hazart, having as
many as one thousand, two hundred and twenty-five

unit was formed

five troopers

cavaliers

command. Still higher ranks

the Supreme Commander or Sarainaubat,

under

were those of

his

and the Panj-hazarls or those having command over

five thousand soldiers.
Every squadron of twenty-five
troopers was provided with a water-carrier and a ferrier.

whose horses were supplied by the State were

Bargls and those who supplied their own horses
were called liledars. The troops in the main consisted
of spearsmen, mounted on light but strong and hardy
Soldiers

called

MUHI-UD-DIN
ponies.

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

They were the peasant

345

proprietors of Southern

India, who could be easily called together and dispersed.

Except at seed-time and harvest, they were always

Their equippage was of the simplest

kind and no elaborate commissariat arrangements were
An ordinary blanket and a bag of grams were
required.

available for war.

sufficient to

military
his

paid

meet

their wants.

department
soldiers

a high state of efficiency.

He
of
himself
the
part
plunder,

in

by

maintained his

Shivajl

He introduced the system

receiving the lion's share.
of
horses
and
branding
keeping descriptive rolls.
Under him the

post of a military officer 'vas not herefree from the curse of female
ditary.
followers.
He ordered that " no man was to take with
him his wife, mistress or prostitute to the battle-field "

His army was

Since forts played a conspicuous part in Maharashtra,

they were properly provided with arms and ammunitions

and placed

in

charge of responsible

and trustworthy

officers.

Shivaji

added to

his military strength

a considerable

-,,.., n
's fleet.

number

Shivaji

stationed

his fleet

by building

He

of ships.
r

Two

at Kolaba.

advantages accrued to him from this: (1) it checked

the growing power and influence of the Abyssinian
pirates of Janjlra, and (2) it plundered the rich cargoes of
the

Mughal

ships sailing for

Mecca.

The

was a

fleet

constant source of trouble to the Hajls sailing for Mecca.

mainly on his personal

achievements, both military and admi_
_
nistrative. To rise from the position of

Shivaji's place in history rests

_.

Shivaji s estimate.

a petty Jagirdar

'

to that of the

Maharajah of Maharashtra

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

345

and to carve out an independent kingdom for himself

was no mean achievement, though it must be acknowledged that Shivajl had grown fat at ill-gotten gains. To

and prowess in battle he added

caution and cleverness in commensurate
proportions.
His success was due as much to
bravery as to cunning
and fraud. He never refrained from taking recourse to
his

reckless courage

served his purpose.

The murder of Chandra
Rao of Javli and of Afzal Khan of Bijapur was each an
act of treachery
treachery that does not disappear in the
multitude of his good
He was indeed the

treachery if

it

qualities'.

Machiavali o f India, with whom the ends

justified the
means.
He has been called the father of fraud,' not
None of his enemies surpassed or even
unreasonably.
'

him in guile and deceit. In private life he

was simple, straightforward and even
Although
pious.
an orthodox Hindu, he never
persecuted the Musalmans

equalled

for

their

that

faith,

in

an age when his co-religionists

never missed an
opportunity of destroying mosques and
defiling the Qur'an.
Khafi Khan, a contemporary
informs
us
that
chronicler,
whenever his soldiers went

on plundering expeditions, they were ordered not to do

harm to the mosques,* the Book ox God or the woman
of anyone.
With him women's honour was safe. He
never

allowed

his

He was

of war.

followers

to

enslave

the prisoners

and resourceful, and no

other Hindu displayed such
courage and capacity as he in
*But

bold, active

one instance of demolishing mosques and that

by Afzal Khan in his message to Shivajl, I have not
come across any evidence to show that Shivajl ever destroyed'
for

referred to

mosques.

mosques by

For the passage relating to the destruction

Shivajl, vide Shiva Bharat, Chapter XVIII.

of

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN
Muslim
Pratap,

and

with

India,

the

solitary

exception

of

347

Rana

who was doubtless his superior in personal character

nobility

of

purpose.

Though

saviour by the Hindus, he was not at

flarne

of

his

liberating
rule.

personal

patriotism,

He

much

co-religionists

fought

less

from

all fired

with

the

with
desire

the
of

the yoke of Muslim

Hindus and Muslims

aggrandisement.

as their

regarded

Whatever

alike

for his

his shortcomings,

He was
greatness.
impossible
challenge
indeed the last constructive genius that Hindu India
has produced.
it is

to

his

CHAPTER XVI

MUHl-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
'ALAMGIR

(CONCLUDED)
Conquest of Bijapur and Golconda End of Marhatta
Menace Suppression of the Sikhs Anglo-Mughal

War

Administration under 'Alamgir.

Aurangzeb had
in

Introductory.

almost

tried

all his

trusted officers

the conquest
of the Deccan
J

when

all

he

but

was

they
convinced that the only course open to him was to
conduct the campaign against the Deccan in person.
failed,

making peace with the Rajputs, he gathered

together his grand army at Ahmadnagar and continuad
the annexation of the
as emperor that forward policy
so
had
he
which
Deccan
brilliantly commenced as his
Of the five off-shoots of the
father's lieutenant.

After

Bahmani Kingdom,
to

fallen

his

Bidar,

Ahmadnagar and Berar had

arms as a prince

in

command

Shahjahani forces during the reign of his father.

of the

The

remaining two, i.e., Bijapur and Golconda, struggled and

but the Emperor
survived longer, as we have noticed
;

was bent upon destroying them root and branch. The

main cause of their conquest was evidently the ambition
of the

may

Mughal Emperor

the faults found with

them
These
Sultanates
(1)
Their tributes had fallen in

be summarised as follows

were Shia
arrears.

m
(3)

faith.

They

(2)

incurred the wrath of the

Emperor

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN

by supplying resources
black-mail.
of

Persia

to the Marhattas in the

also rich in resources

the

in

form bf

They sought protection with the Shah

rather than with the Emperor of India.*
(4)

They were not only independent

(5)

349

Mughal

in spirit

but were

they might profitably be included

Empire.

(6)

Finally,

their

internal

dissensions also stimulated 'Alamglr in no less degree to

carry out his designs.

Dividing

1f

Fall of Bijapur.

his

grand

into

army

two main

parts,

'Alamgir ordered Prince Mu'azzam to

march against the Marhattas at the
,

head of one division and Prince 'Azam against Bijapur

at the head of another.
The former penetrated far into
the interior of the Konkan, but was

heavy

losses.

The

latter

driven

succeeded

back with

in

capturing
Sholapur, but he too was forced to beat a retreat when
he attacked Bijapur itself.
In 1684 A. C. Prince

Mu'azzam was next entrusted with

the conquest of
but
his
he
father
Bijapar,
annoyed
by making peace
with the Sultan.
in
1685
A.C.
'Alamgir sent a
Early

firman to the Sultan (Sikandar

to

dismiss

his

statesman

him
known as

'Adil Shah), asking

Khan

Wazir,
Sayyad Makhdum), who was an
Sharza

(also

excellent soldier

to supply provisions to the

and

Mughal army

to send a contingent of 5 or 6 thousand cavalry to fight

for the

Mughals against

their

passage to the Imperial armies

enemies

through

to

allow free

his country

to

*They were justified in looking to the Shah of Persia for

protection because the Mughal Emperors had definitei / decided
to destroy their independence and to incorporate them in the
Mughal Empire.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

,350

boycott the Marhattas and to help the Mughal Emperor

The Sultan not only declined
in the time of need.

demanded the

to obey the Imperial firman, but

.of

return

the tribute and the territory already taken from him

by the Mughals or by the Marhattas, and pressed

either

for stopping the Thanabandi (formation of outposts

or block-houses by the Mughals) within his dominions.

Then he made an

alliance with the Sultan of

and invited the Marhattas

to his aid.

Golconda

When,

feeling

strong and secure, he attacked the Mughal outposts, the

Emperor himself marched against him at the head of a
In April, 1686 A.C. he laid siege to
huge army.
After

Bijapur.

a short but stout resistance, the

short of

falling

1686 A.C.
surrender,

capitulated in

provisions,

was

enlisted

kingdom was annexed

safety

Mansabdar and

as

September,

who saw

Sikandar 'Adil Shah,

Fall of Golconda.

found with
_
Kingdom of Bijapur, Golconda
(1) It had a number of Hindu

more

furnished

three

ministers,

two

who were

at the

of

the
:

whom,
helm

viz.,

(2)

king

'Alamgir.

(3)

For the

had
It

'.

the

Muslim population.*

to

given help
Sambhuji
had sided with Bijapur in

cruelties

of administrative affairs in

against
its

war

committed by Madanna and Akann'a,.

ff.
Speaking about these
was insolent, mean and

vide Aura,igzeb and His Times, pp. 305

two Hindus, Orme says, their 'rule

avaricious

Madanna and Akanna,

State, were extremely cruel to the

Its

next.

In addition to the faults

in

his

to the

Mughal Empire.
Bijapur annexed, the turn of Golconda came

city,

(Fragments,

p. 147.)

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

against the Mughals.*

Sultan (Abul Hasan),

'Alamgir found
his

it

reputation,

his pleasures

difficult to

which was

with

such

conquer
at

life.

When

his object

by

'Alamgir found

courage that
In defending

it.

stake, the

it

easy

and pastimes,

Sultan

nobly served by his general, Abdur Razzaq,

firm and faithful to his master to the last
his

The

Golconda was besieged.

hitherto led an

who had

and luxurious life, gave up

and defended his capital

351

was

who stood
moment of

impossible to achieve

force, the treachery of

one of the

officers

him to gain admittance into the

Hasan was taken prisoiter and his

of the garrison enabled

Abul

fortress.

kingdom was incorporated in the Mughal Empire.

Historians have rightly spun a halo of heroism
r

Abdur Razzaq.

Und

Abdur

RaZZ ^>

the

Valiant

hero of the State, whose noble presence was highly prized in the hla army.
No amount
of money could induce him to surrender to the

Mughal

anus.
at

His

last

He

fought bravely in a hand to hand fight till

he fell down, covered with seventy wounds.

sterling qualities of

from friends and foes

impressed by

head and heart exacted praises

alike.

'Alamgir was so much

he put him under the

his character that

*"When Aurangzeb tried conclusions

Golkonda, the crimes he alleged were these
oppression, permitting public dnnking-shops,

with the King of

high-handedness,

women

of evil

life,

and gambling houses, appointing Hindu Governors, maintaining

temples and not allowing to Muhammadans that free liberty
which they were entitled to. Therefore, God had made him
(Aurangzeb) King for the suppression of all thv se disorders
allowed by Abul Hasan."
(See Storia do Mogor by V. Manucci,
4

Vol.

III.

pp. 131-32.)

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

352

own private physician and got him

Had Abul Hasan had but two such servants, "

treatment
"

healed.
said

his

of

"
'Alamgir,

taken."

What

The

the

of

Impolicy

Southern

could never

fortress

a virtue

greatest

Deccan Conquest.

his

is

chivalry even in a foe

blunder recorded

political

annals

have been

of

Indian

history

is

in

the

alleged

have been the conquest of the

to

The reasons
by
'Alamglr.
be enumerated as follows
(1) Conse-

Sultanates

advanced

may

quent upon the conquest of Bijapur and Gloconda,

the armies of thes^ States were disbanded and the
discharged soldiery took service under the Marhattas and
swelled their ranks.
(2) The Sultanates exercised a

healthy check on the growing power

influence of the Marhattas in Indian
destruction

removed

this

check

Marhatta marauders from

them a

all

for

and increasing
Their

politics.

good and freed the

and

fear of local rivalry

the Mughal Emperor.

and
(3) The protracted
expensive war against the Deccan
exhausted the Mughal resources in men and material.
offered

free field against

As a result, the Mughal soldiers murmured for

and were allowed to quit the Imperial Army
so desired.

Marhattas.

(5)

of

the

Finally,

if

they

Again, the unemployed soldiers joined the

continued absence of 'Alamgir
(4) The

from the North resulted

part

arrears

in the

administration

of that

country growing slack and corrupt.

the annexation of the Deccan Kingdoms

immensely increased the extent of the Mughal Empire

and madeAt " too big to be ruled by one man from the
centre."

It is

argued by the

critics of

'Alamglr that he

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

MUHI-UD-DIN

353

would have acted wisely if he had left the Sultanates

of the Deccan alone until he had completely crushed
that he should have buried the old
the Marhattas
enmity between the Shias and the Sunnis and united
the arms of Islam against the Hindu confederacy which
had assumed most threatening dimensions or that he
should have allowed the Marhattas and the Shias to
;

use up their strength in mutual warfare because there

existed a fierce rivalry between them ; and that time,

men and money

profitably

that he wasted there could

have been

employed elsewhere. While admitting the

the Deccan conquest, the apologists of

of

impolicy

the

that

assert

idea

of

the
conquering
Sultanates of the South originated not with 'Alamgir
but with Akbar the Great who first launched a campaign
'Alamgir

against
to

his

them and

left their

successors; that

conquest as a family legacy

what

was

commenced by
successors was finally

Akbar and continued by his

completed by 'Alamgir and that, therefore, if the conquest of the Deccan was a blunder, 'Alamgir alone
;

should

not

be held

responsible

responsibility, they aver,

The

decessors as well.

for

it

the

must be shared by

onus of
his

pre-

'Alamgir, not satisfied

this
with
answer, retort that times had changed since
critics of

Akbar and conditions had become different in the

reign of 'Alamgir that Akbar had the support of the
Sikhs and the Rajputs, and with their help he could
;

easily

conquer

Indian

history

the

the
Marhattas
on
the stage of
appearance
that 'Alamgir had to figtt against

had not yet made

Deccan,

for

their

the Hindus, the Rajputs, the

Marhattas and the Sikhs

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

354

unaided and alone

and

that,

he ought

therefore,

to

have made common cause with the Sultans of Bijapur

and Golconda and defeated his enemies. But it must
"
"
forward policy
be remembered that the
of the previous

Mughal Emperors against the Deccan had made

avowed enemies of the Mughal Empire

the Sultans the

and

doubted

is

it

if

could

'Alamgir

enlist

their

Moreover, when he could do

without their help and achieve his object without their
support, he thought, there was no need to resort to

sympathy

or support.

Had

that step.

he

had the conquest

defeats

be dubbed
the

certain that

were

of

reduced

Deccan
as

defeated and the

resulted

in

his

Conquest may then

but we know for

impolitic

were

Sikhs
to

Sultanates

its

the

elsewhere,

justifiably

conquer the Deccan and

failed to

the Rajputs
Marhattas
were

subverted,

the

submission,

Deccan was conquered.

It

rnay

as

well be pointed out that if 'Alamgir had allowed the

Marhattas and the Sultanates to continue their fight,

the latter would have, in

to

He

he could

do

Marhattas

until

could help the Sultans against the

they had completely crushed them.

At any

This he would not do.

Deccan did not

in

any way

Mughal Empire.
servants

succumbed

former

their resources.

and

probability,

and added immeasurably to

There was, however, one thing which

the arms of the

survive long

all

the

If

after

were

him,

it

the conquest of the

contribute to the fall of the
rate,

Mughal Empire did not

was mostly because his sons

treacherous

but one more

India

bar.

had a

different history.

and

'Alamgir,

corrupt.

she would

Had
have

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN
'Alamgir's

expeditions

Maharashtra

Renewal
,

of

After

the

attention

and

seen,

nothing substantial

conquest of Golconda,
towards the Marhattas.

succeeded his father, Shivajl, lacked

his talented father.

1682-83

ended, as 'we have

activities against
the Marhattas.

against

dispatched
in

he

C.

in

smoke

was achieved.
diverted

Sambhuji,
all

had

his

who

the qualities of

While Aurangzeb was occupied

in

the Deccan campaign, Sambhuji should have mobilized

against the Mughals and thereby saved
But he remained
himself as well as the Sultanates.
his

forces

inactive during

all this

time and failed

tct embrace the

he
wasted away
sensualist,
drunkenness and debauchery.

As an indolent

opportunity.
his time and treasure in

His favourite minister, Kavi Kulesh (famous as Kalusha),

to whom he had entrusted all the affairs of his
government,
Marhattas.

was

He

'

the
unpopular with
extremely
was totally devoid of that organizing

which had

capacity

characterised

his

father.

As a

natural consequence, his soldiers reverted to their usual

habit of plunder.

They

lost their unity

and became

availed
of
himself
this
Aurangzeb
the
dis-united
soon
and
conquered
country.
opportunity
In 1689 A. C. Sambhuji was taken prisoner by a
Mughal general, Taqarrab Khan, in hte pleasure-house
at Sangameshwara, whither he had retired with his
Scattered.

and make merry. The loose

assembly was overpowered and their leader was executed.
This happened in March, 1689 A. C. Sambhuji's son,
Sahu, was nicely treated by 'Alamgir and \tas given the

women

title

to bathe, drink

of honest.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

356

These repeated
Rajah
recent

as
as

P^sence

terror

struck

reputation,

of

Aurangzeb near
Poona, surrounded by a halo of
grandeur combined with his personal

Ram
and

weakened the Marhattas.

disasters

The

into

their

Their

hearts.

weakness became the more conspicuous

when he

sent

an army to besiege Raigarh, their capital. It was there

that, after the death of Sambhuji, the leading Marhatta
nobles gathered together and acknowledged bis son,
Shivaji II, a

Rajah

boy of about

Ram

as

his

Rajah and appointed

as

five,

The Mughals captured

regent.

Raigarh and took possession of the forts of Mirlch and

Panhala. They also made Shivaji prisoner.
Rajah

Ram

escaped to JinjT and there he assumed the title of

Rajah, because his nephew, the minor Rajah, was in
captivity.

Aurangzeb sent

his general, Zulfiqar

R *J ah

Expedition
against Rajah

Rtlm

failed to take

applied

Emperor was not in a

the grand army was split up
and

provinces

kingdoms from

Mughal

forts

the

general could

prolonged
Marhattas,

the
in

siege

the
their

of

officers

therefore,

reinforcements
to

position
into small

detailed to different parts of the

the

He,

Jinji.

for

the

Khan, against

but the Mughal general

supply,

for

portions

and

to take over

Empire
newly

the
of

those

conquered

places.

make no headway and

for

full

meantime,

which

seven

The

therefore

years.

recuperated

The
and

strengthened
position.
They fully availed
themselves cf the opportunity presented to them by the
lack of harmony among the Mughal generals.
Prince

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

MUHI-UD-DIN

357

Kam

Bakhsh was suspected of traitorous correspondence

with the Marhattas and was, therefore, sent to the

Emperor

as a prisoner.

Zulfiqar

Khan was

also recalled

C.).
During 1694-97 A. C. several other
were
tried, but no better luck was in store for
generals
them, for the victories they won were short-lived. The
Emperor himself encamped at Brahamapuri on the

A.

(1694

Bhima and from

the

there directed the operations against

The

Marhattas.

generals enabled the

Marhattas

rivalry

Mughals

between

Marhatta

on the

to inflict defeats

some engagements.

in

the

When

Rajah Ram,

who had made

fall

of Jinji,

Satara his seat of government after the

heard of Aurangzeb's intention of attacking

that place, he escaped to Khelana along with his family.

The Mughals occupied a series of outposts and linked

them

in

such a way as to form a blockade.

The next

item on the war programme was to lay siege to the

stronghold of Satara, which stood at the summit of a

The

hill.

garrison

besiegers
rolled

suffered

down

heavy

huge

losses

from

stones

when

the

the

top.

Notwithstanding the great disaster which befell

Mughal forces, the Marhattas could not hold their

ran short of their provisions and

would not now connive at their underhand

for a long time.

Prince 'Azam
transactions.

the

own

They

Rajah

Ram,

exhausted

by

long

expedition, retired to Singhgarh only to expire there

the 2nd of March, 1700 A. C.

Rajah

Ram

was succeeded by

Kama, who

s'

few days.

_
T5ra Bai as regent
of her son
1

HI-

'

his

on

young son,

after a
died of small-pox
r
.

TarS

Bfti,

th^

dowager-

queen> raised her son| skivaji HI, to

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

358

and

throne

the

remarkable

became

herself

his

regent.

lady rose to the height of the occasion

This

and

continued a vigorous defence against the Mughals wha

had, by this time, sufficiently extended their sway in

Under

Maharashtra.
received a

new

lease of

her
life

the

Marhattas

and enthusiasm.

They now

influence,

fought with greater vigour, with the

result

that

the

Mughal-Marhatta War dragged on till the grand Imperial

army was completely disorganized and its resources
were exhausted.
Troubles, in the meantime, thickened on

all

sides

and the valiant old man of eighty*

End of 'Alamgir.
f
Ine
seven raced them heroically.
their
over
the
had
established
Sikhs
sway
Punjab and
had become a power to be reckoned with. The Jats of
.

Burhanpur were in open rebellion against the Empire

and never obeyed the Mughal Emperor. Amidst thebe
disappointments the hero of the field, Aurangzeb, passed
away in 1707 A. C. leaving the Peacock Throne as a

bone of contention among the Mughals, the Marhattas

the Sikhs and the Rajputs.
As long as Emperor 'Alamgir was alive, all went
.,

Mugnal

_
Empire

well

but

his

death

after the death of

schemes and

Emperor

The Marhattas now

'Alamgir.

defeated

spoiled
r
his

his

purpose.

rose everywhere,

plundered the Mughal convoys and recovered almost all

what they had lost. The Hindus had already alienated
themselves and the Sikhs were endeavouring to carve

out an

independent

kingdom

for

themselves.

The

English had established their factories in many places

and had started siding with the native powers in their

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGiR

Such was the

wars.

expired.

the

of

gravity

state of

now be

It will

when 'Alamglr

easy, perhaps, to appeciate the

which the

situation

found themselves face to

The appearance

affairs

later

Mughals

on the stage

of Indian

face.

of the Sikhs

may

history

be said to have dated

from the close of the

tury

359

when Baba Nanak,

fifteenth

the

cen *

founder

Sikhism.was busy in preaching the unity of God, the

As a
purity of thought and the nobility of action.
religious reformer, he condemned caste and colour, and
of

the

inculcated

equality

of

all

men

in the eyes of the

His followers came to be known as Sikhs.

Almighty.
The word Sikh means a disciple and he was the
disciple of the Guru who was the head of the new
Church.

In

there were ten Gurus, including Nanak,

all,

whose short account has already been

given.

A summary

sketch of the remaining nine follows.

Little

is

recorded of the ministry of the next Guru,

who succeeded the first Guru as

An S ad Dev ^cept that he committed

to writing much of what the Great

iS^-fssz^^C

Guru had performed and preached and some devotional

observances of

own, which were subsequently inGranth Sahib> the Bible of the Sikhs*

his

corporated in the

He

was true to the principles of his great teacher and,

finding that none of his sons was worthy of apostolic
succession,

he

nominated

Amar Das, an assiduous

The crowning achieve-

disciple of his, as his successor*

ment

of

Guru Angad was

alphabet.

the invention of t\e

Gurmukhl

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

360

Amar

Das, the third Guru, was a zealous preacher.

He was
r

1552^574

:!

successful in winning several

conv erts, many of whom were drawn

from the Jats. He divided his spiri-

tual jurisdiction into a

number

of dioceses, over each of

which he placed a pious Sikh. This extended the authority

Guru and increased the popularity of the new

of the

In a pious and humane spirit,

Satl and pronounced that

religion over the country.

he denounced the black

rite of

was she whom grief and not flame

and
advised that the afflicted should seek
consumed,
He died in 1574 A. C. and was
consolation with God.
the

true

Sati

succeeded by his son-in-law,

Ram

The name of Guru Ram Das

a

?57?l-5^A

c!

Das.
is

intimately associated

with the foundation of Amritsar, the

From Emperor
centre of Sikhism.

Akbar he received a piece

of land

and

he dug a reservoir, since known as Amritsar, or the

Pool of immortality '. He is reckoned among the most
revered of the Sikh Gurus, though no precepts of wide
in

it

'

application,

buted to him
slow in his
in

great practical value are attri-

of

or

rules

'.

Moreover,

'

ministration

1581 A.

the progress of Sikhism was

of seven

years/

He

passed

C., leaving his son to succeed

away
his Gaddl as Arjan Dev.
Guru Arjan was a

great

organizer.

him

He made

Amritsar the proper seat of his

ci P les

to

carr y

as

on
best

their

as

to

dis-

religious

they could.
The result was that the obscure village, with its small
pool, gradually grew up to be a populous city and the

propaganda

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

361

He edjted
place of pilgrimage of the Sikhs.
the Granth Sahib and converted the customary offer-

greatest

He encouraged

ings of his adherents into a regular tax.

trade

among

'economic

wrath

of

who was

condition.

tried

Unfortunately,

to ameliorate their

he

incurred

the

Jahangir by offering help to Prince Khusrau

He was
then in rebellion against his father

and thrown

fined

and

Sikhs

the

in prison

where he died owing to the

severity of confinement in 1606.*

Guru

Arjan's successor

under
D
?606

^645

was

whom

Har Govind,

his son,

the Sikhs formed them-

'

A c

selves

in to

wiHtary

organization.
united in his person
saint andf a sportsman.

The new Guru

the

qualities of

soldier,

He went

out for hunting and ate meat.

During his
Sikhs
the
made
marvellous
ministry
progress and
in large numbers.
The author of the
multiplied

Dabistan informs us that he was employed by Jahangir,

-but; was imprisoned at Gwalior for a
period of twelve
years

when he

appropriated
refused to pay

to himself the

his

the

his

pay of
imposed on

soldiers

and

father.f

he took service under Shah

Subsequently,
but soon separated himself by raising a petty

Jahan,

*Vide Dabistan-ul-Mazahib,

p.

234.

fine

According to Malcolm,

Guru was imprisoned by the Governor of Lahore at the

instigation of his enemy, Danlchand, whose writings he had
refused to incorporate in the Adi Granth. (See Malcolm's History
of the Sikhs). A Muslim writer, on the other hand, informs us
that the cause of the Guru's imprisonment was his refusal to
marry his son to the daughter of Danlchand (T'J^lkh-i-Punjab
the

.p. 87).

t Ibid.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

362

When

revolt.

defeated and driven to despair, he took

He died at Kartarpur in 1645 A. C.*

refuge in the hills.

The

?65-mi

Guru was Har Rai, the grandson of the

late Guru Har Govind.
He remained

next

R
A. C.

P eace at Kartarpur

succession broke out

till

the war of

among

the sons

Guru became a partisan of Dara.

When Dara was defeated, the Guru surrendered his
elder son to the Emperor as a hostage.
The youth
of Shah Jahan and the

was

treated

the

leaving
son,

due deference and

with

his

father

was

Har Rai

excused.

died at Kartarpur in 1661 A. C.,

pontifical office to be filled by his second

Har Kishan.
Guru Har Kishan remained
three years.

in

office

for

His ministry was

about
abso-

uneventf ul except that he had

to contend against the rivalry of bis
The latter was born of a
Rai.
lutel y

brother,

'

Ram

hand-maiden' and 'not of a wife of equal degree';

the former, therefore, had a stronger claim to the Gaddl.
When the struggle for succession reached a high
pitch, the case

Sikhs

to

was

their

own

elected, f

but

elect

accordingly,

who allowed the

Har Kishan was,

referred to 'Alamgir,

Guru.

he was not destined to

live

* The learned author of the

Tarlkh-i-Punjab informs us that
Damchand, the persecutor of Guru Arjan Dev, was handed
over by Shah Jahan to Har Govind who put the tormentor of
'

his father to death.' (Tarikh-i-Punjab).

t According to the District Gazetteers of Dehradun, the election of Har Kishan was disputed by Har Rai and the matter

was referred

to 'Alamgir

and His Times, pp.

who confirmed the election.

248-49.)

(Aurangzeb

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

MUHI-UD-DIN

1664 A. C.
Before his death,

Har Kishan had nominated Har

Tegh Bahadur as
Tegh Bahadur had

Guru Teeh

Govind's son,

BahadurT

successor.

1664-1675 A. C.

his

Ram

in

Court,

life

was executed

at

was
Not

and leadership were

Ram

Rai as well as

Summoned

proceedings'.

he

his

who

Rai,

at last the former

machinations of

suspicious

Imperial

both his

however,

after,

endangered by the
*

foe
till

as the spiritual leader of the Sikhs.

acknowledged
long

formidable

to assert his claims

continued

by

Attacked by small-pox, he passed away at Delhi

long.
in

363

'

the

to

'

as a rebel

in

1675

A. C.*

Guru Tegh Bahadur was succeeded by his son,

Govind Singh, at the age of fifteen.
^_
GuruGovmd
j
j
The execution of his father had made
Singh
.

.,,.,,

1675 -1708 A.C.

the young
the death

& d(?ep

Guru and he now made

his

of

on

impression

For

father.

the

vow

full

m nd
i

to

of

avenge

twenty

years

A.C.) he made preparations for the struggle

the
supremacy of Islam in India. He waged
against
wars against the Rajahs of Jammu, Garhwal and

(167595

other

places

independent
fortresses in

in

order

to

principality,

the

hills,

carve out for

or

at

least

to

himself
sieze

which might serve as a

an

a few

base

of

*See Siyar-ul-Muta akhkhirin (Brigg's ed.) pp. 74-5; Later

Mughals, Vol. I, p. 79 and Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 253 ff.
It has been alleged that the Guru (Tegh Bahadur) was executed
l

for refusing to accept Islam. This is incorrect. The fact is that

when sentenced to death 'for his crimes againsti the State,' he

was asked to save his life by accepting Islam.

offer and was executed for the offence charged

He* declined the

with.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

364

jniHtary operations against the Mughal Emperor and to

which he might retire in the event of danger.
Having

matured

vow

to

he emerged out of the hills with a

his mission and an oath to avenge the

his plans,
fulfil

death of his father.

Guru Govind

was

great

He

reformer.

His Reforms.

^,

and

religious

social

enjoined the worship

_

of Shaktt, the goddess

of force,

and

compulsory for the Sikhs to wear steel on their

He denominated his
person in one form or the other.
them
disciples the Khalsa (elect of God) and taught

made

it

He gave them
conquer.
outward signs of their religion in the five Kakkas, or K's
Kara (iron bangle), Kachha (short drawers), Kanga
that

were

they

born

to

(comb), Kes (uncut hair) and Kirpan (dagger).

introduced a

Khalsa

srl

new form

of salutation,

wah guru

use of tobacco,

jl kl fateh.'
liquor and other

He

also

'wah guru fi ka

He

prohibited the

intoxicants.

God

He

emphasised the equality of all men

of caste
preached monotheism. He made a clean sweep
distinctions and declared that the lowest in Sikh society
before

a^nd

In all this the influence

were equal with the highest.
of Islam is obvious.
According to him, salvation
could be attained only by the Khalsa. He emphasised
the importance of military training and diverted the
attention of the Sikhs, each of

whom
'

he called Singh,
The Turks must be

from the plough to the sword,

of those called saints
destroyed he said, 'and the graves
'

must be neglected.' Suchwise, the ways of the Hindus

must be deserted and the Brahmans' thread must be
He ruled out superstition and social ceremonies.
broken.

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN

From what

has been said,

it

will

be evident that fhe

religious aspect of the

e

movement was

gradually transformed into a military

of the |f

and
aims and

definite

365*

with
organization
of the later times

political

The Gurus

ideals.

were not the prototypes of the first four Gurus,

In
were exclusively devoted to their religion.
there cannot be

greater

than

contrast

that

who
fact,

between

the unostentatious, inoffensive and peace-making Nanak

and his subsequent successors who entirely changed

mode

and began to live like princes royal

amidst regal pomp and splendour,- organizing armies,
building forts and fighting for the achievement of

their

of

life

supremacy.
career extended over

Guru Govind

political

fifteen

he successfully fought

years,

Singh's military
during which period

the

against

chieftains

hill

and

His conqfuests roused the Mughal

provincial governors.
Government to another danger which might become
a menace

Rajahs

if

allowed

applied

to

to persist.

'Alamgir

for

When

the distressed

aid

their
against
against the Guru in

oppression, he dispatched an army

The Guru was defeated
order to bring him to book.
From this it is amply
and two of his sons were slain.
clear that 'Alamglr

Sikh Gurus

in

launched his campaign against the

response to the repeated requests of the

HindQ Rajahs who had

suffered great

injuries

at the

hands of the Sikhs, and yet by a curious irony of fate

the Mughal Emperor is blamed for unjustly provoking

The Imperialists then laid siege to the fort

Guru at Anandapur and reduced hipi to such
that he was compelled to make his Way to the

the Sikhs.
of the
straits

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

366

deserts of the district of Firozpur.

Hotly pursued by
he betook himself to a place which

the Imperialists,

subsequently became famous as Damdatna, where he

compiled the Granth of the tenth Guru. After a stormy

he

settled

at

Anandapur, where, in response

to his request, he received an invitation from the
He proceeded to the Mughal Court
Mughal Emperor.
in compliance, but before he reached it, 'Alamgir had
career,

The Guru espoused

passed away (1707 A.C.).

the cause

Bahadur Shah and accompanied him to the Deccan

at Nander he was killed by a Pathan whose
father he had slain.
of

where

Ever since the

,

Mug h a

with

the

Government for the

As has already
in
English had succeeded

Mughal

their trade interests.

mentioned,

Emperor

grant of

Empire, the English had

endeavoured to maintain
friendly

the

furtherance of

in

for

at the

1616 A. C,

Thomas Rao

the Imperial firman to the English,

allowing them some trade facilities in

been

of Sir

Court of Jahanglr and the

,.

'Alamgir and the

English
Early
English
settlements
India
relations

arrival

the

permission from the

receiving

building a

factory at

1639 A.C. they had

Rajah of Chanderi on

lease

factory with

defend

Mughal

In
MasulTpatam.
from the

obtained a piece of land

fort to

and

built

at

Madras a

themselves against the

The fort was

Dutch who had been hostile to them.
afterwards named as Fort St. George.
Shah Jahan,
who was more favourably disposed towards the English
than his predecessors, apart from allowing them fresh
trade concessions, permitted them to build factories at

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

Hugli and Kasimbazar

afterwards,

in

1650-51 A. C.

all their factories

367

Eight years

were put under Surat.

In

'Alamgir rewarded them for their heroic

resistance in the sack of Surat by Shivaji by reducing
Their position on the
the import duty on their goods.

1666 A.C.

improved in 1668 A. C. when for an

10 Charles II made over the
annual quit rent of
islands of Bombay and Salsette, which he had received
western

coast

as part of the

dowry

East

India

to

the

of his wife, Catherine of Braganza,

Company.

Now

they had a
feared the Marhattas
as

harbour of their own, they little

and the Dutch, The hostilities between the Dutch and
the Marhattas further

they

fortified

self defence.

new

charter,

their

their ambition and

on
the
western coast in
possessions

stimulated

Not long afterwards, Charles II granted a

which conferred some privileges on the

East India Company, making

it

an important power

in

the land.
Shaista Khan, the Governor of Bengal, imposed

some

duties on English trade in 1685 A.C.

Anglo-Mughal

Mughal power.

The

factors fefused to

the

local authorities

TMs

led

to a sort

pay them to
and defied the

of semi-official

war

The English
between the English and the Mugjials.
were assisted by King James II of England with ten or
twelve ships for the capture of Chittagong. When they
attacked the Mughal ships under Sir John Child,
'Alamgir ordered their arrest and the annihilation of

Masullpatam and Hugli. The

"
audacious
were seized and trade with the

their factories at Surat,

factories

foreigners" was forbidden.

But the Emperor was not

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

368

keen to prolong the war

the

instructed

he forgave the English and

new governor

Ibrahim,
them with leniency.

of Bengal,

to

Ibrahim arranged terms

with them and invited Job Charnock to return to his
former settlement at Hugli early in the month of
treat

October, 1690 A. C. and allowed him to plant a small

which took its name 'Calcutta'

station below the Hugll,

from an adjoining village, called Kalikata. This small

an important city and
station soon developed into

became the

Government

seat of British

in

India.

Sir

John Child, the President of Surat, who had declared

war against the Mu^hals with a view to establish a
strong and well-founded English dominion in India,
compelled to sue for peace. The Emperor
extended his pardon to the English without grudge and allowed them to trade as before on payment of Rs. 1,50,000.

was

at last

Henceforth, the English East India Company returned

its former methods of peaceful trade till the middle

to

of the 18th

followed

the

century
fall

activities of the

when

of the

French

the

political

Mughal

chaos, which

Empire,

and

the

in India eventually forced

upon
in
fish
and
to
th$
policy,
they began
troubled waters. From this time onwards their progress
was less showy but more sure and steady.

them a new

By

the year 1690-91

height
hlS

A.
of

C.
his

'Alamglr was at the

power. Nearly the

swa yachieving what

whole of India was under

He had

succeeded in

his

he had been^ struggling for. The SbJa Sultanates of

the Deccan were conquered and annexed to the Mughal
Empire.

Most of the Marhatta

forts

were captured

Alamgir's Empire in 1700

Aurangated*

Reference*:
I

The

thick line

-)

rodicttet the

extent of Afangir't Empire

2.

Tbe

undertint* art

lowfi

A.C

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

369

and Sahu, the principal claimant to the Marhatta

A glance
throne, was a captive in the Imperial Camp.
at the map will show tha't 'Alamgir was the Lord
Paramount of the whole of India, extending from
Kashmir in the north to Cape Comorin in the south
and from Kabul in the west to Chittagong in the east.

The main framework

of the machinery

of govern-

ment under 'Alamgir was the same

,
,.
T1tT
as under his predecessors.
We may,

Administration
under 'Alamgir.

however, note the following changes

in
4

and improvements on the

Alamgir to

The

convenience

suit his

extent of the

^nh eS^bahs

eighteen in the

the South.

The

territorial

boundaries of the

provinces were re-arranged.

number
fifteen to

made by

Mughal Empire had increased

and the
en

existing system

of

Svbahs was raised from

North and from three to

six in

Bengal, Multan and

efficiently administered by a

provinces

Kabul were too big to be

The

of

\ new arrangement was, thereOrissa and a part of Gondwana were

taken from the jurisdiction of the viceroy of Bengal and

single governor each.

fore, essential.

Likewise, the whole

placed under a separate governor.
of Southern Sind was detached from tjie province of

Multan and formed

with a governor of

into a
its

own.

distinct province of

So

also were

Thatta,

Kashmir and

a part of Hazara extracted from the province of Kabul

and made into a separate province and placed under a
separate governor. The reconstitution of the different
provinces of the Mughal Empire was quite satisfactory
from the Imperial point of view.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

370
Although

draw

to

'Alamgir tried
demarcation

between

politics,* yet in practice

administration

the
strictly

the

in

The

Qur'an.

the

and

religion

he

carried

of his

rules

of

line

on

kingdom

down

laid

character

theocratic

of

the

Muslim lunar calendar

the

that

Government implied

This was done and the llahl era

should be restored.
of

with

accordance

in

Akbar was discontinued.

Likewise,

taxation

was

prescribed by the Muslim

abolished all those taxes for which

brought down to the limits

The Emperor

Law.

obtained from

sanction could not be

many

away

with.

were

but

the

Hindu
revived,

pilgrims

though

The

it

Islamic

removed,

was not
State

also

to

enforce

forbidden

the laws

and

the

of Islam.

use

was

concerned with

the

morals of the Muslim

The

were ordered

to

of

Drinking was
other

strictly

intoxicants

was

was

discouraged and proleave the cities and to remove

Prostitution

prohibited.
stitutes

Jizla

Emperor, therefore, appointed censors whose duty it

look after the conduct of the people and

community.

to

As

Taxes on

strictly collected.

is

manners and

was

the Qur'an.

as eighty taxes were done

however, allowed to take

up their residence outside and were ordered to wear red
clothes so that they might be distinguished from the
their brothels.

rest of the
*

'

What

They

were,

women-folk, and hence the

name

'

lal

bibl

'.

connections have earthly affairs with religion ?

right have administrative works to meddle with bigotry ?
'For you your religion and for me is mine. Religion has n(fr
concern with secular business/ etc. (See Anecdotes, p. 99.)

What

'

'

MUHI-UD-DIN

The

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R

practice of

followed by

by Akbar and
was regarded as agzrinst
pwt an end to.

Darsfaan,

his

introduced

successors,

Is^am and was, therefore,

The King was the custodian of public money.
effected economies everywhere.
Bait-ui-MaL

371

expenses or the

He
The

~
,
,
Court were reduced to

He

maintained a well-organized
department, called the Bait-ul-Mal, or God's Treasury,
where the property of the heirless deceased was kept in
a considerable extent.

safe custody. Moreover, the property escheated

from the

noblemen was also deposited there. 'Alamgir always

endeavoured to increase the property of the Bait-ul-Mal
and the money accumulated there was spent for the
promotion of Islamic culture and civilization.

The

policy of centralization, introduced

Pohcy of overcentralization.
result

and

continued

his

by Akbar
successors,

The
Aurangzeb.
could
not
find
provincial governors

culminated

was that the

by

with

scope for the development of their natural abilities, so

much so that when the Emperor died the machinery of
collapsed all of a sudden and
was no one who could administer such a centralized

Mughal administration
there

government.

was rigorously administered and the Emperor himself sat at the Dlwan-i-Khas
,
...
JJustice.
from 8 A.M. till noon on every
Wednesday and dispensed even-handed justice to
In his work
he was
assisted
all
and sundry.
Justice

by

set

of

his patronage a

law

officers

syndicate of

famous Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri

of

great

renown.

Under

theologians compiled
at the

cost o*

two

th.e

lakhti

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

372

under the supervision of one Shaikh Nizam. Referring to

He is the main Ocean

him
from
all small rivulets of
and
of justice and equity,
wealth flow, and to him they all pay tribute, and
'

'Alamgir's justice, Ovington says

He

generally determines with exact

for there is no pleading of peeridge
justice and equity ,
the
before
or privilege
Emperor, but the meanest man is
Omrah.
soon heard by Aurangzebe as the chief

return

again.

Which makes

Omrahs

the

of

very circumspect

their

because all
actions, and punctual in their payments
are
them
readily adjusted, and they
complaints against
;

never want jealous rivals at Court who are willing to

bring them into disgrace with their King for any fault.'*

'Alamgir

was an eminent
widespread

educationist.

For the

diffusion of education he

established universities in almost

TduSion

cities of his

the important
in smaller

Empire and erected schools

his reign,

we

learn, Delhi,

(in Sind) were important

far-flung

towns.

Jaunpur, Sialkot and

centres of

During
Thatta
'

education.

famous

'is

all

The

for

Thatta/ says Hamilton,

learning
and
and
have
politicks,
above
they
theology, philology,
400 colleges for training up youth in those parts of
His interest in education, it may be pointed
learning.'t
this
out at
place, took after his general policy which
city of

aimed

at bringing the

Islam.

his

law into

reign
During
and Islamic

mighty

strides

dantly

under

his

line

literature flourished

patronage.

He

theory of what the education of the

* A Voyage to Surat in 1689, p. 120.
|A

New Account

of the

with the tenets of

Muslim education made

enunciated

abuna

new

Royal Princes should

East Indies, Vol.

i,

p. 78,

MUHI-UD-DIN

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

373

This theory of imperial education emphasised^ in

brief, the importance of
general knowledge, such as a
familiarity with the languages of the surrounding
be.

nations

an acquaintance with the distinguishing

tures of

every

strength

its

nation of the earth

mode

warfare

of

form of government, and wherein

manners,

its
its

resources and

its

fea-

religion,

interests principally

with the origin of states

their progress and
the
or
decline,
events, accidents,
errors, owing to which
such great changes and mighty revolutions have been
consist

with the reciprocal duties between the sovehis subjects, the art fcf war, of besieging a
reign
town or drawing up an army.*
effected

and

'Alamgir's political
A

little

..

Architecture.

left

pre-occupations

leisure to indulge in
^T

fancy.

him

his

but

artistic

Nevertheless, he made some

important additions to the existing architecture.

Among

the most remarkable buildings erected by him may be

mentioned the Marble Mosque in the Fort of Delhi

and the Badshahi Masjid

at Lahore.

The

latter is

specimen of the Mughal style of architecture.

Quite unlike his ancestors, 'Alamglr did

the

latest

'

PaiSing

music,'
practical performance.

delighted

in

the

he

was deadly against

own

pictorial records of

creed and

its

Likewise, in painting, though he

his

own grand-

doings, he sought to discriminate between the

his

not

actively patronize music and painting,

Himself well-versed in the science of

those of

others

For a detailed discussion on the

Muslim India, pp. 175 ff.

artists of

and therefore did

subject, vide Education

iti

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

374
to

nothing

it.

popularize

number

of

pictures,

and sieges, have come down to

which show that he did not discourage this art

illustrating his battles

us,

wholesale. All the same, the fine arts did not die at once

the death the

frivolities as

Emperor

is

have desired to such

said to

dancing. The musician and

flourished and continued to ply their

music and

the painter still

respective vocations

notwithstanding the

not positively hostile,

lukewarm, if
attitude of the Emperor towards

them.

The
_

of

reign

glorious

tatious

this

king

Gardens.

simple and unostenwas not without its

Among

beautiful gardens.

be mentioned the Badshahi

may

attractive of their class

the most

Masjid and Garden at Lahore, the Garden of Raushan

Ara Begam at Delhi, the ChauburjT Bagh, the Nawan
Kal Bagh at Lahore and the Pinjor Garden.
It

is

under-rate the character and

to

impossible

achievements
the

glr

last

described
fjurple

and

his

in

unassuming
peformance of his

'

'Alam-

Aurangzeb

of our Great

the

puritan

Mughals,
in

the

in his

Magnificent

'.

as

of

public appearance, simple

private life, exact in the

religious observances,

prompt

in the

dispatch of his daily business, an eminent educationist,

a remarkable religious enthusiast, a patron of the poor

and the learned, a great literary genius, an elegant letter'

writer,

fountain

master of pen as

of

of

sword'

triumph of character.

honour/ and a
'Alamgir was indeed a
left no faculty of his active

justice

He

as

of

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

MUHI-UD-DIN
mind
even

and allowed no spring of his frame to relax

His ideal of kingahip
evening of his life.

to rust
in the

'

was very high

for others

dence,' he said,

own

ALAMG*IR 375

that

happiness,

connected with

to
it

was sent into the world by Provilive and labour, not for myself, but
is

my

not to think of

duty

so

far

except
the happiness of

as

my

my

is

it

inseparably
It is the
people.

repose and prosperity of my subjects that it behoves

me to consult nor are those to be sacrificed to anything
besides the demands of justice, the maintenance of the
;

royal authority, and the security of the State.'

indeed to his credit that he lived up to this lofty

It is

ideal.

With him governing was a duty, seriously undertaken

and honestly performed. He felt disgusted at the idea
of

making

religion

(Islam)

of

plaything

mental

gymnastics and a sport of royal whims and moods.

deplored the debasement of the noble ideals

religious

of

Islam

identities

He

his

tried to

perfection.
it was

voice

the

against

restore

He

for political reasons.

tolerate religion being overriden

raised

and

and was exasperated at the aberrathose who lacked courage and concealed their

traditions

tions of

He

by

Islam to

'

danger
its

Thus did he play the

in this capacity that

politics

'

could not

and therefore

that lay ahead.

pristine

purity

role of a reformer

and

he commanded the confidence

of his co-religionists during

his

lifetime

and again

capacity that he enjoys the reverence

He ruled India as a
co-religionists even now.

is in this

and

of

it

his

Muslim

King and was therefore hated by the Hindus then as

much as now. But the fact cannot escape recognition
that
Alamgir was a little too rigid in his methods and
'

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

376

zeal.

reforming

man

narrowness of vision

betrayed
of

As a man

iron-will,

in

displaying

of imperial instinct

he disdained to

to

yield

his

and a

popular

agitation and never changed his attitude even when

exegencies of the hour demanded lenity and liberal

did yield to the demands of the

Ulama.
Justified from the standpoint of the Emperor,
some of his acts were undoubtedly calculated to create

though

treatment,

for

difficulties

he

him.

Tba

he

that

allegation

was

and suspicious by nature is not justified.

treachery of his sons and officers, who secretly
joined his enemies against him, put him on his alert and
constrained him to take necessary safeguards against

distrusful

The

them.

If,

the

by

watched

therefore, their acts were vigilantly

Emperor,

it

was because they had

proved

To sum up, 'Alamgir was

treacherous time and again.
indeed a great king, doubly so from the standpoint of
his co-religionists. No other emperor has been subjected
such

to

severe

scrutiny

as he,

and yet he has exacted

the admiration of friends and foes alike.

who was

Bernier,

Bermer's view.

the

Great

admit that

of 'Alamglr's reign,
quarter
^

means

Mughal.
'

present in India during

Even
*

Alamgir)

versatile

Hamilton,

who
the

Hamilton

view.

visited India

is

is

endowed with
consummate

towards the close of

the
century, pays
r
;
well-deserved tribute to the

seventeenth
.

following
* Bernier' s Travels in the

was by no

*
A
disposed towards
he had no hesitation to

and rare genius, that he

Statesman, and a great King'.*
a

first

favourably

this Prince (viz.,

the

Mogul Empire,

p. 199.

MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR

MUHI-UD-DIN

monarch

much-maligned
Prince in every

politics

distributive

justice

He

better

he

than

was a

(Aurangzeb)

None

qualified for governing.

way

understood

*
:

The

he.

377

ever

balance of

He

held in exact equilibrium.

was brave and cunning in

and merciful
war,
and magnanimous in peace, temperate in his diet
and recreations, and modest and grave in his apparel,
courteous

behaviour to his subjects and affable

encouraged the laws of humanity

his

in

He

in his discourse.

and observed them

Writing
.,

.,

Manucci

view

as well as those of religion/*

about the reign

1701 A,C.,

of*Emperor 'Alamgir in
Niccolaa
^ Manucci, the

Italian

traveller

who was

in

India-

during the second half of the seventeenth century,

"
The great age of the Emperor
and the
says:
ambition to gain the throne continuously displayed by
his sons and grandsons, give rise to the apprehension
of

some catastrophe

at

the

the close
ablest

saying
the

who

inseparable

always obeyed
every

man

*A New
Vol.

II,

good
from
his

spite of this,

that

of

government

it,

this

be

Prince-

age and the

knows how

former vigour,

infir-

to get himself

and to

hold

to his allegiance".!
Account

o/ the

East Indies, by Alexander Hamilton,

p. 103.

t Storia

will

all

aged monarch is still in this

they rely on the admirable

in spite of his great

with

In

reign.

assert

the

this,

and

(Aurangzeb),
mities

as

long

In

conduct

Shahjahan's

politicians

peaceful so

world.

of

quite as tragic as that supervening

Do Mogor by Niccolao Manucci,

Vol.

hi,

pp. 249=50,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

378
"

The

abilities of

Shah Jahan's son and

"

Keen

Keen,
AlamgTr," says
J

view,

successor,

rendered him
.

the most

famous house.

Intrepid

war, his political sagacity

member

famous

of

his

and enterprising as he was in

and statecraft were equally

unparalleled in Eastern annals.

He

abolished

capital

and encouraged agriculture,

punishment,
founded numberless schools and colleges, systematically
understood

constructed roads and bridges

house of Tirnur attained its zenith.

In

The

his

reign the

wild Pathans

Kabul were temporarily tamed, the Shah of Persia

sought his friendship, the ancient Muslim powers of
Bijapur and Golconda were subverted and their terriof

rendered subordinate to the sway of the empire

tories

hitherto indomitable Rajputs were subdued and

made subject to taxation
and if the strength of

the

the

Marhattas

lay

upon the Western Ghats,

of such
anticipate that a band

gathered

was not possible to

marauders would long

it

resist

might of the great

the

Mughal/'*

Orme, the famous

historian,

^
Orme
s

achievements

view.

__ f

says

of

sums up the
Alamgir when ho

only
...

'The condition

of the

,,

Moghul

Empire, began to lose its vigour immediately after the

death of Aurangzeb, the ablest monarch that ever
9

reigned over Indostan. ^

* The Fall of the

in

Mughal Empire, by H. G. Keen.

History of the Military Transactions of the British

t
Jndostanfro.n the year 1715, by Orme.

Nation

CHAPTER XVII

RETROSPECT
"

Mughal Culture and

Civilization

No

presentation of history can be adequate which

the &
neglects
&
growths of the religious
*
...
Introductory.
conspicuousness, of literature, of the
.

moral and physical science, of

ot scholarship, of
art,
into
these
inquiry
aspects of life during

An

social life."

Mughal Period of Indian History forms the subjectmatter of the present chapter.
Though these aspects

the

have been treated at some length in tfie preceding

account at their proper places, it is proposed to sum up
For the sake of
the subject in the RETROSPECT.
convenience,

it

is

best

to

classify

them

as

Political,

and Economic.

Social, Religious

Political Features

The

hardest
01

sJccSn

nut

crack

to

any sovereignty is
that of succession.
This must have
been ver y much so in Isl * m if it had
not cut

unlimited

the

the

latitude to

based on the

in

law

gordian knot by giving

of succession which it

earliest traditions of its rule.

reference

to a typical one of such traditions appears apropos of the

subject.
a divine

The Prophet

of Islam

commissioner.

governed his people as

After his death, the Caliphate

(succession) became a cause of contention between the

several claimants and the solution of the tangle involved

three

principles

first,

the ruler's

relative in the absence of a son

appointed

by him or

his

heir

his son, or a

secondly, the

nominee

and

person

thirdly, the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

380
person on

whom

agreed.

Thus,

Musalmans were
apparent that there was no well-

the majority of
is

it

the

defined law regulating the succession to the throne.

Sometimes the law of primogeniture applied, in which
case the claims of the first-born were recognised
often
nominee succeeded ; and not infrequently the
the
;

succession was effected by a plebiscite conducted by the

and the sovereign-elect was

chief officers of the State,

not necessarily a direct descendant of the late king.

Owing to the absence of a fixed law of succession ta

came into conflict and

But underlying this absence was
an advantage in the civil war that followed the death
of a king, only the fittest survived and ruled with great

the throne, rival interests often

resulted in bloodshed.
:

In

efficiency.

nor

geniture,

Mughal
the

India, neither the

of

principle

nomination was adhered

to.

law of primo-

plebiscite,

Except

in

nor even of
case of

the

who

enthroned himself unopposed at the death

Akbar,
of his father, the sword decided the
struggle for succes-

and

sion

the

successful prince cut short the

rival collaterals lest

re-assert their

bance

in

Our

at

life

of his

future

date,

they should,
claims to the throne and create

distu*--

the kingdom,
Mediaeval

Mughal Monarchy was

Mughal Monarchy
and its nature.

se , dom

State.

power

not

Persian traditions.

from

a secular

The

was
Sharlyat,
a ,j owed tQ interfere with the

institution.

his

some

The Mughal Emperor

the

He was

Muslim

Law

derived

but from

virtually the State and

his

was absolute. From the very nature of the case, the

Mughal Government was an absolute monarchy, which

will

RETROSPECT
knew nothing
element

in

it

was

policy

once

at

elective

so

it

that

-acquiescence of

and

rights

had
much of democratic
was based not on force but on the
the people and its general administrative

but

assemblies,

constitutional

of

381

it

in

and the sentiments

accord with the

of

its

of

spirit

the age

The Mughal

subjects.

Emperor took care to carry out the wishes of his people

and tried his best to secure the greatest happiness of
Perfect religious freedomand
the greatest number '.
'

unconditional liberty of conscience are the sine qua non

of the stability and success of every State. The Mughal

Emperors understood

this

and Jherefor^ shaped

their

They adopted a Sulh-i-Kul policy

policy accordingly.
and carried it to its logical conclusion. Reconciliation
and universal

toleration were their

of

testimony

contemporary

watch-words.

chroniclers

The

and European

travellers eloquently testifies to this fact.

The Mughal Government undertook

to

guard the

country against external invasions, to

or./

Functions of

regulate foreign

the Mughal

policy,

to

maintain

law and order, to suppress crime and

Government.

encourage public morality, to provide

and property, to disseminate

for the protection of life

justice

these

and

enforce

to

constituent

private contracts.

functions, the

Mughal

Apart from

Government

performed some ministrant

duties, such as the fixing of

coinage, regulation of trade and industry, maintenance

of roads and highways, establishment of hospitals, resthouses and other works of public welfare, administration
of famine

ment

relief,

of arts

promotion of education and encourage*

and

literature.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

382

The methods
Methods

of

of

administration

the

early

Sultans of Delhi were rough and rude

indeed;* .but the later sovereigns of

of

administration.

Islam, especially the

Mughal Emperors,
were great statesmen and they have left many fruitful
ideas and useful institutions behind them. The Mughal
Empire manifested a higher degree
tion

than

Humayun,
were

all

had previously

existed

of polical organizain

India.

Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan,

sovereigns of

uncommon

political

Babar,

and 'Alamgir
acumen and

marked administrative talents. The last three retained

intact the vast and wonderful Empire which the conshad brought into being,
tructive genius of Akbar

Where they

received their talent for administration

not hard to say

it

was

is

intuitive, inborn, self-taught

not acquired.

For purposes of efficient administration the Empire

was divided into a number of pro*
Administrative
v inces, at each of which was stationed
divisions

or
Subedar,
viceroy who was
Each
assisted by a revenue officer, called Diwan.
or
into
sub-divided
Sarkars, each
districts,
province was
of which was placed in charge of a local governor, or
into
Faujdar. Each Sarkar was further sub-divided
a

The
into villages.
and each Pargana
was
called
Qanungo and
charge of a Pargana

Parganas
officer in

that of a village

In

the

Administration
of justice,

his

Muqaddam.

modern sense

of

the word, there was

hierarchy of courts

of

King was the fountain

was the highest

court

of

appeal.

no

justice.

The

of justice

and

The

justice

RETROSPECT
out was rough

dealt
of

the

were
that

383

courts

that

was

it

it

and ready and the procedure

was simple and summary. Its morits
was quick and cheap. Its danger was
to

apt

miscarry.

The Qazis

settled the

the Musalmans
according to their
whereas
civil
disputes among the Hindus
religious code,
were decided by Hindu judges and those
between

between

cases

Hindus and Musalmans by Muslim Judges

set of

Brahman

scholars competent to

customs and Shastras.

assisted

expound

The Emperors and

by a

Hindu

the Provin-

cial Governors also heard appeals and often revised

and even modified the decisions of the lower courts.
Punishments were, of course, severe, l?ut they had

deterring effects.*

In theory, taxes were levied in accordance with the

...

by the Muslim Law;

practice, they were imposed,

limits prescribed

Taxation.

but

and remitted

in

by the Emperors as well

as by the Provincial Governors. Taxes on Crown-lands,
the land revenue, customs duties, tributes from depenrelaxed

dencies, escheats
of income.

The

arbitrarily

and presents were the

principal sources
or
abolished
Jizia,
poll-tax,
by Akbar,

was re-imposed by 'Alamglr, though

it

was not

strictly

collected.

On the authority of European travellers who visited India

during the Mughal Period, some modern writers have frequently
referred to the vanity of the Qazls and the corruption of other
Government officials. 1 do not for a moment deny the charge
altogether, but I cannot help pointing out that the picture
*

painted by them is rather exaggerated. Corruption there was,

but it was not condoned or connived at by the Government. On
the other hand,

it

was

strongly suppressed

and severely dealt

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

384

For the maintenance of law and

and the

order

even-handed distribution of

The

essential.

maintained one

in

state

high

is

absolutely

Mughal

Emperors

highly organized police

Organization.

justice,

of

The

efficiency.

was Kotwal, the custodian of

principal police officer
duties have been
public peace and security, whose
He was
detailed at some length in a previous chapter.
assisted

by a

set of subordinate officers in the discharge

of his multifarious duties.

'Government

that
'

It is

a tribute to the Mughal

efficient
an
police

to

owing

order and security prevailed in the

organization
business was safe,

and

merchants

foreign

cities,

were well

.protected.'

Espionage has indeed a bad odour about it and

yet it has been found indispensable

Secret service.
.civilized

need
In
-or

even

governments.

most

by the

In a despotic

advanced

j
and

government the

sound spying system can be well imagined.

Mughal India, there were the Waqai Navis,
for

Recorders

of

Events,

and

the

Khufia

Navis,

with. No government, however advanced, can claim to be free

from corrupt officials, and the Mughal Government was no
Notwithstanding the efficient systems of
exception to the rule.
administration evolved by different nations and the deterrants

.devised by them, there

is

corruption,

and corruption

in plenty,

every country and in almost every department, at least

among the ministerial staff. In Mughal India, we gather from
the original sources of information, every effort was made to
remove it and, in consequence, there was in those days a good
in

^balance of justice and fair-dealing, certainly better than any

other country could claim.

RETROSPECT
or Writers

of

Secret

provincial

capital

informing

the

385
stationed

Intelligence,

and

with

entrusted
of* all

Emperor

that

at

the

each

task

occurred

of

the

in

his Empire.
There was a close
the
Secret
Service
and the Postal
between
connection
Service so that no secret should leak out.
different -parts

of

There was a regular postal system

,

in

vogue

in

India.

Postal Service.

Mughal
Along every
*J Imperial
*
road there was, at a distance of six

Chowki, where the runner

(Harkara) brought the Imperial dispatches and whence
the runner, appointed to go to the next Chowki, set off
At night the runners were
at full speed with the mail.
trees
of
standing- on either side
guided by the avenues
miles, a post office, called

of the road.

were

set

and

up

kept

Where

there were no trees, heaps of stones

at a distance of every five

white-washed

neighbouring villages.

hundred paces

the

residents of the
by
Horses were also kept in all the

serais along the Imperial

mail-service.

highways to provide a regular

But the runner was sometimes swifter

than the horseman, because at night in the dark the

former ran undeterred by darkness or storm, whilst the

was compelled to ride slowly. On the whole, the

system worked so well that it secured the stability of the

latter

Empire by keeping the Emperor

with what

touch

in

occurred in the provincial governments.

The

beneficent

character

of

the

Government comes out

archftecture.

advantage

in

architecture.
skill

to

Mughal
its

best

and
There was none whose
relation

to

arts

and ingenuity were not appreciated and rewarded.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

386

The

Imperial patronage raised the fine arts to a high

water-mark, and as a result, we have those master-

which, like the Taj, will always elicit our

"
"
After all
says an English
spontaneous admiration.
"
of
the
the
scholar,
splendour
Mughal dynasty is
unsurpassed in the annals of the world, and that
pieces,

splendour has always found

architecture.

The

its

technical skill to
"

In

those

beautiful

ideas,

in

lovely

and the

these ideas in stone."

embody

days no Government

department

Education.

made

craftsmen

Mughal

buildings because they had

supreme expression

of

had a regular
instruction."

public
v

The

Mughal

Emperors,

however,

opened schools and colleges in the various parts of their

Empire and sought

to

supplement

achievements

their

extensive patronage of literary worth.

During the
education
was
diffused
the
threefold
by
Mughal period,
means of (1) schools and colleges, (2) mosques and
monasteries and (3) private houses, typifying three forms

by

of education, viz., university,

The

curriculum embraced

arithmetic,

algebra,

the

geometry,

primary
art

of

and

domestic.

administration,

accounts,

agriculture,

economics, history, ethics, astronomy, medicine, physics,

law and ritual. It may be mentioned here
philosophy,
that in the schools and colleges founded by the Mughal
Emperors and others, Hindu students studied side by
side with their Muslim class-fellows and there was no
restriction in this or

instruction

madrasahs but

own

any other respect. For the

were separate tnaktabs and

usually they received their education in

houses or in the houses of their chosen Ustads
t

their

in

of girls there

RETROSPECT

387

(teachers) living in the neighbourhood.*

The

impression

Was Muslim

seems

to

be

Q uarters that the

Rule

in India a rule
of foreigners?

wa? that
.

current

of foreigners.

It is

in

India

necessary
.

.,

some

in

Muslim Rule

to strike at once at the root of this

erroneous notion.

To

be sure, the Muslim Kings from

the establishment of the Slave Dynasty down to the

decline of the Mughal Empire were foreigners only in
the sense in which the sovereigns of England have been
foreigners to the

Mother Country since the time of

William the Conqueror. It cannot be disputed that

William was a foreigner, but because he mkde England
his home, he is as much English as all his successors

down

to the present king

foreigners only

of the

have been.

in the sense in

which

Again, they were

the Presidents

all

United States of America have been owing to

their foreign extraction.

Aibak,

the

first

the

of

king

Sultanate of Delhi, and Babar, the first king of the

Mughal Empire, came from foreign lands, no doubt, but

they

settled

down

in

this

country,

made

it

their

permanent home, identified themselves with the interests

ci the country and ruled it rather as Indians than as
Their successors were born in India, lived
foreigners.
in

India and died in India.

every inch.
the Aryans,

They came

who

Thus, they

were Indian

as foreigners indeed, but like

too were foreigners,

themselves on the Indian

soil,

they engrafted
sucked into their veins

the Indian sap, nurtured themselves under the

*For the contributions made by

warmth

the Muslim Kings

others to the sacred cause of education, vide Education in

India.

and
Muslim

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

388
of

Indian

the

sun

and

conditioned

their

growth,

multiplication and expansion under the Indian climates.

the march of time they became, with each

The
succeeding generation, 'of the earth earthy'.
So,

with

metamorphosis, which was proceeding apace, was

rendered complete by the intermingling of the children
they retained a distinctive stamp, it was
largely of religion, but that too was evanescent, because
the converts to the faith from the natives were
of the

If

soil.

indistinguishably absorbed into their ranks.

those

who

still

retained

their

old

faith

Many

of

completely

identified themselves with the patriotic spirit so natural

to the sons of Islam

and were

occupy from the

called to

lowest position to the highest, next only to the king's.

Again, it was the Muslims who first put a barrage
Pass and other Eastern Passes and
against the Khyber

thus kept India in immunity from foreign invasions.

Finally, all the material resources of the State were
spent in the country
to

lands.

foreign

Muslim

rule

with the old

itself

and nothing was drained away

Another important feature of the

was that the

institutions

ruling class did not interfere

of

the

natives.

system of corporate village

honoured

The

time-

government and

was not disturbed in the least

taken
to establish law and order
was
and
within the country and to maintain a peaceful policy
district

administration

every care

outside.

Some have gone even

Are Muslims
?

Musalmans

so far

as

to

as foreigners.

declare

all

With

the

exception of a few Semitic races, such

as the Sayyp.ds, the Qureshls and others, the forefathers

foreigners

RETROSPECT

389

of a vast majority (9/1 Oth) of Muslims were Hindus and

hence Indian. They embraced Islam and left behind
generations of Muslims

the time rolled on.

who

Change

multiplied in

numbers as

of religion does not imply

and an Indian Hindu who becomes

change
Muslim
does
not become an Arab, an Afghan
a
to-day
or a Persian, but continues to be Indian as long as he
of nationality

As regards the Sayyads

does not change his nationality.

and others who came from

country and

made

it

their

outside,

home,

it

is

settled

in

never too

this

much

to say that they were Indian quite as much as the

Aryans who preceded them. Just as the Aryans came

from outside, took up their permanent abode in India

and became Indian in course of time, similarly they (i.e.
Sayyads and others) came as foreigners no doubt but,
;

like their predecessors (Aryans

home and became

naturalised jn

they made

India their

it.

Social Features

The

cultural unity of India was another enduring

achievement of the Muslim Rule.

Cultural unity of
India during the
Muslim Rule.

Hindu-Muslim
social
intercourse
Hindus and Muslims studying side
bv side in the same schools without
;

any restrictions
compulsory education in Persian
mutual exchange of words, thoughts, and ideas both
in arts and literature
adoption and incorporation
;

these forces combined and cumulatively contributed

to the cultural unity of India during the Muslim Rule,
all

particularly during the

Mughal Period under the

tolerant

There were *nany Muslim

scholars who studied Hindu arts and sciences, wrote
rule of the Great Mughals.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

390
and

poetry

prose and encouraged their cultivation,

there were several Hindus who cultivated

Lil'ewise,

Muslim

and sciences and made

arts

Persian literature.

the

and ennobling
devised

Either

its

enriching

outlook on

common medium

in

community contributed

of the other,

literature

mark

their

and

life

of

its

to

vocabulary

letters.

They

Urdu, and

expression,

All these forces,

developed it into a literary language.
while acting and reacting on each other, brought the
two communities nearer to each other, merging them
into

homogeneous whole.

result in

the

evolution

All

of

them and bridged the

them on account of religious
united

It is

its

who

not

its

because

which existed between

is

core ot their religion.

a

nationalist,

a true follower of

his faith

which

differences.

nationalism

natural

culture

have alw ays been great

strength.
is

gulf

had

of history that the

commonplace

Muslim Soc.ety
and the sources
of

this

common

is

Musalmans
nationalists,

the

at

very

A Musalman,

not, strictly

inasmuch as

speaking,

he

is

not

"

Let there be in you a

obeying the Divine Order
nation summoning unto the good."
In India, as
elsewhere in the
Muslim World, the Musalmans
:

formed one

solid nation, ready to

at the shrine of religion,

immolate themselves

honour and

love.

Their

life

of

action moderated their fear of death and they achieved

uncommon

triumphs in almost every sphere of human

endeavour. Their religion was a great source of strength
to them.
first

The wars

of the Crescent were won,

place by science, in the second

the third

by

discipline.

The

in

the

by patience, and

five daily prayers

in

portended

391

RETROSPECT
active

fasting in

life,

the

month

Ramzan

of

implied

a test of endurance, the niggardliness of nature and*the

rigours of climate, in which (hey lived, meant an excellent
of becoming
discipline for them ; while the vision

a foremost nation of the world fired their

spirit.

proverbial pomp and magnificence of the

Mughal Court will always remain a
byword of those who have even a

The

acquaintance with Indian

were surprised at the

nodding

The

history.

foreign travellers

splendour that surrounded the Sovereign and his Court.

On

Fridays, after public prayer, piusicians, story-tellers,

athletes and wrestlers assembled at the Royal Court and

amused

the

performances.

King

and

with

courtters

his

The Court

presented a scene

joyous activities and there was nothing wanting to

the show a splendid success.

Dress

in

Mughal India

is

their

of most

make

another instance of the

vanished glory upon which the mind

Male Dress

delights

to

dwell.

Hailing

from

different climates, the warlords of Islam

naturally paid
great attention to the requirements of their dress. Wool

was preferred

to cotton

like stuffs in fashion

and

silk

with the

to

the

flimsy gauzenative aristocracy.

The
of India during the
pre-

worn by the people

Islamic period made room for the Pajama
more
which
and
came
to
be
known
close-fitting,
stylish
trousers

as

halwar, or Izar, tied by a string with tussles at the

waist

dress.

the high-heeled slippers gave place to the heel-

The

less.
:

so-called

Knee-long

Jamah became

in the beginning,

it

usual, court
reached up to the
thfe

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

392

the later Mughal days.

The Nadrl wear,
invented by Jahangir, was a robe of honour reserved
for the favoured few of his courtiers.
One of the

ankles in

noblest contributions
dress

the

is

popular

made by Musalmans

to

Indian

head-wear called Pagrl,

which

.became universal after the establishment of the Mughal

Empire in India. The dress of the Emperor was often

made

of thin material, interwoven with gold thread

with

decorated
foliage.

His

jems and

jewels.

It is

embroidered

patterns

flowers

of

head-wear was embellished

and
and

with pearls,

extremely difficult to determine at this distant

date the minutice of female dress

Female Dre^s.

among

because of the observance of privacy

the ladies of the Harems.
The paintings of

eminent

court

are

ladies

apocryphal to be described

or

non-existent,

in detail.

are

too

reputed portrait

shows her

of

in closeEmpress Nurjahan distinctly

and
bodice
trousers
down
to
the
end
coming
fitting
of the Shalwar and a slight Sari to serve for setting

The

rather than for clothing.

themselves in

full skirts of

female-dancers dressed

the flimsiest material with a

jaugy Sari and a tight-fitting bodice with long

This was, perhaps, necessitated by the very
nature of their profession.

light

sleeves.

Profuse

jewellery

was

used

ornamentation.

band,

decoration.

or

universal

for

The

the

among

extra-personal

use of

Kamar-

waist-band,

both

the

was
sexes.

mentioned that almost every

which
some ornament or other
part of the body, on

For the

rest,

it

may

be

RETROSPECT
<x>uld possibly be fixed or

Anklets,

and

collars

and

bracelets

hung,
armlets

former

the

girdles

393

was not without*

rivalled

it.

necklaces,

ornamental

adding

splendour to feminine grace and the latter adding form

to masculine vigour.
The nose-ring is a Muslim

woman's face ornaments.

The
Musalmans made ear-rings much lighter but more
brilliant
and valuable than before.
Of
personal

contribution to Indian

ornaments, the use of

well as

to

betel, or

sweeten breath,

and

pdn,
of

to

colour

henna

to

lips as

colour

palms, nails and finger-tips of hands and nails and soles

of feet of females as well as gra^ bearcft, moustaches
and heads was in vogue in those times as it is now.

amusement

In

Am

se

and

recreation

the

Musalmans

maintained throughout their ascendancy

those illustrious traditions of boundless

magnificence which have com'e

still

down

to posterity

and

astound the foreigners. Of outdoor games, Chaitsar

and

(chess)

Chaupar

(a

game played with

dice

or

cowries on a piece of cloth gr board) seem to have been

favourite with the commonalty as well as aristocracy.

Akbar

is

credited with the repute of having invented a

number of new games on the principle of Chaupar

and playing-cards. Gentler arts, such as music and
were
painting,
among other indoor amusements.
Hunting,

chariot-racing,

pigeon-flying,

gladiatorial

combats, elephant-fights, swimming and Chaugan (polo)

may also be mentioned among the popular outdoor
sports.

"

"In many

of these sports" says Professor

women joined
Shah,
abandon."

their men-folk in a

K. T.

most perfect

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

394

The

of

lot

ordained

as

Muslim

the frame-work of

misunderstood

absolutely

much

by an

ludicrously untenable

say the

Holy

society, is

missionary as
widespread, not to

alien

The

by a native visionary.

as

the

by

Qur'an, the real place they occupy in

women.

Status of

women,

women

notion, that

in

Islam have no souls, that they are too much the servants of their husbands' passions or the toys of their
has by this time been fully exploded, and it
certain that it was nothing more than what a

idle hours,
is

now

jaundiced eye could see.* The honour of women has

always been jealously safeguarded by the followers of

The

Islam.

sacred and

very word Harem signifies something

shows that women were held in honour

on veneration.

verging

testimony of

native

This

historians

is

borne

as

well

out
as

by the

by

foreign

travellers.

c,.

Slavery was a recognised institution in Mughal India

as it was everywhere
else in the
J

Slavery

world.

bered here that in Islam

the

condition

of

It
little

slaves.

their sons could rise to the

in the State

towards

is

credited

the

whereby

Besides,

we know

with

prisoners

the

.,

attached to

of

for certain that the

practice of

introduction

manumission.
of

reform^

war were forbidden to be

enslaved.
*See Spirit

is

a glowing tribute to the attitude of Islam

slaves.")

is

degradation

The fact that slaves and

most distinguished positions

State always encouraged the

Akbar

must, however, be remem-

of Islam, pp. 222-57.

pp. 258-67.

RETROSPECT

395

Religious Features

Unlike their predecessors

Muslim

the very

causes.

were

large

of
rule

conversions

in

by

The
country.
India during the
in the least surprised at
this

growth when we penetrate

problem and discover some inevitable
*
towards this end.
the

the

in

their rapid

In matters of faith,

others

absorbed

ever-expanding
the other hand, they

On

Islam multiplied
and we are not

not

the

and

elastic

Hinduism.

followers

Muslim

Hunas and

Musalmans

population,

made

the Indo-Bactrians,

the

Sakas,

Extraordinary
01 "

deep
forces

into

the

working

human mind

is

prone to

work in certain paradoxical ways

While the Darned seek for their satisfaction the remote and the abstruse,
:

the crude, on the other hand, are always in quest of the

simplest and the most direct to which they cling tenaciously.

Customs, ceremonies,

pictures

and

idols are

various ways of impressing an idea on the rude mind.

The transcendant philosophy of Hinduism was the

monopoly
its

of the favoured

few who so jealously guarded

treasures partly frbm motives of

and

partly because they thought

it

self-aggrandisement

would not answer ta

they thought it was

sufficient if the curiosity of the vulgar was dazzled by
an array of picturesque ceremonials and the splendour

cast

of

pearls

images

before

and

inestimable costs.

swine that

idols

The

preserved

ignorant

ceptibly at the time, a great gulf

preceptors.

They saw

in

the

in

shrines

raised

at

felt, howpver
imperbetween them and t*heir

advent of Islam

the

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

396

visions of liberation

from

intellectual

The

thraldom.

Muslim missionaries had an untold advantage of a

clear-cut cosmogony and a definite set of dogmas about
heaven and hell, how to attain the former and avoid the
latter, in contrast with the vague and poetical version of
The
popular superstitions presented by Hinduism.
doctrinal simplicity of Islam, which was like an open
book to all, from the highest to the meanest, heralded
the dawn of the day of the down-trodden.
For the
slaves of

Islam,

numerous gods and

the

simple

democratic principle
doctrines, like fasting
irresistible.

monotheistic
of equality

and

the brotherhood of

rituals,

idea

and

had a

prayers,

of

the

the

God,

rationalistic

lure that

Voluntary conversions were the

was

inevitable

-results.

The
Spirit of

spirit of

freedom

freedom has always had a fascination

for all races under all climes and

to say that this spirit

moulded the

is

destinies

It is

inherent
of

1-1

conditions.

in

nations.

no mere platitude
mankind. It has
Self-realisation

is

It has been the

nothing but a discovery of this spirit.
corner-stone of the greatest of our empires.
It is in the
.fitness of

things that the classes

position had been assigned

in

to

Hindu

which a degrading
society, leading to

invidious distinctions between the natural rights of

man

and man, should shake off their lethargy, and thus,

giving a rude shock to the Pharisaism of the Brahmans,
raise up such a tornado of vindictiveness against the
the only course open to
was to seek shelter in the fold of Islam. To the

helpless visionaries that

.caste Hindi", the

new

faith

meant a

perfect

them
low-

democracy

RETROSPECT
wherein

the

and

blood

of

stains

397
were

occupation
'

1
exorcised by the pronouncement of the
open sesame
of the simple Islamic creed
There is no God but
'

Allah, and
the

human

back of

its

Muhammad

His Prophet/

Thus, it was
Muslim faith which was at the
propagation and proselytising capabilities.
is

aspect of the

Too much cannot be

about

said

Muslim

the

religion

as

intrinsic

worth has been a magnet for

spiritual

seekers after

all

force.

truth.

was

It

Its

this

that occasioned conversions during that period and it is

this that is winning converts even*iow, George Bernard

Shaw

does not over-estimate

the value of

when

Islam

'

nd the rest of
he says that
England in particular
Western Europe in general are sure to embrace Islam
within a century/

This

Musalmans,

and

converts

poor
the

of

a fact,

is

as

powerless

calibre

Lord

of

how can

otherwise

they

are,

win

Kbalid

Headley,

Sheldrake, David Upson, K. L. Gauba, etc.,- not from

the ignorant classes of the lowest strata, but from the

most cultured
feels that

classes of the

the laws

of

Islam

highest order.
are the laws

Everyone
Nature

of

which must ultimately prevail. The spirit of Islam

dominates the world and the tendency of Islamisation is
patent to the naked eye.
The noble examples set by the votaries of Islam
their chaste lives, their sincere devo'ion, their

spread of
contributed to

The

career

the

unselfish
their

same end

and character

of

in

motives for the

religion

must

have

no small measurer

such

men

as

Kb

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

398

Muin-ud-Din Chishti, Sayyad Ali Hajveri (also called

Data Sahib), Bandanawaz Sayyad Muhammad Gesudaraz

and Shaikh Sallm Chishti

The

lies

embedded

in

The
the very conception of freedom.
forces that should underly such a

advantages

desire

estimated.

are cases in point.

material prosperity

desire for

Social uplift

can

by

was a

no

means be overfactor that accele-

vital

rated conversions into mass movements.

The

following

ends can be easily comprehended to have been in view

side by side with spiritual cravings a lucrative post, or
position in the State, escape from the payment of the
:

Jizia and other cesses levied on the Zimmis, daily

contact with the ruling class which centred in itself all
the graces of good breeding and culture, the personal
favours of the Emperor, which in itself meant so much
in those times.

Recent census reports

towards
Muslim

races.

accounts

have directed our attention

another

possibility

which

preponderance of
Muslim numbers over those of others
for

the

some parts of this country. This is the virility oi

Muslim races which, on account of the heritages of food
and mode of living, has immense capacity for the pro-

in

pagation of species. All this furnishes an explanation for

the rapid spread of Islam so often viewed with amazement.

11

In the light of the circumstances

presented above,
the
slanderous
Islam
No compulsion
theory that

in religion."

of

wag propagate(j j n i n(ji a a t the point

the sword does not hold,
especially in view of the

Quranic teaching

'
:

Let there be no compulsion in

RETROSPECT
Forcible

religion.'

war-times,

may

if
any during the
most be acknowledged to* be

conversions,

the

at

399

only a temporary phase, for the permanent acquiescence

in the faith thus imposed upon is highly incredible.
Had Islam been propagated under compulsion, verily

would have been no Zimmls in India and

where, where Islam was once so supreme.

there

In passing,

it

not be without

will

that there were

Forces
that
brought about

a modus

silently fora

for a

Islam

of a

to

castes,

may

moans Vivendi,

if

\
not

complete ^conciliation, between

arid Hinduism.
Among the

be

danger.

who had

common bond

political, social

mentioned

thse

that led the

hands with the Mu^almans

join

common

many

and

an7A"nd\usm.

Hindus

note

interest to

forces operating
an(j religious
" secretly
b
*

vivendi

political forces

else-

suffered

Men

as

much,

well
felt

as

in the

women

event
of all

drawn together

in

sympathy. The policy of opening

careers to talents contributed much to mutual love.
Socially, the presence of Hindu women in Muslim Harems

went

of

enough towards* welding the two elements

The schools, where Hindus and Muslims
together.
received their education together, too had a great unifyThe policy of religious toleration and the
ing influence.
influence of the Muslim Sufi, who came to deride the
far

ritualistic side of his faith

and believed that salvation was

a concern for all, that all were equal in the eyes of God,
and that there was no difference between the high-born
and the low, between a Hindu and a Musalman, were
among the religious force which had no mean share in bringing about a reconciliation between Islam and Hinduism.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

400

The

forces

Bhaktl

Mo'vemeS

modus

were

working for the

vivendi were also responsible

that

Bhakn Movement

the

rise of

the

for

analo-

gous and contemporary to the Reformwhich recognized

ation Movement of Mediaeval Europe
and
Ram
between
no difference
Rahim, Ka'ba and

and

Qur'an

Kailash,

Karma

Dharma.

is

Ramananda,

Kabir,

and

Puran,

The

inculcated
of

preachers

that

creed

this

Dadu, Ramdas, Surdas, Nanak and

who

flourished
Chaitanya
and preached the principle

India

of

different parts

in

God, were
Unity
Islam. Sikhism is only a
of

of

immensely influenced by
phase of the same movement.

The

influence

of

on Indian

Islam

life

religious

and thought has continued to our

...
,.
.,
t' mes an " W1 *I continue
into the

Tnflurnrp of
Islam on Indian

own

religious hfe

future which

and thought.

before us.

is still

The
.

systems of belief in vogue among the

Indians at the advent of the Musalmans in India had
drifted

very

largely

from

away

fundamental

the

and practices embodied in their earliest religious

and numerous forms of idolatry had beep

principles

texts

1
substituted for divine worship.
Things have changed so
much since the advent of Islam that though the

orthodox

still

towards them

have
is

Islam appeared

idols in their

are

are,

not

employed

thought and that those

in fact,

The

in India.

assert that the idols are

that they

temples, their

not the same as

worshipping

as

who

Him

it

used

intelligentsia

worshipped
aids

to

appear
to

attitude

to be before

among them

as

gods,

concentration
to

Whom

but
of

worship them
alone worship is

RETROSPECT
The

due.

influence of Islam
attitude of

401

can be clearly
so

the

traced in

also

in the
Hindus,
changed
movements which have sprung up within the fold of
Hinduism itself for combating idol-worship and reviving
the ancient Vedic faith.
Though the Sikhs and the

this

ArySsamajists sometimes
Islam in order,
against
influence, they

owe a

adopt

perhaps,

militant
to

attitude

counteract

its

lasting debt of gratitude to Islam,

to which they owe the

origin

and existence of

their

religions which, under the influence of Islam, denounce

the unity of
God, condemn
idol-worship, preach

priest-hood, deprecate caste restrictions, adfait others into

and recommend widow-marriage.

what Islam has contributed to Indian religious

the fold of their faiths

This

is

thought and

spiritual ideals.

In India, Islam was represented by its two famous

*^ e *^ as anc* 4 ^ e Sunnis.
sects
f he two Royal
of
Islam
Houses
Geographically, the former were Perin Mughal India.
VT
tl
sian.
Numerically the latter were
:

stronger.

The Sunnis

in

, ,

the North and the

Shias in

the South formed the two

India.

Royal Houses of Islam in

As almost everywhere in the Muslim World, these
*

IsUm were

at daggers drawn with each

other and a fierce rivalry existed between them.

two

sects

of

Economic Features

The early Emperors of India were occupied too

much with the work of conquest and consolidation.
Consequently, in a relatively unsettled state of affairs
economic development could not take place quite so

more peaceful times. But gradually

the Mughal power struck its root deep into the Indian

effectively as in the

as

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

402
the

soi 1 ,

Mughal Emperors began

to

devote

their

attention to the material well-being of their subjects.

most important industry of India,

was properly understood and encour-

Agriculture, the

gn U

'

aged by the Mughal Kings. They

multifarious reforms: waste lands were

introduced

reclaimed, canals were opened, tanks

and wells were

dug

for

interests of the peasants,

of Indian

The
purposes.*
constituted the back-bone

irrigation

who

social structure,

were properly

and every impetus was given

i

The

beneficeni. results

agriculturists

were

flourished,

were constructed

looked after

to agricultural

that agriculture

peasants

prospered

land revenue increased abundantly.

Closely connected with agriculture

is

pursuits.

improved,

and
the

the

land

revenue system which next demands

a word of comment. To Sher Shah

Land Revenue
System and its
wor ing.

introducing an elaborate system of revenue settlement

based on the actual measurement of land, which was

by Akbar the Great. The

justly regarded as one of the crowning achievesystem
ments of Mughal Rule in India. It is in fact an
subsequently

improved

is

enduring contribution to Indian agriculture. It has

survived in India under the British Rule with all its
essential features

under the Raiyatwarl Settlement.

The

share of the State was sometimes one-third and often

* It may
be

appropriately
pointed out here that it was the
for the first time, introduced the Persian- wheel
and dug canals in India for purposes of irrigation. This
viras decidedly a great
improvement on the means of irrigation
then known ID India.

Muslims who,

RETROSPECT

403

one-fourth of the aggregate produce, which was paid in

cash or kind according to the convenience of the cultivator.

At present the land revenue represents about onethe aggregate produce of the
whole land under cultivation. There
of

fifth

Was the land

revenue
exorbitant?

.,.

,_

..

.,

no instance of any Hindu or Muslim

could be satisfied with such a low rate of
is

ruler

who

How

land revenue.

land revenue to be

is

an enormous rate of

then such

The

accounted for?

reason

is

not

In the past, the land revenue constituted

the main source of State income ; whereas the sources

far to seek

of revenue, such as the income-tax

and customs
*

the land
days are so important that
revenue/
has ceased to be a source of Imperial

in these

Professor Brij Narain,

&

while

of Akbar's

kbar

'

^y.

nd ht

He

c j ags ^ an(j

points

out

comes

instructions to the

were couched

status

of

to an interesting

Akbar's

that

was more prosperous than the best

The

brother of

his

tbe

to

Lyallpur farmer, the most opulent of

brother of to-day
cojnpare

conclusion.

comparing a farmer

time with

refers

duties,

revenue

in

collectors of

extremely

peasant
these days.

of

the land revenue

humanitarian terms and

were worked with great lenity unless we postulate that

Rebates and remissions
they were not strictly enforced.

were never grudged. According to Mr. Moreland, the

land was cultivated in small holdings in the seventeenth
century, but we are left in the dark as to the average
size of a holding.
That it was larger than the average
,

holding of to-day
population

is

is

now

true because a

supported

larger

proportion of

by land thaa

in

those

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

404

the average yield per acre in those

been greater than at present because of
have
times must
the depreciation in the quality of land caused by more
Finally,

days.

intensive cultivation

in order

Even

increase in population.

ment's

sake that the

keep pace

we suppose

if

with
for

the

argu-

of the land then under

fertility

diminished during the past three

cannot but admit that extensive

cultivation has not

we

hundred years,

to

cultivation, necessitated

by growing population, embrac-

must

result in the decrease of average

ing inferior lands,

To avoid further controversy, suffice it to

produce.
statistics are now available to prove
reliable
say that
that an average workman in those days was better off
than at present.*

estimated that the rupee in terms

It is

of important food-grains, such as wheat, gram, barley,

jowar and ghee t was, three centuries ago, worth thirteen

times as

much

the rupee

as

of

The

average
an
workman
was
2'7d.
If
ordinary
daily wage
Coryat, an English traveller, could maintain himself
to-day.

of

'

very competently

and
a

'

in his

travels,

we can

clothes' for 2d. a day,

common

labourer and a

with meate, drinke

safely

assume that

native of the

country could
maintain himself as competently, if not more, with the
same. Smith says that a man could live on
Id. to
'

2d. a day.'

We

The

inference

F -mime Relief

obvious.

country depending on
without
agriculture
facing failures of

crops,

deaths.

is

cannot presuppose a

Famine-relief,

resulting
if

in

starvation

rendered properly,

te the stability of a State

and

*Sce Indian Economic

by

Life,

its

Brij

is

and

a tribute

economic well-being.
Narain.

RETROSPECT

405

a part of our review to state how famines were

dealt with in those days.
During the Mughal Rule

So

it is

whenever a famine broke out, State assistance was

given to the famine-stricken and grain was supplied
State hospitals and
from the Imperial granaries.
aim-houses were established in important quarters for
free

the sick and the poor.

Large Khanqahs, or charitable

the State in the
helped
and the testimony of foreign

establishments,

further

administration of

relief,

travellers

men were

shows that
fed

gratis.

Khanqahs hundreds

at these

With

the solicitude

all

of

of the

famine were great and alarming

because of the imperfect means of communication and
The fact, however, remains that the
transportation.

State, the horrors of

Mughal Government was

alive to

its

duty of combating

this calamity, or at least mitigating its horrors.

The
_

Among

State encouraged other industries also.

.

Textile Industries.

local manufactures,'
_

have counted

foreign travellers
.

six fine cotton

fabrics

silk handkerchiefs and caps

embroidered with gold, painted ware, basins, cups, steel
guns, knives and scissors were all manufactured at

and have recorded that

different places in this country.

It is also said that

kind of white paper was also manufactured from

bark of a tree which was very smooth and glossy.
Trade was carried on with foreign countries.

Foreign Trade.

been

textile

most important item

trade

supplied

India

manufactures of

Varthema, two European

'all

of

all

be

may

The

the foreign

in

sorts.

the

srfid

to have

Borbose and

writers, inform us that India

Persia, Tartary,

Turkey,

Syria,

Barbary,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

406

Arabia, Ethiopia,

.with silk and cotton

stuffs.'

Other

articles of export were the beautiful shawls of Kashmir,

made of pure wool and silk mixture, the carpets of

Lahore and Agra, and the cotton cloth of Dacca, called

the Dacca muslin, fittingly styled 'Ab-i-Rawan,' or the
moving water, famous in the world for its fine texture.
In the middle of the seventeenth century India supplied

Europe with diamonds,

pearls, chintzes, large quantities

drugs, such as horax, opium, etc., tobacco

and saltpetre.
Even the steel used in the manufacture

of spices,

famous Damascus blades was exported from the

Kingdom of Golconda.
Opium and indigo, with dye
stuffs, were practically Indian monopolies and formed
of the

the bulk of India's international trade.

Skins and hides
were also exported. Among the articles of import may
be mentioned woollen fabrics, scarlet cloth, metal works,

raw

silk,

porcelain, glass-ware,

paper and such other

Animals, specially horses, were imported from

Of other animals, such as
Arabia, Persia and Turkey.
things.

apes, peacocks, parrots and other pretty birds, figuring

either as exports or as imports, there is no specific

evidence

The

trade

in

these

animals,

must have been very insignificant.

Ship-building was also an important industry of
India in those days.
.....
Certainly,
Jf wood

therefore,

ot

recorded.
if

any,

Ship-building.

products, occurring so

commonly

in

Indian trade, must have been Indian ships constructed

to serve as ocean-carriers.
Mr. Moreland informs us
"
that apart from the Portuguese trade to Europe, the
great bulk of the commerce in the Indian seas was
carried in ships built in India,

and that most

of these

407

RETROSPECT
and

certainly all the large ones,

were constructed on the

west coast, not at any one centre, but at various pojnts

It is
inlets within easy reach of the forests.
also built all the small
practically certain that India

or

boats required for the coasting trade from BengSl as far

as Sind, and the aggregate volume of shipping was
therefore very great when measured by contemporary

standards/

We know

and the

that both the English

Dutch had some of their ships constructed in India.

This could not be so unless those ships were cheap and
durable.

1668 A. C. by the English

Company in reply to some
objections with regard to the starting of
letter

of

President and Council to the

anticipated
ship-building in Bombay states: "...these carpenters
are grown so expert and masters of their art that there
are many Indian vessels that in shape exceed those

that

come either out of England or Holland."

The industrial condition *of India during the Mughal

Period and before has been admirably summed up by the

industrial Commission in the following passage :
"
At a time when the west of Europe, the birthplace of modern industrial system, was inhabited by
uncivilized tribes, India was famous for the wealth of

her

rulers

craftsmen.

and

And

for

the

even at a

high

artistic

much

later period,

merchant adventurers from the west

skill

made

of

when
their

her
the
first

in India, the industrial

development of the
appearance
country was, at any rate, not inferior to that of more

advanced European nations.

'*

* This view is shared and supported by

n&ny an eminent
"
The skill of the Indians jn
authority on the subject e. g.
;

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

408

Turning next to the mineral wealth of the country,

we find that gold was found in
,

Mineral Wealth.

and

rivers

Kamaon

TT

Kamaon and

silver

in

Agra

iron in Bengal

and Kheora

tin in

Jammu

,
,

Punjab mountains
copper in Narnaul and
in the

saltpetre in Thatta, Gujarat

;

sweet-lime in Kheora

and

abundance at Agra and PatnS, whereas

diamonds were extracted from the mines of Harpal (in

saltpetre

was

in

Bengal) and Golconda.

Coming next to the currency of the country during
the Muslim rule,
Currency System.
circulation

in

Q{

various

India.

In

we

notice that coins

denominations
the

main,

the

were

in

currency

mohars, silver tankas and copper

dams. There were also fractional parts of these three
used
standards.
Villagers and citizens of small towns

consisted of gold

shells (cowries) in the ordinary bargains of their daily

between gold and silver coins varied

from time to time, though both were coined freely by
It
was 8 1 in the early
the Mughal Emperors.

life.

The

ratio

Muslim period and had fallen to 7 1 after the conquest

of the Deccan by Ala-ud-DIn Khilji, had now become
:

the production of delicate woven fabrics, in the mixing of

colours, the working of metals and precious stones and in all
manners of technical arts has from very early times enjoyed
ct

world-wide celebrity." Professor Weber.

Industry not only
supplied all local wants but also enabled India to export its
"
It was this
finished products to foreign countries," Ranade.
trade and prosperity that attracted the European traders to
India. Thei- rivalry to secure a footing in India at that time

was occasioned not by the raw materials of the country but by

value and variety of her manufactures and crafts."
Professors Jathar and Beri. (Also see Education in Muslim India,

the

PD. 200

ff.)

RETROSPECT
9'4

Gold was

1.

409

the chief currency of the country

Ordinary calculations were

made in rupees and gold w#s used for making presents
and paying tributes. The silver tankas, first coined by
Altmash, became the legal tender of Northern India
transactions.

for all big

and acquired its present weight

(180 grains) and the name of rupee in the reign of Sher
Shah Sun (1542 A. C.) The fact that the currency of

for all subsequent years

India underwent considerable improvement in purity,

weight and artistic execution during the Mughal period
can never be called in question. Akbar deserves very

high credit for the excellence of his extremely varied

coinage, both as regards the purity *of metal, the
fulness

of

Akbar,

nor

weight,
his

and

ever

successors,

Neither

execution.

artistic

yielded

to

the

temptation of debasing coinage either in weight or in

purity, so that

the

Smith

is

fully justified in

pronouncing

coinage as far superior to that of

Mughal

Queen

Elizabeth or other contemporary sovereigns of Europe.

Many a magnificent Muslim monarch, like Balban,

Firoz Shah Tughluq,

Sikandar Lodhi, Sher Shah Sun, and
all the Great Mughals
almost
paid
'
'Ala-ud-Dln,

Communication
and
.

transportation.

specific attention to the construction

of roads

and highways

in their

kingdom.

Several roads

were laid so expeditiously that they linked together all

the strategic frontier cities of the Empire.
Sher Shah
Sun's name is intimately associated with the 'opening of
the Grand
Calcutta.

Trunk Road, running from Peshawar

Riding

horses,

camels, and palanquins were

to

bullock-carts,

elephants,

the

means

principal

of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

410

conveyance and baggage transportation. Great care was

taken to secure the person and property of the travellers.
Many caravanserais were built along the chief routes
with fruit-gardens and separate arrangements for the
comfort of Hindus and Muslims
of

The splendour

alike.

the

Imperial Musalmans, as displayed in their

extensive paraphernalia of travel and encampment,
reached its climax during the Mughal Period of Indian

So says Professor K. T. Shah

history.

"

of

Muhammadan times, there is hardly a prince

any importance who is not in some ways connected
In

with road-making. Great arterial highways, planted with

an arcade of trees all along their length, linked the principal
centres of the Empire over hundreds and hundreds of
miles.

The comfort and convenience

duly secured by the public

of the travellers

was

walled enclosures,

hostels

with ample lodging and stabling, water tanks, and provision-shops, to supply all the needs of the travellers at
convenient stages ; while the distance travelled was
indicated by mile-stones easily noticeable even at night.
Where the nature of the country would not permit of

proper road making, or where transport by water was

more convenient, the rivers were utilized for popular as
well as Imperial voyages, attended by all pomp and

ceremony

The

of

people

Condition of
the people.

a most luxurious court."

in

we gather

general,

contemporary
.,

chronicles,

from
were,

the

on

t" 6 whole, happy and prosperous.

Their houses were kachcha as well

as

pakka, though those of the former kind (kachcha)

were more numerous. They were airy, and pleasant,
'

RETROSPECT

411

most of them having courts and gardens, being

commodious inside and containing good furniture.
Every modest house was well-furnished, and had a
called
room,
garden, a reservoir and an audience
DlwanWiana, the floor of which was covered with costly
carpets.
Every important city had schools and colleges,
libraries and literary societies, hostels and hospitals,
and
baths and wells for the convenience of the public
1

we

the streets,
learn, were daily cleaned by sweepers.
Barring out a few instances of intolerance and

some

Relations between

Hindus and
Muslims.

"

social

'

uniformity

and

by good- will

Matrimonial

toleration.

were

of

of

law and

usagp

all
',

the

the

the

of

alliances

equality

fanaticism,

Hindus and
j
j
cordial
and were
mrtual love and

between

Muslims

characterised

House,

outbursts of

relations
\M
r

Imperial

of

classes

people,
indiscriminate distribu-

tion of posts and powers among all classes of people,*

regardless of their rank, race or religion, and social
* Even
'Alamgir, who was so much harassed by the Hindus,
did not refuse to employ them, in his service. " In an interesting
collection of Aurangzeb's orders and despatches as yet
"
we find him laying
says Sir Thomas Arnold,
.termed the supreme law of toleration for
the ruler of people of another faith. .....Government posts ought

unpublished

",

down what may be

to be bestowed according to ability and from no other consideration."

That 'Alamgir was true to
(Preaching of Islam, p. 214).
*

this

says

supreme law of toleration

',

is testified

to

by Hamilton

who

"The

religion of

Bengal by law established

is

Mahometan,

yet for one Mahometan there are above an hundred pagans,

and the publick offices and posts of trust are filled with men
of both persuations." (A New Account of the East Indies, Vol., ii,
P. 14.)

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

412

some of the dominant factors which

communal harmony and national solidarity.

intercourse were

contributed to

As

this

_
Conclusion.
,

comes

to a close,

it

is

that the preceding account

hoped
r

is

interesting study

sufficient to enable the reader to gauge

the prosperity of those times.

The Mughals have come

and gone, but they have left a lasting impress not only
on the history of their times but also on the hearts of
of
Hindus as well as
Hindustan,
Their civilizing influence, as seen in their
Sulh-i-kul policy, enjoining the freedom of worship and
the liberty of conscience, in the protection of the poor,

the

inhabitants

Musalmans.

works of public welfare, in the encouragement of

and sciences, poetry and philosophy, in the promotion

in the

arts

and

of education

and commerce,

in

in the abundance of industry

the rich efflorescence of fine arts, can be

literature

traced not only in the huge mass of historical literature

that has come down to us, but also in the beneficial
institutions

which have survived

to

our

own

times.

The revenue and

the judicial departments of the present

Indian administration teem with terminologies of their
invention and in almost every part of

entire

language

of

Modern India the

of

administration,

navigation, of
is
of Muslim

in many an art and craft

and bears the stamp of Mughal Rule.
Mountains were not yet tunnelled and space was not
yet conquered science, in short, had not yet achieved

technique
creation

The wonder, therefore, is not that the

maintained
Mughals
peace and established law and
order througnout the length and breadth of their
its

victories.

far-flung Empire, but that they did

it

so admirably.

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THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

414
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t

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o1

History of India, The, M. Elphinstone.

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J.

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History of the

Maratha

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A Kincaid and
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History of Mediaeval India, Ishwari Prasad.
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History of the Sikhs,

Cunnigham

Shah Jahan

(edited

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Indian Antiquary.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

415

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Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal.
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Life and Exploits of Shivaji,

J.

K. A. Sabhasad, translated by

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Mediaeval India, S. M. Jaffar.
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Making of

Miniature Painting and Painters of Persia, India and Turkey,

Martin.

Jadunath Sarkar.
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New Account

of East India and Persia, A, Fryer,

Oriental Biographical Dictionary, An, T. W. Beaie, edited by
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H. G. Keen.

Oxford History of India, Vincent A. Smith.

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Edward Thomas.
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Short History of India, A, E. B. Ha veil.

Short History of the Saracens, A, Amir Ali.

Sikh Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings and
M. A. Macauliffe.
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Authors,

The,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

416

Some Cultural Aspects of Muslim Rule in India, S. M. Jaffar.

Spirit of Islam, The, Amir Ali.
Splendour that was 7nd, The, K. T. Shah.
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Travels in the Mogul Empire (1656-68), Bernier's, translated by
Constable.
Ouldinburgh
;

Travels in India, Tavernier.

Voyage
Voyage

to

to

East India. Edward Terry.

Sural in 16S9. A, Ovington.

Persian
Adab-i-'Alamgin, (a collection of 'Alamgir's letters) written by
his secretary Qabil Khan and collected by
Muhammad
Sadiq of Ambala.
Ahkdm-i-'Alamgiri (letters of 'Alamgir) Hamid-ud-Dm Khan
Nimchah, translated by Jadunath Sarkar as Anecdotes of

Aurangzeb.
Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl, translated

Blochmann and

by Gladwin and then by

first

Jarret.

Akbarnamah, Abul Fazl (N. K. 7'.), translated by H. Bevendge.

'Alamgirnamah, Maulvi Munshi Muhammad Kazini Shirazi
(B.J.S.).

Muhammad

Amal-i-Saleh or Shjih Jahan Namah,

(B.

Badshandmah, Abdul Hamld Lahorl

Badshahnamah, Muhammad Wans.

Kamboh

I. S.).

(B.

Bisat-ul-Ghanaim (Haqiqathai Hindustan),

Dabistan-ul-Mazdhib, Mohsin Fani.
Dabistan-ul-Mazahib, QSzl Ibrahim.
Fatuhdt-i-'Alamgin, Ishwar Das.

Humayun-Ndmah,

Gulbadan

Beveridge.
Farhat-ul-NZzirin,

Muhammad

Iqbalndmah, Mo'tamid

Khan

(B.

Banu

Lachmi Naram

Begum,

Aslam.
/. S.).

Khulasat-ul-Taivarikh, Sujan Rai (Subhan Rai).

Jama-vt'Tawarikh, Faqir
I

Saleh

/. S.).

Muhammad.

.ub-ut-Tawdrikh-i'Hind Brindaban.
t

Maasir-i-'Alan'gifi, Mustaid

Khan

Saqi.

Shafiq,

translated

by

BIBLIOGRAPHY

417

Maasir-i-Rahimi, Mullah Abdul Baqi (B. I, S.).

Maasir-ul-Umara, Shah Nawaz Khan (B. I. S.).
Malfuzat-i-Taimurl, translated by Stewart.
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, All Muhammad Khan.
Muntakhib-ul-Lubdb, Muhammad Hashim Khafi Khan (B. I. S.).
Muntakhib-ut-Taivankh, Abdul Qadir Badaoni, translated by

Ranking

Rowe.

Odnun-i-lsldm, Jaafar Shard.

Styar-ul-Muta'dkhkhtrin, Sayyad

Ghulam

Husain, translated by

Col. Briggs.

Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad.

7 abaqdt-i-Akbari,

Takmil-i-Akbarnamah, Inayatullah.
Tdrikh-i'Ferishta,

Muhammad Qasim

Fenshta,

translated by

Briggs.

Tarikh-i-Dakan, Khafi Khan (B. I. S.).

Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Mirza Muhammad Waldar l^ughlat, translated

by Ross and

Elias.

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Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi, Abbas Khan Sherwanl.
Tarikh-i'Shdh Shujai,

Muhammad

Tazkara-i-Ulama-i-Hind Maulvi
t

Ma'sum.

Rahman

All.

Tazkarat-ul-Ulama, translated by Sanaullah Khan.

Tuzkarat-ul'Saldtin-i'Chaghtaia,

Kamwar

Khan.

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Tuzk-i-Babari, Zahir-ud-Dm

Muhammad Babar.
Muhammad Jahangir.

Tuzk-i~Jahanglri Nur-ud-Din
t

Waqiyat'i-'Alamgin (Zafarrftmah-i- Alamgin), Aqil Khan Razi.

Waqiyat-i-Jahnngiri, translated by Major David Price.

Wiqdyd or Hdldt-i-Asad Beg, Asad Beg.

Zubdat-ut-Tawdrikh ShaiKii Nur-ul-Haq.
t

Urdu

Muhammad Husain Azad.

Alamgir Maulvi Abdul Rahman.
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Aurangzeb 'Alamgir, Maulana Shibll No'mani.
Darbdr-i-Akban Maulana Muhammad Husain Azad.
Ab-i-Haydt Maulana
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Jamia (Journal

Madans

of

Jamia

Millla, Delhi).

u>a Ddr-ul-Ulum,

Mauiana

Shibll

No'mam.

418

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Maarif, (Journal of Dar-ul-Musannifm, Azamgarh.)

Makctib-i-'Alamgiri, Sayyad Najib Ashraf Nadvi.
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Wdqiyvt-i-Dar-ul-Hukumat Dehli, Maulvi Bashir-ud-Din Ahmad.

Waqiyat-i-Mumlihat-i-BijapuY, Maulvi Bashir-ud-Din

Ahmad.

Periodicals

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Journal of the Punjab Historical Society, Lahore.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London.
Journal of the Royal Historical Society, London.
Journal of the Royal Society of A rts London.
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Muslim University Journal,

Aligarh.

Twentieth Century, The, Allahabad.

ADDENDUM
ON

BABAR'3 DEATH
The accuracy

of the story of Babar's

'

'

miraculous death as

told by Allama Abul Fazl and reproduced on pages 21-22 of this

book has been called in question by some modern research-

The

authenticity was Professor

left the question undecided
Dr. Bannerji, the latest biographer o f Humayun. has repeated
the story, making a few halting suggestions here and there.
Professor Sri Ram Sharma has written an interesting article on
the subject and tried to close the controversy for good.* Here I
cannot do more than to summarise the results of what I have
been able to gather on the subject from various sources.
When Humayun fell ill and his illness took a ~enous turn some
time in the month of April, 1530, A.C., so much so that the Court
physicians failed to cure him, Babar expressed his desire to have
recourse to methods other than medicinal. Mir Abul Baqa, the
leading living saint of the day attached to the Imperial Court,
suggested that the Emperor, in order to save the life of his son,
should give away in sacrifice something that was very dear to
scholars.

first

to challenge

its

Rushbrook-Wilhams, who, however,

Babar decided to

hi.n.

beloved son.

Some

sacrifice his

own

of his associates

life to save that of his

dissuaded him from this

and suggested that the precious Koh-i-Noor, worth

'

step

half the

might be given away in sacrifice.

But quite in keeping with his romantic nature, Babar argued
that 'a life for a life was a better means of persuading fates to
change their course of action. Thinking that death might spare
Humayun if he resorted to that step, he walked round the bed of
his son and prayed that his son's illness might be transferred to
O God,' he said, if a life can be exchanged for another
him.

daily expenses of the world

',

'

'

'

Babar, give away my life and remaining years to Humayun.

His incessant prayers proved too much for him and it may well
be said that the fates took him at his word, for he fell ill while
his son began to recover till at last he was perfectly well. So far
1

life, I f

the story of sacrifice, popularized by Abul Fazl, is correct and

there is nothing in it that can be questioned. But the miracle

*For
Review,

Professor Sri

Ram

September, 1936.

Sharma's

article,

see Calcutta

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

420

did not proceed further, for after some time Babar too recovered
from his illness and became so well that there was absolutely no
cause for anxiety, so much so that Humayun was sent away to

Sambhal because his presence was no longer considered necessaAfter some time Babar was taken ill again and Humayun
ry.
was called back from Sambhal. On his arrival, Humayun was
ill
again. He is reported to have
him well. Wtmt has happened all at once ?
Later, Babar seems to have recovered somewhat, for he is said to
have ordered the betrothal of two royal princesses. But again
there was a relapse and again his condition became precarious.
In order to relieve him of his increasing distress, Humayun held a
meeting of the Imperial physicians, who, after due consideration
and consultation, unar'rnously came to the conclusion that
BS bar's disease was due to the poison administered to him by
the mother of Ib rahim Lodhi. They admitted their inability
and declared that the disease was incurable. Babar then
nominated Humayun as his successor and after three days he
expired on Monday, the 25th December, 1530.
The foregoing facts, pure and simple, clearly show that
there was no connection whatsoever between Babar's death a^id
his son's illness. The Imperial physicians would have been, from

horrified to see his father

exclaimed

'

left

the very nature of the case, quite as willing to connect Babar's

last illness and death with the miracle (act of God) performed
by him at the illness of his sen as Babar himself but the tact
;

that they declared that Babar's last illness was due to the eftects
of a poison leaves no room for the miracle to continue and
shows that Humayun's illness had nothing to do with his death.

The contemporaries too did not see any connection between

the two and the silence of such writers as Mirza Muhammad
Haidar Dughlat, Abdul Qadir Badaom, Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad
and Ferishta on the subject seems to suggest that Babar did not
die as a result of the sacrifice he performed for
the life
of his son.

The

last part of the

death was due to the

sacrifice)

'

saving
miraculous story (that Babar's

is,

'

therefore, incorrect.*

* The above
piece of information, throwing some fresh light
on the subject, ought to have been inserted at its proper
place
in Chapter II, but it escaped my notice when that
part of the
book was being printed and hence it finds its place here.

INDEX
[Abbreviations.

d/o=daughter of f/ofather of ; Kh=Khawajah ;

;

M.Maulana; m/o=mother
;

Prince ;R.

of ; P.

S.^Sayyad Sh.=-Shaikh

and s/o* son

Abul Path,

ruler;

of.]

s/o Shaista

Khan,

332

Abul Path, Hakim, 105

Abul Path, Masih-ud-Din,

Abajl Sonder, 321-22

Abbas, Shah of Persia, 185
Abba^ides,

115, 134

164,

169

Abdul Hakim Slalkoti, 279

Abdul Hamid Lahori, 1,224,229
Abdul Haq Dehlawi, 215
Abdullah, Governor of Gujarat,

Abul

Fazl, Allama,

1,106,

110,

113,116,121,132-33,139,162-64.

166-68,225

Abul Hasan, Sultan of Bijapur,

189

351-52

Abdullah Khan Uzbeg.84-5,104,

Adul Hasan, Governor of Bena-

106, 108

Abdullah

res,

296-97

Abul Hasan, Painter, 218

Abul Qasim, s/o Kamran, 85

Makhdum-ul-Mulk,

118, 119, 123

Abdullah, Mir, 175

Achibal Bagh at Kashmir, 219

HumSyun's Court^bdul
scholar, 46
AJxlul Mali, Governor of the

Acmal Khan,

Latif,

Adah,

Punjab, 72

Muhammad Shah

Adham Khan,

brother,
83-4

129,131-

33,136-37,164-66,170
Irani, Mir, 279

Shah,

'Adil

Akbar's foster-

82; His

rebellion,

All, 190-91, 236, 238,

324, 330-31, 338

Abdun-Nabi.Sh., 118-19,123,170
Abdun-Nabi, Sayyad, 305

Shah, Sikandar, 349-50

Administration under Babar,
22-24
Humayun, 42 ft.;

'Adil

Abdur Rahlm, Diwan of Lahore,

183

Salim
Sher Shah, 56 ff.;
Shah, 68-9;-, Akbar, 141-

Abdur Rahim, Khan-i-Khanan.

107,109-10,164.169,189-90

Abdur Razzaq, 351-52

Abdus Samad, 151
Abdus Samad, Kh., 173
Abui Faiz

see

'Adil.

Abdul Malik, Kh 42
Abdul Qadir Badaoni,
Abdul Qasim

288-89

Acquaviva, Father Rudolf, 90

(Faizi). 121,165,168

61
'

Jahangir,

213-14

Shah Jahan, 274;, Shivaj

341-42;-, 'Alamgir, 369-72;
the Great Mughals, 379 ff.
,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

422
Afghans, 289-90
AfrHIs, 160
Afzal Kh5n, 324-25

Careers opened to Rajputs and other Hindus, 87Freedom of worship

8;
and liberty of conscience
87

His mur-

der, 326

Aghar Khan,

289-90

Agriculture, 402

Social reenjoined, 88;

88-9
forms,
Rajputs recon-

A had is,

ciled 89;

160

Akbar and the

Ahl-i-Bait, 48

Portuguese,

89

Ahl-i-Daulat, 44-5

Portuguese

Mission,

Ahl-i-Murad, 44-5

Second

Ahl-i-Sa'adat. 44-5
AM-i'Tardb, 44-5

Akbar's

Early
object, 91
of Akbar, 92;
conquests

'Ain-i-Akbari. 139, 163

Ahmad Mirza, 10
Ahmad Mullah, 164

93

A jit

Singh, s/o jaswant Singh,

Akhar, s/o Aurangzeb, see Muhammad Akbar.

Akhar the Great, 6 His birth,
39; His early life, 71-2; His
;

Political
accession, 72-3 ;
condition of India in 1556 A.
73-4

Second Battle of

Panipat, 75-6;
the Battle, 76;
of Sur claimants

Results of

Submission
and end of

Third,

90;
91

Conquest

294309-10
Akanna, 350

C,

,90;

First

ff;

Gondwana,

of

93-8
Mew5r,
Gujarat, 98-100;, Bengal,
100-101
Qaqshal rebellion,
101-102; Conquest of Kabul,
102-4: North- West Frontier,
104
Roshanite Movement,
105-106: Conquest of Kashmir,
106-108:, Sind and
;

Balochistan, 107;
107-108;

,Qandhar,

The Deccan Cam-

paign, 108-109; Conquest of

Ahmadnagar,

109-110

-,

Khandesh, 110-11 Extent of

Akbar's Empire, 111-12; His
;

last days, 112-13

Dm-i-Ilahi,
to th<>

Baithe Sur Dynasty, 76-7

ram Khan, 77-8; His fall,
Petticoat
Govern78-81;
ment', 81-2; Akbar's posi-

history of the Saracens, 11415

To the history of Muslim rule in India, 115-16;

Re-

Akbar's orthodoxy, 116-18;

83

Change

tion in 1564 A. C., 82

bellion of
,

Khan Zaman,

Adham Khan, 83

dullah Knan, 84-5,

Ab-

,Uzbegs,

Monstrous act of
Mu'azzam, 86
Khwajah
Akbar and the Rajputs, 86
Matrimonial alliances,
ff.;

85-6;

114 ff;

29

Reference

The

into liberalism, 118-

Ibadat Khanah, 120-21 ;

Document or infallible

Decree, 121-23; Its importance, 123-24; Its effect, 12425

Preliminaries to the
;

promulgation of the Divine

INDEX

423

Faith, 125-26; Its promulga126-27; Its principles,

Branding of horses
keeping
descriptive

Its
philosophic
127-128;
review, 127-31 ; Anti-Islamic
Their
131-32
ordinances,
132-33 ;
Noer's
criticism,

161

tion,

and

sun-worship, 134-35
Why were boars kept in the
135
Palace ?
Imperial
Women in the Imperial
;

135-36

sions, 164-65 ; Hindu literature, 165-66 Illustrated Ver;

sions,

an

apostate?

ministration,

Was Akbar

138-40; Ad141 ff ; Central

Government, 142-44
vincial Government,

Pro-

144-45

District administration, 146-

47

Imperial Service, 147-48;

Secret Service, 148; Adand
ministration of law
justice, 148-49 Promotion of
education, 149-50;, Postal
;

Means of communication and transportaService, 150

tion,

151

151

Imperial Mints,
Police Force, 152 Land

Revenue

System,

153-57;
Military reforms, 157-61 ; In-

fantry, 157;

Artillery,

157-

Cavalry, 158 Navy, 1581 59

;
Elephant- Corps,
Mansabdari System, 159 60
System* of payment, 161;

58
9

166

Muslim CourtHindu

167-70

Scholars,

170-72

Court-Scholars,
172-74;
Painting,

Music,
174-76; Calligraphy,
176;
Architecture, 176-78; GarEstimate of
dens,
178;
Akbar's achievements, 178 79

thoughts, 137-38

the slaughter of cows forbidden ? 136; Why were

Mullahs and Shaikhs exiled ?
136
Criticism of Smith's

views on Akbar's religious

ff;

Why was

162

162-63 Aln-i-Akbarl, 163-64

164
Other
Tarikh-t-AJ/i,
books, 164 ; Translated Ver-

Harem,

and fine
Akbarnamah,

Literature

arts,

appraisal of Badaoni, 13334 Sijdah, 134; Fire-worship

and
rolls,

Akbarnamah.

1,

139, 162-3

166

Alai.Sh. ,58
'Alamgir, see Aurangzeb

Ala-ud-Dm Khilji, 62,104,161

Ala-ud-Dm Lodhi, 9, 13. 34
All,

All
All

Cousin of Babar,

11

Akbar Jam!, Sh., 38

Mardan Khan, 239-40,

243,

271-72
Ali Quli Istajlu

(Sher Afgan),

Marriage with Mehr-un-Nisa,

195 His murder, 195-97
Amar Das, Sikh Guiu, 359-60
;

Amar

Singh, s/o RanS. PratSp,

98, 186-88

Amatya, 342
'Amil, his duties, 145

Amin-i-Qazwini, Mirza, 228-29

Amir Fath-ullah ShirazJ, 166

Amir Hamzah, Story of, 166
Amir Khan, 2GO
Amir-ul-Bahr, 158
Amritsar, Foundation

of,

360

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

424

career, 246-47 ; His resignation and renunciation of the

Amusements, 394

Angad Dev, Sikh Guru,

359

Anti-Islamic ordinances, 131

Archian, Battle

world, 247; His appointment

to the governorships of different provinces, 248 : His

ff.

139

Antony Botelho,

of, 11

Architecture, under Babar, 27

second

176-78

His
achievements, 248-51
forward policy against the
Daccan, 251; War against

;-, Jahangir, 218;-,

Sh5h

'Alamgir, 373

276-77;-,

Jahan,
;

Great Mughals, 395-6

Arghuns, 13
Arjan Singh, Sikh Guru,

the

Golconda, 251-2
Bijapur,
252-53
His
charactersketch,
255; His alliance
with MuradandShuja', 259
His policy during the War of
Succession, 260-67 Motives
that actuated him to enter it,
268-69; Causes of his success,
269-71; His accession, 28182 His early acts, 282-83
:

183-4,

360-61

Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) 228 Her career,

231-32
Her character, 233
;

276-7

under Babar,

Arts,

of the

viceroyalty

Deccan and administrative

Sher Shah, 63-4; -, Akbar,

HumSyun,

42.

27-30;

47

Sher

Shah, 63-64 ;-, Akbar 172

;

78;

Jahangir 212, 216-19;-,

27478;
Jahan,
'Alamgir, 373; -, The Great
,

Shah

Mughals

in general, 385-6

Asaf Khan, Governor of Kara-

Manikpur 93
Asaf Khan, Uzbeg rebel, 85
Asaf Khan, f/o Mumtaz Mahal,
151, 192, 204, 206, 225-28. 231,

Appointments and

transfers

of Provincial Governors, 283-

84

Expedition

against

Assam, 284-5; Conquest of

Chittagongr, 285-86; Illness
of the Emperor, 286-87 Suppression of the Yusafzais,
287-88; Afridi Rising and
;

Imperial losses, 288 Khattak

Close of the
Rising, 288-90
;

'

237, 272-3

Asaf Khan, Akbar's general, 97

Astha Pradhan, 342
Askari, Mirza, 20, 33-34,37,39,40
Astronomical
Astronomy, 41
;

Tables of Ulugh Beg, 166

Atka

Khan,

Shams-ud-Din,

228,

239,

'Alamgir, 203, 224,

241-4

imposition of the Jizia, 29294 Dismissal of Hindu offiDestruction of

cials, 294-5
;

temples, 295-6

The Benares

Firman, 296-97; Two more

297-98
Firmans,
Which temples were dessimilar

Vakil of Akbar, 82

Aurangzeb

Afghan War, 290; Alamgir

and the Hindus, 291 ff Re-

His early

troyed and why.'

299-300;

INDEX
Whether Hindu schools were
? If so, which and

destroyed

why ?

300-301

Toleration

under

'Alamgir,
301-302;*
'Alamgir justified, 303-4; Jat
Rebellion, 304-5; Satnamis'
Insurrection, 305 6; War with
the Rajputs, 306-10; Invasion
of

Marwar and Mewar,

Rebellion

12;

of

310-

Prince

Muhammad

Akbar, 312-13;
Treaty of Udaipur, 313-14
Results
of
the
Rajput
314
Revolt,
'Alamgir
and the Marhattas. 324;
;

Shaista

Khan

sent against

Shivaji, 331-32
of Shivaji, 333;
;

Submission

425
tion
under him, 369-71
Re-arrangement of Subahs,
369; Theocratic character,
370 Suppression of immora;

370-71

Bait-ul-Mal,
Policy of over-centra-

lity,

371

lization, 371; Justice, 371-72;

of

Progress

education,

Architecture, 373 ;
Music and Painting, 373-74
Gardens, 374 ; Character of
372-73

Alamgir, 374-76; Views of

some

on

Europeans

his

character and achievements,

370-78.

Atharvaveda, 166
Ayarddnish, 166

Commentary on,

Treaty of
Purandhar, 333-4; Reception

Ayat-ul-Kursi,

of Shivaji at the

Aivarajah'Nawis, 144
Azad Bakhsh, s/o Dara Shikoh,

Imperial

Capital. 335; His imprison-

ment and

escape, 336-38 ;
Recall of Jai Singh and his
Renewal of
death,
338;
the
between
hostilities
the
and
Marhattas,
Mughals
340 Conquest of
Bijapur
;

and Golconda,
Razzaq, 351-2

349-51;
;

Abdur

Impolicy of

the Deccan Conquest, 352-54;

Suppression of the Marhattas, 355 ; Expedition against

Rajah Ram, 357-58; End of

Mughal Em'Alamgir, 358
;

164

267

'Azam,

See

Aurangzeb,

s/o

Muhammad 'Azam
'Azam, Khan, 304
Azan, 131

Azim Humayun, Governor

the Punjab, 67
Aziz Koka, Khan-i-'Azam,

of

99,

102, 119, 182-83

B
Babar,

Muham-

Zahir-ud-Din

mad,
10-11;

6,

ff;

Early
of

Conquest

career,

Kabul

pire after his death, 358-59

Suppression of the Sikhs,
365-66 ; 'Alamgir and the

11-12; Political condition of

India on the eve of his

English, 366-68; Extent of

the Mughal Empire under
Alamgir7368-69; Administra-

of Panlpat t 13-14

invasion 12-13

First Battle
;

War

with

the Rajputs, 15-16; Battle of

Khanwah, 16-17 ; Babar's

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

426

address to his noble-men and

soldiers,
17-18; Defeat of

Bakhshi, His duties, 143, 145

Balban, Sultan of Delhi, 104

Rana Sangha and

Bapa Rawal

rout

of

18
Rajput Confederacy,
Importance of the Battle of

Khanwah, 18-19; Battle of

Chanderi, 19-20; Battle of
the Gogra, 20-21 ; Extent of
Babar's Indian Empire, 21
;

Story of his death, 21-22;

His policy and administra-

Batai System, 230

(s) of Bahadurgarh, 260
Chan,Bairowal, 183-4;
deri, 19-20
.Chausa, 37, 53
Dharmat, 260-1;-. the

Gogra,
97

Babar's
His

estimate, 32

Baba

Khan, leader
Qaqshais 102.

of

the

Badr-un-Nisa, 281

Badshah Begum, 281

Badshahnamah, 275-79
Badshahi Masjid, at Lahore, 373

Bahadur Shah, R.

minor R. of
109

A. C.),

6-9,

13-14;-,

41

Surajgarh, 52

Baz Bahadur of Malwa, 83-84, 94

Bernier, 286, 376

Bhagu, 287
Bhagvatagita, 166
Bhagvatapurana, 170
Bhagwant Goshain, 297
Bhagwan Das, Rajah, 87,88,106
Bhakti Movement, 5, 317

Bhao

Singh, Rao, 308

Bnarmal Kachchwaha, Rajah,

87

Bariam Khan (Khan Baba), 72

His

to

the

cause, 77-78;
78-81; 117, 170

His

services

Mughal

BMt-ul-Mal, 371

Singh, Kumar, 311

Bhoja, s/o Rajah Surjana
Q6

Ham,

Bihari Lai, Rajah, 171

Bahlol Qadiri, Sh., 279

Bahrain Quli of Gujarat, Instrumental performer, 175

fall,

Bhim

Bahadur Shah,
Ahmadnagar,
Bahar Khan, 51

53

38,

18-19 ;-, Panipat

PSnipat (1556 A. C ), 75-6;,

Samugarh, 261-2;-, Sarhind,

of Gujarat,

34-37

ff

20-21 ;-Haldig:hat,

Kanauj,

(1526

31-32;

Khanwah,

achievements,

29 Gardens, 29-30

93

Battle

Architecture, 77 ; Poetr, 28 ;
Music, 29;
Painting, 29
The art of illustn ting books,

Me war,

Barwan, painter, 173

His Wasiyat to
His account
his son, 23-24
of India, 25 His Memoirs,
Fine Arts, 27-30;
26-27;
tion, 22-24

of

Bargis, 344

Bihzad, 174

Khan, musician, 174

Bilas

Bir Bal, Rajah, 103,

His house, 177

Bir

Mandal Khan,

105, 171;

of Gwalior,

175

Bir Narayan, s/o Durgavati, 93

Bir

Singh

Bundela,

112-13;

INDEX
His rebellion, 225-26
Bishan Das, painter, 218
Bitikcht, His duties, 146-47

427
under Sher

Currency
62-63

;, Akbar,

Shah,

151 ;-, the

Great Mughals, 408-9

Buland Darwaza, 177

Bundelas, Their rebellion, 225-26
Dabir, 342

Daler Khan, 266. 333, 338

Caliphate, 114-15

Calligraphy, under Akbar, 176

Chahar-taslim, 224
of
Chand Bibi
(Sultana)

Ahmadnagar,
Chanderi, Battle

Chandra Rao

109-10
19-20

of,

of Javli, Rajah,

viour during the illness of

His defeat

his father. ,257-58

323-346

Chandu Shah,

Dharmat, 261-62;-, at
Samug^rh, 261-62 His last
stand and tragic end, 266-67
;

268-69

'

Chausar, 393
Chauth, 339-40

300, 302, 304

Dar~ul-Baqa (college), 280

Darya Khan, Lohani, 51
Dastan i-Awir Hamzah, 166, 173

Daswant, painter, 173

D5ud, s/o Sulaiman Kararani
of Bengal, 100-101

Daud Dhari,
Daud Khan,

Chira, 161

Circumcision, 131

Madrasahs

Daulat

Communication and transporMeans of, under

tation,

Dawan

Sher Shah, 60-61 -, Akbar,

under the Great
151

Khan

Lodhi, 9, 13-14
Dhari, Sh., 175

Da war Bakhsh,
Khusrau,

musician, 174
'Alamgir's general,

338

of Islam, 114-15

Dastur-ul-Amal, 181-82, 213

Child, Sir John, 367-68

Chingiz Khan, 10, 32

Commonwealth

De

P., s/o

Laet, 197

Desai, Amir, 45
Dharmat, Battle

Crori, 156-57

Dhrupad, 176
Dial Shah, 311
Dlanat Khan, 284

and

Mughal, 379

civilization,
ff.

Prince

205, 223

Mughals, 409-10
Coryat, 404
Culture

at

184

Charnock, Job, 368

Chatar Khan, musician, 219
Chaubuni Bagh at Lahore, 374
Chaudhan, 150
Chaugan ,polo), 393
Chansa, Battle of, 37, 53

Colleges, see

39,

Danadhyaksha. 342
Danishmancl Khan, 284
Daniyal, P., s/o Akbar, 110-112
Dara Shikoh, P., s/o Shah
Jahan, 203, 228 His character-sketch, 254; His beha-

of, 260-61

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

428

Khan, Governor

Diiawar

Lahore, 183
Garden
Dilkusha

of

Nur

of

Jahan, 205, 219

to

ries

its

Espionage, under Sher Shah,

59.60 -, Akbar, 148
other
;

114-40;

Din-i-7/a/it,

English in India, 208-13, 367-68

Escheat, Law of, 213

Prelimina-

promulgation,
promulgation,

Mughal Emperors.

384-5

philosophic review, 128-

Abul Faiz
Farid, see Sher Shah
Famine, of 1630-3*2 A.C., 228-30;

administration, under
Akbar. 146-47 under other

Fath, Khan s/o Malik Ambar,

235

Mughal Emperors, 382

Fatawa-i-'Alawgiri, 371
Fatwa*, 120-21

125-26

126-27

Its

Its

Its principles, 127-28

Faizi. see

31

District

Divine

Din-i-Uahi

see

Faith,

Diwan. His duties, 142-43,144-45

niw<r.ni-'Am. 277

Diwan

i Khas, 277, 371

Dost, of Mashed, Us'vd, 175
Dross in Mughal India, 391-2

Dnda,

s/o

Durga

Das, of

Surjana

Ham,

Mowar, 309

Durgavati, Rani, 93

relief,~404-5

Faujdvr, His duties, 146

Fazil Khan, Prime Minister of
'Alamgir, 336

Khan i Saman, Amir-ulVmara, 281

Fidai
Khan, cfficer under

Fazil

Jahanglr, 204
Fidai Khan, 'Alamgir's general,
290

Economic condition of India Firoz Khan, s/o Salim Shah. 69

Firoz MewatI, 266
during the Mughal Rule,
401

ff.

Education, Progress of, under

Babar, 22 ;
Humayun, 47
:-, Sher Shah, 63;-, Akbar,
149-50;-, Jahanglr,215.16;-,
.

Shah

Jahan,

'Alamgir,
education,

Gangadhar, Hindu author. 266

Gardens, of Babar, 2930;,
Akbar, 174-76;, Jahangir,
216-18 ;-, Shah Jahan, 278
;

'Alamgir, 374
27980;-,
Female Gentows, 302
,

372-3

Technical Ghallabakhsha, System, 155

System of, 386; Ghazi Malik, 104
Ghias Beg, Mirza, f/o Nur
Theory of Royal-, 372-3
Edwardes, William, 209
Jahan, 194-95 215,218
Ghias-ud Din
Muhammad
Eknath, 318
30
Elephant, Corps under Akbar,
Khudamir,
159
Ghias-ud- Din Tughluq, 161
Ghulam Hussain, S., 2
Knayat ullah Khan, 293
,

149-50

149

INDEX
and execution
Bairam Khan, 75-76

Gogra, Battle of the, 20-21

Gokle, Jat, 305

Hijra, 224
Hmdal, Mirza, 33,
;

Its functions, 381

64

or,

Granth Sahib,

40

39,

Hindu Beg, Amir, 44

Nasir-ud-Din
H u rn a y u n
Muhammad, Mughal Emper,

Govind Singh, Sikh GUI u, 363-

Grand Trunk Road,

by

(1556),

Gopinath Pant, 327-28

Gopinath, His temple, 177
Government, Mughal, 380

429

22,

409

183, 359, 361, 366

Gurmukhi alphabet, 359

22-23,

16,

marriage

Banu Begum,
of the

34

with
38

His
Harnida

ff

Division

Empire among

his

Habib-us-Siyar, 30, 46

brothers, 33 ; Political condition of India and his posi-

Haibat Khan of Samna, 215

Haidar Mirza, of Kashmir, 54

tion at his accession, 33-34;

Kamran'f occupation of the

Haldighat, Battle of, 97

Hafiz Tashqandi, 170

Punjab acquiesced in by
him, H-35; His war with

Hamfda BSnu Begum, Akbar's

Bahadur Shah of Gujarat,

35-37; His war with Sher

mother,

38, 72

Hamilton, Alexander, 301-302

Khan Afghan,

Hamzah, musician, 219

days

Haribansa, 166
Han Das, musician, 175
Haii Nath, 171
Har Govind, Sikh Guru, 361
HarKishan. Sikh Guru, 362-163
Har Rai, Sikh Guru, 361

39-49 ;
Persia,
Conquest
of Kabul and Qandhar from

genious works, 42

Hasan AH, Faujdar,

ministration,

305

m exile,

Kamran, 40;
tion,

40-41

lishments,

His

37-38;
38-39

in

His restoraHis accomp-

His inHis adHis

42-44;

41-42;

Sher Shah, 50
Hasan Khan Mewati, 18
Hasan, Kh., 43

Drum of Justice, 43 ; Classification of the people, 43 ;

Havildar, 344

43

Hasan,

f/o

Hawkins,
209

Captain William,
His account of Jahan-

gir's reign, 213

14

Hayat-ul-Haiwan, 165
Hazari, 344 Pan; -, 344
Hemu, 69 His assumption of
independence, 74 ; His defeat
;

at the Battle

of

Panipat

Fixture for giving audience,

^Twelve sub-divisions,
;
Court-Scholars, 46;

43-44;

His love of libraries, 46-47;

Progress of education under
His gardens, 47
him, 47
His religious beliefs, 48 His
;

character and estimate, 4849

Hussain Beg BadakhshanJ, 183

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

430

under Christian

Hussain, Sh., professor, 46

education

Hussdin Shah, R. of Ahmad-

missionaries, 91 ; His views

about Akbar, 138 ; His ac-

nagar, 235

Hussam Shah

R. of

Sharqi,

Jaunpur, 176

Hussain Waiz, M., 166

Ibadat Khanah, 89, 120-21
Ibrahim Khan Sur, 69

Lodhi,

Sultan,

10,

Imad-ud-Din, Hussain, Kh. 151

Imad-ul-Mulk, 36-37
Indar Singh, 309-10
Industries, Textile, 405

186-88

Deccan Campaign, 188-91

Malik Ambar, 189 Almiad-

Decree,

121-23;
123-24

194, 215,

Its

Its

218

Khan, 304

Usman's rebellion in Bengal

Bubonic plague, 194
Murder of Sher Afgan, 195-

98

marriage
Mehr-un-Nisa, 198
Nur Jahan's accomplishtier valour,
ments, 199
Tower behind the,
199;
Jahanjjlr's

gal. 193

Her influence,
Her character,
of Shah
201
Rebellion
of
Maha201-203,
Jahan,
bat Khan, 203-205; Shah
Jahan's subsequent move-

throne'. 200

200 201

Islam Khan, Shah Jahan's general, 225

Itimad Khan, Minister of Muzaffar Shah IJ of Gujarat, 99
Itimad Khan, Akbar's minister,
152

War of
ments, 204-205;
The
Succession, 205-206
;

see

Ghias

Beg

Portuguese, 207-208
English, 208 William
;

J
Jahan Ara Begum, d/o

kins

Shah

Jahan, 228, 247

Jahangir, Nu

nagar, 1 K)-01 ; Subsequent

career of P. Khusrau, 190
His character, 192;
92;

with

Ishaq Dhari, Mullah, 174

Islam Khan, Governor of Ben-

Itimad-ud-Daulah,

193

effects, 124-25

Isa

Ibrahim, Governor of Bengal,

368

Iqbalnamah,

jugation of Mewar,

Ibrahim, Mir. 30

importance,

P.

182-84

6,

13-14, 16. 19

Infallible

Khusrau's
Execution
of Guru Arjan, 184; Loss
of Qandhar, 184-86
Conof
186
Subquest
Kangra,

Nauroz, 182

revolt,

Ibrahim

cession, 180; Dastur-ul-Amal

Celebration of first

181-82;

The
Haw-

and William Edwardes,

209; Sir Thomas Roe, 20910

Foreign accounts of
;

r-ud-D

Jahangir's

reign

Muhammad, Mughal Emper-

veracity,

210-11

or; His marriage, 87, 98, His

description of

and
;

their

Roe's
t

Mughal Court

INDEX
and

its
customs, 212-13
His description of Jahangir's

Jaswant Singh, Rajah, 'Alam-

212

character,

personal

294
10

333

338-39

Their rebellion 304-5

Jats,

Jauhar,

Humayun's

Literary
of his Court 215 Pro-

Jauhar,

rite

Jananglr's

214-15

letters.

of education, 215

Fine Arts, 216-19

216-17

Painters.

chitecture, 218

Gardens,

219

Painting,
217 ; Ar-

Music, 219;

character, 219 20

Jahangir's
His love

Nurjahan and other

latives,

220-21

tastes, 221
beliefs,

re-

His refined
His religious
;

Jijabai,

Shivaji, 319-20
292-94 ; 314, 383

Jiwan Khan, Malik, 267

Jodhabai, Her palace, 177

Johar f Smgh Bundcla, 275-26

Jugal Kishor, rtis temple 177
Justice. Administration of,

under Hmnajun. 43

Shah
Ba bar's younger bro-

Suri, 58-59.

Sher

Akbar,

148-49
Jahangir. 180 81,;
Shah Jahan, 274,
ShivaiJ,
343,. 'Alamgir, 371-2 under
the Mughal Emperors in
;

ther, 11

Jahangir Dad, musician, 219

Mahal, 177, 218
,

218

general,

Jai Mai, 94-5

382-3;

justice, 180

Jai Singh, Rajah, 260,

Cham

Drum

of

of-, 43

283, 333-

38
Jai Singh.

m/o

Jizia, 4, 65, as

222

Jahangir,

servant, 46
the RajpQts,

Jesuit Missions to Akbar, 89-91;

To Jahangir, 207-208

His estimate,

221;

among

20-95

motion

for

His treachery, 308 309

love of

213-14

gems

general, 261, 286, 288,

gir's

Hawkins* account, 213 Administration under Jahangir,

431

Kablr, religious leader, 400

Rana of Udaipur,

jalal, leader of the

313

Kalilddamnah, 166

Roshanites,

Kalmi Bhakar, 326

Kam

105

Khan, s/o Bahar Khn, 52

Jalal Khan, s/o Sher Shah, see
Salim Shah Sun
Jalal

Jalal-ud-DIn Mirza Beg, Kh., 43

Jamaldar. 344

Jamal Khan, 50-51

Jama

Bakhsh, s/o 'Alamgir, 357

Kamil Khan. 288

Kamran, M'rza,

33-35,

39-40,

Kanauj, Battle of, 38, 53

Karan, Rai, s/o Rajah

Amar

53,72

Kamwar KhSn,

Masjid, 277
Jama-i-Rashidi, 164

Kama,

Jam

Karkuns, 147

Beg, Mirza of Thatta, 107

Janb, 153 ;-; System, 250
.

Singh, 187
s/o

Rajah Ram, 357

Kautilya, 342-43

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

432

Kavi Kulesh (Ka 10 shah), 355

Khali Khan, historian, 274
Khair-ud-Dm Rumi, M 170

Lala Beg (Baz Bahadur),

Khali ullah

Khan

Khan Jahan,

'Alamgir's general,

284

309

La il a- Ma] nun, lf>8

Land Revenue System, under
Sher Shah, 57-58 -, Akbar,
152-57;, Shivaji, 343;-,
the Great Mughals, 402 3
Lashkar Khan, 284
;

Khan Jahan

Loclhi,

general, 189

Khan

libra-

rian, 47

Akbar's

His revolt, 226

Shah

Jahan,

Jahan's

general, 238

Khansaman,

Libraries, 46, 166, 168

Litvan, 177

143

Khan Zaman, His

rebellion, 83,

Lub-ut-Tawankh, 46
Lutf-ullah, Kh., 42

85-86

Khan Zamari, Shah Jahan's

general, 238
Khanwah, Battle of, 16

Madan Mohan, His

ft

Its

importance.
Khattaks, Their rising, 288-90

Madan Pandit, 318

Madhu Singh Hada,

Khawan Saldr, 144

Khawas Khan, 316
Khirdafzdndmah, 165
Khtyal, 176

Khudamir, Muhammad,

44,

"

ral,

187,

199,

20fl03

rebellion, 203-4

90

Khusrau, P. s/o Jahangir, 113;

His
His rebellion, 182-84
;

subsequent career, 191-92

His character, 192, 200-201
Roe on his
His death, 202
;

Khusrau

Kh., 279

Kishu Joshi, 166

t

21,

-,

Mahabat Khan, Mughal gene-

Khush-hal Khan Khattak, 288-

219-20

Kotwal, His duties,

Krishna j I, 327

279-80

Jahan,
Alamgir, 372-3

46

Khulasat-ul-Akbar, 30

Koh-i-Noor

of

Shah

Khizvnddr, His duties, 147

Khwand Mahmud,

241-42

Babar, 22 ;-,
Humayun, 46-47;, Akbar,
149 ;, Jahangir, 215-16;-,

Madrasahs,

character, 212, 221;

Bagh, 192

temple, 177

Madanna, Minister ot Qutb

Shah of Golconda, 350

146, 152

His

205,226,284,

286, 289

Mahabharata, 165-66

Maham

Ankah, 81-82

Mahapattar, musician, 275, 278

Maharashtra, 5, 7, 315-16

Maheshmahananda, 166

Mahmud II, R. of Bengal, 54

Mahmud Lodhi, 20-21
Mahmud Shah of Bengal, 52
Majnun Khan Kakshak, 96
Makhu, musician, 219
Maldeva of Mewar, 38, 55
Malfuzat-i-Taimu?i

1.

INDEX
Malik Anibar, 189-91,202
Mahka-i-Zaman, see Arjumand

Banu Begum

aj;aiiiht Assam, 281-85

Mir Masum, Mughal general,

107

Malik Jiwan Khan, 207

Malik Masaud, 194-95
Mallu Khan of Bengal, 54
Mansabdars, 158-80
Man Singh, Rajah, 88,97;

433

MJrTaqiShaiili, Amir, 170,

Mohtasibs (censors of public
morals), 59; Their duties,
143, 283
103,

Mojmii'adar, 342

113,159,171, 180,182-83, 193

Mansiir, Imperial Du&an, 101
Mansur, Us tad, 217-18

Monserrat,

Manucci, Niccolao. 274

Memoirs of Babar, 26 27
Memoirs of Jahangir, 194
Marhattas, 5, 7, 236 Their cha-

Moll Masjid, 277

qualities,

316-

17; Their religion, 317-18;

Their early training, 318-19
Their rise and growth under
;

Shivaji, 319

Masum

90

291,293, 306, 311

and

racter

Fr.. 2.

Mosques, destroyed by Hindus,

ff.

Farankliudi of Jaunpur,

102

Ma'ajjam-ul-Hulddn, 104
Mu*azzam, Kh., 86

Pt s/o Aurangzeb,
Muhammad Mu'azzam

Mu'fl^zam,
see

Mubarak,

119-21, 168-69

fc

Mubanz Khan,

see

Muhammad

Shah 'Adil
MudSr Rao, 318
Muflis, Mir/a, 170
Muflis, 148-9

Ulawahs, 321
Mazi, Sh. 30

Mughal Court,

Muhammad

Medni Rao of Chanderi, 19-20

Mehr un-Nias, see Nur Jahan
Mian Chand. musician, 174
Mian Lai musician, 174
flints, Imperial, 150
Miran Bahadur, R. of

Khandesh,

R. of

Bijapur, 236-37, 252-53

Muhammad A

k b a

P. s/o

'Alamgir,
311; His rebellion, 312-13

281, 286, 289, 310,

la, 285,

s/o

Mir Jum-

287-88

Muhammad Amin, Ustad. 175

Muhammad Amin Oazwini, 276
Muhammad 'A/cam, P. s/o

110

Mir-i-Adl, 149

Alamgir, 281 ,31 1,349, 357

Muhammad Fargha.ll, M., 44

Muhammad Fazil BadafcLsha-

Mir-i-Arz, 144
Mir-i-Atash, 157
Aftr-t-Bofcri, 144

nl,

Mir-i-Barr, 144
Mir Jumla, 251-52,
;

splendour, 391

Muhammad Amin,

Mir Lahon, Sh., 279

Miran Sadr Jahan, 139-40

career, 284

Its

'Adil Shah,

266;

His

His expedition

Mullah, 279

Muhammad Hadi, 214

Muhammad Hakim, Mirza,
74,85,102-103,124-25

73>

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

434

Muhammad Hussam,

Uslad,

l/j

Muhammad Khan Dhan, muMu'axzam,

P., s/o

Alamgir, 281, 286, 308, 31112, 333, 338, 349

Muhammad Nadir Samarqandi,

Musir. under Babar, 29; Akbar,

- Jahangir, 219 ;~,
174-76
;

Shah Jahan.178; -'Alamgir,

373-4

Mustafa.

painter, 278

Muhammad Shahabadi.Sh., 160

Muhammad Shah Adil, 09, 70,
*

Commander

Muhammad

Sultan,

P.,

s/o

Alamglr, 203, 281

Muhammad Yazdi, Mullah, 124

Muhammad Xaman,

34

Musta'id K^an, 301

Mu'tamid

Khan,

Mukhlis Khan, Amii, 335

Mukhya Pradhan, 342
Mullahs, 116; exiled by Akbar,
insulted by Rajputs,
131

Mu/affar Hussam, King of Oan-

Muzaffar Khan, Mint Odirer,150

Muzaffar KhanTurbati, 101, 152,
155

Muzaffai Shah
99

11,

U. of Gujarat

311

Mumtaz Mahal, see Arjumand

Banu Begum
Munawwar, Sh., 105
Munim Khan, Governor ol
of

Abul Path, 104

Muqaddams, 147
Murad, P., s/o Akbar,

Jaru, musician, 174

100, 109-

Narsu, 318

Nasim Bagh,

P. s/o

241

Najabat Khau, 2A
Nail and Damyanli, 165
Nanak, Baba, Sikh Guru, 359

Naqib Khan, 165, 215

Narsingh Dev Bundela, 304

112

Murad,

Xaik, 344

Nanak

Bengal, 101

Munshiat

228,

historian,

214-15

dhar, 108

Ali Sayyadi, M., 279

10,

in-Chief

of Bijapur, 322

Muslaufi, 144

73, 77

Muhib

Ahmad-

of

nagar, 235-37
Mushaeras, 28

Mushnf, 144

sician, 174

Muhammad

Murtaxa Nizam, R.

Shah Jahan,
His

203,

character-

sketch, 255-56 ; His coronation, 260 : His part in the

War of Succession, 261-62 ;

His execution, 264-65, 322

Muran Jogdeva,

319

Murshid Quli Khan, 249-50

Murtaza Khan, 182, 186

178

Nasq, system, 155

Nasrullah Mustafa, 106
Nathuji, 337

Nauroz, celebrated by Jahangir,

182;-, Shah Jahan, 227-28;
discontinued by 'Alamgir,
,

283

Navy, under Akbar, 158-59

'

Shivajl, 345

INDEX
Nawan Kal Bagh

at Lahore, 374

435
10, 13-14;

Panchanlantra, 166

Nazirl, Sh., 279

Panj-hazaris, 165

Nazir-i Buyutat, 144

75-76

Second-,

NayayMish, 342-43

Parshotam, 165

Nazr Muhammad, King

of Bo-

Parvez,

s/o Jahanglr,

P.,

Patwari, 147

Ni'mat-ullah, 215
Nishat Bagh, at Kashmir, 210

Patta, Chittor's hero, 94

Peacock Throne, 277

Ni/am, water

Peshwa, 342

203

carrier, 53

187,

His death, 205

khara, 240-42
Notoji Polkar, 338

Peter Mundi, 229, 274

Nizam Sh., 372
Nizam ud-Din Ahmad, 164
Pinjor Garden, 374
Nur Jahan, Empress, 185-86, 192; Pir Muhammad, 84, 170
Her birth, 194 Her access Pirzada, musician, 174
to the Imperial Palace, 195
Pbgue, 73. 194
Her marriage with Sher Police under Sher Shah,
;

Murder of her
Afgan, 195
husband, 195 97 Her marriage with Jahangfr, 198 Her
;

accomplishments, 199; Her

valour, 199; 'Power behind
the throne,' 200; Her influence on the State, 200-201 ;

Her character,

201

presence of mind
sourcefulness, 204

Her

and

re-

Close of

her career, 206, 218, 220-21,

223

Nusrat Shah, R. of Bengal, 21

under Babar,

59;
other Mughal
,

Emperors, 384
Political

condition of

India,

379-89

Their relations
Portuguese
with Akbar, 89-91
with
with
Jahangir, 207-208
;

Shah Jahan, 230

31

Babar
22;-, Sher Shah, 61 ;-,
other Mughal
Akbar. 150
Emperors, 385

Postal Service, under

Singh, 97-98

186, 346

Purandhrfr, Treaty

P
Painting,

Pratap Singh, Rana, s/o Udai

114-15, 128

392-93

Ornaments,

Potdar, see Khizandar

O
Ommayads,

Akbar. 152

Purbm Khan,

29;,

Akbar, 172-74;-, Jahanglr,

Shah Jahan, 278216-18;
,

'Alamgir, 373-74
Panchdyat system, 59, 343

79;,

333-34

Q
Qanungos, 147
Oaqshals, a Chaghtai tribe
Their rebellion, 101-102

Qasim Beg, 164

Qasim Khan <>f Bengal,

Pandari, a tax, 282

Piinipat, First Battle of-,

of,

175

fi,

0,

?3l,

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

436

Ofisim Khan, Akbar's general,

!'*>

Oasim, instrumental performer,

175

Qans, 58, 148;, bound and

shaved by KajpDls, 311

Ram

Singh, Rajah, 207, 338

Rana Prasad, 38 39
Rana Sangha His
;

invitation

to Babar, 13; His defeat,

Hid; HIS death, 20, 03
Rand a ula Khan, 322

Oart ul Quzat, 148

Ranilt Singh, Rajah, u

OuHrh Khan, 150

Qulich Muhammad,

Rang Mahal, 277

Rang Sen, musician,

182

Onr'an, thrown into

>vells

by

RajpOts, 311

Our Bcgi, 1 \4
Outh nd Din Koka,

Itayyaiiwm system,

Kazmndmah.

100

R
Rndandax Khan,

Rahmat

51, 58

l()5-uo

Religious features, 305-401

206

Ragnath. Raiah. *81

Knhdan. a

171

Raushan /Vra Begum. 228, 286;

Her garden at Delhi, 374

lax, 282

ullnh, rnusii ian, \1\

Rai Karan, Rana, 336

Rai Singh, Raidh, 338
Raia Ah, R. of Khandesh, 110
Rajah Rain s/o Shiva ji, 35f>-57

Raiah Ram, leader

ol the

Jats

305

Roe, Sir Thomas, 2; His view*

on Akbar's religion. 130; He
concessions
secures trade
from Jahangir, 200-10; His
description of Mughal Court
and its customs, 211-12 His
;

of

description

Jahanglr's

character, 202; His account

of fine arts in Mughal India,
212-16.

Rajputs, defeated by Babar, 15 Rudolf Acquaviva. Fr. 00

ff.
reconciled by Akbar 86-80; Rustarn Khan, 243-44
f

135-36; reduced to submission by Alamgir, 306-14

'

S
Sa'adullah Khan,

Shah Jahan,

UajtaKingvni, 160

Minister ol

241-44,273, 281

Kamachant ananas, 171

Sarhivo, 342
Sadiq Halwl, Mullah,
Kamayana< 165-171
Ram Chandra, Rainh of Kalm- Sadr, 145
]ar,

Ram

Rajah,

Das,

Akbar's

Das,

Shiva ji's

H8

spiritual

teacher, 318. 320

Ram
Ram

Sartr-i-Sudur. His duties, 143,

Sahm-ud-Daulah, 44

Sdhm-ul-\furad 45

general, 182

Ram

170

Sahm-us-Sa'adat, 44
Sahuji, s/o Sambhuji, 337

Das, Sikh Guru, 360

Said Khan, Jahanglr's general,

Das, musician, 174-75, 278

Kdmjiwan, Goshain, 208
Ram Rai, Sikh Guru, 362 63

Said KhanjGovernor'of Kabul,

183
230-40

INDEX
Salabat Khan, 226
Salim P.,
s/o

Akbar,

see

Jahangir
SalimS Sultana, 196-97
Salim Chishti, Sh., of Ajmer,
117

Salim Shah Sun, 40. 44, 66 ff

Reducti on of Malwa and
the Punjab, 67
Execution
;

of Sh. Alai, 68
Sambhaji, 313

Samugrah, Battle

of, 261-62

185-88, 190-9~i, 200-201

or, 7,

His

rebellion,

114-15, 128, 130

225-26;

Jahan Lodhi,

227-28

The Por-

rite among the Rajputs,

prohibited by Akbar, 88
t

ter,

Satnamis' rebellion, 305-06

Shah

233;

operations in the
War with
236;

Sawar, 160

Deccan,

Sayurgkals, 145

Bijapur, 236-37

Mashed,

Mir,

175

Jahan's

policy, 233-34; War

Ahmadnagar, 234-36

Deccan

with
Further

Satlburj, 177

of Golconda, 237

Subjugation
Bijapur,

Shah Jahan's Central

Asian Policy and his attempts
237-39;

Sayyad All Tabrez, 173

Sayyad Banda, 328, 330
Sayyad Bukhara of Gujarat, 279
Sayyad Khan, 182
Secret Service, see
Serais, 60, 61, 150

ShSdman,

226-27; Cele-

Nauroz.

War with
tuguese 230-31
them, 231 Career of Mumtaz
Mahal, 231-32; Her charac-

SarOd Khan, musician, 174

Ali of

His

of Johar Singh,
Revolt of Khan

Bamine, 228-30;

Saracens,
Sarhind, Battle of, 41
Sarainaubat, 342-44

Sayyad

201-3;

subsequent movements, 2046; His coronation, 206; His

character as described by
Roe, 212, 215; His accession,
223; His early acts, 225;

bration of

Sanapati, 342

Sati

Shah Ismail II of Persia, 195

Shah Jahan, Shahab-ud-DinMuhammad, Mughal Emper-

Rebellion

335, 337-39, 355-56

SambhQjl,

437

general

Espionage
of

Mirza
103

ShahSb-ud-Din Khafi, 46
Shahab-ud-Din, M., 30
Shahbaz Khan,
Akbar's gener~~~

Shah Beg Khan,

Shah Lara, 219

185

acquire

Central

his

Asian

possessions, 239-46
Recovery of Qandhar, 239;

40; Conquest of Balkh

Badakh*shan, 240-43

Muhammad Hakim,

"~al, 102

to

and

Qandhar
recover

it,

failure

243-45;

and

Loss of
to

Failure

of Central Asiun Policy and

Fratriciits results, 245-46
;

dal War
255 59;

and

its

genesis
Jahan's behaviour during the War,

258 59

Shah

His captivity, 262-63

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

438

H i s administration, 274
Progress of fine arts under
his patronage, 174-78; His
philomathy, 278 79 Literary
;

Sher Afgan,

see All Qull Istajlu

Sheri, Mullah, 165
Sher Shah Sun, 33 34, 38, 46, 49,

jems of his Court, 279;

Promotion of learning, 279His
character
and
80;

His early life, 50-51

ff.
His early activities, 51-52;
Occupation of Bengal, 52;
of Bengal
Recovery
by

estimate, 280

Humayun,

Sh5hji Bhonsla,

f/o Shivaji, 235,

237-38; 247, 31924, 331-32

Shah Muhammad, Ustad,

Shah Mansur, Kh., 150

Battle

Conquest of

53,

165,

192, 200, 203, 205-6

136
'

against

His

Shivaji,

dealings
;

with

367

ff.

Adminis-

Division

Organization

59;

Force,

of

Secret

Service, 59-60; Tariff System,

60; Means of communication
61

and transportation,

60-

Postal

61
Service,
61-62
reforms,

Military

;
:

62-63

;
reforms,
of public welfare, 63 ;
63-64 ; Sher
Architecture,

Currency

Shakti (goddess), 364

Works

Shambhuji, Shivaji's uncle, 321

Shalamar Bagh, at Delhi, 278 ;
at Kashmir,
219;, at

65

Lahore, 272, 278

Shamsher Khan, 288

of

Empire, 56-57; Land

57-58 ;
Revenue
System,
Administration of justice,

the

Police

Shaista Khan, Alamgir's uncle,

His conquest of
267, 283;
Chittagong, 285-6; His ex-

the

Punjab and Gakhar land,

54;-, MSlwa, 5455;-. in

58-59

Shaikh Mir, 284

of

Kan-

Battle of

Rajputana, 55 56

Shaikhs, exiled by Akbar, 131,

the English

52

Chausa, 53

tration, 56

106, 159

Shahryar, P. s/o Tahangir,

pedition

auj,

176

Shdhndmah, 165

Shah Rukh, Mirza,

331-32;

50

Shah's ideal of kingship,

His estimate, 65-66, 152,
;

161, 169

Sher Shah

Shams-ud-Dm Muhauimad At-

Shah

II,

s/o

Muhammad

Adali, 83

ka Khan, Akbar's Minister,

82; Stabbed to death by

Shihab

Adham Kban,

Ship-building, industry, under

the Mughals, 406-7

Law),

84

(Muslim

Shariyat

Personal

116-17, 224, 370, 380

instrumental

Khan,

performer, 175

His early
His robberies,

Shivaji Marhatta, 5

Sharunavis, 342

life,

Sharza Khan,

321-22; Seizure and release

of
322-24 ;
his
father,

322, 349

319-21;

'

Shastri, 343

INDEX
Massacre at Javli, 323 His
with
Alamgir
;

439
345-47

alliance

against Bijapur and perfidy*

323-24; His meeting with
Afzal Khan, 324-25 ; Murder

Shivaji

356

II,

Shivaji III, 357-58

Shuhrat-i(Public
l

Am

Works

Department), 22

Khan and

rout of Shuja', P., s/o Shah Jahan, 228,

241
His character- sketch,
Treachery
of
His
354-55, 260 His fate, 265-66
326-30;
Shivaji,
conquests, 330; Sultan of Shuja'at Khan, Governor of
Malwa, 67
Bijapur's attack on him,
His declaration of Shuja'at
330-31
Khan,
Alamglr's
His atindependence, 331
general, see Radandaz Khan
tack on Shaista Khan at Sidl Johar, 330-31
of Afzal
his

army, 325-26

'

night, 331-32; Sack of Surat,

332
Assumption of indeHis subpendence, 332-33
;

mission

to

'

Alamgir, 333

Sijdah, 127, 131, 134, 224

Sikaildar Lodfci, SultSn, 13
Sikandar Sur, 40, 41, 69-70,
76-77

73,

Sikhs, 6, 7 Their Gurus, 359-64 ;

Treaty of Purandhar, 333-34
Their religion, 359-64 Their
His visit to the Imperial
His
recepsuppression
Capital, 334-35;
by
Alamgir,
365-66
tion, 336 His misbehaviour,
335 His imprisonment and Siledars. 344
escape, 335-38 His assump- Sinan, architect, 27
tion of the title of Rajah, Sipahsalar, 144
339 Exaction of Chauth and Sipahr Shikoh, P., s/o Dara
Surdeshmukhi from Bijaptir
Shikoh, 266-67
andGolconda, 339-40; Re- Slavery, 394
;

'

newal

of

and

hostilities

Social

condition

of

India,

389-94
sack of Surat for the second
time, 340; Coronation of Sri Gian Khan, 174
His further Subahs, 144 Subahdars, 144
Shivaji, 340-41
Extent of Subhan Khan, musician, 174
conquests, 341
his Kingdom, 341 ; His civil Succession, Law of, 379-80
;

Adadministration, 341-42
ministrative divisions of his
Kingdom, 342 Administra;

tion of justice, 343;

Revenue System, 343 ;

Sukracharya, 342-43

Sulaiman KararSiti of Bengal,

100

Land Sulaiman,
Mill-

tary Organization, 344-45 ;

His fleet, 345 ; His estimate,

Mirza, Humayun's
cousin, 33, 74, 104

Sulaiman Shikoh,

P., s/o

Shikoh, 260-61; His

Data
tragic

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

440

yun, 46

fr*e,267

Sultan Haji, Thaneswari, 165

Sultan Hashim of Mashed, 175

Sumant, 342
Surajgarh, Battle of, 52
Surat, Sack of, 332, 340
Sur Das, blind bard, 171

Surjana Hara, Rajah,

Svrdeshmukhi, 339-40

(?),

300

Todar Mai, Rajah,

(Drum

Tahir Khan, Faujdar of Jodhpur, 310

105,

102,

88,

151-53,

99 100,

155,

159,

170-71

Toleration

under

the Great

Mughals, 381, 411

,
Tomb(s), of Sher Shah, 63
Humayun, 177;, Akbar,
177
desecrated by Jats,
218 ;-, Sh. Sallm
203.
;

10-12, 24, 239

Tahmasp, Shah
Taj Mahal,

destroyed by 'Alamgir
295 ;-> by Shah Jahan,

Terry, 192

of Justice), 43
Tabqat-i-Akbari, 164
Tahawar Khan, 310, 312

TaimQr,

T
Tabl'i-Adl

Tegh Bahadur, Sikh Guru, 363

of Gobind Dev,
Vemple(s)
Gopi Nath, Jugal Kishor
and Madan Mohan, 177, 304

of Persia, 39

232-33, 237, 275-77

Takht-i-Taus

see

Peacock

Throne

Sen, Akbar's
musician, 174

Khan.

Court-

Muhammad

Chishtl, 177;-,

Ghaus, 177

Tan

Tantarang

;,

Mirza Ghias,

218

Trade, Foreign, 405-61

Akbar's

Court musician, 174

Taqarrab Khan, 355

Tuka Ram,

318

Tulsi Das, Hindu poet, 171

Tuzk i-Jahangiri, 139, 214 15

Taqqavi loans, 156

TSra Bai, w/o Rajah Ram,

357-

of, 313-14

Udaipur, Treaty

Udai Singh, Rawal, 18

Udai Singh, s/o Rana Sangha,

58

Tardi Beg, 75

93, 96-97

Tarikh-i-Badaoni, 164

Ulugh Beg, 166

Tankh-i-Alfi, 164
Tarikh-i-Ferishta, 2
Tariff system, under Sher Shah,

60

His Astronomi-

cal Tables, 166

Umar Shaikh,

Mirza, f/o Babar,

10

Tash Beg of Xipchak, 175

Tatar Khan, 34

Umar Naqshbandi,
Usman,

Kh., 204

193

Tauhid-i Ilahi, soe Din-i-llahi

Taxation, 383

Uzbegs, 11-12,85.86,104

Tavernier; 274

Vakil, His duties, 142.

Vaman Pandit, 318

Tazkirat'UW-Waqiyat'i

Huma-

INDEX
Verinag Bagh at Kashmir, 210
Von Noer, on Akbar and Ba-

W
Wah Baghat Hasan

Abdal, 210

}Va<ia-Navis,

7,

2S7 88, 330

W,

ZabtZ system, 155

147

bar's, 23-24

of Succession

tho sons of Bahar,

among
34-35

Akbar, 182-3;-, Jahangir,

205-6;-, Shah Jahan, 254
,

Zafarnamah. 166

Xam
Xam

Khafi, 30

Khan, Akbnr's

status of,

30-1

X
Xavier, Fr Jerome, 2

Y
Yaqfib s/o Yusaf Shah of Kash-

general,

106

Zannnbos, 224
^a/, 160
Zrl) un-Nisa,

2W

if.

Woman,

Yusaf/ais, 103, 105

115

Waqlyat i Rohan. 1()4, 160, 214

Wasiyyal Hawaii Makhfi, Bfi-

War

mir, 107

YasD Pandit, 318

Yusaf of Herat, llstad, 175
Yusaf Shah, R. of Kashmir, 106

claom, 133 34

Wahdl,

441

Zia-ud

Dm,

Ximmis, 29^

Aurangzeb,

d/o

t
Mir/a, 270
ff

Xubdcit-un-Nisa, 281
Zulliqar

Khan,

general, 356 57

Aurang/eb's

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

EDUCATION IN MUSLIM INDIA

Being an Inquiry into the State of Education During
the Muslim Period of Indian History 10001800 A C.)

WITH A FOREWORD BY
PROF.

HAROON

M.A. (Oxon

Head

),

K.

SHERWANI

K.R.Hist.8., F.R.S.A., etc.

of the Department of History

Osmania University
Hyderabad, Dn.
(Cloth bound.

Pp. 280. Price 5/8 net)

Available only from S. Muhammad Sadiq Khan,

Kis^a Kham, Peshawar City

FOREWORD
was Fronde who once said something to the
one should not raise one's pen to write unless
one can add to human knowledge, and there is no doubt
that Mr. S M. Jaffar has done a great service to the cause
of education in general and Indian Culture in particular
by writing this book on Education in Muslim India arid
thus made a distinctive contribution to the field of Indian
I

RELIEVE

it

effect that

historical literature.

Time was when a student of Indian history had to be

content with knowing something about warring dynastic^
court intrigues, internecine feuds and other matters which
went to make the history of this country a subject of
useless, if not actually harmful, study. Happily we have
now come to feel the necessity of the whole of Indian history
being re-written not so much from the point of view of
occurrences at the capitals of various states as in order to
delineate the spread of culture and to demonstrate the
value of its present composite form, so that our people may
not be Jed away by the false notion that whatever
paraphernalia of civilization we possess does not go back
to more than a century and a half. Indian civilization,
wi f h its real and inherent unity in the midst of its out ward
diversity, is age-long and not a mere graft, and this is one
of the great and abiding results of the events which go to
'

form the history of India.

'