(TE3N) Booklet

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
1
1.1
2011 USAC
LEAN MANUFACTURING
Introduction
Lean
manufacturing or lean
production, which is often known simply as
Lean, is a production practice that considers
the expenditure of resources for any goal other
than the creation of value for the end customer
to be wasteful, and thus a target for
elimination. Working from the perspective of
the customer who consumes a product or
service, value is defined as any action or
process that a customer would be willing to
pay for.
Basically, lean is centered around

creating more value with less work. Lean
manufacturing is a generic process
management philosophy derived mostly
from the Toyota Production System (TPS)
(hence the term Toyotism is also prevalent)
and identified as Lean only in the 1990s. It is
renowned for its focus on reduction of the
original Toyota seven wastes in order to
improve overall customer value, but there
are varying perspectives on how this is best
achieved.
Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a

present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency,
decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically
accepting pre-existing ideas.
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The elimination of waste is the goal of Lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste:
Muda
Mura
Muri
Muda: is a traditional general Japanese term for an activity that is wasteful and doesn't add value or is
unproductive and it is also a key concept in the Toyota Production System (TPS).
The original seven muda are:
Transportation (moving products that is not actually required to perform the processing)
Inventory (all components, work in process and finished product not being processed)
Motion (people or equipment moving or walking more than is required to perform the
processing)
Waiting (waiting for the next production step)
Overproduction (production ahead of demand)
Over Processing (due to poor tool or product design creating activity)
Defects (the effort involved in inspecting for and fixing defects)
Mura: is traditional general Japanese term for unevenness, inconsistency in physical matter or human
spiritual condition.
Muri: is a Japanese term for overburden, unreasonableness or absurdity, which has become
popularized in the West by its use as a key concept in the Toyota Production System.
1.2
Lean Manufacturing Goals
The four goals of Lean manufacturing systems are to:

Improve quality: In order to stay
competitive in todays marketplace, a
company must understand its customers'
wants and needs and design processes to
meet
their
expectations
and
requirements.
Eliminate waste: Waste is any activity that
consumes time, resources, or space but
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1.3
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does not add any value to the product or service. There are seven types of waste.
Reduce time: Reducing the time it takes to finish an activity from start to finish is one of
the most effective ways to eliminate waste and lower costs.
Reduce total costs: To minimize cost, a company must produce only to customer demand.
Overproduction increases a companys inventory costs due to storage needs.
Steps to achieve lean systems
The following steps should be implemented in order

manufacturing system:
1. Design a simple manufacturing system
2. Recognize that there is always room for improvement
3. Continuously improve the lean manufacturing system design
4. Measure
to
create
the
ideal lean
1.3.1 Design a simple manufacturing system

A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing
is demand-based flow manufacturing. In this type
of production setting, inventory is only pulled
through each production center when it is needed
to meet a customers order. The benefits of this
goal include:
Decreased cycle time
Less inventory
Increased productivity
Increased capital equipment utilization
1.3.2 There is always room for improvement

The core of lean is founded on the concept of continuous product and process improvement and
the elimination of non-value added activities. The Value adding activities are simply only those things
the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified,
reduced, or integrated(Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system
layouts at the customer's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.
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1.3.3 Continuously improve

A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach a company's goals. The term "continuous
improvement" means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with
the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product
performance (Suzaki, 1987).
1.3.4 Measure
A set of performance metrics which is considered to fit well in a Lean environment is overall
equipment effectiveness, or OEE, which is a hierarchy of metrics which focus on how effectively a
manufacturing operation is utilized.
To keep things really simple, lean manufacturing has a base premise and overall goal to get more
done with less and this is effectively done, by:
Minimizing inventory at and through all stages of production

Eliminating waste
Reducing wait times, queues
Shortening product cycle times from raw materials to finished goods
Lean manufacturing involves some real positive, productive changes in businesses that will have a
measurable impact in the bottom line. Benefits of lean production could include:
Reduced lead time, wait time and cycle time

Liberated capital
Increased profit margins
Increased productivity
Improved product quality
Just in time, affordable, streamlined, cost-efficient processes, products and services
Improved on-time shipments
Customer satisfaction and loyalty
Employee retention
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1.2
2011 USAC
Homework:
Investigate the following terms related to lean manufacturing and give their definition:
Just in time
- Kanban
- Andon
Kaizen
- Jidoka
- Six Sigma
Poka Yoke
- Heijunka
-5S
Suggested videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0Q-xaYior0&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU01D-jTZcE&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q89qAbAAR3Q&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdHGTCXcJQU&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKb84GafalI
Activities
Complete the next chart with the next definitions:
Lean manufacturing
Reduce Time
Continuously Improve
TPS
Improve quality
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2.
2.1
2011 USAC
PROCESS DIAGRAMS
Introduction
The process diagrams are very important in the manufacturing industry because they give us a
clear perspective of the processes with every step, including materials, time, distance and others. This
helps the engineers to interpret and analyze the manufacturing process and make decisions that will
improve the process without being there to watch how everything works.
The diagrams are composed by three parts:
- Header
- Body
- Summary
In the header you will include all the relevant information such as: company name, analyst,
date, process, area, page number, type of diagram, etc.
In the body, you will draw the diagram that is required according the specifications of each
type and of the process.
And in the summary you will write all the steps that the process has, including time. Time is
the most important factor because we use it to calculate the process efficiency and productivity.
Example:
HEADER
BODY
SUMMARY
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Operations Diagram
This diagram is a graphic representation of the operations and inspections in a production process. In
this diagram well include the following symbols:
Description
Symbol
Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,

or involves any action or activity for the creation of products.
Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also

the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.
Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used

when in the process you have to check the products during
An operation.
Company name: Johns house

Process: making of hot chocolate
Analyst: John Hamilton

Area: kitchen
Date: Nov. 20th, 2010

Type of diagram: operations
Page 1 of 1
0.7 min
1
In a pot put 1 liter of water, in a stove

With high fire, let it boil
Take the 0.30 pounds of chocolate

out of the bag and put it into the pot
1 min
0.5 min
7 min
3
Get some marshmallows
Stir frequently and let the

chocolate melt and get the
desired consistency
0.5 min
1
Check if the chocolate is ready
0.8 min
5
Get a cup and serve
Add the marshmallows
0.5 min
0.4 min
1
Check if its not too hot, Enjoy!
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Summary
Description
Symbol
# of steps
Operation
10.5
Inspection
0.4
Combined
0.5
Totals
2.2.1
2.3
Time
11.4
Important considerations
Note that the time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.
The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not.
The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol.
A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram,
and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in
the right, as shown in the example.
Process Flow Diagram
The process flow diagram is a graphic representation of the steps that follows a chronologic sequence
of activities in a process or procedure, identifying them with symbols according to its nature, and also includes
all the considered important information that is needed for analysis. This information could be distance, time,
quantity, etc. This helps us discover and eliminate waste and delays, making the process more efficient and
increase the productivity in the manufacturing industry.
In this diagram we include the storage, operation, inspection, combined, delays and transportation
symbols.
Description
Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,

or involves any action or activity for the creation of products.
Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also

the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.
Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used

when in the process you have to check the products during
An operation.
Delay: this is used when nothing is being done in the process,
It could be the wait for other paralell process to finish before
Adding the product to the asembly line.
Symbol
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Transportation: is when the product is moved more than

1.5 meters to the next step. This is because the human body
Can move something from one side to other between 0 and
1.5 m and its irrelevant according to standars.
Storage: this is used at the beginning of the process when the

Materials are taken from the raw materials storage and at the end
Of it in the finished product storage.
2011 USAC
As the operations diagram, it has the same parts: header, body and summary, and its
important to include in the summary the time and distance that you have in the diagram.
2.3.1 Important considerations
Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.

The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous
processes or not.
The distance is written meters and in the lower-left corner of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the
diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left
first and then in the right, as shown in the example.
2.4
Process Travel Diagram
This diagram uses the same symbolism as the process flow and also the same structure, the only
difference is that we draw the diagram in a plan view of the manufacturing plant.
Remember to always draw the symbols in a 1 cm2 area. This is a standard for all the diagrams that
youre going to draw.
2.4.1
Important considerations
Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.

The diagram is drawn in a plan view of the manufacturing plant.
The distance is written in meters and the lower-left corner of the symbol.
When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram
and the sequence in the process.
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Example: (For space reasons, this diagram doesnt include the time and distance)
Company name: Industry S.A.
Process: production of ketchup
Analyst: John Hamilton

Area: manufacturing plant
Date: Nov 20th, 2010

Type of diagram: process travel
Page 1 of 1
Summary
Description
Operation
Symbol
# of steps
Time
Distance
Inspection
Combined
Transportation
Delay
Storage
Totals
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Homework
With the given videos, draw the operations diagram, the process flow diagram and the operations
travel diagram.
To make the operations diagram, use the following link
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gneZc_hafDE
To make the process flow diagram and the process travel diagram, use the following link
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkHFNnOK3Bg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TI-dSckvw0Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5sNItVp9cA&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Y5Auwf0nXE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3K3-stVK0lM
Activities:
According to the picture below, determine what symbol each operation needs:
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Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Tables storage
Cross storage
Sawing and Comprobation
Transfer to the pendulum

(forklift)
Sawdust 6%
Waiting to be processed
Devastation and Comprobation
Transfer to the pendulum
(forklift)
Sawdust 0.38%
Cut and Comprobation

Sawdust
Cut and Comprobation
Waiting to be transported
Sawdust 0.32%
Transfer to the assembly area

(forklift)
Transfer to the assembly area

(forklift)
Assembly and Comprobation

Sawdust and Tables.
Transfer to the Store (forklift)
Storage
Description
Symbol
No. of steps
Time
Description 2
Symbol
No. of steps2
Time2
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
3.
2011 USAC
QUALITY CONTROL
3.1 Introduction
Quality control is a critical concept in every industry and profession.
As globalization continues and the world become smaller, making it possible
for consumers to pick and choose from the best products worldwide, the
survival of your job and of your company depends on your ability to produce
a quality product or service. In this chapter, we define the term quality,
and we introduce some important quality control concepts and methods.
For most people, quality is associated with the idea of a product or
service that is well done, looks good and does its job well. We think of a quality product as one that
lasts, holds up well under use, and doesnt require constant repair. A quality product or service should
meet a high standard in many areas, such as form, features, fit and finish, reliability and usability.
3.2
Quality control concepts

Costumer based: Quality is meet customer expectations.
Statistical based: The less variation you have, the higher the
quality of your product or service.
After an organization decides on a definition of quality, you need

standards against which to measure your quality. The reason is because
many standards are driven by the desire to safeguard and well-being of
the people who use the products or services companies provide. Quality
standards are also critical in support of international trade.
3.3
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance focuses on the ability of a process to produce or deliver a quality product or
service. This method differs from quality control in that it looks at the entire process, not just the final
product. Quality control is designed to detect problems with a product or service; quality assurance
attempts to head off problems at the pass by tweaking a production process until it can produce a
quality product.
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3.4
2011 USAC
Measuring the quality

The old manager saying: You cant manage what
you can measure rings especially true in quality control.
A good measurement system helps you to know where
youve been and where you are going. Costumers
typically require that you measure certain attributes of
your product or service against their specifications. So,
working in quality control means that you have to
determine what to measure, how to measure it and when
to measure it.
Employee training is critical to ensure that everyone involved in your process measures the
same specifications in the same way. You also need to collect data in a usable format so that you can
analyze it to determine the effectiveness of your quality process. The effectiveness of your quality
process is directly related to the quality of your data collection and analysis process. If you dont have
a good data, you cant make good decisions.
3.5
Evaluating the quality
The most common way to analyze the data you collect is to use
statistics. Statistics serve many purposes within quality control:
Statistics helps you to determine which processes or parts of

processes are causing your company the most problems (by using
the 80/20 rule 80 percent of your problems are caused by 20
percent of what you do).
You can use statistics for sampling so that you dont have to test
100 percent of the items you make.
Statistics can help you spot relationships between the values you
measure even if the relationships arent obvious. They also allow
you to identify small variations in your process that can lead to big
problems if you dont correct them.
Although, much of statistics allows you to look back only at was happened in the past. Statistical Process
Control (SPC) allows you to identify problems before they can negatively impact the quality of your product or
service. The basic idea behind SPC is that if you can spot a change in a process before it gets to the point of
making bad products, you can fix the process before bad products hits the shelves.
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3.6
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Introducing Lean Processes
Lean processes are the latest diet craze in the world of quality control. Lean is a quality control
technique you can use to identify and eliminate the flab in your companys processes. The flab is all
the dead weight carried by a process without adding any value.
Most company processes are wasteful in terms of time and materials, which often results in
poorer quality to the costumer a concern of all businesses. Lean focuses in customer satisfaction
and cost reduction. Proponents of the technique believe that every step in a process is an opportunity
to make a mistake to create a quality problem, in other words. The fewer steps you have in a
process, the fewer chances for error you create and the better the quality in your final product or
service.
You can apply the lean techniques in the following sections to all types of processes and
environments ranging from offices, to hospitals, to factories. In most cases applying lean concepts
doesnt require an increase in capital costs it simply reassigns people to more productive purposes
and of course, lean processes are cheaper to operate.
3.7
Lean Techniques
3.7.1 Value Stream Mapping

People think in images, not in words, so
giving them a picture of how something is done
is often better than telling them about a
process. After all, the quote is Show me the
money! not Tell me about the money!
Value Stream Mapping visually describes a
production process in order to help workers
locate waste within it. Waste is any activity that
doesnt add value for the customer. Typically,
eliminating waste involves reducing the amount of inventory sitting around and shortening the time it
takes to deliver a product or service to the customer upon its order.
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3.7.2 The 5S method

Work areas evolve along with the processes they support. As an organization implements new
actions and tools, you must find a place for them somewhere. Over time, clutter can slowly build as
piles of excess materials or tools grow and gradually gum up the smooth flow of work.
The 5S method is an essential tool for any quality initiative that seeks to clear up the flow of
work. The 5S describe five Japanese attributes required for a clean work place:
Seiri (organization)
Seiton (neatness)
Seiso (cleaning)
Seiketsu (standardization)
Shitsuke (discipline)
Removing the clutter from a process eliminates

hidden inventories, frees floor space for productive
use, improves the flow of materials through the
workplace, reduces walk time, and shakes out
unnecessary items for reuse elsewhere or landfill
designation.
3.7.3 Rapid improvement events
No one knows a process like the workers who touch it every day. They know how the work
should flow, they can identify obstacles that slow everyone down, and they deal with problems that
never seem to go away.
A Rapid Improvement Event (RIE) is an intensive process-activity improvement, where over a
few days a companys workers bone up on lean techniques and rebuild their processes to incorporate
its principles. The workers take apart their work areas, rearrange items and reassemble spaces for
more efficient work. The improvements are immediate, and the workers have ownership of the
process and fine motivated to further refine it.
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3.7.4 Lean materials and Kanban

A companys materials are essential for the organization to work well, but they also tied up a
large part of a companys capital. And while the company does its business year in and year out, its
materials are, stolen, damaged, rotting, corroding, and losing value in many other ways.
A key part of the lean approach is to minimize the amount of materials (both incoming and
finished goods) you have sitting around in your facility. Excess materials hide problems with
purchasing, work scheduling, scrap rates, and so on. Eliminating this excess materials provides an
immediate financial benefit to your company if you eliminate correctly.
You dont want to eliminate so thoroughly that you cause shortages. One method you can use
to fix the problem of excess materials without causing shortages is Kanban. Kanban is a materials
system controlled by the customer. When the customer buys an item, action cascades back up the
production line to make one more of that item.
3.8
Homework
Investigate and make a summary of the following topics:

Total Quality Management (TQM)
Six Sigma
Toyota Production System (TPS)
Suggested videos
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Z33tljMTQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdhC4ziAhgY
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Activities:
Write in each screw a different description about Quality Control:
Complete with the description of each lean technique:
Value stream Mapping

Rapid improvement events
Lean material and Kanban
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Complete the chart with the 5s technique:
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4.
2011 USAC
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
4.1 Introduction
You need energy to start your day. Your breakfast is the fuel your body needs to work. What would you
do if you ran out of your favorite cereal? You could buy another box. But what if the store was all out, too?
What if it wasnt getting any more deliveries? What would you do then? The answer seems simple; youd have
to find another food for breakfast. The world faces a similar problem; our fuel resources are running low and
could run out in your lifetime.
Most everything in the world needs energy to work. Think about the energy you use each day: the
lights you turn on, the bus or car you take to school, the computer you use for homework, the television you
watch before bed. Even while you sleep, energy runs your furnace heating your house and the refrigerator
keeping food from spoiling. It even runs the alarm clock that wakes you up in the morning. Now think about
how many people live on the Earth. With a population of more than 6 billion, the world uses a lot of energy.
4.2
Todays energy sources = fossil fuels
4.2.1
Coal
People mine for coal, a hard, black, rock, throughout the

world. Power plants use coal to generate electricity by grinding it
into a powder that is burned. The burned powder heats water to
create steam. The power of the steam turns turbines. The spinning
motion of the turbines generates electricity. A network of wires
called power grid, bring this electricity to houses and other
buildings.
4.2.2
Oil
Companies drill for oil on land or in the ocean and store it

in large barrels or underground tanks. People turn oil into many
products, including plastics. Your ballpoint pen, your nylon
backpack, and even your fleece jacket are all made from oil. Some
homes burn oil for heat and some power plants burn oil too. In
many countries, however, oils main use is for transportation. Oil is
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made into gasoline for cars, diesel fuel for trucks, and jet fuel for airplanes.
4.2.3
Natural gas
Companies drill for natural gas the same way they do for oil. Natural gas is highly flammable. Gas
stoves cook food with a lower flame. In the United States, and probably other countries, the houses heating
system and water heater may use natural gas. Natural gas is also used in power plants to create electricity.
4.3
The problems of the use of the fossil fuels

Fossil fuels have been a useful source of energy, but we need to rethink how much we depend on
them. We need to consider three main facts. First, fossil fuel supplies are low. We use so much energy that
someday well use up all of Earths fossil fuels. At the rate we use now fossil fuels, scientists estimate that the
worlds reserve will last 40 to 70 more years. What will happen after all of the oil, coal, and natural gas have
run out? How will we travel from place to place? How will
we light our homes? How will we communicate with each
other?
The second fact is that the fossil fuels cost a lot of
money. Countries buy fossil fuels from each other.
Because the supply is low, they can raise their prices. If
countries go to war or have a disagreement, they may not
want to buy fuel from each other. No one will get what
they need.
Finally, burning fossil fuels harms Earth. Coal, oil, and natural gas create a lot of air pollution. The
burning of fossil fuels releases harmful emissions that cause asthma and other health problems. This pollution
also leads to acid rain and snow. Many scientist and citizens are concerned about the carbon dioxide released
by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide belongs to a group of gases known as greenhouse gases. As these gases
collect in the atmosphere, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse, trapping warm air close to Earths
surface. This warming is natural, and long ago it made the planets environment mild enough to support life.
However, when human activities pump larger-than-normal amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
more heat is trapped, and temperatures can grow unnaturally high. As a result, there can be major effects on
weather that may be devastating to the environment and all the people on Earth.
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4.4
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The solutions
What can we do about our energy problems? Instead of relying on fossil fuels, we need to examine our
green alternatives. Green energy is renewable it is constantly being replaced and wont run out. Natural
forces, such as wind, water, and sunlight are green energy sources. Its not easy to switch to green energy;
however, we rely on fossil fuels every day. People would need to spend huge amounts of money to change
from one kind of fuel to another. We need to take action, but first, we need to understand our energy
alternatives, then we can make the best energy choices to preserve our planet.
4.5
Solar energy
Put on sunglasses, rub in sunscreen, and hit the beach. Its time to
soak up some rays! The sun can give you a great tan or make you sweat
playing Frisbee. The suns light and heat can also help us solve our energy
problems. You have probably noticed wires running from your home to
poles on the street. These wires connect you to the power grid of your
community. Homes that use solar power, dont need as much energy from
the grid. There are two types of solar power: solar cell energy and solar
thermal energy.
4.5.1
How solar cell energy works
Years ago scientists developed solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells or PV cells, which can turn suns
light directly into electricity. These small, flat devices made of silicon come in a variety of sizes. You may have
seen PV cells in a calculator. Some billboards and streetlights use PV cells to operate. Most cells are 4 inches by
4 inches (10 centimeters by 10 centimeters) and grouped together in panels on the roofs buildings. The solar
panel absorbs the suns light and transforms it into electric current. The electricity can then run lights,
machines, and appliances in the buildings. The more PV cells, the more electricity panels can create.
The cells generate electrical power when the sun is shining. But
what happens at night or when the sun is covered by clouds? Batteries
store the electricity; because solar panels absorb light, not heat, they still
create electricity during a cold winter. As long as the sun is shining, PV cells
are at work.
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Your family can install solar panels on your home, even though you are connected to the power grid. At
times, the panels may even generate more power than your home needs. The power company then buys any
extra power you create and puts it back into the grid for someone else to use. So by using solar panels you
could help your whole community rely more on a green energy source.
4.5.2
How solar thermal energy works
Solar thermal energy uses heat instead of light. People can place
thermal panels on their roofs to absorb the suns heat. Tubing filled with
water runs under the panels. The sun warms the water. This water can
then be used to make a cup of cocoa, fill a swimming pool, or run through
a homes heating system.
Thermal energy can also create electricity. In a solar power plant, the sun heats a liquid until it boils.
Then the steam created from this boiling liquid runs a turbine to generate electricity. In order for the liquids to
boil, these power plants use mirror to focus the suns heat and increase its strength. Some mirrors are curved
and shaped like a saucer. Others are shaped like a trough or placed in a line. Some new solar energy plants
have a power tower. Thousands of mirrors surround the tower and focus the suns heat to the top.
4.6
Wind Energy
Wind is moving air. The motion is caused by changes in air temperature. Warm air is light, and cold air
is heavy. When the land beats up during the day, it warms the air above it. This warm air rises higher in the sky;
while cold air moves down to fill the space left by the warm air. This movement of air creates wind.
Wind can be powerful, as with a destructive hurricane, but its power can
also be used for good. Sailors use the wind to keep their sailboats moving.
Throughout history people have used windmills to harness the winds energy for
grinding grain or pumping well water. Today people use wind turbines to
generate electricity.
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4.6.1
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How wind power works
A wind turbine has what looks like an airplane propeller mounted very
high in a tower. The blades of the turbine catch the wind and spin. The blades
spin a shaft that is connected to an electrical generator. Wires connect the
generator to the power grid to bring electricity to buildings in the area.
To increase the amount of power, turbines are often grouped in wind
farms. Most wind farms arent owned by electric power companies. They are
owned by wind farmers who sell the electricity to power companies. Wind
turbines work best where wind blows strongest. Wind is usually stronger
the higher you go. Thats why turbines are often mounted on tall towers or
placed on the top of hills. Some towers stand between 100 and 250 feet (30
and 76 meters) high. Shorelines and wide-open prairies are also good places
for towers. Turbines dont work well in location of too many mountains,
forests, or buildings, which block the winds flow. Some people place small
turbines on their roofs and position them in a way to catch the most wind.
4.7
Geothermal energy
Old faithful, Yellowstone National Parks most famous geyser,
erupts with thousands of gallons of water and steam every hour to hour
and a half. This popular Wyoming tourist spot is the home to more than
60 percent of the worlds geysers. In just one square mile (2.6 square
kilometers), you can see more than a 150 of them.
Some people think of Earth as a solid ball of rock, but it has many
layers. At the center, Earth has a solid core. Around this core is an area of hot, liquid rock called magma. Above
the magma is a layer of solid rock and magma called the mantle. The temperature of the mantle can be very
high from 2,520 to 5,400 degrees Fahrenheit (1,382 to 2,982 degrees
Celsius) depending on how deep you go. The surface of Earth, the crust,
sits on the mantle.
Water sometimes collects in the rocks underground and heats up.
If there is a vent leading from this deep rock to the surface, superheated
water shoots upward. Earths crust is thicker in some areas than others.
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4.8
2011 USAC
Homework
Investigate at least 15 technical words from this chapter that you previously did not know and
write the translation and definition of each
Investigate about the following topics: magma, and mantle
Watch the suggested videos. Then, answer this question: What could you do help to introduce
people to living a "green" life? What are some ways to change their way of thinking and living?
Suggested videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIU5fFmDeSc
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1HmY_ImHAg&feature=channel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlG0xk93J-E&feature=channel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&feature=fvw
Activities
Write in each square and explain some energy sources:
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
5.
2011 USAC
HEAT TRANSFER
5.1 Introduction
Heat transfer is the science that deals with the study of rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold
bodies. The hot and cold bodies are called the source and the receiver respectively. Process heat transfer deals
with the rates of exchange of heat as they occur in the heat transfer equipment of engineering and chemical
processes. In all such cases, the temperature difference between a source and a receiver acts as a driving force
for heat transfer.
The major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer is that the former is concerned with
the relation between heat and other forms of energy, whereas the later deals with the analysis of the rate of
heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium, so it cant be used to predict how fast a
change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium in a process but it may be used to predict the
amount of energy required to change the system from one equilibrium state to another. Consider the cooling
of a hot steel bar that is placed in a jar of water. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium
temperature of the steel bar-water system but will not tell us how long it will take to reach the equilibrium
condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain time period before the attainment of
equilibrium condition whereas heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both bar and water as
a function of time.
5.2
Modes of heat transfer
There are three distinct modes of heat transfer from a source to a receiver: conduction, convection and
radiation.
Conduction: it is the flow of heat that occurs, either due to the exchange energy from one
molecule to another without appreciable motion of the molecules or due to the motion of free
electrons if they are present. Conduction occurs on the molecular scale, molecules with a
relative higher energy imparting energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. For
example, the heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace or the metal wall of a heat
exchanger tube occurs by conduction.
Convection: it is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid by
mixing (convection occurs through actual physical movement of warmer portions of fluid
towards cooler portions of the same material). Convection is thus restricted to the flow of heat
in fluids. If the fluid motion is caused by differences in density resulting from temperature
difference in a fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection. If the fluid motion
is artificially created by means of an external agency like pump, blower or agitator, the heat
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transfer is termed as forced convection. The heating of water in a cooking pan is an example of
heat transfer mainly by convection.
Radiation: it refers to the transport of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. The
transfer of heat from the sun to the earth is the most important example of heat transfer by
radiation.
In many of the applications of heat transfer in chemical engineering, heat will be transferred
by combination of two or three of the basic mechanisms/modes of heat transfer. Consider a double
pipe heat exchanger in which a hot fluid flows through the inside pipe and a cold fluid flows through
the annular space. In this case, heat will flow by combination of convection and conduction from the
hot fluid to the cold fluid. Here heat flows by conduction through the metal wall of the inner pipe and
deposits on both sides of the inner pipe, and by convection through the fluid films.
In the case of an insulated steam pipe, heat flows by convection through the steam film on the
inside of the pipe, by conduction through the layer of scale and the metal wall of the pipe, and the
layer of the insulation, and finally by convection and radiation from the outside insulation to the
ambient/surrounding air. Hence, in this case, heat transfer involves all the three modes of transfer.
This is also true with almost all heat transfer applications in the process industries. In a large of
practical cases, one of the modes could be dominant, whereas in several cases it is required to deal
with more than one mode of heat transfer, owing to significant impact of these modes on the overall
heat transfer rates.
5.3
The laws of heat transfer
The foundation of heat transfer rest on a number of the fundamental and subsidiary laws. A
fundamental law is the one which validity rests on the fact that it has not been proved to be wrong or
false in the broad area of application of the subject under consideration. Therefore, these laws must
be satisfied in solving any problem. On the other hand, a subsidiary law may be empirical in nature.
The fundamental laws used in heat transfer are:
1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Newtons law of motion
3. Laws of thermodynamics
The subsidiary laws generally used are:
1. Fouriers law of heat conduction
2. Newtons law of cooling/Newtons law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid.
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3. Laws of thermal radiation.

4. Equation of state
5.4
Fundamental laws
5.4.1 Law of conservation of mass

It states that the total mass of various components involving during a unit operation or unit process
remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in any process is constant. Conservation
of mass requires that the materials entering any process must either accumulate and/or leave the process.
There can be neither loss nor gain.
Thus for any unit operation or unit process:
Input = output + accumulation or disappearance
Examples:
Consider a water tank containing some water initially as shown in Fig. 1.1 Water enters the tank at a
rate of m1 kg/h and leaves the tank at a rate of m2 kg/h and accumulates at a rate of dm/dt. Then according to
the law of conservation of mass,
Rate at which water enters the tank = rate at which water leaves the tank + rate of accumulation of water in
the tank
m1 = m2 + dm/dt
m2 = m2 + A + dh/dt
If m1 > m2 water gets accumulated in the tank and if m1 < m2 water gets depleted. For steady state operation
when accumulation is constant or nil, the equation reduces to:
Input = Output or m1 = m2, or
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Consider a stream tube (control volume) as shown in the figure 1.2. Assume that a fluid enters at a
point where the area of cross-section of the tube is A1 and leaves where the area of cross-section is A2.
Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Let 1 and 2 be the densities of the
fluid at entrance and exit. Assume density in a single cross-section is constant and u1 is constant across area A1
and u2 is constant across area A2. For steady-state conditions, the rate of mass entering the control volume
equals that leaving.
1u1A1 = 2u2A2
uA = constant
This is the equation of continuity.
5.4.2
Newtons second law of motion
It states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body of mass m is proportional to the time rate of
momentum change of the body in the direction of resultant force.
F = k d/dt (mu)
Where F is the resultant of all forces acting on the body, m is mass and u is velocity.
For the volume control show in Fig. 1.2 assuming flow to be steady and unidirectional in the X-direction,
according to Newtons second law of motion, the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the x-direction is equal
to the increase in the time rate of change of momentum of the flowing fluid. For example, sum of all forces
acting in the x-direction equals the difference between the momentums leaving with the fluid per unit time
and that brought in per unit time by the fluid.
F = 1/gc (M2 M1)
Where M = mu; m is the mass flow rate of fluid and u is the linear velocity of the fluid.
For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have:

F = P1A1 P2A2 Fw - Fg
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Where P1 and P2 are pressures at entrance and exit; A1 and A2 are cross-section area at entrance and exit, Fw is
the net force of wall channel on fluid and Fg is the component of force of gravity (for flow in upward direction).
5.4.3
First law of thermodynamics
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process, although the conversion of
energy from one form into another is possible. The law can also be stated in the alternative way as the total
energy of an isolated system remains constant. When system gains or losses energy, it must be exactly equal to
the loss or gain of energy by the surroundings. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the
conservation of energy.
Let the initial state of a system be A. Let the quantity of heat Q be absorbed by the system. The result of
absorption of heat is both to increase the internal energy and also to produce some mechanical work.
Heat absorbed by system = increase in internal energy + work done by the system
Q = U + W
U = Q W
This is the mathematical expression/statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In words, the
equation states that the total energy change of a system is equal to the heat added to the systems minus the
work done by the system.
The equation applies to the processes involving finite changes in the system. For differential changes,
this equation is written as:
dU = dQ dW
Taking derivatives from respect to time,
From the last equation we can say that the rate of increase of energy of the system is equal to the
difference between the rate at which heat enters the system and the rate at which the system does work on the
surroundings.
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5.5
2011 USAC
Homework
Investigate about the subsidiary laws of heat transfer.
Watch the following videos
Suggested videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77R4arwD8G8&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pG-tkbQgMo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0TurHQp_AE&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jeHd3ZbsFg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz6wzOtv6rs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05S1xXFGpKk&feature=related
Activities
Answer the following questions:
1.- What is radiation?
2.- Explain Newtons second law of motion:
3.- Explain First Law of Thermodynamics:
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
6.
6.1
2011 USAC
SOLAR POWER
Introduction
93 million miles from Earth, our Sun is 333,000 times the size of our planet. It has a diameter of 865,000
miles, a surface temperature of 5,600C and, a core temperature of 15,000,000C. It is a huge mass of constant
nuclear activity.
Directly or indirectly, our sun provides all the power we need to exist and support all life forms. The sun
drives our climate and our weather. Without it, our world would be a frozen wasteland of ice-covered rock.
Solar electricity is a wonderful concept taking power from the sun and using it to power electrical
equipment is a terrific idea. No ongoing electricity bills, no reliance on an electrical socket free energy that
doesnt harm the planet!
6.2
The principles of solar electricity
A solar panel generates electricity using the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon discovered in the early 19th
Century, when it was observed that certain materials produced an electric current when exposed to light.
To create this effect, two layers of a semi-conducting material have to be combined. One layer has to have
a depleted number of electrons. When exposed to sunlight, some of the photons are absorbed by the material
which excites, causing some of them to jump from one layer to the other. As the electrons move from one
layer to another, a small electrical current is generated. The semi-conducting material used to build a solar cell
is silicon. Very thin wafers of silicon are cut and polished. Some of these wafers are doped to contaminate
them, thereby creating an electron imbalance in these wafers. The wafers are then aligned together to make a
solar cell. Conductive metal strips are attached to the cells to take the electrical current.
When a photon hit the solar cell, it can do one of three things: it can be absorbed by the cell, be reflected
of the cell, or pass straight through the cell. If a photon is absorbed by the silicon, this causes some of the
electrons to jump from one layer to another. An electrical circuit is made as the electrons move from one layer
to another, creating an electrical current. The more photons (the more intensity of light) that are absorbed by
the solar cell, the greater the current generated.
Solar cells generate most of their electricity from direct sunlight. They can also generate electricity on
cloudy days and some systems can even generate very small amount of electricity on bright moonlight nights.
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Individual solar cells typically only generate tiny amounts of electrical energy. To make useful amounts of
electricity, these cells are connected together to make a solar module, otherwise known as a solar panel or, to
be more precise, a photovoltaic module.
Solar Cells
(really called "photovoltaic", "PV" or "photoelectric" cells)that convert light directly into electricity.
In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a
100W light bulb from just one square meter of solar panel.
This was originally developed in order to provide electricity
for satellites, but these days many of us own calculators
powered by solar cells. People are increasingly installing PV
panels on their roofs. This costs thousands of pounds, but if
you have a south-facing roof it can help with your electricity
bills quite a bit, and the government pays you for any extra
energy you produce and feed back into the National Grid
(called the "feed-in tariff").
Solar Water Heating:

Where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need to use so
much gas or electricity to heat your water at home. Water is pumped through pipes in the panel. The pipes are
painted black, so they get hotter when the Sun shines on them. The water is pumped in at the bottom so that
convection helps the flow of hot water out of the top.
This helps out your central heating system, and
cuts your fuel bills. However, with the basic type of
panel shown in the diagram you must drain the water
out to stop the panels freezing in the winter. Some
manufacturers have systems that do this
automatically. Solar water heating is easily
worthwhile in places like California and Australia,
where you get lots of sunshine. Mind you, as
technology improves it's becoming worthwhile in the
UK.
Solar Boilers:
The main way that a conventional gas "combination boiler" continually wastes energy is by replenishing stored
water as soon as the volume or temperature decreases.
With solar powered boilers, this is instead fuelled by the solar power collected through panels on the roof of your
home.
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The power collected through the solar tiles is used to fuel and therefore
heat a separate water cylinder, thus saving energy throughout the course
of every day. Another smaller tank, still powered by gas, is provided with
most solar boiler installations as a backup.
Solar Furnaces:
Use a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's energy into
a small space and produce very high temperatures. There's one
at Odeillo, in France, used for scientific experiments. It can
achieve temperatures up to 3,000 degrees Celsius.
Solar furnaces are basically huge "solar cookers". A solar cooker
can be used in hot countries to cook food. This one is in the UK,
making tea and coffee, although it does take a long time!
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Bioethanol production
In recent years, largely in response to uncertain fuel supply and efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions,
bioethanol (along with biodiesel) has become one of the most promising biofuels today and is considered as
the only feasible short to medium alternative to fossil transport fuels in Europe and in the wider world.
Bioethanol is seen as a good fuel alternative because the source crops can be grown renewably and in most
climates around the world. In addition the use of bioethanol is generally CO2 neutral. This is achieved
because in the growing phase of the source crop, CO2 is absorbed by the plant and oxygen is released in
the same volume that CO2 is produced in the combustion of the fuel. This creates an obvious advantage over
fossil fuels which only emit CO2 as well as other poisonous emissions. In the 1970s, Brazil and the USA
started mass production of bioethanol -grown from sugarcane and corn respectively. Smaller scale production
started more recently in Spain, France and Sweden mostly from wheat and sugar beet.
In recent years the concept of the bio-refinery has emerged, whereby one integrates biomass
conversion processes and technology to produce a variety of products including fuels, power, chemicals
and feed for cattle. In this manner one can take advantage of the natural differences in the chemical and
structural composition of the biomass feed stocks.
Bioethanol Production:
The production of bioethanol from traditional means, or 1st
Generation Biofuels is based upon starch crops like corn and wheat
and from sugar crops like sugar cane and sugar beet. However, the
cultivation of alternative sugar crops like sweet sorghum opens up
new possibilities in Europe, especially in hotter and drier regions,
such as Southern and Eastern Europe. Sweet sorghum requires less
water or nutrients and has a higher fermentable sugar content than
sugar cane as well as a shorter growing period which means that in
some regions like in Africa you can get 2 harvests a year from the same
crop. In addition to this, the development of lingo-cellulosic
technology has meant that not only high energy content starch and
sugar crops can be used but also woody biomass or waste residues
from forestry. This development is seen as the 2nd Generation of
Biofuels.
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Depending on the biomass source the steps generally include:

1. Storage
2. Cane crushing and juice extraction
3. Dilution
4. Hydrolysis for starch and woody biomass
5. Fermentation with yeast and enzymes
6. CO2 storage and ethanol recapture
7. Evaporation
8. Distillation
9. Waste water treatment
10. Fuel Storage
What is Bioethanol?
The principle fuel used as a petrol substitute for road transport vehicles is bioethanol. Bioethanol fuel is
mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process, although it can also be manufactured by the chemical
process of reacting ethylene with steam.
The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol come from fuel or energy crops. These crops are
grown specifically for energy use and include corn, maize and wheat crops, waste straw, willow and popular
trees, sawdust, reed canary grass, cord grasses, jerusalem artichoke, myscanthus and sorghum plants. There
is also ongoing research and development into the use of municipal solid wastes to produce ethanol fuel.
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear colourless liquid, it is biodegradable, low in toxicity and causes
little environmental pollution if spilt. Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and water, is a high octane fuel
and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol. By blending ethanol with gasoline we can also
oxygenate the fuel mixture so it burns more completely and reduces polluting emissions. Ethanol fuel blends
are widely sold in the United States. The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle
engines require no modifications to run on E10 and vehicle warranties are unaffected also. Only flexible fuel
vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol and 15% petrol blends (E85).
Benefits
Bioethanol has a number of advantages over conventional fuels. It comes from a renewable resource i.e.
crops and not from a finite resource and the crops it derives from can grow well (like cereals, sugar beet and
maize). Another benefit over fossil fuels is the greenhouse gas emissions. The road transport network accounts
for 22% of all greenhouse gas emissions and through the use of bioethanol, some of these emissions will be
reduced as the fuel crops absorb the CO2 they emit through growing. Also, blending bioethanol with petrol will
help extend the life of the diminishing oil supplies and ensure greater fuel security, avoiding heavy reliance on
oil producing nations.
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By encouraging bioethanols use, the rural economy would also receive a boost from growing the necessary
crops. Bioethanol is also biodegradable and far less toxic that fossil fuels. In addition, by using bioethanol in
older engines can help reduce the amount of carbon monoxide produced by the vehicle thus improving air
quality.
Another advantage of bioethanol is the ease with which it can be easily integrated into the existing road
transport fuel system. In quantities up to 5%, bioethanol can be blended with conventional fuel without the
need of engine modifications. Bioethanol is produced using familiar methods, such as fermentation, and it can
be distributed using the same petrol forecourts and transportation systems as before.
Bioethanol Production
Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes. Biomass wastes
contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi
cellulose and lignin. In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-treated with acids or
enzymes in order to reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant structure. The cellulose and the
hemi cellulose portions are broken down (hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is
then fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the
ethanol production plants boilers. There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from biomass. These
are concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis.
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Production Process:
1. Grinding Grain
First, starch should be exposed from the peel of corn to
contact with water. Also, grinding makes corn small
pieces, which can increase its surface area. Then, the
increase in its surface area can enhance the contact
between starch and water. Two types of mills, a roller
mill and a hammer mill, are usually employed. For an
industrial use, a hammer mill is mostly used because of
its accuracy and its application for large amount.
A roller mill has some roll pairs consisting of two rollers.
Corn is pressed by two rollers and crushed into small
pieces. Around the rolls there are some trenches to
improve the effectiveness of the crush. Also, the
rotating speeds of two rollers are different in order to
generate more stress on the corn. Finally, screening is
implemented at the bottom of the mill. Then, the fine
particles can pass the screen, and the big particles,
which cannot match the required size, become the
subject of the grinding again.
2. Fermentation:
Yeast is a facultative anaerobe. In an aerobic
environment, it converts sugars into carbon dioxide and
water. In an anaerobic environment, it converts sugars
into carbon dioxide and ethanol. Thus, for an ethanol
industry, it is important to exclude significant oxygen
from its system. This fermentation process is relatively
slow process, so it is important for an industrial use to
make it faster. Usually, a propagation tank is employed.
In this tank, mash, water, enzymes, nutrients, and yeast
are mixed to re-hydrate the yeast.
3. Distillation: After fermentation, we have to make the purity of ethanol higher. Distillation is one of the
steps of the purifications. Distillation is the method to separate two liquid utilizing their different
boiling points.
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However, to achieve high purification, several distillations are required. This is because all materials have
intermolecular interactions with each other, and two
materials will co-distill during distillation. This means that
proportion between two materials, in this case ethanol
and water, can be changed, still, there are two materials in
both layers, the liquid and the vapor layers.
4. Dehydration
As stated above, after traditional distillation, about 5% of
water remains in ethanol. Especially, this water is a big
problem for fuel ethanol because the presence of this
amount of water enhances the molecular polarity of
ethanol for example ethanol and gasoline are mixed, they
separate into two phases, ethanol phase and gasoline
phase. It is easy to imagine that this inhomogeneous fuel
is not acceptable. Thus, dehydration can be another issue.
Bioethanol Use
Chemicals
A number of chemicals are produced in the ethanol industry and potentially even more in the 2 nd.
generation bioethanol industry, serving a wide range of uses in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, beverages
and medical sectors as well as for industrial uses. The market potential for bioethanol is therefore not just
limited to transport fuel or energy production but has potential to supply the existing chemicals industry.
Transport Fuel:
Bioethanol has mostly been used as a biofuel for transport, especially in Brazil. Indeed it was in Brazil
where the first bioethanol fuelled cars emerged on a large-scale. Although generally unknown to the
average consumer, a large volume of bioethanol is already used in Europe as it is blended with petrol at 5%.
It is used as a substitute for lead as an oxygenating additive and has a high octane rating, which improves
performance. Although the eventual target is the private consumer, few are aware of bioethanols
potenial to, at least, partly replace petrol as a transport fuel in Europe.
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Stakeholders in the Bioethanol Fuel Market:
bioethanol producers
fuel suppliers
car manufacturers
the government
Fuel Cells:
Fuel cells are another potential
area for ethanol use to produce
heat and power. Fuel cells
function by combining the fuel
hydrogen with oxygen from the air
to produce electrical energy, with
water vapour and heat as byproducts. Fuel Cells have a
typical electrical efficiency of
between 30 and 60 % and an
overall efficiency, if using the heat
by-product, of 70-90 %. The units
run
with
very
low
noise
emissions and
pollutant
gas
emissions are also reduced
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considerably. Its disadvantages are its relatively high cost and their short life span (regular replacement of
components). They are, however, regarded as very reliable for the duration of their lifespan and are often
used for emergency power.
Negative sides of Bioethanol

Bioethanol has some deficit. Next figure shows some environmental impacts of ethanol in gasoline.
Although, some of them may be exaggerated, but this approach is very important when we are considering
bioethanol from overall environmental aspects. Corn production causes more soil erosion and uses more
herbicides and insecticides. Also, wastewater from ethanol plant is also another big problem.
In addition, an increase in the demand of bioethanol may burden on our money. This is because, currently,
ethanol production is supported by huge subsidies coming from our tax. Besides, an increase in the ethanol
production means an increase in the demand of corn . This may cause an increase in the corn price. Today, corn
is everywhere in our meal.
Therefore, there are still so many concerns to say bioethnaol is a real ideal energy source.
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Activities
1.- Use the box below to describe the picture of the Bioethanol production where you can see the different
steps of the process:
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2. Write True or False according to the sentence:

Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes.
By encouraging bioethanols use, the rural economy would never receive a boost from growing the necessary
crops:
Fuel Cells have a typical electrical efficiency of between 30 and 60 %
An increase in the ethanol production means an inrease in the demand of corn. This may cause a decrease in
the corn price.
After fermentation comes Grinding in Bioethanol production:
The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10):
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Write a comment about the importance of Bioethanol in the economy of a country:
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3. With the next picture do a Proccess diagram to recognize the activity in each part of the Bioethanol
production writing each specification in the square below.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing:
References
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Engines and Motors

The term engines usually refers to petrol engines, diesel engines and jet engines (or jets). In
engineering motor usually means electric motor but in general language, motor can also refer to
petrol and diesel engines. Engines and motors power (or drive) macjines by generaring rotatrry
motion for example, to drive wheels. In jet engines, compressors and turbines rotate to generate
thrust pushing force, produce by forcing air from the back of the engine at high velocity.
As an engine produces a couple rotary force- the moving parts of the machine it is drivingwill
produce resitance, due to the friction and other forces. As a result torque (twisting force) is exerted
on the output shaft of the engine. Torque calcualted as a turning moment in newton meters- is
therefore a measure of how much rotational force an engine can exert. The rate at which an engine
can work to exert torque is the power of the engine, measured in watts Althoug engineers normally
calculate engine power in watts, the power of a vehicle engines is often given in brake horsepower
(bhp) This is the power of an engines output shaft measured in horsepower (hp).
Internal Combustion Engines

The principle behind any reciprocating internal combustion engine: If you put a tiny amount of highenergy fuel (like gasoline) in a small, enclosed space and ignite it, an incredible amount of energy is
released in the form of expanding gas. You can use that energy to propel a potato 500 feet. In this
case, the energy is translated into potato motion. You can also use it for more interesting purposes.
For example, if you can create a cycle that allows you to set off explosions like this hundreds of times
per minute, and if you can harness that energy in a useful way, what you have is the core of a car
engine!
Almost all cars currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle to convert gasoline into
motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the Otto cycle, in honor of Nikolaus Otto, who
invented it in 1867. The four strokes are illustrated in Figure 1. They are:
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Combustion stroke
Exhaust stroke
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A piston replaces the potato in the potato cannon. This piston is connected to the crankshaft by a
connecting rod. As the crankshaft revolves, it has the effect of "resetting the cannon." Here's what
happens as the engine goes through its cycle:
The piston starts at the top, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down to let the
engine take in a cylinder-full of air and gasoline. This is the intake stroke. Only the tiniest drop
of gasoline needs to be mixed into the air for this to work. (Part 1 of the figure)
Then the piston moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression makes the
explosion more powerful. (Part 2 of the figure)
When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite the
gasoline. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down. (Part 3 of the
figure)
Once the piston hits the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust leaves
the cylinder to go out the tailpipe. (Part 4 of the figure)
Now the engine is ready for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas.
The motion that comes out of an internal combustion engine is rotational, while the motion produced
by a potato cannon is linear (straight line). In an engine the linear motion of the pistons is converted
into rotational motion by the crankshaft. The rotational motion is nice because we plan to turn
(rotate) the car's wheels with it anyway.
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Basic Engine Parts

The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the piston moving up and down inside the cylinder. The
engine described above has one cylinder. That is typical of most lawn mowers, but most cars have
more than one cylinder (four, six and eight cylinders are common). In a multi-cylinder engine, the
cylinders usually are arranged in one of three ways: inline, V or flat (also known as horizontally
opposed or boxer), as shown in the following figures.
Different configurations have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of smoothness,
manufacturing cost and shape characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages make them more
suitable for certain vehicles.
V - The cylinders are arranged in two banks set at an angle to one another.
Flat - The cylinders are arranged in two banks on opposite sides of the engine.
Spark plug
The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The
spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.
Valves
The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out exhaust.
Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion
chamber is sealed.
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Piston
A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder.
Piston rings
Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the
cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:
They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into the sump
during compression and combustion.
They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost.
Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it because the
engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly.
Connecting rod
The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle
can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a crank on a jackin-the-box does.
Sump
The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom of
the sump (the oil pan).
Engine Problems
So you go out one morning and your engine will turn over but it won't start... What could be wrong?
Now that you know how an engine works, you can understand the basic things that can keep an
engine from running. Three fundamental things can happen: a bad fuel mix, lack of compression or
lack of spark. Beyond that, thousands of minor things can create problems, but these are the "big
three." Based on the simple engine we have been discussing, here is a quick rundown on how these
problems affect your engine:
Bad fuel mix - A bad fuel mix can occur in several ways:
You are out of gas, so the engine is getting air but no fuel.
The air intake might be clogged, so there is fuel but not enough air.
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The fuel system might be supplying too much or too little fuel to the mix, meaning that
combustion does not occur properly.
There might be an impurity in the fuel (like water in your gas tank) that makes the fuel not
burn.
Lack of compression - If the charge of air and fuel cannot be compressed properly, the combustion
process will not work like it should. Lack of compression might occur for these reasons:
Your piston rings are worn (allowing air/fuel to leak past the piston during compression).
The intake or exhaust valves are not sealing properly, again allowing a leak during
compression.
There is a hole in the cylinder.
The most common "hole" in a cylinder occurs where the top of the cylinder (holding the valves and
spark plug and also known as the cylinder head) attaches to the cylinder itself. Generally, the cylinder
and the cylinder head bolt together with a thin gasket pressed between them to ensure a good seal. If
the gasket breaks down, small holes develop between the cylinder and the cylinder head, and these
holes cause leaks.
Lack of spark - The spark might be nonexistent or weak for a number of reasons:
If your spark plug or the wire leading to it is worn out, the spark will be weak.
If the wire is cut or missing, or if the system that sends a spark down the wire is not working
properly, there will be no spark.
If the spark occurs either too early or too late in the cycle (i.e. if the ignition timing is off), the
fuel will not ignite at the right time, and this can cause all sorts of problems.
Many other things can go wrong. For example:
If the battery is dead, you cannot turn over the engine to start it.
If the bearings that allow the crankshaft to turn freely are worn out, the crankshaft cannot
turn so the engine cannot run.
If the valves do not open and close at the right time or at all, air cannot get in and exhaust
cannot get out, so the engine cannot run.
If someone sticks a potato up your tailpipe, exhaust cannot exit the cylinder so the engine will
not run.
If you run out of oil, the piston cannot move up and down freely in the cylinder, and the
engine will seize.
In a properly running engine, all of these factors are within tolerance.

As you can see, an engine has a number of systems that help it do its job of converting fuel into
motion.
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Electric motor
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical
energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be
used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric
motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine
tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current,
a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating current from a central electrical
distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size
motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power
for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline
compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified
by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of
motion they give.
Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a
primary objective and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For example, magnetic
solenoids and loudspeakers are usually described as actuators and transducers, respectively, instead
of motors. Some electric motors are used to produce torque of force.
Terminology
In an electric motor the moving part is called the rotor and the stationary part is called the stator.
Magnetic fields are produced on poles, and these can be salient poles where they are driven by
windings of electrical wire. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the
phase of the magnetic field for that pole.
A commutator switches the current flow to the rotor windings depending on the rotor angle.
A DC motor is powered by direct current, although there is almost always an internal mechanism (such
as a commutator) converting DC to AC for part of the motor. An AC motor is supplied with alternating
current, often avoiding the need for a commutator.
A synchronous motor is an AC motor that runs at a speed fixed to a fraction of the power supply
frequency, and an asynchronous motor is an AC motor, usually an induction motor, whose speed slows
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with increasing torque to slightly less than synchronous speed. Universal motors can run on either AC
or DC, though the maximum frequency of the AC supply may be limited.
DC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were used to
run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC
motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first
electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in
large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always
operated in conjunction with power electronic devices.
AC motor
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.
It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output
shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first type is
the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the
rotor of this motor is created by an induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor,
which does not rely on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current
delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet. Other types of motors include eddy
current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on
voltage and winding connection.
Parts of an Electric Motor
A simple motor has six parts:
Armature or rotor
Commutator
Brushes
Axle
Field magnet
DC power supply of some sort
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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Digital electronics represent signals by discrete bands of analog levels, rather than by a continuous
range. All levels within a band represent the same signal state. Relatively small changes to the analog
signal levels due to manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation or parasitic noise do not leave the
discrete envelope, and as a result are ignored by signal state sensing circuitry.
In most cases the number of these states is two, and they are represented by two voltage bands: one
near a reference value (typically termed as "ground" or zero volts) and a value near the supply
voltage, corresponding to the "false" ("0") and "true" ("1") values of the Boolean domain respectively.
Digital techniques are useful because it is easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a
number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values.
Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates, simple electronic
representations of Boolean logic functions.
Advantages
One advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is signals represented digitally can
be transmitted without degradation due to noise. For example, a continuous audio signal, transmitted
as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error provided the noise picked up in
transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s. An hour of music can be stored
on a compact disc using about 6 billion binary digits.
In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary
digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is
handled by the same kind of hardware. In an analog system, additional resolution requires
fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step of the signal chain.
Disadvantages
In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus
producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks.
In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems.
In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus
producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks.
In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems.
On the other hand, some techniques used in digital systems make those systems more vulnerable to
single-bit errors. These techniques are acceptable when the underlying bits are reliable enough that
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such errors are highly unlikely. A single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear pulse code
modulation (such as on a CD-ROM) causes, at worst, a single click. Instead, many people use audio
compression to save storage space and download time, even though a single-bit error may corrupt
the entire song.
Construction
A digital circuit is often constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates that can be used to
create combinational logic. Each logic gate represents a function of boolean logic. A logic gate is an
arrangement of electrically controlled switches, better known as transistors.
Each logic symbol is represented by a different shape. The actual set of shapes was introduced in 1984
under IEEE\ANSI standard 91-1984. "The logic symbol given under this standard are being increasingly
used now and have even started appearing in the literature published by manufacturers of digital
integrated circuits."
The output of a logic gate is an electrical flow or voltage, that can, in turn, control more logic gates.
Logic gates often use the fewest number of transistors in order to reduce their size, power
consumption and cost, and increase their reliability.
Integrated circuits are the least expensive way to make logic gates in large volumes. Integrated
circuits are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation software (see below for
more information).
Logic Families
Design started with relays. Relay logic was relatively inexpensive and reliable, but slow. Occasionally a
mechanical failure would occur. Fanouts were typically about ten, limited by the resistance of the
coils and arcing on the contacts from high voltages.
Later, vacuum tubes were used. These were very fast, but generated heat, and were unreliable
because the filaments would burn out. Fanouts were typically five to seven, limited by the heating
from the tubes' current. In the 1950s, special "computer tubes" were developed with filaments that
omitted volatile elements like silicon. These ran for hundreds of thousands of hours.
The first semiconductor logic family was resistor-transistor logic. This was a thousand times more
reliable than tubes, ran cooler, and used less power, but had a very low fan-in of three. Diodetransistor logic improved the fanout up to about seven, and reduced the power. Some DTL designs
used two power-supplies with alternating layers of NPN and PNP transistors to increase the fanout.
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Transistor transistor logic (TTL) was a great improvement over these. In early devices, fanout
improved to ten, and later variations reliably achieved twenty. TTL was also fast, with some variations
achieving switching times as low as twenty nanoseconds. TTL is still used in some designs.
Emitter coupled logic is very fast but uses a lot of power. It was extensively used for high-performance
computers made up of many medium-scale components (such as the Illiac IV).
By far, the most common digital integrated circuits built today use CMOS logic, which is fast, offers
high circuit density and low-power per gate. This is used even in large, fast computers, such as theIBM
System z.
Recent developments
In 2009, researchers discovered that memristors can implement a boolean state storage (similar to
a flip flop, implication and logical inversion, providing a complete logic family with very small amounts
of space and power, using familiar CMOS semiconductor processes.
The discovery of superconductivity has enabled the development of rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ)
circuit technology, which uses Josephson junctions instead of transistors. Most recently, attempts are
being made to construct purely optical computing systems capable of processing digital information
using nonlinear optical elements.
Logic gate
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs
a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on the
context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and
unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device.
Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but
can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic
logic,optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded
in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical
model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be
described with Boolean logic.
In the next table you will find the common gates with their symbol, truth table and the respective
boolean algebra description.
Type Distinctive shape Boolean algebra between A & B
Truth table
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AND
INTPUT
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
OUTPUT
A AND B
0
0
0
1
OR
INTPUT
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
OUTPUT
A OR B
0
1
1
1
INTPUT
A
0
1
OUTPUT
NOT A
1
0
INTPUT
A
B
0
1
0
1
OUTPUT
A NAND
B
1
1
1
0
NOR
INTPUT
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
OUTPUT
A NOR B
1
0
0
0
XOR
INTPUT
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
OUTPUT
A XOR B
0
1
1
0
INTPUT
A
B
OUTPUT
A XNOR
B
1
0
0
A+B
NOT
0
0
1
1
NAND
XNOR
or
0
0
1
0
1
0
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Karnaugh map
Karnaugh Maps are used for many small design problems. It's true that many larger designs are done
using computer implementations of different algorithms. However designs with a small number of
variables occur frequently in interface problems and that makes learning Karnaugh Maps worthwhile.
In addition, if you study Karnaugh Maps you will gain a great deal of insight into digital logic circuits.
Example :
Consider the expression Z = f(A,B) =
+A
B plotted on the Karnaugh map:
Pairs of 1's are grouped as shown above, and the simplified answer is obtained by using the following
steps:
Note that two groups can be formed for the example given above, bearing in mind that the largest
rectangular clusters that can be made consist of two 1s. Notice that a 1 can belong to more than one
group.
The first group labelled I, consists of two 1s which correspond to A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 0. Put in
another way, all squares in this example that correspond to the area of the map where B = 0 contains
1s, independent of the value of A. So when B = 0 the output is 1. The expression of the output will
contain the term
For group labelled II corresponds to the area of the map where A = 0. The group can therefore be
defined as . This implies that when A = 0 the output is 1. The output is therefore 1 whenever B = 0
and A = 0
Hence the simplified answer is Z = +
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Example 2:
Positions for a karnaug map:
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Principles of Telecommunications
Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In
earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals or audio messages via coded
drumbeats, lung-blown horns, or sent by loud whistles, for example. In the modern age of electricity
and electronics, telecommunications now also includes the use of electrical devices such as
telegraphs, telephones, and teleprinters, the use of radio and microwave communications, as well as
fiber optics and their associated electronics, plus the use of the orbiting satellites and the Internet.
A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century with
pioneering developments in wireless radio communications by Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi.
Marconi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his efforts. Other highly notable pioneering
inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles
Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Edwin Armstrong,
and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television).
Basic elements
A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units that are always present in some
form:
A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

A transmission medium, also called the "physical channel" that carries the signal. An example
of this is the "free space channel".
A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information.
For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter; and
the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space channel".
The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface
between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the
radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box of
electronics working as both a transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example, a cellular
telephone is a transceiver.[25] The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics in a
transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained by the fact that
radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in the
watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in the microwatts or
nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their high-power
circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other.
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Telecommunication over telephone lines is called point-to-point communication because it is

between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called
broadcast communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power
but sensitive radio receivers.[25]
Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to
cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems.
Telecommunication networks
A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications channels
that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or more
routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications
network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more users. For
both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being
transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render the signal
indistinguishable from the noise.
Communication channels
The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium
that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the
atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications,
coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free
space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. This
last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another
has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves
travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind
of gas besides air.
Modulation
The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation can be used to
represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is commonly called "keying" a term derived
from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications and several keying techniques exist (these
include phase-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The "Bluetooth"
system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between various
devices.[29][30] In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying
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which is called (in the jargon of the field) "quadrature amplitude modulation" (QAM) that are used in
high-capacity digital radio communication systems.
Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at higher
frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals cannot be effectively transmitted
over free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a
higher-frequency signal (known as the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are several different
modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being
impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice would then be received
on a radio as the channel "96 FM"). In addition, modulation has the advantage of being about to use
frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Amplitud Modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for
transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the
transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in signal strength
may be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of
television pixels. Contrast this with frequency modulation, in which the frequency is varied, and phase
modulation, in which the phase is varied.
In the mid-1870s, a form of amplitude modulationinitially called "undulatory currents"was the
first method to successfully produce quality audio over telephone lines. Beginning with Reginald
Fessenden's audio demonstrations in 1906, it was also the original method used for audio radio
transmissions, and remains in use today by many forms of communication"AM" is often used to
refer to the mediumwave broadcast band.
AM Signal
Carrier, message and AM frequencies:
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Frequency modulation
In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over
a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in
which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.
In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the
carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input-signal amplitude.
Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a range of settings, a technique
known as frequency-shift keying. FSK (digital FM) is widely used in data and faxmodems. Morse
code transmission has been sent this way, and FASK was used in early telephoneline modems. Radioteletype also uses FSK. FM modulation is also used in telemetry, radar, seismic
prospecting and newborn EEG seizure monitoring. Frequency modulation is known as phase
modulationwhen the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal. FM is widely used
for broadcasting music and speech, two-way radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and
some video-transmission systems. In radio systems, frequency modulation with
sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally-occurring noise.
Applications
MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE
FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by analog VCR systems (including VHS) to record both
the luminance (black and white) portions of the video signal. Commonly, the chrome component is
recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as bias. FM is the only
feasible method of recording the luminance ("black and white") component of video to (and
retrieving video from) magnetic tape without distortion; video signals have a large range of frequency
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components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to
electronic noise below 60 dB.
These FM systems are unusual, in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency
of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting, where the ratio is around 10,000.
Consider, for example, a 6-MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5-MHz rate; by Bessel analysis, the first
sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz and the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and 1 MHz. The result is
a reversed-phase sideband on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in unwanted output at 61 =
5 MHz. The system must be designed so that this unwanted output is reduced to an acceptable level.
SOUND
FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was
popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature in several generations
of personal computer sound cards.
RADIO
Edwin Howard Armstrong (18901954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband
frequency modulation (FM) radio. He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the superheterodyne
receiver in 1918 and the super-regenerative circuit in 1922. Armstrong presented his paper, "A
Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation", (which
first described FM radio) before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on
November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936.
FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech.
Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Narrowband FM is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity
is important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to
conserve bandwidth for land mobile, marine mobile and other radio services.
Some Digital types of Modulation

ASK MODULATION
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In the amplitud shift keying (ASK), the carrier amplitud sinusoidal switches between two values to ask
the PCM code. For example, the value 0 can be transmitted as an amplitud of A volts, while the state
1 can be transmitted like a sinusoidal signal of amplitud of B volts. The ASK resulting signal is
modulated pulses, called brands, that it represent with the 1 state, and spaces that represent the 0
state.
Example:
ASK([1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 ],2)
PSK MODULATION
In the Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation, the carrier phase switches according the signal state of
the binary signal. In this kind of modulation, the gap is of 180 if transmitted a 0, the gap is of 0 if
transmitted a 1.
Example:
PSK([1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1],2)
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
2011 USAC
FSK MODULATION
In the Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation, the carrier frequency changes according the
modulated value. This mean, for the 0 youll have a frequency f1 and for 1 youll have a frequency f2.
Example:
PSK([1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1],2)
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
2011 USAC
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing:
References
Lean Manufacturing: tools, techniques, and how to use them; William M. Feld, St. Lucie Press,
2000.
Lean Manufacturing: Implementation strategies that work; John Davis, Industrial Press, 2009.
Suggested readings:
Manufacturing systems: theory and practice; George Chryssolouris; Birkhuser, 2006.

Lean Manufacturing implementation: a complete execution manual for any size manufacturer,
Dennis P. Hobbs, J. Ross Publishing, 2004
Process Diagrams
References
Ingeniera Industrial: mtodos, estndares y diseo del trabajo; Benjamn Niebel, McGraw-Hill
Interamericana, 2009Suggested readings:
Handbook of industrial engineering: technology and operations management; Gavriel
Salvendy, Wiley-IEEE, 2001

Industrial Engineering; Khan, New Age International, 2007
English for Industrial Engineering; Marisa Carri, Ed. Universidad Politc. Valencia, 2005
Quality control
References
Quality control for dummies; Larry Webber, Michael Wallace; For Dummies, 2006.
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3
2011 USAC
Process Quality Control: troubleshooting and interpretation of data; Ellis Raymond Ott, Edward
Schilling, Dean Neubauer; ASQ Quality Press, 2005.
Suggested readings
Fundamentals of industrial quality control; Lawrence Aft; St. Lucie Press, 1998
Statistical quality control using excel; Steven Zimmerman, Marjorie Icenogle; ASQ Quality
Press, 2003.
In-process quality control for manufacturing; W.E. Barkman; M Dekker; 1989.
Alternative Energy
References
Alternative energy: Beyond fossil fuels, Dana Meachan Rau, Capstone press 2010.
Alternative energy: political, economic, and social feasibility, Christopher A. Simon, Rowman &
Littlefield, 2007.
Suggested readings:
Alternative energy: a beginners guide to the future of energy technology, Marek Walisiewicz,
DK Pub. 2002
Alternative energy, S. Vandana, APH Publishing, 2002
Alternative energy: facts, statistics, and issues, Paula Berinstein, Oryx Press, 2001.
Heat transfer
References
Heat Transfer; A.S. Sukomel, Varvara A. Osipova
Suggested readings:
Heat transfer handbook; Adrian Bejan; Willey-IEEE, 2003

Heat transfer: a problem solving approach Vol. 1; Tariq Muneer, Jorge Kubie, Thomas Grassie; Taylor &
Francis, 2003
Shaums outline of the theory and problems of heat transfer; Donald R. Pitts; McGraw-Hill Professional,
1998.
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3

Basically, lean is centered around

Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a

Lean Manufacturing Goals

The four goals of Lean manufacturing systems are to:

Steps to achieve lean systems

The following steps should be implemented in order

1.3.1 Design a simple manufacturing system

1.3.2 There is always room for improvement

1.3.3 Continuously improve

Minimizing inventory at and through all stages of production

Reduced lead time, wait time and cycle time

Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,

Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also

Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used

Company name: Johns house

Analyst: John Hamilton

Date: Nov. 20th, 2010

In a pot put 1 liter of water, in a stove

Take the 0.30 pounds of chocolate

Get some marshmallows

Stir frequently and let the

Check if the chocolate is ready

Get a cup and serve

Add the marshmallows

Check if its not too hot, Enjoy!

Operation: is when the process has materials transformation,

Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also

Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used

Transportation: is when the product is moved more than

Storage: this is used at the beginning of the process when the

2.3.1 Important considerations

Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.

Process Travel Diagram

Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams.

Analyst: John Hamilton

Date: Nov 20th, 2010

Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Sawing and Comprobation

Transfer to the pendulum

Cut and Comprobation

Cut and Comprobation

Transfer to the assembly area

Transfer to the assembly area

Assembly and Comprobation

Quality control concepts

After an organization decides on a definition of quality, you need

Measuring the quality

Evaluating the quality

Statistics helps you to determine which processes or parts of

Introducing Lean Processes

3.7.1 Value Stream Mapping

3.7.2 The 5S method

Removing the clutter from a process eliminates

3.7.4 Lean materials and Kanban

Investigate and make a summary of the following topics:

Complete with the description of each lean technique:

Value stream Mapping

Complete the chart with the 5s technique:

Todays energy sources = fossil fuels

People mine for coal, a hard, black, rock, throughout the

Companies drill for oil on land or in the ocean and store it

The problems of the use of the fossil fuels